DIENCEPHALON

..Central core of the forebrain

..Consists of three paired structures –
---------- --thalamus,
--------hypothalamus,
-------epithalamus
..Encloses the third ventricle
 Diencephalon
• between cerebral hemispheres and brainstem
• surrounds third ventricle

• thalamus
• hypothalamus
• optic tracts
• optic chiasm
• infundibulum
• posterior pituitary
• mammillary bodies
• pineal gland
11-32
 Thalamus

• Paired, egg-shaped masses that form the

superolateral walls of the third ventricle
• Connected at the midline by the intermediate mass
• Nuclei project and receive fibers from the cerebral
cortex
• Final relay point for ascending sensory information
• Coordinates the activities of the cerebral cortex
and basal nuclei
Grey matter nucleus of thalamus
Subdivisions of the Thalamus
Medial nuclear group, lateral nuclear group, anterior nuclear group
Internal medullary lamina
Intralaminar nuclei
Midline thalamic nuclei
Thalamic reticular nucleus
Relay Nuclei
Most of thalamus consists of relay nuclei.
Relay nuclei receive inputs from pathways, process the input and send it on
to a particular region of cerebral cortex.
All sensory modalities except for olfaction have a relay in the lateral thalamus
that projects to a specific region of cerebral cortex.

Ventral posterior lateral nucleus (VPL): somatosensory relay from body (C2
and below)
Ventral posterior medail nucleus (VPM): somatosensory relay from cranial
nerves
Lateral geniculate nucleus: visual relay
Medial geniculate nucleus: auditory relay
Ventral lateral nucleus: motor relays from cerebellum and basal ganglia
Anterior nuclear group: limbic connections to cingulate gyrus
Intralaminar Nuclei
Unlike relay nuclei, their main inputs and outputs are from the basal ganglia.
Caudal intralaminar nuclei: including large centromedian nucleus; involved
mainly in basal ganglia circuitry
Rostral intralaminar nuclei: reciprocal connections with basal ganglia;
connections with ascending reticular activating system

Reticular Nucleus

Only nucleus of thalamus not projecting to cerebral cortex.

Inputs from other thalamic nuclei and cortex and projects to other
thalamic nuclei.
Inhibitory control of
other thalamic nuclei
Also may function in
alertness & attention
 Hypothalamus
• Located below the thalamus, it caps the
brainstem and forms the inferolateral walls
of the third ventricle
• Mammillary bodies
– Small, paired nuclei bulging anteriorly from the
hypothalamus
– Relay station for olfactory pathways
• Infundibulum – stalk of the hypothalamus;
connects to the pituitary gland
– Main visceral control center of the body
--optic part
--tubersl part
--mamillary part
Optic part:
1. Supraoptic nucleius
2. Paraventrical nucleus

Tuberal part:
3. Ventromeddial nucleus
4.Dorsomedial nucleus
5.Tuberal nucleus

Mamillary part
6.Posterior nucleius
7.Lateral nucleus
 Functions

1. Endocrine control: regulate secretion of TSH, ACTH, STH,

LH ,FSH
2. Neurosecretion; supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei
produce ADH and oxytocin
3. Controls autonomic function, Regulates blood pressure, rate
and force of heartbeat, digestive tract motility, rate and depth of
breathing, and many other visceral activities
4. Produces emotions and behavioral drives
5. Regulates feelings of hunger and satiety
6. Regulates sleep and the sleep cycle
 Epithalamus

• Most dorsal portion of the diencephalon;

forms roof of the third ventricle
• Pineal gland – extends from the posterior
border and secretes melatonin
– Melatonin – a hormone involved with sleep
regulation, sleep-wake cycles, and mood
• Choroid plexus – a structure that secretes
cerebral spinal fluid (CSF)
 Cerebral Hemispheres

• Form the superior part of the brain and make

up 83% of its mass
• Contain ridges (gyri) and shallow grooves
(sulci)
• Contain deep grooves called fissures
• Are separated by the longitudinal fissure
• Have three basic regions: cortex, white
matter, and basal nuclei
Deep sulci divide the hemispheres into five lobes:
Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, and insula
Three fissure: 1.Central sulcus( sulcus of Roando) –
separates the frontal and parietal lobes

