Earth as an Evolving Planetary System

Preface

Although this book began life in 1976 with the title, Plate Tectonics and Crustal Evolution, the subject matter has gradually changed focus with subsequent editions and especially since the third edition in 1989. Since 1990 it has become increasingly clear that the various components of Earth act as a single, inter-related system, often referred to as the Earth System. One reviewer of the fourth edition pointed out that the title of the book was no longer appropriate, since plate tectonics was not a major focus. For this reason, for what would have been the fifth edition of the Plate Tectonics book, I introduced a new title for the book, Earth as an Evolving Planetary System, which will be continued into later editions.

Since the first edition in 1976, which appeared on the tail end the plate tectonics revolution of the 60s, our scientific database has grown exponentially and continues to grow—in fact much faster than we can interpret it. If one compares the earlier editions of the book with this edition, a clear trend is apparent. Plate tectonics is no longer so exciting, but is now taken for granted. The changing emphasis over the last 30 years is from how one system in our planet works (plate tectonics) to how all systems in our planet work, how they are related, and how they have governed the evolution of the planet. As scientists continue to work together and share information from many disciplines, this trend should continue for many years into the future.

Today, more than any time in the past, we are beginning to appreciate the fact that to understand the history of our planet requires understanding of the various interacting components and how they have changed with time. Although science is made up of specialties, to learn more about how Earth operates requires input from all of these specialties—geology alone cannot handle it. In this Earth System book, the various subsystems of the Earth are considered as vital components in the evolution of our planet. Subsystems include the crust, mantle, core, atmosphere, oceans, and life.

As with previous additions, the Earth System book is written for advanced undergraduate and graduate students, and it assumes a basic knowledge of geology, biology, chemistry, and physics that most students in the Earth Sciences acquire during their undergraduate education. It also may serve as a reference book for various specialists in the geological sciences that want to keep abreast of scientific advances in this field. I have attempted to synthesize and digest data from the fields of oceanography, geophysics, paleoclimatology, geology, planetology, and geochemistry and to present this information in a systematic manner addressing problems related to the evolution of Earth over the last 4.6 billion years.

The second and third editions of the Earth System book include some of the new and exciting topics in the Earth Sciences. Among these are results from increased resolution of seismic tomography by which plates can be tracked into the deep mantle, some mantle plumes can be detected, and the two large low S-wave velocity provinces have been resolved in the mantle. High resolution U/Pb zircon isotopic dating now permits us to better constrain the timing of important events in Earth history. We have detrital zircons with ages up to 4.4 Ga, suggesting the presence of felsic crust and water on the planet by this time. New information on the core provides us with a better understanding of how the inner and outer core interact and how Earth's magnetic field is generated. It is also now clear that great events have occurred in Earth history and these events either directly or indirectly have governed the future evolution of the planet.

Really exciting work on the origin of life and the possibilities of life beyond Earth are discussed in the biosphere chapter. Also I include a section on when plate tectonics began and major changes at the end of the Archean. The continuing saga of mass extinctions and the role of impacts now requires more coverage, and the Snowball Earth model is discussed in more detail. The episodic nature of crustal preservation, stable isotope anomalies, large igneous provinces and other phenomena have been well documented in the last few years, so much so, that new sections have been added to cover these subjects.

To accompany the Earth System book, I recommend the second edition of the interactive CD ROM, entitled Plate Tectonics and How the Earth Works. This CD, with animations and interactive exercises can be obtained from Tasa Graphic Arts Inc., Taos, NM at http://www.tasagraphicarts.com.

Kent C. Condie kcondie@nmt.edu http://www.ees.nmt.edu/condie/, Department of Earth and Environmental Science, New Mexico Tech, Socorro, NM 87801, USA

Chapter 1

Earth as a Planetary System

Abstract

This short chapter reviews Earth as system composed of interacting components such as the crust, mantle, core, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. It discusses feedback loops between these components and reviews the overall structure of Earth's interior from seismic-wave velocity distribution as well as thermal characteristics. It also reviews the principles of plate tectonics and the role of the lithosphere and uniqueness of Earth in comparison to other planets, and great events in Earth history.

Keywords

Earth system

Earth components

Feedback loops

Crust

Moho

Lithosphere

Mantle

Mantle transition zone

Asthenosphere

Mesosphere

D″ layer

Core

Plate tectonics

Plate boundaries

Interacting Earth systems

Earth uniqueness

Great events

Introduction

A system is an entity composed of diverse but interrelated parts that function as a whole (Kump et al., 1999). The individual parts, often called components, interact with each other as the system evolves with time. Components include reservoirs of matter or energy (described by mass or volume) and subsystems, which behave as systems within a system. Earth is considered as a complex planetary system that has evolved over 4.6 Gyr (4.6 × 10⁹ yr). It includes many subsystems, the most important of which are the crust, mantle, core, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. As we see throughout this book, many of the subsystems in Earth interact with each other on varying timescales.

The state of a system is characterized by a set of variables at any time during the evolution of the system, and the same thing applies to subsystems. For Earth, temperature, pressure, and various compositional variables are most important. A system is at equilibrium when nothing changes as it evolves. If, however, changing one or more variables perturbs a system, it responds and adjusts to a new equilibrium state. A feedback loop is a self-perpetuating change and response in a system to a change. If the response of a system amplifies the change, it is known as a positive feedback loop, whereas if it diminishes or reverses the effect of the disturbance, it is a negative feedback loop. As an example of positive feedback, if volcanism pumps more CO2 into a CO2-rich atmosphere, this should promote greenhouse warming and the temperature of the atmosphere should rise. If the rise in temperature increases weathering rates on the continents, this drains CO2 from the atmosphere causing a drop in temperature, an example of a negative feedback. As a single subsystem in Earth affects other subsystems, many positive and negative feedbacks occur as Earth attempts to reach a new equilibrium state. These feedbacks may be short-lived over hours to tens of thousands of years, such as short-term changes in climate, or they may be long-lived over tens to hundreds of millions of years such as changes in climate related to the dispersal of a supercontinent.

The major driving force of planetary evolution is the thermal history of a planet, as discussed in Chapter 6. The methods and rates by which planets cool, either directly or indirectly, control many aspects of planetary evolution. In a silicate-metal planet like Earth, thermal history determines when and if a core will form (Figure 1.1). It determines if the core is molten, which in turn determines if the planet will have a global magnetic field (which is generated by dynamo-like action in the outer core; Chapter 5). The magnetic field, in turn, interacts with the solar wind and with cosmic rays, and it traps high-energy particles in magnetic belts around the planet. This, of course, also affects life since life cannot exist in the presence of an intense solar wind or cosmic radiation.

