Water (R718) Turbo Compressor and Ejector Refrigeration / Heat Pump Technology

Water (R718) Turbo Compressor and Ejector Refrigeration / Heat Pump Technology

Milan N. Šarevski PhD

Professor, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University, Skopje, R. Macedonia

Vasko N. Šarevski PhD

Associate Professor, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University, Skopje, R. Macedonia

Table of Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright

Preface

Chapter 1: Introductory Concepts

Abstract

1.1. Subject of this publication

1.2. Water (R718) turbo compressor and ejector refrigeration/heat pump systems – past, present, and future development

1.3. Purpose of the investigations

Chapter 2: Water (R718) Centrifugal Compressors

Abstract

2.1. Introduction

2.2. Main parameters of centrifugal compressors

2.3. Optimal geometry and design of the flow field

2.4. Flow characteristics, modeling, and simulations

2.5. Performance characteristics

2.6. Influence of the refrigerant thermodynamic properties on some refrigeration turbo compressor characteristics

2.7. Characteristics of water (R718) centrifugal compressors

2.8. Conclusions

2.9. Open-ended design problems and further research studies

Chapter 3: Water (R718) Ejectors

Abstract

3.1. Introduction

3.2. Main characteristics and parameters of vapor and two-phase ejectors

3.3. Flow characteristics, modeling, and simulations

3.4. Calculating procedure for vapor and two-phase ejectors

3.5. Optimal geometry and design of the ejector flow field

3.6. Performance characteristics of the ejectors in variable operating conditions

3.7. Conclusions

3.8. Open-ended design problems and further research studies

Chapter 4: Application of Turbo Thermocompression in Thermal Engineering Systems

Abstract

4.1. Introduction

4.2. Single-stage and multistage concentrating plants

4.3. Industrial concentrators with turbo thermocompression

4.4. High-temperature heat pumps with turbo thermocompression

4.5. Conclusions

4.6. Open-ended design problems and further research studies

Chapter 5: Application of Ejector Thermocompression in Industrial Thermal Engineering Systems

Abstract

5.1. Introduction

5.2. Steam ejector vacuum systems

5.3. Water two-phase ejector vacuum systems

5.4. Industrial closed steam–condensate thermal engineering systems with ejector thermocompression

5.5. Industrial concentrators with ejector thermocompression

5.6. A sodium hydroxide (NaOH) industrial concentrator with ejector thermocompression

5.7. An experimental grape vacuum concentrator with ejector thermocompression

5.8. Conclusions

5.9. Open-ended design problems and further research studies

Chapter 6: Ejector Refrigeration/Heat Pump Systems

Abstract

6.1. Introduction

6.2. Simple vapor ejector refrigeration cycle

6.3. Combined compressor – ejector refrigeration systems

6.4. Polygeneration combined compressor – ejector refrigeration systems

6.5. Compressor refrigeration systems with two-phase ejectors for reduction of the throttling losses

6.6. A novel water (R718) two-phase ejector refrigeration and heat pump systems

6.7. Conclusions

6.8. Open-ended design problems and further research studies

Chapter 7: Water (R718) Turbo Compressor Refrigeration/Heat Pump Systems

Abstract

7.1. Introduction

7.2. Description, design, and performance characteristics of R718 centrifugal refrigeration systems

7.3. Description, design, and performance characteristics of R718 centrifugal heat pump systems

7.4. Conclusions

7.5. Open-ended design problems and further research studies

Chapter 8: Novel Combined Water (R718) Refrigeration Systems with Single-Stage Centrifugal Compressor and Two-Phase Ejectors

Abstract

8.1. Introduction

8.2. Description of the novel combined (R718) refrigeration systems with single-stage centrifugal compressor and two-phase condensing ejectors

8.3. Thermal and performance characteristics of the novel combined (R718) refrigeration systems with single-stage centrifugal compressor and two-phase condensing ejectors

8.4. Conclusions

8.5. Open-ended design problems and further research studies

Chapter 9: Main Conclusions of This Publication

Abstract

Nomenclature

Subject Index

Copyright

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Preface

This publication has evolved over many years of research and development activities, scientific knowledge, teaching and applied thermal engineering investigations of the authors in the field of refrigeration centrifugal compressors and ejectors, centrifugal and ejector refrigeration/heat pump systems and applied thermal engineering systems, with emphasis on R718 systems. The basic knowledge is presented here, and the concepts, methods and procedures for calculation, modeling and optimization are defined. Novel cycles, systems and technical solutions are expounded and their thermal and performance characteristics are estimated.

