Process Plant Layout

Process Plant Layout

Second Edition

Seán Moran

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

Acknowledgments

Part I: General Principles

Chapter 1. Introduction

Abstract

1.1 What Kind of a Book Is This?

1.2 Why a New Book on Layout Design Is Needed

1.3 What Is New in This Book?

1.4 How Is the Book Structured?

1.5 What Is Layout Design?

1.6 Terminology

1.7 Stages of Layout Design

1.8 Hazard Assessment

1.9 A Note on Calculations and Spacings

Further Reading

Chapter 2. The Discipline of Layout in Context

Abstract

2.1 General

2.2 Abbreviations/Legislation and Standards/Terminology

2.3 The Importance of Layout

2.4 General Design Considerations in Layout

2.5 Project Deliverables

2.6 Layout and the Law

2.7 Parties to the Design Process

2.8 Liaison Between Disciplines

2.9 Liaison Outside the Design Team

2.10 Relation of Layout to Other Activities

2.11 Layout and Project Planning Control

Chapter 3. Site Layout Principles

Abstract

3.1 General

3.2 Abbreviations/Legislation, Standards and Codes of Practice/Terminology

3.3 Design Considerations

3.4 Segregation

3.5 Emergencies

3.6 Central Facilities

3.7 Pollution Abatement

3.8 Transportation

3.9 Security

3.10 Environmental Aspects

3.11 Geographical Factors

3.12 Site Selection

Further Reading

Chapter 4. Plot Layout Principles

Abstract

4.1 General

4.2 Abbreviations/Standards and Codes/Terminology

4.3 Process Considerations

4.4 Economic Considerations

4.5 Operational Considerations

4.6 Maintenance Considerations

4.7 Safety and Emergency Considerations

4.8 Construction Considerations

4.9 Appearance

4.10 Future Expansion

4.11 Considerations for Solids Handling Plant

4.12 Plot Buildings

4.13 Forming Plots

4.14 Plot Layout Rules of Thumb

Further Reading

Chapter 5. Planning of Layout Activities

Abstract

5.1 General

5.2 Abbreviations/Standards and Codes of Practice/Terminology

5.3 The Project Life Cycle

5.4 The Organization of Conceptual Design

5.5 The Organization of Front End Engineering Design

5.6 The Organization of Detailed Design

5.7 The Organization of Design for Construction

5.8 The Organization of Post Construction Design

Chapter 6. Methods for Layout, Conception, and Development

Abstract

6.1 General

6.2 Abbreviations/Standards and Codes/Terminology

6.3 Design Reviews

6.4 Economic Optimization

6.5 Rating Classification Methods

6.6 Mathematical Modeling

6.7 Software

6.8 Critical Examination Review

6.9 Combined Application of Methods: Base Case

Chapter 7. Layout Analogues and Visual Aids

Abstract

7.1 General

7.2 Abbreviations/Standards and Codes/Terminology

7.3 Coordinate Dimensioning

7.4 Drawings

7.5 Models

7.6 Photography

7.7 Computer Models

Chapter 8. Hazard Assessment of Plant Layout

Abstract

8.1 General

8.2 Abbreviations/Standards and Codes/Terminology

8.3 Relevant Hazards

8.4 Implications for Layout

8.5 Appropriate Criteria

8.6 Hazard Assessment Procedure

8.7 Hazard Mitigation

8.8 Minor Leaks and Area Classification

Further Reading

Part II: Detailed Site and Plot Layout

Chapter 9. Transportation

Abstract

9.1 General

9.2 Abbreviations/Standards and Codes/Terminology

9.3 Design Considerations

9.4 Site Emergencies

9.5 Storage Location

9.6 Roads and Parking Areas

9.7 Rail Tracks

9.8 Docks and Wharves

9.9 Case Studies

Further Reading

Chapter 10. Bulk Fluid Storage

Abstract

10.1 General

10.2 Abbreviations/Standards and Codes/Terminology

10.3 Design Considerations

10.4 Location

10.5 Tank Size

10.6 Tank Spacings

10.7 Bund Areas

10.8 Bund and Tank Construction

10.9 Pipes and Pumps

10.10 Access Within Bunds

10.11 Loading Areas

10.12 Outdoor Drum Storage

10.13 Case Studies

Chapter 11. Bulk Solids Storage

Abstract

11.1 General

11.2 Terminology

11.3 Bulk Solids Intake

11.4 Open Stockpiles

11.5 Closed Warehouses

11.6 Bunker Storage

11.7 Bulk Solids Outloading Plant

11.8 Case Studies

Further Reading

Chapter 12. Warehouse Storage

Abstract

12.1 General

12.2 Abbreviations/Codes and Standards/Terminology

12.3 Design Considerations

12.4 Case Studies

Further Reading

Chapter 13. Pollution Control

Abstract

13.1 General

13.2 Abbreviations/Standards and Codes/Terminology

13.3 Design Considerations

13.4 Types of Pollution Control Technology

13.5 Location

13.6 Spacing

13.7 Arrangement

13.8 Support

13.9 Platforms

13.10 Maintenance

13.11 Piping

13.12 Instrumentation

13.13 Miscellaneous

13.14 Case Studies

Chapter 14. Utilities I: General

Abstract

14.1 General

14.2 Abbreviations/Codes and Standards/Terminology

14.3 Design Considerations

14.4 Types of Utilities

14.5 Location

14.6 Maintenance

14.7 Piping and Cabling

14.8 Miscellaneous

14.9 Case Studies

Chapter 15. Utilities II: Water and Steam