Figure 1.1 Major relationships between Earth's thermal and climatic histories.

Planetary thermal history also strongly influences tectonic, crustal, and magmatic history (Figure 1.1). For instance, only planets that recycle lithosphere into the mantle, as Earth does, appear capable of generating continental crust, collisional orogens, and supercontinents. Widespread calc alkaline magmas are typically produced at subduction zones. In contrast, planets that cool by mantle plumes and lithosphere delamination in a stagnant lid tectonic regime, as perhaps Venus does today, have widespread mafic magmas, with little felsic to intermediate component, and they may or may not have continents.

So where does climate come into these interacting histories? Climate reflects complex interactions of the ocean/atmosphere subsystem with tectonic and magmatic components, as well as interactions with the biosphere. In addition, solar energy and asteroid or cometary impacts can have severe effects on climatic evolution (Figure 1.1). The thermal history of a planet affects directly or indirectly all other subsystems in the planet, including life. Earth has two kinds of energy sources: those internal to the planet and those external to the planet. In general, internal energy sources have long-term (> 10⁶ yr) effects on planetary evolution, whereas external energy sources have short-term (<<10⁶ yr) effects. Gradual increases in solar energy over the last 4.6 Gyr have also influenced Earth's climate on a long time scale. Note that throughout the book, the notations Ga (10⁹ yr), Ma (10⁶ yr), and ka (10³ yr) will refer to datums in the past (e. g., millions of years ago); time intervals (e. g., millions of years duration) will use notations such as Gyr, Myr, and kyr. Also, time measured from the formation of Earth or of the solar system (time zero) will use Gyr or Myr notations. The most important extraterrestrial effects on planetary evolution, and especially on climate and life, are asteroid and cometary impacts, the effects of which usually last for < 10³ yr.

Many examples of interacting terrestrial subsystems are described in later chapters. However, before discussing these systems and their interactions, we first need to review the basic structure of Earth as determined primarily from seismology.

Structure of Earth

The internal structure of Earth is revealed primarily by compressional (P-wave) and shear (S-wave) waves that pass through the planet in response to earthquakes. Seismic-wave velocities vary with pressure (depth), temperature, mineralogy, chemical composition, water content, and degree of partial melting. Although the overall features of seismic-wave velocity distributions have been known for some time, refinement of data in the last 10-20 years has greatly improved resolution. Seismic-wave velocities and density increase rapidly in the region between 200 and 700 km deep. Three first-order seismic discontinuities divide Earth into crust, mantle, and core (Figure 1.2): the Mohorovicic discontinuity or Moho defining the base of the crust; the core-mantle interface at 2900 km; and at about 5200 km, the inner-core/outer-core interface. The core comprises about 16% of Earth by volume and 32% by mass. The seismic discontinuities reflect changes in composition or phase, or in both. Smaller, but very important velocity changes at 50-200, 410, 520, and 660 km provide a basis for further subdivision of the mantle, as discussed in Chapter 4.

Figure 1.2 Distribution of average compressional ( V p ) and shear wave ( V s ) velocities and average calculated density ( ρ ) in Earth. Also shown are temperature distributions for whole-mantle convection ( T W ) and layered mantle convection ( T L ).

The major regions of Earth can be summarized as follows, with reference to Figure 1.2.

1. The crust consists of the region above the Moho, and ranges in thickness from about 3 km at some oceanic ridges to about 70 km in collisional orogens.

2. The lithosphere (50-300 km thick) is the strong outer layer of Earth (i.e., the plates), including the crust, which reacts to many stresses as a brittle solid. The asthenosphere, extending from the base of the lithosphere to the 660-km discontinuity, is by comparison a weak layer that readily deforms by creep. A region of low seismic-wave velocity and high attenuation of seismic-wave energy, the low-velocity zone (LVZ), occurs at the top of the asthenosphere and is from 50 to 100 km thick. Significant lateral variations in density and in seismic-wave velocity are common at depths of less than 400 km.

3. The upper mantle extends from the Moho to the 660-km discontinuity, and includes the lower part of the lithosphere and the upper part of the asthenosphere. The region from the 410-km to the 660-km discontinuity is known as the transition zone. These two discontinuities, as further discussed in Chapter 4, are caused by two important solid-state transformations: from olivine to wadsleyite at 410 km and from ringwoodite to bridgmanite + magnesiowustite at 660 km. In addition, a small discontinuity at 520 km is reported in some regions of the mantle.

4. The lower mantle extends from the 660-km discontinuity to the 2900 km discontinuity at the core-mantle boundary. For the most part, it is characterized by rather constant increases in velocity and density in response to increasing hydrostatic compression. This part of the mantle is also referred to as the mesosphere, a region that is strong, but relatively passive in terms of deformational processes. Between 200 and 250 km above the core-mantle interface a flattening of velocity and density gradients occurs, in a region known as the D″ layer, named after the seismic wave used to define the layer.

5. The outer core will not transmit S waves and is interpreted to be liquid. It extends from the 2900-km to the 5200-km discontinuity.

6. The inner core, which extends from 5200-km discontinuity to the center of Earth, transmits S waves, although at very low velocities, suggesting that it is a solid near the melting point.

There are only two layers in Earth with steep seismic velocity and thermal gradients: the lithosphere and the D″ layer just above the core (Figure 1.2). These layers are thermal boundary layers in the planet, and both layers play an important role in the cooling of Earth. Most cooling (> 90%) occurs by plate tectonics as plates are subducted deep into the mantle. The D″ layer is important in that steep thermal gradients in this layer may generate mantle plumes, many of which rise to the base of the lithosphere, thus bringing heat to the surface (< 10% of the total Earth cooling).

Uncertainty still exists regarding the temperature distribution in Earth. It is dependent upon such features of Earth's history as (1) the initial temperature distribution in the planet, (2) the amount of heat generated as a function of both depth and time, (3) the nature of mantle convection, and (4) the process of core formation. Most estimates of the temperature distribution in Earth are based on one or a combination of two approaches: models of Earth's thermal history involving various mechanisms for core formation, and models involving redistribution of radioactive heat sources in the planet by melting and convection processes.