2. Parieto-occipital sulcus – separates the parietal and occipital lobes

3. Lateral sulcus – separates the parietal and temporal lobes
FRONTAL LOBE
--PRECENTRAL SULCUS : is in front of & parallel to the
central sulcus
--precentral gyrus: between precentral and c entral sulcus;
-- Superior & inferior frontal sulci : divide remaining front
lobe into SUPERIOR, MIDDLE & INFERIOR.
PARIETAL LOBE
--POSTCENTRAL SULCUS : is behind & parallel to central sulcus, bound the
POSTCENTRAL GYRUS.
--Interparietal sulcus extend from middle of the postcentral sulcus, divide into
SUPERIOR & INFERIOR PARIETAL lobules.
--inferior parietal lobule have SUPRAMARGINAL GYRUS & ANGULAR GYRUS,
respectively
TEMPORAL LOBE:
--superior & inferior temporal sulci divide the laeral surface of temporal lobe into
SUPERIOR , MIDDLE & INFERIOR TEMPORAL GYRI.
OCCIPITAL LOBE
-Calcarine sulcus: continues for a short distance over the occipital pole &
joins the parieto-occipital sulcus. The cortex on both sides of calcarine sulcus
represents the striate cortex.

CINGULATE gyrus: is seperated from the corpus callosum by the callosal sulcus.
The cortex – superficial gray matter; accounts for 40% of
the mass of the brain
Each hemisphere acts contralaterally (controls the opposite
side of the body)

The three types of functional areas are:

--------Motor areas – control voluntary movement
-------Sensory areas – conscious awareness of sensation
-------Association areas – integrate diverse information
MOTOR AREA:
Located in the precentral gyrus
Composed of pyramidal cells whose axons make up the
corticospinal tracts
Allows conscious control of precise, skilled, voluntary movements

BRODMANN’S …4, giant pyramidal dell of Betz present here.

PREMOTOR AREA:
Located anterior to the precentral gyrus
Controls learned, repetitious, or patterned motor skills
Brodmann;s area..6
SENSORY AREA:
Located in the postcentral gyrus, this area:
Receives information from the skin and skeletal muscles
BRODMANN;S area..3,1.2
Associate sensory area
Located posterior to the primary somatosensory cortex
Integrates sensory information
Forms comprehensive understanding of the stimulus
Determines size, texture, and relationship of parts
VISUAL AREA:
Primary visual (striate) cortex
Seen on the extreme posterior tip of the occipital lobe
Most of it is buried in the calcarine sulcus
Receives visual information from the retinas
BROADMANN’S AREA…17

Visual association area

Surrounds the primary visual cortex
Interprets visual stimuli (e.g., color, form, and movement)
ACOUSTIC AREA:
Primary auditory cortex
Located at the superior margin of the temporal lobe
Receives information related to pitch, rhythm, and loudness
BRODMANN’ AREA:…41, 42

Auditory association area

Located posterior to the primary auditory cortex
Stores memories of sounds and permits perception of sounds
Wernicke’s area: which is nearby Broca's area but in the temporal lobe, right next
to the auditory cortex. This is were we understand the meaning of speech, and
damage to this area will leave you with receptive aphasia, meaning that you will be
unable to understand what is being said to you
Broca’s area
Located anterior to the inferior region of the premotor area
Present in one hemisphere (usually the left)
A motor speech area that directs muscles of the tongue
Is active as one prepares to speak
Fron Primary
Parie
Parie
tal MotorPrimary tal
Lobe Area Sensory Lobe
Premotor Area
Area leg
trunk Sensory
Higher arm Association
Intellectual hand Area
Functions face Visual
Association
Speech tongue Area
Motor Language Primary
Area Comprehension Visual
Primary& Formation Area
Auditory
Area
The Memory

Cerebr
Temp Occipi
al oral tal
Lobe Lobe
Cortex
INTERNAL STRUCTURE Function
Regulate voluntary
BASAL GANGLIA : consists movement
Corpus striatum Integrative or just a
Lentiform nucleus( putamen & globus relay station?
pallidus) Pathology
Caudate nucleus Movement disorders
Claustrum (e.g. Parkinson’s)
Amygdaloid body

Neostriatum: caudate + putamen

Paleostriatum: globus
The limbic system has three functions:
• It mediates the sense of smell
• It mediates emotional behaviour
• It plays an important role in memory.