Abstract

15.1 General

15.2 Abbreviations/Standards and Codes/Terminology

15.3 Design Considerations

15.4 Types of Utilities

15.5 Location

15.6 Arrangement

15.7 Support

15.8 Maintenance

15.9 Piping

15.10 Miscellaneous

15.11 Case Studies

Chapter 16. Central Services

Abstract

16.1 General

16.2 Standards and Codes/Terminology

16.3 Design Considerations

16.4 Case Studies

Further Reading

Chapter 17. Construction and Layout

Abstract

17.1 General

17.2 Abbreviations/Standards and Codes/Terminology

17.3 Design Considerations

17.4 Case Studies

Further Reading

Chapter 18. Details of Plot Layout

Abstract

18.1 General

18.2 Abbreviations/Standards and Codes/Terminology

18.3 Choice of Plant Structure

18.4 Economic Savings

18.5 Safety Details

18.6 Operational Requirements

18.7 Maintenance Requirements

18.8 Firefighting and Escape

18.9 Appearance

18.10 Control Room

18.11 Other Personnel Buildings

18.12 Case Studies

Further Reading

Chapter 19. Layout Within Buildings

Abstract

19.1 General

19.2 Abbreviations/Standards and Codes/Terminology

19.3 Optimum Equipment Arrangements

19.4 Operational and Emergency Arrangements

19.5 Piping and Cabling

19.6 Ducting and Headroom

19.7 Maintenance

19.8 Planning Pipes, Ducts, and Equipment Removal

19.9 Safety in Buildings

19.10 Illumination and Appearance

19.11 Case Studies

Further Reading

Part III: Detailed Layout of Equipment

Chapter 20. Tanks and Drums

Abstract

20.1 General

20.2 Abbreviations/Standards and Codes/Terminology

20.3 Types of Vessel

20.4 Spacing

20.5 Arrangement

20.6 Support

20.7 Platforms

20.8 Maintenance

20.9 Piping

20.10 Nozzles

20.11 Instrumentation

20.12 Case Studies

Further Reading

Chapter 21. Furnaces and Fired Equipment

Abstract

21.1 General

21.2 Abbreviations/Standards and Codes/Terminology

21.3 Design Considerations

21.4 Types of Fired Equipment

21.5 Location

21.6 Spacing

21.7 Arrangement

21.8 Support

21.9 Platforms

21.10 Maintenance

21.11 Piping

21.12 Nozzles

21.13 Instrumentation

21.14 Miscellaneous

21.15 Case Studies

Further Reading

Chapter 22. Distillation Columns and Towers

Abstract

22.1 General

22.2 Abbreviations/Standards and Codes/Terminology

22.3 Design Considerations

22.4 Types of Towers

22.5 Location

22.6 Spacing

22.7 Arrangement

22.8 Support

22.9 Platforms

22.10 Maintenance

22.11 Piping

22.12 Nozzles

22.13 Instrumentation

22.14 Miscellaneous

22.15 Case Studies

Further Reading

Chapter 23. Heat Exchangers

Abstract

23.1 General

23.2 Abbreviations/Standards and Codes/Terminology

23.3 Design Considerations

23.4 Types of Exchangers

23.5 Location

23.6 Spacing

23.7 Arrangement

23.8 Support

23.9 Platforms

23.10 Maintenance

23.11 Piping

23.12 Nozzles

23.13 Instrumentation

23.14 Case Studies

Further Reading

Chapter 24. Reactors

Abstract

24.1 General

24.2 Abbreviations/Standards and Codes/Terminology

24.3 Design Considerations

24.4 Types of Reactor

24.5 Location

24.6 Arrangement

24.7 Support

24.8 Platforms

24.9 Maintenance

24.10 Piping

24.11 Nozzles

24.12 Instrumentation

24.13 Miscellaneous

24.14 Case Studies

Further Reading

Chapter 25. Mixers

Abstract

25.1 General

25.2 Design Considerations

25.3 Types of Mixer

25.4 Spacing

25.5 Arrangement

25.6 Support

25.7 Maintenance

25.8 Piping

25.9 Instrumentation

25.10 Case Studies

Further Reading

Chapter 26. Filters

Abstract

26.1 General

26.2 Design Considerations

26.3 Types of Filters

26.4 Location

26.5 Spacing

26.6 Arrangement

26.7 Platforms

26.8 Maintenance

26.9 Piping

26.10 Nozzles

26.11 Instrumentation

26.12 Miscellaneous

26.13 Case Studies

Chapter 27. Centrifuges

Abstract

27.1 General

27.2 Standards and Codes/Terminology

27.3 Design Considerations

27.4 Types of Centrifuge

27.5 Location

27.6 Spacing

27.7 Arrangement

27.8 Support

27.9 Platforms

27.10 Maintenance

27.11 Piping

27.12 Instrumentation

27.13 Miscellaneous

27.14 Case Studies

Further Reading

Chapter 28. Solids Handling Plant

Abstract

28.1 General

28.2 Abbreviations/Standards and Codes/Terminology

28.3 Types of Solids Handling Equipment

28.4 Location

28.5 Spacing

28.6 Arrangement

28.7 Support

28.8 Maintenance

28.9 Miscellaneous

28.10 Case Studies

Further Reading

Chapter 29. Dryers

Abstract

29.1 General

29.2 Abbreviations/Standards and Codes/Terminology

29.3 Design Considerations

29.4 Types of Dryer

29.5 Location

29.6 Spacing

29.7 Arrangement

29.8 Support

29.9 Platforms

29.10 Maintenance

29.11 Instrumentation

29.12 Miscellaneous

29.13 Case Studies

Further Reading

Chapter 30. Filling and Packaging

Abstract

30.1 General

30.2 Abbreviations/Standards and Codes/Terminology

30.3 Design Considerations

30.4 Case Studies

Part IV: Detailed Layout: Materials Transfer Systems