We still do not have very precise estimates of the temperature at the core-mantle interface, with estimates ranging from 3875 °C to 3300 °C. Estimates of temperatures at the center of Earth range from 5500 °C to 6000 °C. Two examples of calculated temperature distributions in Earth are shown in Figure 1.2. Both show significant gradients in temperature in the lithosphere and in the D″ layer. The layered convection model (TL) also shows a large temperature change near the 660-km discontinuity, as this is the boundary between shallow and deep convection systems in this model. The temperature distribution for whole-mantle convection (TW), which is preferred by most investigators, shows a rather smooth decrease from the top of the D″ layer to the base of the lithosphere.

Plate Tectonics

Plate tectonics, which has so profoundly influenced geologic thinking since the early 1970s, provides valuable insight into the mechanisms by which Earth’s crust and mantle have evolved as well as to how Earth has cooled. Plate tectonics is a unifying model that attempts to explain the origin of patterns of deformation in the crust, mid-ocean ridges, earthquake distributions, and supercontinents, as well as provide a mechanism for Earth to cool. Two major premises of plate tectonics are that (1) the lithosphere (= plates) behaves as a strong, rigid substance resting on a weaker asthenosphere; and (2) the lithosphere is broken into numerous segments or plates that are in motion with respect to one another and are continually changing in shape and size (Figure 1.3). The parental theory of plate tectonics, seafloor spreading, states that new lithosphere is formed at ocean ridges and moves away from ridge axes with a motion like that of a conveyor belt, as new lithosphere fills in the resulting crack or rift. The mosaics of plates, which range from 50 to over 200 km thick, are bounded by ocean ridges, subduction zones (in part collisional boundaries), and transform faults (boundaries along which plates slide by each other) (Figure 1.3, cross sections). To accommodate the newly created lithosphere, oceanic plates return to the mantle at subduction zones such that the surface area of Earth remains constant.

Figure 1.3 Map of the major lithospheric plates on Earth. Arrows are directions of plate motion. Filled barbs, convergent plate boundaries (subduction zones and collisional orogens); single lines, divergent plate boundaries (ocean ridges) and transform faults. Cross sections show details of typical plate boundaries. (Artwork by Dennis Tasa, courtesy of Tasa Graphic Arts, Inc).

Many scientists consider the widespread acceptance of the plate tectonic model as a Revolution in the Earth Sciences. As pointed out by J. Tuzo Wilson in 1968, scientific disciplines tend to evolve from a stage primarily of data gathering, characterized by transient hypotheses, to a stage where a new unifying theory or theories that explain a great deal of the accumulated data are proposed. Physics and chemistry underwent such revolutions around the beginning of the 20th century, whereas the Earth Sciences entered such a revolution in the late 1960s. As with scientific revolutions in other fields, new ideas and interpretations do not invalidate earlier observations. On the contrary, the theories of seafloor spreading and plate tectonics offer for the first time a unified explanation for heretofore seemingly unrelated observations in the fields of geology, paleontology, geochemistry, and geophysics.

The origin and evolution of Earth's crust is a tantalizing question that has stimulated much speculation and debate dating from the early part of the 19th century. Some of the first problems recognized, such as how and when did the oceanic and continental crust form, remain a matter of considerable controversy even today. Results from the Moon and other planets indicate that Earth's continental crust may be a unique feature in the solar system. The rapid accumulation of data in the fields of geophysics, geochemistry, and geology since 1970 has added much to our understanding of the physical and chemical nature of Earth's crust and of the processes by which it evolved (see Chapters 6 and 7). Partial melting of the mantle produces magma that moves to the surface and forms the crust. The continental crust, being less dense than the underlying mantle, rises isostatically above sea level and is subjected to weathering and erosion. Eroded materials are partly deposited on continental margins, and partly returned to the mantle by subduction to be recycled, and perhaps again become part of the crust at a later time.

Is the Earth Unique?

There are many features of our planet indicating that it is unique among other planets in the solar system and certainly among planets discovered so far around other stars. Consider, for instance, the following characteristics, sometimes referred to as the list of Ifs for Earth:

1. Earth's near-circular orbit near the ecliptic results in a more or less constant amount of heat from the Sun. If the orbit were more elliptical, Earth would freeze over in the winter and roast in the summer. In such a case, higher forms of life could not survive.

2. If Earth were much larger, the force of gravity would be too strong for higher life-forms to exist.

3. If Earth was much smaller, water and oxygen would escape from the atmosphere and higher life-forms could not survive.

4. If Earth was only 5% closer to the Sun, the oceans would evaporate and greenhouse gases would cause the surface temperature to rise too high for any life to exist (like on Venus today).

5. If Earth was 5% farther from the Sun, the oceans would freeze over, photosynthesis would be greatly reduced leading to a decrease in atmospheric oxygen. Again, higher life-forms could not exist.

6. If Earth did not have plate tectonics, there would be no continents, and thus large numbers of terrestrial higher life-forms could not exist.

7. If Earth did not have a magnetic field of just the right strength, lethal cosmic rays would kill most or all life-forms (including humans) on the planet.

8. If Earth did not have an ozone layer in the atmosphere to filter out harmful ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, higher forms of life could not exist.

9. If Earth's axial tilt (23.4°) were greater or smaller, surface temperature differences would be too extreme to support most life. Without the Moon, Earth's spin axis would wobble too much to support life.

10. Without the huge gravity field of Jupiter, Earth would be bombarded with meteorites and comets, such that higher life-forms could not survive on the planet.

11. If it were not for the asteroid collision on Earth 65 Ma that led to the extinction of many organisms and cleared the way for the evolution and diversification of new organisms, many mammals including humans may never have appeared on this planet.

Are all these features of planet Earth that make it suitable for higher life-forms simply a coincidence? Although lower life-forms, as discussed in Chapter 9, can survive over a wide range of physical and chemical conditions, higher life-forms cannot survive under such conditions. The fact that Earth has developed just the right conditions to support higher life-forms is sometimes referred to as the Goldilocks problem (Rampino & Caldeira, 1994). As in the Goldilocks story, while Venus is too hot (the papa bear's porridge) and Mars is too cold (the mama bear's porridge), Earth (the baby bear's porridge) is just right! Why is Earth just right? Although some scientists believe that these conditions came about by chance, others argue that the Earth's properties have developed in such a way as to prepare the planet for the origin, evolution, and survival of higher life-forms. And this leads to discussion of the controversial Anthropic Principle, which implies that the Universe is compelled to eventually have conscious and sentient life emerge within it.