Structures on medial and basal

surfaces of cerebral hemispheres
Cingulate gyrus +
parahippocampal gyrus +
hippocampal formation + fornix +
amygdala + septum + mammillary
bodies

Limbic system include the amygdala, the

hippocampus and the fornix

Recall that the amygdala is for emotion

regulation,and perception of odor

Hippocampus and fornix are important for

learning and memory
 Cingulate gyrus Anterior nucleus of
thalamus

Thalamus

Para-olfactory
area

Fornix

Mamillary bodies of
hypothalamus
Hypothalamus

Hippocampus

Uncus
Amygdala
Para-hippocampal
gyrus
Three connective tissue membranes external
to the CNS – dura mater, arachnoid mater,
and pia mater

Functions:
-Cover and protect the
CNS
-Protect blood vessels and
enclose venous sinuses
-Contain cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF)
-Form partitions within the
skull
BLOOD SUPPLY OF BRAIN & SPINAL CORD

Brain recive the blood from vertebral artery and internal carotid artery

Vertebral
Deep cervical

Ascending
cervical

Transverse
cervical Inf. thyroid

Thyrocervical
Suprascapular

Subclavian
 Blood supply to brain
• Brain is supplied
by:
– Internal carotid
Aa.
– Basilar A. (formed
by fusion of
vertebral Aa.)
– Together they
contribute to the
Circle of Willis
that sends
branches to
supply cerebral
hemispheres
Venous Drainage
• Internal Jugular
– Brain
• External Jugular
– Scalp, face
• Vertebral
– cervical vertebrae,
spinal cord, neck
muscles
• Dural sinuses
– Veins in brain to
Internal Jugular
 Ventricles of the Brain

• Arise from expansion of the lumen of the

neural tube
• The ventricles are:
– The paired C-shaped lateral ventricles
– The third ventricle found in the diencephalon
– The fourth ventricle found in the hindbrain dorsal
to the pons
Ventricles of the Brain

Figure 12.5
Flow of •
CSF Choroid plexus
• Ventricles
• Subarachnoid
space through
lateral and
median
apertures of 4th
ventricle
• Blood of dural
sinuses via
arachnoid villi
There are four cavities in the brain, called ventricles. The ventricles
are filled
with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which provides the following functions:
1---- Absorbs physical shocks to the brain
2-----Distributes nutritive materials to and removes wastes from
nervous tissue
3---- Provides a chemically stable environment

There are four ventricles:

------ Each of two lateral ventricles occupies a cerebral hemisphere.
-----The third ventricle is connected by a passage (interventricular foramen)
to each of the two lateral ventricles.
-----The fourth ventricle connects to the third ventricle (via the cerebral
aqueduct) and to the central canal of the spinal cord (a narrow, central
tube extending the length of the spinal cord). Additional openings
in the fourth ventricle also allow CSF to flow into the
subarachnoid space.
Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)
Selective Permeability:
Substances that can pass include oxygen, glucose,
carbon dioxide, alcohol, anesthetics & water
Substances that can not pass include medications such
as many antibiotics & systemic chemotherapy
agents. • Brain
capillary
endothelium less
permeable, tightly
joined
• Toxins cannot
penetrate
• O2 & glucose
pass through
• Lipid soluble
substances pass
Major Functions Brain component
1. Sensory perception
2. Voluntary control of movement
Cerebral cortex
3. Language
4. Personality traits
5. Sophisticated mental events, such as thinking memory,
decision making, creativity, and self-consciousness

1. Inhibition of muscle tone

2. Coordination of slow, sustained movements Basal nuclei
3. Suppression of useless patterns of movements
1. Relay station for all synaptic input
2. Crude awareness of sensation
3. Some degree of consciousness Thalamus
4. Role in motor control
1. Regulation of many homeostatic functions, such as temperature
control, thirst, urine output, and food intake Hypothalamus
2. Important link between nervous and endocrine systems
3. Extensive involvement with emotion and basic behavioral patterns
1. Maintenance of balance
2. Enhancement of muscle tone Cerebellum
3. Coordination and planning of skilled voluntary muscle activity
1. Origin of majority of peripheral cranial nerves
2. Cardiovascular, repiratory, and digestive control centers Brain stem
3. Regulation of muscle reflexes involved with equilibrium and posture (midbrain, pons,
4. Reception and intergration of all synaptic input from spinal cord; and medulla)
arousal and activation of cerebral cortex
5. Role in sleep-wake cycle