Chapter 31. Pumps

Abstract

31.1 General

31.2 Abbreviations/Standards and Codes/Terminology

31.3 Design Considerations

31.4 Types of Pumps

31.5 Location

31.6 Spacing

31.7 Arrangement

31.8 Support

31.9 Maintenance

31.10 Piping

31.11 Nozzles

31.12 Instrumentation

31.13 Case Studies

Further Reading

Chapter 32. Compressors

Abstract

32.1 General

32.2 Abbreviation/Standards and Codes/Terminology

32.3 Design Considerations

32.4 Types of Compressors

32.5 Location

32.6 Spacing

32.7 Arrangement

32.8 Support

32.9 Maintenance

32.10 Piping

32.11 Case Studies

Further Reading

Chapter 33. Conveyors

Abstract

33.1 General

33.2 Standards and Codes

33.3 Design Considerations

33.4 Types of Conveyor

33.5 Support

33.6 Maintenance

33.7 Piping

33.8 Case Studies

Further Reading

Chapter 34. Piping

Abstract

34.1 General

34.2 Abbreviations/Standards and Codes/Terminology

34.3 Design Considerations

34.4 Piping Layout Considerations

34.5 Use of Piperacks

34.6 Plot Piping

34.7 Utility Systems

34.8 Valves and Bleed Points

34.9 Testing and Inspection

34.10 Case Studies

Further Reading

Part V: Detailed Layout: Other

Chapter 35. Pipe Stress Analysis

Abstract

35.1 General

35.2 Abbreviations, Standards, and Codes

35.3 Design Considerations

35.4 Analysis Methods

35.5 Case Studies

Further Reading

Chapter 36. Instrumentation

Abstract

36.1 General

36.2 Abbreviations/Standards and Codes/Terminology

36.3 Design Considerations

36.4 Types of Instrument

36.5 Location

36.6 Spacing

36.7 Arrangement

36.8 Support

36.9 Platforms

36.10 Maintenance

36.11 Piping

36.12 Nozzles

36.13 Instrumentation

36.14 Case Studies

Further Reading

Part VI: Appendices

Appendix A. CAD

A.1 General

A.2 General Implications of Modern Design Tools

A.3 Project Management/Programming Tools

A.4 2D Computer-Aided Drawing/Drafting (CAD)

A.5 3D CAD

A.6 Model Review Software

A.7 BIMM

A.8 Geographical Information Systems

A.9 Hazard Analysis

A.10 Pipe Stress Analysis

Appendix B. Hazard Assessment Calculations

B.1 Introduction

B.2 Instantaneous Release of Gas or Vapor

B.3 Steady Leak of Gas or Vapor

B.4 Loss of Liquid

B.5 Fire Damage and Protection

B.6 Implications for Layout

B.7 Further Notes on Blast Effects

B.8 Area Classification Zone Sizes

B.9 Data

B.10 Notation

Further Reading

Appendix C. Plant Separation Tables

C.1 Introduction

C.2 Preliminary Spacings for Tank Farm Layout

C.3 Preliminary Electrical Area Classification Distances

C.4 Size of Storage Piles

C.5 API and NFPA Recommendations

C.6 Health and Safety Executive Recommendations (HSG 176: Storage of Flammable Liquids in Tanks)

Appendix D. Variations on the Methodology

D.1 General

D.2 Alternative Approach 1: The Piping Engineer’s Methodology

D.3 Alternative Approach 2: The CCPS Guidelines for Facility Selection and Layout

D.4 Alternative Approach 3: Madden Method 1: Plant and Equipment Layout

D.5 Alternative Approach 4: Madden Method 2: Piping Layout

D.6 Alternative Approach 5: Madden Method 3: Layout Within Buildings

D.7 Alternative Approach 6: Mecklenburgh’s Manual Formalized Methods

D.8 Alternative Approach 7: Modified Mecklenburgh: General Plant Layout Method

D.9 Alternative Approach 8: Oil and Gas Industry Practice

D.10 Alternative Approach 9: The Process Architect’s Approach

Appendix E. Masterplanning

E.1 Introduction

E.2 Formats and Systems

E.3 Study Process

E.4 Masterplan Development and Content

E.5 Masterplanning/Plant Design Overlap

Appendix F. Conversion Factors for Older and British Units

Appendix G. Consolidated Glossary

G.1 Abbreviations

G.2 Glossary

Appendix H. Consolidated Codes and Standards

H.1 Introduction

H.2 International Codes and Standards

H.3 European Law and Standards

H.4 British Codes and Standards

H.5 US Codes and Standards

H.6 Other National Codes and Standards

Further Reading

Index

Copyright

Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier

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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

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ISBN: 978-0-12-803355-5

For Information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com

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Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India

Dedication

For Marian Moran, 1941–2016

Acknowledgments

Producing a book like this, relevant to more sectors than any one engineer experiences, requires a large number of interactions with other engineers. I discussed the content with over 250 other engineers, architects, and pipers, all of whom in one way or another added something to the book, even if it was simply to confirm that what had been written was complete, current, and correct.