Interacting Earth Subsystems

Earth subsystems are not static but have evolved with time, leading to the habitable planet we reside on. Current and future interactions of these subsystems will have a direct impact on life, and for this reason it is important to understand how perturbation of one subsystem can affect other subsystems and how rapidly subsystems change with time. Short-term climatic cycles are superimposed on and partly controlled by long-term processes in the atmosphere and ocean subsystems, which in turn are affected by even longer-term processes in the mantle and core. Also affecting Earth subsystems are asteroid and cometary impacts, both of which appear to have been frequent in the geologic past.

Some of the major pathways of interaction between Earth subsystems and between Earth and extraterrestrial systems are summarized in Figure 1.4. Although we will consider some interactions in detail in later chapters, it may be appropriate to preview some of them now. As an example, crystallization of metal onto the surface of the inner core may liberate enough heat to generate mantle plumes just above the core-mantle interface (path 1). As these plumes rise into the uppermost mantle, spread beneath the lithosphere, and begin to melt, large volumes of basalt may underplate the crust and also erupt at Earth's surface (path 2). Such eruptions may pump significant quantities of CO2 into the atmosphere, which, because it is a greenhouse gas, will warm the atmosphere leading to warmer climates. This, in turn, may affect the continents (by increasing weathering and erosion rates), the oceans (increasing the rate of limestone deposition), and life (leading to extinction of those forms not able to adapt to the changing climates). Thus, through a linked sequence of events, processes occurring in Earth's core could lead to extinction of life-forms at Earth's surface. Before such changes can affect life, however, negative feedback processes may return the atmosphere/ocean system to an equilibrium level, or even reverse these changes. For instance, increased weathering rates caused by increased CO2 levels in the atmosphere may drain the atmosphere of its excess CO2, which is then transported by streams to the oceans where it is deposited in limestone. If cooling is sufficient, this could lead to widespread glaciation, which in turn could cause extinction of some life-forms.

Figure 1.4 Box diagram showing major subsystems in Earth. Vertical black lines indicate paths of interaction between subsystems with double-headed arrows implying both positive and negative feedbacks.

As an example of an interaction related to plate tectonics, consider the subduction of oceanic crust into the deep mantle (path 3). This crust produces distinct compositional domains in the mantle and may react with the mantle. Mantle plumes may be produced in crustally contaminated lower mantle and rise to the base of the lithosphere, where they partially melt and produce basalts that intrude or erupt onto the crust. Again, greenhouse gases emitted during the eruptions can lead to climatic warming and changes in the hydrosphere and biosphere (path 4).

To prepare for the continuing survival of living systems on planet Earth, it is important to understand the nature and causes of interactions between Earth subsystems and between Earth and extraterrestrial systems (path 5). How fast and how frequently do these interactions occur and what are the relative rates of forward and reverse reactions are important questions that need to be addressed by the present and future generations of scientists.

Great Events in Earth History

Although planets are often considered to evolve in a rather continuous uniformitarian-like manner, there are times in planetary history when changes occur rather rapidly—and sometimes catastrophically. During the history of Earth, there are many events that have significantly affected the later evolution of the planet, and in some cases, have had profound effects on the origin and evolution of life. Some of these events, like the onset of plate tectonics, are long-lived, stretching over several hundred million years. Others, such as the formation of the Moon and the Cretaceous superplume event, are of intermediate duration, 50-100 Myr. And then there are short-lived events, such as asteroid impacts, whose effects are concentrated chiefly in hours to a few years. In some cases events are one-time happenings, such as the Great Oxidation Event in which, for the first time, free oxygen was liberated in significant amounts into the atmosphere. In other cases similar events have occurred many times, such as asteroid impacts and eruption of large igneous provinces. All of these events have one thing in common: they have influenced the evolution of Earth and in some cases have been very important in making Earth a habitable planet. If it were not for the Moon controlling our climatic regimes and plate tectonics providing continents, higher forms of life could not have developed on planet Earth, regardless of the presence of oceans and an oxygenated atmosphere. The great mass extinctions at the end of the Permian and at the end of the Cretaceous opened up new ecological niches for other organisms to evolve. If it were not the extinction of dinosaurs at the end of the Cretaceous, it is unlikely that mammals, including humans, would have become the dominant life-forms on the planet.

In this book, I have selected 11 events, which I call Great Events, since they all have profound effects on the evolution of Earth and its inhabitants (Figure 1.5). I do not claim that the events I have chosen are the only major events controlling Earth’s history, but each of these has proven to be critical in some way to the origin or/and evolution of life (in fact one event is the origin of life). Each of these events will be discussed in the appropriate chapter and not necessarily in the order in which they occurred.

Figure 1.5 Great events in Earth’s history.

Further Reading

Ernst W.G. Earth systems, processes and issues. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 2000 (576 pp).

Kump L.R., Kasting J.F., Crane R.G. The Earth system. 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall; 2010 (432 pp).

MacKenzie F.T. Our changing planet: An introduction to Earth system science and global environmental change. 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall; 2010 (600 pp).

Turcotte D.L., Schubert G. Geodynamics. 3rd ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 2014 (623 pp).

Taylor S.R. Destiny or chance, our solar system and its place in the cosmos. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 1998 (248 pp).

References

Kump L.R., Kasting J.F., Crane R.G. The Earth system. NJ: Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River; 1999 (351 pp).

Rampino M.R., Caldeira K. The Goldilocks problem: Climatic evolution and long-term habitability of terrestrial planets. Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 1994;32:83–114.

"To view the full reference list for the book, click here"

Chapter 2

The Crust

Abstract

This chapter discusses the seismic structure of oceanic and continental crust, explains complexities of the Moho, and reviews principal crustal types including both geologic and geophysical characteristics. It also reviews controls of continental size, heat flow, heat production, exhumation, cratonization, and processes operating in the continental crust, such as deformation, fluid interactions, and melting. It summarizes the approaches used in estimating composition of both oceanic and continental crust and discusses crustal composition. It also discusses geochronology, terranes, and crustal provinces, including the United Plates of America.