The results of the investigations presented in this publication affirm the possibilities for successful and wide application of R718 refrigeration and heat pump systems. The improvements in energy efficiency of thermal engineering systems with the introduction of turbo compressors and ejector thermocompression, along with the wider applications of R718 systems, are important contributions in the efforts to overcome recent global environmental problems connected with ozone depletion and global warming. The investigations presented in this book represent a contribution toward further development in the field of R718 refrigeration/heat pump systems, centrifugal compressors and ejectors.

The topics of this publication could be appropriate subject matter for undergraduate and graduate, MSc and PhD level research and development investigations and applied thermal engineering projects. A background in engineering thermodynamics (computational thermal analysis), fluid mechanics and fluid dynamics (computational fluid dynamics) is presumed, as well as basic courses on turbo compressors and refrigeration.

The authors are extremely gratified with the publication of this book and believe that it will be well received. Any comments, criticisms, and suggestions will be greatly appreciated.

Milan Nikola Šarevski

Vasko Nikola Šarevski

Chapter 1

Introductory Concepts

Abstract

This chapter introduces the subjects of the book, namely water turbo compressor refrigeration and heat pump systems, water ejector refrigeration and heat pump systems, and combined compressor–ejector refrigeration and heat pump systems. Brief descriptions of each chapter are provided. A history of waterbased turbo compressor and ejector refrigeration and heat pump techology is provided, as well as a look forward at future potential of these systems.

Keywords

Water ejector refrigeration and heat pump

R718

water turbo compressor

refrigeration and heat pump system design

refrigerants

natural refrigerants

1.1. Subject of this publication

Energy efficiency improvement has been a main topic in the recent investigations of thermal energy machines, devices, plants, and systems, including turbo compressors, ejectors, and refrigeration/heat pump systems. The global environmental problem concerning ozone depletion and global warming has led to application of environmentally friendly refrigerants and to renewed interest in natural refrigerants (water, ammonia, carbon dioxide, air, and hydrocarbons such as propane and butane). From numerous perspectives and for numerous technical and environmental reasons, water (R718) is the ultimate choice of refrigerant.

Water is a clean refrigerant with no ozone depletion potential (ODP = 0) and no contribution to global warming (GWP = 0). It is chemically stable, nontoxic, nonflammable, easy to handle, and without any safety risk. It is commonly available and easily disposable after use. The theoretical coefficient of performance (COP) of the R718 cycle is high and competitive with other refrigerants, depending on the temperature conditions. In refrigeration/heat pump systems, R718 can be used as both refrigerant and energy transfer fluid. Therefore, direct evaporation and condensation can be applied and higher COPs can be obtained.

Despite these advantages, there are some challenges in using water as a refrigerant compared to conventional refrigerants. For high-temperature industrial heat pumps and thermo transformer applications in concentrating and desalination plants, water is an ideal working fluid (refrigerant). The most significant limitation of water as refrigerant in refrigeration/heat pump units for air-conditioning applications is its triple point (0.00615 bar; 0.01°C). Deep vacuum operating conditions and low specific volumetric cooling capacity of R718 are peculiarities that cause large and extremely large volumetric flow rates for the temperature range of refrigeration/heat pump air-conditioning applications. Furthermore, the required pressure ratio for a given temperature lift is high. Additionally, the high value of the water isentropic exponent causes high temperatures at the compressor discharge.

The subjects of research and investigation in this publication are water turbo compressor refrigeration and heat pump systems (Chapters 2, 4, 7), water ejector refrigeration and heat pump systems (Chapters 3, 5, 6) and combined compressor–ejector refrigeration and heat pump systems (Chapters 6, 8). In the introduction of each chapter a comprehensive overview of corresponding published works and investigations is given.

The theoretical basis and development of centrifugal compressors is given in Chapter 2. The main parameters of centrifugal compressors are presented and their flow and performance characteristics, optimal geometry and design of the flow field are discussed. The boundary conditions of the centrifugal compressor stage pressure ratio concerning the limitations of the impeller peripheral speed by the impeller strength properties and by the fluid flow conditions (Mach number) are analyzed. The influence of the refrigerant thermodynamic properties on some refrigeration turbo compressor characteristics is analyzed and peculiarities of the water centrifugal compressors are estimated.