However, a small number of people contributed very significant amounts of content toward the book, most notably Ian Fleming at Spirax Sarco for arranging reuse of their valuable tutorial material, Glen Worrall and Jerard Marsh at Bentley who kindly redrafted many of the first edition’s images and, not least, Richard Beale, Rob Bowen, Jim Madden, Kieron Channon, and Peter Waite who provided invaluable assistance with the Appendices. Geoffrey Blumber at Intergraph provided access to several key images including the striking front cover design.¹

I am grateful to all of these key contributors, as I am to all of the following who assisted by reviewing chapters, contributing case studies, illustrations, and so on:

Abraham Pennamon, Amanda Luxmore at WorkSafe Victoria; Andrea Crovato and Alison Patey at AVEVA; Alan Ramsay, Alejandro Villanueva, Alejandro Ramirez De Loza, Ali Gul, Alun Rees, Basudev Kshatri, Carlo Castaldi, Charles Ye, Chinna Devudu, Christopher Davis, Chuck Lohre, Chrit Gudde, Dave Penman, David Ellis, Douglas McDonald, Ed Tsang at BSI; Elise Dijkhuizen Borgart, Emmanuelle Maucci-Hagey, G. Vishwanathan, Georgi Ignatov, Humberto Barreda, Jeff Hunziker, Jim Franklin, Jithin Pellissery, John Cockburn, John Pena, Jon Brooking, Keisha Antoine, Larbi Hammoun, Laurence Kurz-Misslin, Logan Milford, Lorenzo Montani, Ludo Declercq, Marc Enel, Mike Rush, Mohamed Al Khusaibi, Mohan Karmarkar, Muhammad Ali, Muhammad Tayyeb Javed, Mukund Chiplunkar, Nacho Palacios, B. Paul, Peter Fletcher, Peter Karran, Peter Owoade, Pier Paolo Greco, Raghd Muhi Al-Deen Jassim, K. Ravisankar, Richard Farnish, Rick Rhead, Roger Freestone, Sanjay Bhagat, Sarah Garwood on behalf of Chemical Engineer magazine, Satish Inamdar, Shalija Goyal, Shree Nanguneri, Shuja Siddiqui, Steve Lancaster, Steven Colbert, Sudershan Sivasubramanian, Tony Amato at Doosan Enpure; Tony Bird, Trish Sentance, Turky Feddah, Vetjaera Haakuria, Virgil Strachan, Wim Dobbelaere, Yacob Banitaha, Yve Huang, Zac Meadows, Margaret Toomik at GE Healthcare; and Edison J. Loh at Workplace Safety and Health Council Singapore.

Thanks as ever go to my publisher, Elsevier, for acquiring the rights to publish a second edition of this text and guiding me through the process of preparing the book. I am particularly grateful to Fiona Geraghty, Cari Owen, Maria Convey, and Lisa Jones at Elsevier as well as Claudia Flavell-White at the IChemE who was instrumental in resolving the early copyright issues.

Finally, a special mention is due to Professor Barry Azzopardi of the University of Nottingham who first brought Mecklenburgh’s Process Plant Layout to my attention, and gave me the hard copy of the first edition which formed the basis of this updated version.

¹Cover image: Intergraph Drivers of Success CADWorx Runner-Up Award Winner 2014, FLSmidth (Courtesy: Intergraph).

Part I

General Principles

Outline

Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 2 The Discipline of Layout in Context

Chapter 3 Site Layout Principles

Chapter 4 Plot Layout Principles

Chapter 5 Planning of Layout Activities

Chapter 6 Methods for Layout, Conception, and Development

Chapter 7 Layout Analogues and Visual Aids

Chapter 8 Hazard Assessment of Plant Layout

Chapter 1

Introduction

Abstract

This is an encyclopedia and handbook of professional plant layout practice, based in codes or practice, standards, and interviews with professional layout designers from a number of disciplines. The three disciplines that tend to lead layout design have different approaches and terminology, so I set out in this chapter a base case in order to discuss variations on a theme.

Keywords

Plant layout; general methodology; terminology; piping engineer; process engineer; process architect

1.1 What Kind of a Book Is This?

This book is, in essence, an encyclopedia and handbook of practical process plant layout practice. Its first edition, published in 1985, was written by a small committee, mostly of senior practitioners, and led by an academic researcher, Dr. John Mecklenburgh.

Although I spent some years in an academic role (at the same institution where Mecklenburgh worked before his premature death), I am a practitioner rather than a researcher and have personally designed and laid out many process plants. I nevertheless attempted, initially, to follow the lead of the first edition in offering academic references wherever possible to support the text. However, my literature review made it clear that this was not going to be possible in the vast majority of cases. There is simply almost no professionally relevant contemporary research in this area, and it is a long time since there has been any.