Keywords

Seismic crustal structure

Oceanic crust

Continental crust

Crustal type

Moho

Continental size

Heat flow

Heat production

Heat flow age dependency

Exhumation

Cratonization

Crustal rheology

Crustal melting

Crustal composition

Crustal xenoliths

Crustal province

Terrane

Introduction

Earth's crust is the upper rigid part of the lithosphere, the base of which is defined by a prominent seismic discontinuity, the Mohorovicic discontinuity or Moho. There are three crustal divisions—oceanic, transitional, and continental—of which oceanic and continental crust dominate (Table 2.1). Typically, oceanic crust ranges from 3 to 15 km in thickness and comprises 54% of the crust by area and 17% by volume. Islands, island arcs, and continental margins are examples of transitional crust that have thicknesses of 15-30 km (Table 2.2). Continental crust ranges from 30 to 70 km in thickness and comprises 77% of the crust by volume but only 40% by area. Our knowledge of oceanic crust comes largely from ophiolites, which are tectonic fragments of oceanic crust that are preserved in the continents, and from deep sea drill cores. Our view of the lower continental crust is based chiefly on uplifted slices of this crust in collisional orogens and on xenoliths brought to the surface in young volcanics.

Table 2.1

Characteristics of Earth’s Crust

Abbreviations: S, stable; I, intermediate stability; U, unstable; PA, Paleozoic orogen; MC, Mesozoic-Cenozoic orogen. Poisson's ratio = 0.5{1 − 1/[(Vp/Vs)² − 1]}.

a Calculated oceanic heat flow.

Table 2.2

Crustal Seismic Wave Velocities

Reference: Mooney et al. (1998) and references cited therein.

Crustal layer thicknesses (in km) given in parenthesis.

Abbreviations: PA, Paleozoic orogen; MC, Mesozoic-Cenozoic orogen.

Numbers in brackets [ ] are depths to the Moho below sea level.

The crust can be further subdivided into crustal types, which are segments of the crust showing similar geological and geophysical characteristics. There are 13 major crustal types, listed in Table 2.1 with some of their physical properties. To better understand the evolution of Earth, we must understand the origin and evolution of the crust. In this chapter, we briefly summarize the physical and chemical properties of the crust and review characteristics of crustal provinces.

Seismic Crustal Structure

The Moho

The Mohorovicic discontinuity or Moho is the outermost seismic discontinuity in Earth and defines the base of the crust (Figure 1.2; Table 2.1; Keller, 2013). It ranges in depth from about 3 km at ocean ridges to 70 km in collisional orogens, is marked by a rapid increase in seismic P-wave velocity from < 7.6 to ≥ 8 km/s. Because the crust is different in composition from the mantle, the Moho is striking evidence for a differentiated Earth. Seismic refraction and reflection studies indicate that the Moho is not a simple boundary worldwide. In crust undergoing extension, such as continental rifts, a sharp seismic discontinuity is often missing, and seismic velocities change gradually from crustal to mantle values. In some collisional orogens, the Moho may not always represent the base of the crust. In these orogens, thick mafic crustal roots may invert to eclogite (a high-density mafic rock composed of garnet and clinopyroxene) and seismic velocity increases to mantle values, yet the eclogite is formed in the crust (Griffin & O'Reilly, 1987). The base of the crust where eclogite rests on ultramafic mantle rocks may not show a seismic discontinuity, since both rock types have similar velocities. This has given rise to two types of Mohos: the seismic Moho (defined by a jump in seismic velocities) and the petrologic Moho (defined by the base of eclogitic lower crust).

Another complicating factor in defining the Moho is underplating, the addition of mafic magmas to the base of the continental crust. Underplating takes place in a wide range of tectonic settings and may locally play a major role in thickening of the crust, such as beneath continental arcs and rifts (Thybo & Artemieva, 2013). One of the problems in identifying the Moho in underplated regions is that both the upper and lower boundaries of underplates are strong seismic reflectors. However, underplated material generally has high P-wave velocities (6.9-7.8 km/s) and high Poisson’s ratio and density. Mafic magmas may be intruded into the lower crust, underplating the crust, and the Moho relocates to the base of the igneous underplate.

Because the oceanic Moho is exposed in many ophiolites, it is better known than the continental Moho. From seismic velocity distributions and from ophiolite studies, the oceanic Moho is probably a complex transition zone up to 3 km thick, between mixed mafic and ultramafic igneous cumulates in the crust and harzburgites (orthopyroxene-olivine ultramafic rocks) in the upper mantle. It would appear that large tectonic lenses of differing rock types occur at the oceanic Moho, which are the products of ductile deformation along the boundary.

In contrast, it is likely that no single origin can be assigned to the continental Moho, which varies with crustal type and age (Artemieva & Meissner, 2012; Griffin & O'Reilly, 1987; Keller, 2013). Experimental, geophysical, and xenolith data, however, do not favor a simple gabbro-eclogite transition to explain the continental Moho. Reflection seismology has provided a detailed view of the middle and lower continental crust. Beneath platforms and shields, the Moho is only weakly (or not at all) reflective, suggesting the existence of a relatively thick transition zone (> 3 km) composed of mixed mafic granulites, eclogites, and lherzolites, with no strong reflecting surfaces (Cook et al., 2010). These results have led to many interpretations of the continental Moho. As an example of a complex Moho, Figure 2.1 (upper section) shows a reflection profile in the eastern part of the Canadian Shield. The interpretive cross section (lower section) shows the effects of underthrusting and possibly tectonic underplating in response to compressive forces. Two of the lower crustal slabs appear to be partially driven into the mantle by intense compressive forces and perhaps these represent fossil subduction zones.

Figure 2.1 North-south seismic reflection profile from the Archean Superior Craton, eastern Canada across the Opatica-Abitibi subprovinces (upper). Interpretative profile in color (lower). Note the prominent Moho reflections and the projections of reflections into the Mantle (M). (From LITHOPROBE, courtesy of Fred Cook and Canadian National Research Council (Cook et al., 2010, Figure 13), copyright 2008 NRC Canada or its licensors, reproduced with permission).

It is not possible to directly date the continental Moho in most sections, but approximate ages can sometimes be made from a combination of (1) ages of surface rocks and surface deformation, (2) the ages of lower crustal xenoliths, and (3) mapping of the geometric and cross-cutting relationships of layers whose age can be estimated at the surface. In some regions, tectonic underthrusting of oceanic crust beneath continental crust may account for younger rocks at depth, and the base of the underthrusted oceanic crust actually becomes the continental Moho. In collisional orogens, the Moho is often offset by thrust faults and in some places it is a complex transition zone rather than a distinct discontinuity. The Himalayan Orogen is an example where a 20-km offset in the Moho occurs beneath the Indus suture and in some places the Moho is a transition up to 10 km thick (Spain & Hirn, 1997). This offset was produced as crustal slices were thrust on top of each other during the Himalayan collision. In lower crust associated with subduction, fluids from the subducted plate may rise and alter the lower continental crust, reducing the seismic velocity contrast between the lower crust and mantle, thus rendering the Moho transparent to seismic waves. One thing is clear regarding the continental Moho: no single cause can explain this seismic boundary and the Moho may change with time in response to changing tectonic and thermal regimes.