The theoretical basis and development of the vapor and two-phase ejectors is discussed in Chapter 3, where the main parameters of the ejectors, their flow and performance characteristics, optimal geometry, and design of the flow field are discussed. The transonic flow phenomena, shock wave losses, and hydraulic losses of the complex flow processes of momentum transfer between primary and secondary flows are analyzed. The influence of the refrigerant thermodynamic properties on the characteristics of vapor and two-phase ejectors is analyzed and peculiarities of steam and water two-phase ejectors are assessed.

Applications of turbo thermocompression in thermal engineering systems are presented in Chapter 4. The industrial concentrators and water desalination plants are extremely large consumers of thermal energy. Great improvement of the energy efficiency can be achieved by application of multistage plants and/or by application of thermocompression heat pump systems. The application of high-temperature heat pumps with turbo thermocompression for waste heat recuperation in the industrial thermal processing and technological systems can be an effective way for improvement of the energy efficiency of these systems. A novel concept of turbo compressor heat pump systems with water vapor thermocompression is presented. The thermal and performance characteristics of the systems are estimated and recommendations for an optimal construction are presented.

Applications of ejector thermocompression in thermal engineering systems are given in Chapter 5. Steam ejector vacuum systems and water two-phase ejector vacuum systems are described and procedures for technical and economic optimization of these systems are given. A novel closed industrial steam–condensate thermal engineering system with ejector thermocompression is proposed. The implementation of this system results in energy efficiency improvement, and also in technical, economical, and environmental benefits. The industrial concentrators with ejector thermocompression are described and results of the investigations of an experimental grape vacuum concentrator and a sodium hydroxide (NaOH) industrial concentrator are presented.

Chapter 6 deals with ejector refrigeration/heat pump systems in which low temperature heat (solar energy, waste heat, geothermal energy) can be utilized for realization of refrigeration cycles. The simple vapor ejector refrigeration cycle is explained. The combined compressor–ejector refrigeration systems and the polygeneration combined compressor–ejector refrigeration systems are analyzed. The thermal and performance characteristics of these systems are estimated and possibilities for an optimal application are presented. The experience and results of the investigations of two-phase ejectors applied in compressor refrigeration systems for reduction of the throttling losses can be used for creating the concepts and development strategy of the novel refrigeration cycles with two-phase ejectors. A novel water (R718) two-phase ejector refrigeration cycle is proposed and its thermal and performance characteristics are estimated.

Water (R718) centrifugal refrigeration/heat pump systems are covered in Chapter 7. A description of these systems is presented and their design, thermal and performance characteristics are estimated. A two-stage R718 centrifugal refrigeration/heat pump system is an optimal solution for air-conditioning applications. The construction with direct flash evaporation and condensation, without surface heat exchangers, causes COP improvement, simplification of the refrigeration unit, and results in technical and economic benefits.

Novel combined water (R718) refrigeration systems with a single-stage centrifugal compressor and two-phase ejectors are proposed in Chapter 8. A description of these systems is given and their design, thermal, and performance characteristics are estimated. A compact R718 water chiller with a single-stage centrifugal compressor and two-phase ejectors is presented. This type of construction simplifies the refrigeration units and reduces their size and cost.

At the end of each chapter a section titled Open-ended Design Problems and Further Research Studies appears. The topics of this publication could be subject matter for educational undergraduate and graduate, MSc and PhD levels [e], research and development investigations [rd] and applied thermal engineering projects [ap]. Each exercise is labeled in brackets using these conventions. A background in engineering thermodynamics (computational thermal analysis, CTA), fluid mechanics and fluid dynamics (computational fluid dynamics, CFD), and also in basic courses on turbo compressors and refrigeration is presumed.

The book is suitable for undergraduate and graduate mechanical thermal engineering studies in advanced courses on refrigeration centrifugal compressors, ejectors, and refrigeration systems [CR], as well as in advanced courses on heating and air conditioning [HAC], thermal engineering systems, energy efficiency, and polygeneration hybrid systems [TE], for solving case studies and open-ended design problems, from undergraduate studies up to investigations in graduate work, MSc and PhD theses (levels [h1–h5], also indicated in brackets for each exercise).

The book could be used in the industry sector by mechanical engineers working in design and construction of thermal plants and systems: concentrators, desalination plants, industrial steam–condensate systems, industrial steam jet vacuum systems and industrial high-temperature heat pumps for utilization of low-temperature waste heat [h3–h4].