This book is therefore based upon my own professional experience and my own primary research into contemporary professional practice in process plant layout. It is a book about how to lay out a process plant as a professional plant layout designer would, and it is founded in the experience of very many such designers. Despite all of the scientific references cited in the first edition, professional experience was in fact the true source of its most useful and enduringly correct content, so this is less of a change than it might initially seem. Layout design is—and always has been—a practical, rather than a theoretical business.

1.2 Why a New Book on Layout Design Is Needed

An up-to-date and comprehensive book on layout design has been sorely needed for some time. Since the first edition of this book, few new texts have been produced in the area and layout design has been lost from many Chemical Engineering curricula. As a result, much of the knowledge of how to lay out process plant is presently in the heads of people nearing the end of their careers.

Good plant layout is, however, still just as important as ever. A study by Kidam and Hurme (2012) showed that 79% of process plant accidents involved a design error, and the most common type of design error leading to accidents was poor layout, as shown in Fig. 1.1.

Figure 1.1 Distribution of design errors. Reprinted from Kidam, K., & Hurme, M. (2012). Design as a contributor to chemical process accidents, Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 25(4), 655–666, with permission from Elsevier.

My literature review identified very few recent research papers about plant layout of any use to practitioners. The first edition of this book was published at a time when layout designers such as Robert Kern were writing practical how-to articles on layout design and academic research in the area addressed practical problems. This is no longer the case and standard texts, such as Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook (Green & Perry, 2007), consequently still cite references from the 1970s in their sections on layout design.

It is my intention that this book should represent a detailed summary of current best practices in layout design, as it is practiced by process engineers, piping designers/engineers, and process/technical architects. This is the reason why there are no references to academic papers throughout the main text of the book. Layout design practice is based in codes and standards; and in design experience, modified to suit individual circumstances by multidisciplinary design review.

While, in researching the book, it became clear that much of the original content was still current, there have been some changes in layout design practice as a direct result of new IT and, to a greater degree, structural changes in industry and society caused indirectly by new IT.

There has also been a diversification of practice between industry sectors. In some cases, new design disciplines have emerged to support such changes, a development I will comment on later in this chapter.

1.3 What Is New in This Book?

As well as updating the content, I have taken the opportunity to restructure the book, and to ground it firmly in professional practice by consulting over 250 design practitioners worldwide, who have peer reviewed and in some cases contributed to the revised content. I have also carried out detailed surveys of panels of practitioners on some key issues.

This second edition has been rewritten in a more conversational and readable style than the original. It is intended that it should be possible to read individual chapters from start to finish. It is not however intended to be read from front to back, but rather to be accessed via the index or one chapter at a time.

There are two more or less standard structures used in Chapters 1–Chapter 36. Those chapters addressing general principles (see Part I) have a loose common structure, and those dealing with specific items of equipment (see Parts II–V) have another, to some extent inspired by that followed by Bausbacher and Hunt (1993).

While I have retained the broad structure of the first edition, the content of chapters has been rearranged, with the intention of covering each important item of equipment at a similar level of detail, and (with one or two exceptions) making the chapters approximately the same length. Additional material has been added to address inconsistencies across chapters and, likewise, some out of date or impractical material has been removed.

A number of case studies have been added to illustrate the safety and operability implications of layout design decisions.

1.4 How Is the Book Structured?

Since the first edition of this book, the principal modifications to the layout design process have been driven by changes in health, safety, and environmental law. There has also been an increase in the use of 3D computer-aided design in layout. With the growth of project size, it has become recognized that layout execution must be organized formally, along with other design activities. The availability of detailed layout information available has also increased.

Consequently, the size of this second edition is significantly larger than the first, but it was thought desirable to retain Mecklenburgh’s original chapter structure as much as possible. A number of new chapters have been added to the original, and some chapters have been split and expanded to reflect the importance and proper scope of their subject matter.

One of the most useful features of the first edition was Mecklenburgh’s explicit methodology for process plant layout, so I have retained that aspect of Part I, although I have modified the methodology and timeline in order to reflect professional practice far more closely. The original was perhaps more aspirational than realistic.

The main body of the book offers a standardized version of the chemical engineer’s approach to layout design, and Appendix D provides a description of variations on this methodology, including the approaches taken by piping engineers, process architects, and the Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS) approach for comparison.

As in the first edition, Part II deals with site and level layout, and how groups of equipment are arranged to serve a general purpose. Part III still deals with layout issues at individual unit operation level for certain key pieces of equipment. A very much expanded Part IV continues to deal with the layout of mass transfer equipment such as pumps and conveyors, and Part V with some miscellaneous items which do not fit into the previous categorization.

There are a number of new appendices, including one on Masterplanning, a concept from architecture which has grown in importance since process architects entered process plant layout.

1.5 What Is Layout Design?

The discipline of layout design is concerned with the spatial arrangement of process equipment and its interconnections, such as piping.

Good layout practice achieves a balance between the requirements of safety, economics, the protection of the public and the environment, construction, maintenance, operation, space for future expansion, and process needs. It will also take into account weather conditions, country-specific legislation and regulations, as well as esthetics and public perception.