Crustal Layers

Seismic velocity distributions indicate that oceanic crust can broadly be divided into three layers, which are, in order of increasing depth, the following: the sediment layer (0-1 km thick), the basement layer (0.7-2.0 km thick), and the oceanic layer (3-7 km thick; Figure 2.2). In contrast, continental crust has a greater range in both number and thicknesses of layers. Although two- or three-layer models for continental crust are most common, one-layer models and models with more than three layers are proposed in some regions (Christensen & Mooney, 1995; Mooney et al., 1998). With exception of continental borderlands and arcs, continents range in thickness from about 35 to 40 km whereas the average thickness of the oceanic crust is only 5-7 km.

Figure 2.2 Standard cross section of oceanic crust based on seismic reflection data. Solid lines are examples of major reflectors.

P-wave velocities in crustal sediment layers range from 2 to 4 km/s, depending on degree of compaction, water content, and rock type. Velocities in the middle oceanic crustal layer are about 5 km/s whereas those in the middle continental crustal layer are about 6.5 km/s (Table 2.2). P-wave velocities of 6.5-6.9 km/s characterize lower crustal layers in both oceans and continents.

Seismic wave velocities increase with depth in the continental crust from 6.0 to 6.2 km/s at depths of < 10 km to 6.6 km/s at 25 km depth. Lower crustal velocities range from 6.8 to 7.2 km/s, and in some cases show a bimodal distribution. In some continental crust, there is evidence of a small discontinuity at mid-crustal depths, referred to as the Conrad discontinuity (Litak & Brown, 1989). When identified, the Conrad discontinuity varies in depth and character from region to region, suggesting that unlike the Moho, it is not a fundamental property of the continental crust, and it is diverse in origin. Seismic reflections also occur at mid-crustal depths in some extended crust like the Rio Grande Rift in New Mexico.

Crustal Types

Oceanic Crust

Seismic Features

Crustal structure in ocean basins is rather uniform, not deviating greatly in either velocity or layer thickness distribution from that shown in Figure 2.2. Crustal thickness ranges from 6 to 8 km and, unlike the lithosphere, it does not thicken significantly with age; however, near ridges with spreading rates of < 20 mm/yr thicknesses are usually < 5 km (Dick et al., 2003). The sediment layer averages about 0.3 km in thickness and exhibits strong seismic reflecting zones with variable orientations, some of which are probably produced by cherty layers, as suggested by cores retrieved by the Ocean Drilling Program. The thickness of the basement layer averages about 1.5 km, seismic wave velocity increases rapidly with depth, and significant seismic anisotropy has been described in some areas (Stephen, 1985). There are also numerous reflective horizons in this layer. In contrast, the oceanic layer is generally rather uniform in both thickness (4-6 km) and velocity (6.7-6.9 km/s).

Beneath ocean ridges, crustal thickness ranges from 3 to 6 km, most of which is accounted for by the oceanic layer (Figure 2.3). Seismic reflections indicate magma chambers beneath ridges at depths of 1-3 km. Velocities in the oceanic layer are quite variable, ranging from 4.4 to 6.9 km/s, and anomalous mantle (Vp < 7.8 km/s) occurs beneath ridge axes, reflecting high temperatures. Surface-wave data indicate that the lithosphere increases in thickness from < 10 km beneath ocean ridges to 50-65 km at a crustal age of 50 Ma. Anisotropy in S-wave velocities in the oceanic mantle lithosphere is often pronounced with the fast wave traveling normal to ocean-ridge axes. Such anisotropy appears to be caused by alignment of olivine c axes in this direction (Blackman et al., 2007).

Figure 2.3 Seismic refraction sections of various crustal types. Ceno, Cenozoic; Mes, Mesozoic; cont., continental; velocities are P-wave velocities.

The crust of back-arc basins is slightly thicker (10-15 km) than that of ocean basins, due principally to a thicker sediment layer in marginal seas. Crustal thickness in volcanic islands ranges from 10 to 20 km, with upper crustal velocities ranging from 4.7 to 5.3 km/s and lower crustal velocities from 6.4 to 7.2 km/s.

Ocean Ridges

Ocean ridges are linear rift systems in oceanic crust where new lithosphere is formed as the flanking oceanic plates move away from each other. They are topographic highs on the seafloor and are tectonically unstable. A medial rift valley generally occurs near their crests in which new oceanic crust is produced by intrusion and extrusion of basaltic magmas. The worldwide ocean-ridge system is interconnected from ocean to ocean and is more than 70,000 km long (Figure 1.3). Ridge crests are cut by numerous transform faults, which may offset ridge segments by thousands of kilometers.

From geophysical and geochemical studies of ocean ridges, it is clear that both structure and composition vary along ridge axes. In general, there is a good correlation between spreading rate and the supply of magma from the upwelling asthenosphere. Within each ridge segment, the characteristics of deformation, magma emplacement, and hydrothermal circulation vary with distance from the magma center. Also, both the forms of segmentation and the seismic crustal structure differ between fast (≥ 80 mm/yr half rate) and slow (12-50 mm/yr) spreading ridges. Ultra-slow spreading ridges (≤ 12 mm/yr) have the greatest topography, often with horsts of mantle rock exposed on the seafloor (Dick et al., 2003).

From our geophysical and petrological database, the following observations are important in understanding the evolution of slow- and fast-spreading ocean-ridge systems:

(1) The lower crust (oceanic layer, Figure 2.2) is thin and poorly developed at slow-spreading ridges. The Moho is a sharp, tectonic boundary and may be a detachment surface. In contrast, at fast-spreading ridges the Moho is a transition zone up to 1 km thick.

(2) In general, rough topography occurs on slow-spreading ridges whereas smooth topography is more common on fast-spreading ridges. Fast-spreading ridges also lack well-developed axial rifts.

(3) Huge, long-lived axial magma chambers capable of producing a thick gabbroic lower crust are confined to fast-spreading ridges.