The achievements of the investigations presented in this book could be used by research and development institutes and universities working on research and development projects related to centrifugal refrigeration machines and two-phase ejector systems [h4–h5]. With further theoretical and experimental investigations, the ideas and technical solutions of the novel centrifugal compressor and ejector refrigeration and heat pump systems discussed in the book will become reality and will find wide application.

1.2. Water (R718) turbo compressor and ejector refrigeration/heat pump systems – past, present, and future development

The historical developments of centrifugal compressor, ejector, and combined compressor–ejector refrigeration and heat pump systems, as well as of turbo compressors and ejectors and their thermal system applications, are given in corresponding chapters and appropriate cited review articles listed in the references. A global overview of the past, present, and future development on water (R718) turbo compressor and ejector refrigeration/heat pump technology is presented in this section.

During the last century turbo compressors and their application in thermal engineering systems have undergone a major, intensive development. At the beginning of the second half of the century, theoretical and experimental investigations of turbo compressors have been published in the fundamental publications in this field. The development of computers, supported with achievements in the field of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and computational thermal analysis (CTA), has led to further development of the theory of turbo compressors and thermal engineering systems with turbo compressors. This, along with development of the theory of measurements and measuring instruments, has resulted in further progress and development of advanced methods for theoretical and experimental investigations of turbo compressors and thermal systems with turbo compressors. Application of the turbo machinery similarity theory has provided strong support in the development of refrigeration turbo compressors, using the results of theoretical and experimental investigations and scientific experience of air and gas turbo compressors.

At the end of the last century refrigerants received a great deal of attention in investigations of the global environment. In centrifugal refrigeration machines chlorofluorocarbons (CFC11 and CFC12) had been primarily used. Some other CFCs and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC22) had also been used to some extent. The total world-wide installations of centrifugal water chillers for air-conditioning applications were estimated to be about 125,000. This shows the large-scale application of centrifugal refrigeration machines at the last decade of the century. CFCs are compounds with high ozone depletion potential (ODP) and high global warming potential (GWP). The potential of HCFCs for affecting stratospheric ozone is a small fraction of that of CFCs. According to the revised Montreal Protocol, Copenhagen, CFCs have been phased out by the end of 1995 and HCFCs will be by the end of 2030. The European regulations have treated HCFCs more severely and they were also phased out by the end of 2003. The target was focused on hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and hydrofluorinated ethers (HFEs), which have zero ODP. In existing centrifugal machines HFC132a is primarily used. Some other HFCs, HFEs and refrigerant mixtures are also used to some extent. HFCs and HFEs are also greenhouse gases, with unknown impact on the environment. Due to their shorter atmospheric lifetime they have lower GWP. However, their impact on global warming has led to renewed interest in natural refrigerants (water, ammonia, carbon dioxide, air, and hydrocarbons such as propane and butane). In this context, water turbo compressor refrigeration/heat pump systems deserve appropriate attention and research activities.

The idea of water turbo compressor refrigeration systems started at the end of the 1980s and 1990s. The company IDE Technologies, Israel, was the pioneer in centrifugal water vapor compressors back in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. Water vapor centrifugal compressors have been successfully applied in thermal concentrators and water desalination plants and other evaporation technological processes. By the end of the 1990s, the R718 centrifugal turbo water chiller had already been developed and manufactured by Institut für Luft and Kältetechnik, Dresden, Germany. An axial turbo compressor for commercial chillers with water as refrigerant was recently developed by the Danish Technological Institute. The implementation of the three-port condensing wave rotor in the R718 centrifugal turbo compressor refrigerating cycle, as well as a novel axial impeller as a part of a counter-rotating axial compressor to compress water vapor as refrigerant, has been investigated at Michigan State University and recently published. The new sophisticated future technologies – shock wave compression, rampressor – RAMGEN technology, and microturbo machinery technology have been recently introduced.

On the basis of the recent developments and technologies considered for oil-free direct-driven variable-speed refrigeration centrifugal compressors (high-speed permanent magnet motor technology; active magnetic bearing technology), and following the state-of-the-art of material and strength sciences and achievements in thermodynamics (CTA) and fluid dynamics (CFD), water centrifugal compressors, and centrifugal refrigeration/heat pump systems receive new perspectives and possibilities for future development and successful applications.