There are three main approaches to layout design. These are the Chemical Engineer’s approach, the Piping Engineer’s approach, and the Process Architect’s approach. Table 1.1 illustrates where such approaches are likely to be followed, and the characteristics of the approaches.

Table 1.1

Discipline-Based Approaches to Plant Layout

Each of these disciplines may lead the layout design process, or provide the primary model used for the process. Other disciplines will be involved, but one of these three disciplines will tend to set the approach to layout design. Since not all of the possible lead disciplines are engineers, I have used the term layout designer throughout the book as the designation of the engineer or architect responsible for layout design.

Chemical or process engineers will always be involved in layout, as they are required in all cases to size the unit operations (process equipment) and, to some extent, to set out their mutual interrelationships in space. They may do little more than this, they may lead the process, or they may do all of it themselves on smaller plants in certain sectors.

Piping engineers are often used where there is a lot of complicated and expensive pipework, e.g., in the traditional bulk chemical or oil and gas industries.

Architects are often used where there are significant numbers of buildings, or where the plant must be integrated within a building. In recent years, architects have become increasingly responsible for on the layout of indoor process plants as part of the building design.

1.6 Terminology

Terminology has been updated and standardized throughout this second edition. It has been necessary, e.g., to distinguish between the layout of the various plots within a site, the arrangement of plots within a plant and, finally, the detailed arrangements of both equipment and piping within a plot.

There is disagreement between layout designers about what constitutes plant, site, and plot layout, what the various layout drawings are called, and even what people responsible for layout design are called. This disagreement occurs less within disciplines and within industries than it does between disciplines and industries, but even within a discipline in a single industry sector, there is a lack of consistency.

It has therefore been necessary to develop precise definitions of the terminology used, in order to clarify the meaning of the text. The model base case used in this book is that which was used in my earlier book An Applied Guide to Process and Plant Design (Moran, 2015).

The level of disagreement about terminology and staging of layout design between layout designers of different disciplines, from different industries, makes it essential to define terms consistently to write a coherent text about the subject. However, I make no claim that these are the correct definitions, only that these are the ones I am using, and that they are perhaps the most commonly used ones.

Definitions are to be found at the start of each chapter in which they are used, but it will clarify matters to outline a few key terms at the outset.

The term Plant Layout in this book’s original title was used generically, as it still often is, to mean all aspects of process production facility layout. However, this usage is incompatible with the present legally defined meaning of the term plant.

Fig. 1.2 illustrates, in simplified form, a process production facility or Site (defined in summary as … bounded land within which a process plant sits). A Site may contain a number of process plants, as well as nonprocess plant and buildings. In Fig. 1.2, the site is in gray.

Figure 1.2 A process production facility and its constituent parts.

Process Plant (or more simply Plant) has been defined for the purposes of this book as a complete set of process units and direct supporting infrastructure required to provide a total operational function to produce a product or products….

Plants may be arranged across a number of plots—An area of a site most commonly defined as being bounded by the road system…—which is bounded, as implied by the definition, by plot roads. Plots are shown in aqua in Fig. 1.2.

The term plant is sometimes (but never in the rest of this book) used by practitioners synonymously with plot reflecting the reasonably common occurrence where a plant occupies a single plot.

Within the discipline of layout design, a distinction is commonly made between piping layout (defined here as the layout of piping and associated support systems…) and equipment layout (layout at the level of a single process unit and associated ancillaries). Either of these disciplines may also be known colloquially (but never in this book) as Plant Layout.

Initially, plot layout is mostly equipment layout, and piping layout only comes in only at the detailed design stage.

There are a number of other confusing ways in which terms are used in layout design, so this book offers a standardized set of definitions at the start of each chapter, consolidated in Appendix G.

Standardizing definitions in this way makes it possible to see that there is a common core approach to laying out plants which represents the heart of universal best practice, and a number of variants on this which represent sector or discipline-specific best practice. I have tried to capture both the common core and variants in this book. To avoid confusing the reader, the main text of the book is based upon the common core approach with occasional mention of variants. Complete outlines of key discipline-specific variants on the approach are given in Appendix D.

1.7 Stages of Layout Design

Besides distinguishing between site, plot, and equipment layout, it is necessary to differentiate between the stages of layout design. While there is a certain amount of disagreement about where to draw the imaginary lines between stages, design is nominally a five-stage process:

1. Conceptual: before design sanction

2. FEED: after design sanction

3. Detailed: before project sanction

4. For Construction: after project sanction

5. Post Construction: after project handover

In the past, project sanction and planning permission might have been sought and obtained on the basis of conceptual design, but nowadays FEED and detailed design usually precede sanction. Some initial planning permission or guidance is however often sought during the FEED (or even the Conceptual) stage, so as to prevent delays and adverse financial consequences further down the line. These five stages are used almost universally because the adverse consequences of not having accurate cost and hazard assessments will increase considerably at each successive project stage.

The preliminary stages of layout involve conception, evaluation, and modification, with the last two being repeated until a satisfactory solution is achieved. Detailed layout involves developing the minutiae of the preliminary layout. Process and project experience remains the best basis for layout conception and modification, even though computers and their software applications have come a long way since the first edition of this book.

The designer assigned to detailed layout is also involved with project planning, increasingly so since the introduction of computers for planning control. This issue is discussed in Chapter 5, Planning of Layout Activities.