(4) At slow-spreading ridges, such as the Mid-Atlantic and SW Indian ridges, permanent magma chambers are often absent, and only ephemeral intrusions (chiefly dykes and sills) are emplaced in the medial rift. Core complexes at slow-spreading ridges may expose lower crustal gabbros by detachment faulting and they are often associated with serpentinized ultramafic rocks (Ildefonse et al., 2007).

Ocean Basins

Ocean basins comprise more of Earth's surface (38%) than any other crustal type (Table 2.1). Because the oceanic crust is thin, however, they only make up 12% by volume. They are tectonically stable and characterized by a thin sediment cover (approximately 0.3 km thick) and linear magnetic anomalies that are produced in erupted basalts at ocean ridges during reversed and normal polarity intervals. The sediment layer thickens near continents and arcs from which detrital sediments are supplied.

Volcanic Islands

Volcanic islands occur in ocean basins (such as the Hawaiian Islands) or on or near ocean ridges (e.g., St. Paul Rocks and Ascension Island in the Atlantic Ocean) (Figure 1.3). They are large volcanoes erupted on the seafloor whose tops have emerged above sea level. Volcanic islands and seamounts (submerged volcanoes) range in tectonic stability from intermediate or unstable in areas where volcanism is active (like Hawaii and Reunion) to stable in areas of extinct volcanism (such as Easter Island). Volcanic islands range in size from < 1 to about 10⁴ km². Guyots are flat-topped seamounts produced by erosion at sea level followed by submersion, probably due to sinking of the seafloor. Coral reefs grow on some guyots as they sink, producing atolls. Some of the large volcanic islands may have developed over mantle plumes, which are the magma sources.

Trenches

Oceanic trenches mark the beginning of subduction zones and are associated with intense earthquake activity (Figure 1.3). Trenches parallel arc systems and range in depth from 5 to 8 km, representing the deepest parts of the oceans. They contain variable amounts of sediment deposited chiefly by turbidity currents and derived from nearby arcs or continental areas.

Back-Arc Basins

Back-arc basins are segments of oceanic crust between oceanic arcs (such as the Philippine Sea) or between arcs and continents (such as the Japan Sea and Sea of Okhotsk). They are abundant in the Western Pacific and are characterized by a horst-graben topography with major faults subparalleling adjoining arc systems. The thickness of sediment cover is variable, and sediments are derived chiefly from nearby continents or arcs. Active basins, such as the Lau-Havre and Mariana Troughs in the Southwest Pacific, have thin sedimentary cover, rugged horst-graben topography, and high heat flow. Inactive basins, such as the Tasman and West Philippine Basins, have variable sediment thicknesses and generally low heat flow.

Transitional Crust

Oceanic Plateaus

Oceanic plateaus are large flat-topped plateaus on the seafloor composed largely of mafic volcanic and intrusive rocks (Coffin & Eldholm, 1994). They are generally capped with a thin veneer of deep sea sediments and typically rise 2 km or more above the seafloor. Next to basalts and associated intrusive rocks produced at ocean ridges, oceanic plateaus are the largest volumes of mafic igneous rocks at Earth's surface. The basaltic magmas giving rise to oceanic plateaus, together with their continental equivalents known as flood basalts, are produced at hotspots, which are probably caused by mantle plumes. Some of the largest oceanic plateaus, such as Ontong-Java in the South Pacific and Kerguelen in the southern Indian Ocean (Figure 3.6), which together cover an area nearly half the size of the conterminous United States, were erupted in the mid-Cretaceous period. Most oceanic plateaus are 15-30 km thick, although some exceed 30 km.

The seismic structure of oceanic plateaus is not well known. On the basis of existing seismic and gravity data, the largest plateaus such as Ontong-Java and Kerguelen range from 20 to 33 km in thickness (Condie, 2001; Figure 2.3). Mid-crustal P-wave velocities are typically in the range of 6.5-6.7 km/s and lower crustal velocities are often very high (7.2-7.7 km/s), probably caused by underplated mafic layered intrusions related to plateau eruptions (Ridley & Richards, 2010).

Arcs

Arcs occur above active subduction zones where one plate dives beneath another. They are two end-member types, with all transitions in between (Stern, 2010): oceanic arcs develop on oceanic crust, and continental arcs develop on continental or transitional crust (Figure 2.4). Also, continental arcs are thicker and rise to higher elevations than oceanic arcs. Oceanic arcs commonly occur as arcuate chains of volcanic islands, such as the Mariana, Kermadec, and Lesser Antilles Arcs (Figure 1.3). Most large volcanic chains, such as the Andes, Cascades, and Japan, are continental arcs. Some arcs, such as the Aleutian Islands, continue from continental margins into oceanic crust with a continuous array of transitional types. Modern arcs are characterized by variable, but often intense earthquake activity and volcanism, and by variable heat flow, gravity, crustal thickness, and other physical properties (Table 2.1), and they are composed dominantly of young volcanic and plutonic rocks and derivative sediments. Oceanic arcs tend to develop where old oceanic crust is subducted as the arc evolves from an immature (5-10 Myr) to a mature stage (20-30 Myr).

Figure 2.4 Comparison of continental and oceanic arcs. (Courtesy of Robert J. Stern).

Resolution of seismic data is relatively poor in arc systems, and thus, arc crustal structure is not well known. Crustal thickness ranges from 5 km in the Lesser Antilles to 35 km in Japan, averaging about 22 km, and mantle velocities range from normal (8.0-8.2 km/s) to low (< 7.8 km/s). All values given in Table 2.2 have large standard deviations and many arcs cannot be modeled as a simple two- or three-layer crust. There is evidence in some oceanic arcs for an intermediate-velocity layer (5.0-6.0 km/s) of varying thickness (Figure 2.3).

Seismic reflection profiles in arcs are extremely complex as shown by an interpretive profile across a typical forearc region in Figure 2.5 (Cawood et al., 2009; von Huene & Scholl, 1991). Although reflections are deformed by steep faults that dip toward the continent, they can be traced beneath the backstop in the forearc basin, where they appear to plunge into the continent. A strong continuous reflection near the base of the prism may be the upper contact of the subduction channel where sediments are recycled into the mantle. Underplated material includes both oceanic sediments and mafic igneous rocks that are part of dismembered ophiolites. Another important seismic feature of arcs is that S-waves undergo splitting into fast and slow components beneath descending slabs, and the fast velocity direction generally parallels the trench. Seismic wave models suggest that three-dimensional flow beneath descending slabs is induced by trench migration. Long and Silver (2009) propose that the slab and subslab mantle are decoupled by shear heating from the asthenosphere.