The ejectors and thermal systems with ejectors have had an intensive development during the last century. In the fundamental publications of fluid mechanics, gas dynamics, refrigeration, and ejectors, the theory of ejectors and their applications had been published at the beginning of the second half of the century. Besides the application of vapor ejectors in the ejector refrigeration systems, ejectors have been successfully applied in thermal concentrating and desalination plants. Supported by the achievements in CTA, CFD and measurement techniques, the ejectors and thermal engineering systems with ejectors have been the subject of numerous research and development activities by many institutes and universities at the end of the last century and the beginning of this century. The energy efficiency improvement strategy and the concept of cleaner production have led to research and development of new polygeneration thermal systems and new combined (hybrid) thermal systems with utilization of low temperature heat, solar energy, geothermal energy, and waste heat. In this context the thermal systems with ejector thermocompression recently have attracted a number of research activities and found successful application in steam jet refrigeration systems and ejector refrigeration systems working with different refrigerants; two-phase ejectors in compressor refrigeration systems as devices for reduction of throttling losses; two-phase ejectors in compressor refrigeration systems as devices for second step compression; polygeneration thermal systems and new combined (hybrid) thermal systems: combined ejector-compression systems, ejector-absorption systems, ejector-adsorption refrigeration systems; steam ejectors and two-phase flow water ejectors applied in heat pump systems for thermal concentrating plants; steam ejector and two-phase flow water ejector vacuum pumps; steam ejectors applied in industrial steam-condense systems, etc.

On the basis of the developments and achievements considered for centrifugal compressors and two-phase ejectors, a novel water (R718) refrigeration cycle with a single-stage centrifugal compressor and two-phase ejectors is proposed and characteristics of these new types of compact centrifugal compressor/ejector water chillers are estimated.

Following the state-of-the-art of the investigations of centrifugal compressors and ejectors and according to the characteristics of the new water systems proposed in this publication, as well as regarding the new sophisticated future technologies – such as shock wave compression, rampressor, and RAMGEN technology; centrifugal compressor–three-port condensing wave rotor technology; and axial impellers as a part of counterrotating axial compressor technology – it can be concluded that water (R718) refrigeration/heat pump systems deserve further research and development investigation and future new perspectives for wide and successful applications.

1.3. Purpose of the investigations

The principal objectives of this publication are:

• to describe existing and to promote novel R718 turbo compressor and ejector refrigeration/heat pump systems,

• to provide procedures for calculation and optimization of the cycles, system components, and system structures,

• to estimate the performance characteristics of the systems, and

• to identify the possibilities for wider applications of R718 systems in the field of refrigeration and heat pumps.

The goal is to establish new refrigeration/heat pump systems, competitive with conventional systems regarding technical, economic, and environmental factors. For successful realization of the objectives it is necessary to determine the characteristics and peculiarities of R718 centrifugal compressors and vapor and two-phase ejectors.

The results of the investigations into all these issues represent a contribution for further development in the field of R718 refrigeration/heat pump systems, centrifugal compressors, and ejectors.

Chapter 2

Water (R718) Centrifugal Compressors

Abstract

Influence of the refrigerant thermodynamic properties on the characteristics of centrifugal compressors is investigated. Peculiarities of centrifugal compressors working with various refrigerants are defined and the range of priority application is determined. Interdependence between centrifugal stage pressure ratio, peripheral Mach number and impeller peripheral speed, as well as the influence of the refrigeration capacity on the dimensions of centrifugal compressors are determined to obtain the range of reasonable usage of R718 refrigeration/heat pump systems. Deep vacuum operating conditions, low specific volumetric cooling capacity of R718, and small molecular mass of water are the peculiarities that determine the main parameters of the water (R718) centrifugal compressors and the range of rational application of the R718 centrifugal refrigeration/heat pump systems. The high peripheral impeller speed, high Mach number, and high pressure ratio cause separated jet-wake flow and transonic flow phenomena in the compressor flow field.

Keywords

R718 centrifugal compressors

high pressure ratio

high impeller peripheral speed

high Mach number

low Reynolds number

large dimensions

high superheating

modeling

simulation

optimization

2.1. Introduction

The subject of investigations in this chapter are the water (R718) centrifugal compressors, their main parameters, design and operating characteristics, fluid flow features, and performance characteristics.