1.8 Hazard Assessment

The training, skills, and experience of the chemical engineer are applied to the plant hazard identification, assessment, and mitigation techniques which have become an essential part of preliminary layout. In the first edition of this book, it was implied that layout was the province of a design office with the chemical engineer in the background. However, hazard assessment of prospective layout designs is now very much a multidisciplinary partnership including layout designers and chemical engineers, amongst others.

In the first edition, a formal method for the critical examination of processes was suggested, though it was largely ignored by practitioners who preferred the traditional devil’s advocate committee method of examination. Since then, the technique of hazard and operability studies (HAZOP) has become standard for critically examining processes, although Mecklenburgh’s expectation that a similar process would be developed for evaluation of layout was not fulfilled. The legal requirements for providing environmental impact assessment and hazard surveys of potentially dangerous processes have not, as he expected, promoted such a development.

1.9 A Note on Calculations and Spacings

When the first edition was prepared, separation distances, as outlined in codes of practice (such as those of the Institute of Petroleum) were sacrosanct. Now, they are usually regarded as guidelines only for preliminary design and are being superseded in detailed layout by the development of methods based on mathematical models of the potential effects of leakage, evaporation, cloud drift and dispersion, vapor cloud explosion, and thermal radiation. Chapter 8, Hazard Assessment of Plant Layout, outlines the various types of calculation involved, Appendix B gives worked examples of some of these, and Appendix A discusses software used for these tasks.

These calculations are further complicated because knowledge of behavior after loss of containment and the true probability of a leak occurring are unknown, making it hard to precisely calculate required plant distances. Neither is the risk of damage and injuries that society will tolerate fixed, nor is it precisely known. The quality of data on plant reliability and on public acceptability is, however, continually improving and may, in future, assist designers in achieving better solutions to layout problems.

Thus this book is intended to be a guide to good practice and, although the contents set out recommended spacings and arrangements, it must be remembered that these are only typical and not mandatory. They may have to be altered to suit local conditions, the specific requirements of plant owners and established safe practices.

In particular, the guide has had to be largely phrased in terms of a new or greenfield site, whereas most projects are involved with modifications and extensions to existing plant. In such circumstances, existing site constraints inevitably make observance of best practice more difficult and may require that compromises are made.

However, since making informed compromises between cost, safety, and robustness is the essence of good design, this should come as no surprise.

Further Reading

1. Bausbacher E, Hunt R. Process plant layout and piping design Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall; 1993.

2. Green DW, Perry RH. Perry’s chemical engineering 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2007.

3. Kidam K, Hurme M. Design as a contributor to chemical process accidents. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries. 2012;25(4):655–666.

4. Moran S. An applied guide to process and plant design Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann; 2015.

Chapter 2

The Discipline of Layout in Context

Abstract

Staged design is the norm in professional practice, each stage providing the information needed to pass to the next stage of approval. Conceptual design decides plant size, location, and broad technology. Detailed design works out all but the very finest details of design. The final stage of design produces detailed deliverables allowing the plant to be built in accordance with the designer’s intentions.

Keywords

Plant layout; general methodology; organization; deliverables; legal; liaison; project timeline

2.1 General

The discipline of layout design is that part of process plant design which determines how the equipment and supporting structures which make up a process plant (as well as their interconnection by means of pipes, ducts, conveyors, vehicles, wired or wireless connections) are to be laid out.

Layout designers have to satisfy several key criteria in their designs:

• Efficient, reliable, and safe plant operation

• Safe and convenient access for maintenance of process equipment by complete or partial removal or in situ repair

• Acceptable levels of hazard and nuisance to the public and environment

• Adequate levels of security to protect against the risk of crime, vandalism and, potentially, terrorism

• Safe and efficient construction

• Effective, economical, and ergonomic use of space

• Compliance with local planning regulations regarding esthetics

• Compliance with Environment Agency (or equivalent) requirements

• Compliance with any other relevant codes and standards

The supply of services to the plant and access to the periphery of the plant for maintenance, construction, and emergency services is affected by the location and layout of the site.

On a new, or greenfield site, the layout design will need to reflect the known needs of the process plant or process units to be constructed. Alternatively a plant may be placed on a number of plots on an existing, brownfield site.

In this second case the requirements of a new plant may not have been foreseen at the time of the original site layout. At least some of the access arrangements that would normally be provided on a new site will have to be provided post hoc by the layout designers. Existing access arrangements may need reconsideration to suit the interrelationships between the existing and new plant or equipment.

In this latter situation, layout designers have to consider plots in relation to each other within the site as well as activities outside the site, an activity called site layout in this book. They have to consider process units in relation to each other’s disposition within a plot, which we will call plot layout, and consider other small plant or associated/attendant items around a process unit, called equipment layout.

In traditional chemical plants, an ideal site would be split up into plots by its principal road system with additional access roads for the larger plots (Fig. 2.1). However, in many sectors, plants may not be big enough to have such a road system. A complete set of process units (known as a plant) may fit onto a single plot, although larger plants may need two or more plots, and a site may contain a number of plots.

Figure 2.1 A site split into plots by its road system (Minworth Sewage Treatment Works, United Kingdom). Image courtesy Google 2016.