Figure 2.5 Diagrammatic cross section of an accretionary prism based on seismic reflection profiles and surface geology. (Courtesy of Peter Cawood and Geological Society of London).

Continental Rifts

Continental rifts are fault-bounded valleys (30-75 km wide) ranging in length from hundreds to thousands of kilometers. They are characterized by a tensional tectonic setting in which the rate of extension is less than a few millimeters a year. Shallow magma bodies (< 10 km deep) have been detected by seismic studies beneath some rifts such as the Rio Grande Rift in New Mexico. The longest modern rift system is the East African System, which extends over 6500 km from the western part of Asia Minor to southeastern Africa (Figure 1.3). The Basin and Range Province in western North America is a multiple rift system composed of a complex series of alternating grabens and horsts. Aulacogens are rifts that die out toward the interior of continents, and many appear to represent failed arms of triple junctions formed during fragmentation of supercontinents. Young rifts (< 30 Ma) are tectonically unstable, and earthquakes, although quite frequent, are generally of low magnitude.

Continental rifts have thin crust (typically 20-30 km thick) and low mantle velocities (Vp < 7.8 km/s). Thinning of the crust in these regions is accomplished by thinning of the lower crustal layer (4-14 km thick), which reflects its ductile behavior during extension (Figure 2.3). Although most earthquake foci in rifts are < 20 km deep, some occur as deep as 25-30 km. In young crust that is being extended, such as the Basin and Range Province in the western United States, the lower crust is highly reflective in contrast to a relatively transparent upper crust (Mooney & Meissner, 1992). Also, the reflection Moho is nearly flat, due presumably to removal of a crustal root during extension. Basin and Range normal faults cannot be traced through the lower crust and do not appear to offset the Moho.

Inland-Sea Basins

Inland-sea basins are partially to completely surrounded by tectonically stable continental crust, where earthquake activity is negligible or absent. Examples include the Caspian and Black Seas in Asia and the Gulf of Mexico in North America (Figure 1.3). Inland-sea basins contain thick successions (10-20 km) of clastic sediments and both mud and salt diapirs are common. Some, such as the Caspian and Black Seas, are the remnants of large oceans that closed as the supercontinent Pangea assembled.

Inland-sea basins show a considerable range in crustal thickness and layer distributions. Crustal thickness ranges from about 15 km in the Gulf of Mexico to 45 km in the Caspian Sea. In general, the sedimentary layer or layers (Vp = 2-5 km/s) rest directly on the lower crust (Vp = 6.3-6.7 km/s) with little or no upper crust. Differences in crustal thickness among inland-sea basins are accounted for by differences in thickness of both sedimentary and lower crustal layers. Increasing velocities in sediment layers with depth, as for instance shown by the Gulf of Mexico, reflect an increasing degree of compaction and diagenesis of sediments.

Continental Crust

Shields and Platforms

Precambrian shields are stable parts of the continents composed of Precambrian rocks with little or no sediment cover. Rocks in shields may range in age from 0.5 to > 3.5 Ga. Metamorphic and plutonic rocks dominate, and temperature-pressure regimes recorded in exposed rocks suggest burial depths ranging from as shallow as 5 km to as deep as 40 km or more. Shield areas, in general, show very little relief and have remained tectonically stable for long periods. They comprise about 11% of the total crust by volume, with the largest shields occurring in Africa, Canada, and Antarctica.

Platforms are also stable parts of the crust with little relief. They are composed of Precambrian basement similar to that in shields overlain by 1-3 km of relatively undeformed sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks on platforms range in age from Precambrian to Cenozoic and reach thicknesses up to 5 km, as for instance in the Williston Basin in the north-central United States. Platforms comprise most of the crust in terms of volume (35%) and most of the continental crust in terms of both area and volume. Shields and the Precambrian basement of platforms are collectively referred to as cratons. A craton is an isostatically positive portion of the continent that is tectonically stable relative to adjacent orogens. For the most part, cratons are composed of uplifted, eroded ancient orogens.

Shields and platforms have similar upper- and lower-layer thicknesses and velocities (Figure 2.3). The difference in their thickness (Table 2.2) reflects primarily the presence of the sediment layer in platforms. Seismic velocities in are rather uniform, generally ranging from 6.0 to 6.3 km/s in the upper layer and 6.8 to 7.0 km/s in the lower layer, and upper mantle velocities are typically in the range of 8.1-8.2 km/s, rarely reaching 8.6 km/s. Results suggest the existence of a high-velocity layer (~ 7.2 km/s) in lower crust of Proterozoic age. Seismic reflection studies show an increase in the number of reflections with depth and generally weak, but laterally continuous Moho reflections (Mooney & Meissner, 1992).

Orogens

Orogens are long, curvilinear belts of compressive deformation produced by the collision of continents or of terranes and continents. Giant thrust sheets and nappes are typical of many orogens and tectonic activity decreases with age of deformation (Figure 2.6). Collisional orogens range from several thousand to tens of thousands of kilometers in length, and are composed of a variety of rock types. They are expressed at Earth's surface as mountain ranges with varying degrees of relief, depending on their age. Older collisional orogens, such as the Appalachian Orogen in eastern North America and the Variscan Orogen in central Europe, are deeply eroded with only moderate relief, whereas young orogens, such the Alps and Himalayas, are among the highest mountain chains on Earth. Orogens older than Paleozoic are deeply eroded and are now part of Precambrian cratons. Large plateaus, which are uplifted crustal blocks that have escaped major deformation, are associated with some orogens, such as the Tibet Plateau in the Himalayas.

Figure 2.6 A tectonic north-south profile across the eastern Alps, an example of a typical collisional orogen. The subsurface features of the profile are from seismic reflection data. (Courtesy of Adrian Pfiffner).

Crustal thickness of orogens is extremely variable, ranging from about 30 km in some Paleozoic orogens to 70 km beneath the Himalayas. In general, thickness decreases with age. In orogens with very thick crust, the thickening occurs primarily in the lower crustal layer, which is expected since this layer behaves ductilly during deformation. The velocity contrast between the lower crust and upper mantle is commonly less beneath young orogens (0.5-1.5 km/s) than beneath platforms and shields (1-2 km/s).

Phanerozoic orogens show considerable heterogeneity in terms of seismic reflection profiles. The Caledonian and Variscan Orogens in Europe appear to have lost their crustal roots and show well developed, chiefly subhorizontal