Turbo compressors and their application in thermal engineering systems have had a great and intensive development during the last century. The fundamentals and general theory of turbo compressors are given by Eckert and Schnell (1961), Eck (1973), Den (1980), Ris (1981), Seleznev and Galerkin (1982) and many other fundamental publications in the field of turbo compressors. The development of the theory of measurements and measuring instruments has resulted in a further progress and development of advanced methods for theoretical and experimental investigations of turbo compressors (Dean, 1971; Eckardt, 1975;  1976 Adler, 1980; Buharin, 1983; Japicse, 1986). Application of the turbo machinery similarity theory has provided strong support in the development of refrigeration turbo compressors using the results of theoretical and experimental investigations and scientific experience of air and gas turbo compressors. The influence of operating conditions (Reynolds number, Mach number, isentropic exponent) on the characteristics of centrifugal compressors and the peculiarities of refrigeration turbo compressors are given by Čistjakov (1967), Barenboim (1974), Efstafev (1974), Mashimo et al. (1975), Senoo et al. (1979), Wiesner (1979), Casey (1985), Hayami et al. (1990), Higashimori et al. (2004). The development of computers, supported by the achievements in the field of computational fluid dynamics (CFD), has led to further development of the theory of turbo compressors. CFD methods are applied for 3-D unsteady viscid transonic flow calculations in the works of Sokolovski and Gnesin (1986), Dawes (1987), Šarevski (1989). Numerous CFD techniques (Blazek, 2007) and applicative software have been developed in recent years for 3-D unsteady transonic viscid flow and applied for prediction of the flow and performance characteristics of turbo compressors.

By the end of the last century chlorofluorocarbons (CFC11 and CFC12) had been primarily used in centrifugal refrigeration machines. Some other CFCs and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC22) had been also used to some extent. The total world-wide installations of centrifugal water chillers for air-conditioning applications only were estimated to be about 125,000 (Devotta et al., 1993,  1994). This shows the large-scale application of centrifugal refrigeration machines at the last decade of the century. Because of ozone depletion potential (ODP), according to the revised Montreal Protocol, Copenhagen, CFCs and HCFCs had been phased out (Wuebbles, 1994; Kruse, 1994; Campbell, 1994). The target was focused on hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and hydrofluorinated ethers (HFEs), which have zero ODP. In existing centrifugal machines HFC132a is primarily used. Some other HFCs, HFEs, and refrigerant mixtures are also used to some extent. HFCs and HFEs are also greenhouse gases, with unknown impact on the environment (Strong, 1994). The influence of the refrigerant thermodynamic properties on some refrigerating turbo compressor characteristics is presented by Šarevski (1996). Small-scale R134a centrifugal compressors are investigated by Schiffmann and Favrat (2009,  2010), where the flow field and performance characteristics are analyzed. The choice of suitable refrigerant, among others, strongly depends on the refrigeration unit capacity. Gabrielii and Vamling (2001) show that HFC134a is not a suitable alternative for HCFC22 in existing high-capacity centrifugal units and that there are mixtures that can offer substantially higher capacity, but with a decrease in coefficient of performance (COP). An optimization method of a refrigeration process with a two-stage centrifugal compressor and flash intercooler is presented by Röyttä et al. (2009) and Turunen-Saaresti et al. (2010). A review of the past, present, and future of turbo machinery in the HVACR industry is presented by Brasz (2012), where the conventional refrigerant (R134a) centrifugal compressor flow field and performance characteristics are analyzed, as well as the limitations of application of natural refrigerants in centrifugal chillers: R718 - very large dimensions and extremely low power density (see also Šarevski, 2012a); R744 - extremely small dimensions and high power density (see also Utamura et al., 2012); and new sophisticated future technologies: shock wave compression–rampressor–RAMGEN technology (see also Lawlor, 2010; Baldwin, 2011; Lupkes, 2012) and micro turbo machinery technology are introduced and discussed.

The idea of water turbo compressor refrigeration systems started at the end of the 1980s and 1990s (Šarevski, 1989,  1996 Koren and Ophir, 1996; Madsboll and Minds, 1996; Paul, 2007). The company IDE Technologies, Israel, has been the pioneer for centrifugal water vapor compressors back in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s (Koren and Ophir, 1996). The water vapor centrifugal compressors have been successfully applied in thermal concentrators and water desalination plants. By the end of the 1990s, the R718 centrifugal turbo water chiller had already been developed and manufactured by Institut für Luft and Kältetechnik, Dresden, Germany (Albring and Heinrich, 1998; Albring and Honke, 2011). Design of compressor impellers for water as a refrigerant is presented by Muller (2001). Development of an axial compressor for commercial chillers, with water as refrigerant, by the Danish Technological Institute is presented by Madsboll (2011).