Layout often occurs in the context of a masterplan, defining the site’s overall design intent, especially if architects are involved. In such cases, it may be important to follow the architect’s approach to site and operational layout through the use of Masterplanning (an approach outlined in Appendix D: Variations on the Methodology).

In this chapter the broad discipline of layout design, as it is practiced by process engineers, pipers, and architects, will be explained and set in context.

2.2 Abbreviations/Legislation and Standards/Terminology

2.2.1 Abbreviations

2.2.2 Relevant Standards and Codes

2.2.2.1 European Standards and Codes

2.2.2.2 British Standards and Codes

2.2.2.3 US Standards and Codes

2.2.3 Terminology

2.3 The Importance of Layout

Good layout (and, arguably, masterplanning) practice plays a vital part in the ongoing commercial success of a project. It does this by making the plant safe and efficient to construct, operate, and maintain, while making effective use of the land available.

A well-thought-out layout also contributes to successful planning of the design and construction stages of a project. Good layout will not compensate for bad process design, but a bad layout can easily lead to an unsuccessful or unsafe plant. Changes to the layout during or after construction are very costly in both money and time. Getting the layout right on paper before construction starts will minimize the possibility of this.

It is claimed that the use of 3D modeling software is very useful in this respect, reducing drafting errors and inconsistencies, spotting clashes earlier, facilitating links to other software such as costing programs, and saving time. 2D drafting is, however, still commonly practiced in many industries.

2.4 General Design Considerations in Layout

The initial layout is usually based upon the process flow sequence shown on the process flow diagram (PFD) (see Section 2.5.3), with the unit operations arranged in process order. Physically adjacent vessels and equipment are separated by distances that are sufficient to permit safe operation and maintenance without wasting space.

The layout of some plants may follow the process flow sequence closely through to the final stages but, in practice, there are features that commonly require the layout sequence to differ from this default case. These include:

1. Process requirements—one vessel may need to be placed above another to provide gravity flow.

2. Economics—having two items sharing the same supports minimizes structural work, and placing heavy equipment on good load-bearing ground reduces the need for expensive piling.

3. Operability—valves and instruments should be easily accessible to the operator, and operators should be able to move efficiently between areas of the plant.

4. Control requirements—the selected means of control will have an impact on the layout, e.g., whether centralized or distributed control is preferred.

5. Ease of maintenance—a process unit should be capable of being dismantled and, if necessary, removed for repair and/or routine calibration (or ease of removal and rapid replacement as a unitized plant module, if using a lean production method such as Single-Minute Exchange of Dies (SMEDs)).

6. Ease of construction—the locations of any items of process equipment likely to be delivered late in the construction program should be accessible without having to remove equipment already erected.

7. Ease of commissioning—any extra facilities especially installed for commissioning should be accessible.

8. Ease of future expansion and extension—foreseeable expansion should be possible with minimum interruption of production.

9. Ease of escape and firefighting—in an emergency, operators must be able to leave quickly and fire tenders must be able to approach close to the plant by more than one route.

10. Operator safety—the operator must be protected from injury by (for example) protrusions, moving machinery, hot/cold surfaces, or escaping chemicals.

11. Hazard containment—an explosion, fire, or toxic release occurring in one plant should be prevented (where reasonably practicable) from spreading to other equipment or plants, offices or accommodation, or off-site. Explosion protection may require blast walls and/or berms and safety distance to any planting. Use of planted screening and mounded/moated landscaping on the outside of perimeter roadways can provide protection. Awareness of the uses of adjacent sites is significant in this—they may well not be owned by the client and the adjacent owner may have long-term intentions that may affect the client’s site.

12. Environmental impact—special consideration needs to be given to sites adjacent to residential areas. Obtrusive or nuisance-generating equipment should not be placed near such areas. Plants should be screened, if possible, by pleasant buildings in a landscaped setting.

13. Product protection—in pharmaceutical plants, e.g., there is a requirement to assure that the process/product is not contaminated which leads to a requirement for segregation of certain process areas and local environmental controls.

14. Insurance requirements—the business’s insurers may have their own requirements which need to be satisfied.

15. Observation requirements—some industries, notably pharmaceuticals, will need to incorporate partitioned viewing and observation facilities into the layout.

16. Wind direction—areas with lower risk of release of hazardous materials and/or greater capacity for sustaining losses, such as offices, should be upwind of the prevailing wind direction, while areas with greater risk of release and/or lower capacity for sustaining losses should be downwind of the prevailing wind direction. Wind rose diagrams can be useful in this context.

17. Equipment stacking—some equipment stacking may be necessary to effectively utilize plot space, but extensive stacking of equipment containing flammable materials increases the risk of serious fires. Generally, equipment with flammable contents should be stacked only at an equipment layout level (i.e., column overhead condensers and accumulators).

18. Location of any off-site utilities—the existing locations of electricity, gas, and water supplies will have to be taken into consideration by the layout designer.

Changes to the initial PFD-based layout may result in extra pipework or transportation costs, and increases in site or building area. Such changes must be economically justifiable. The cost, safety, and robustness implications of each design decision should be borne in mind by the designer.

A detailed knowledge of the characteristics of process materials may be needed to ascertain the requirements of hazard containment, whose evaluation must in any case be carried out by suitably experienced process engineers. In some sectors, process engineers may not directly undertake design activities needing less process chemistry knowledge and training. However, all layout designers require the ability to identify and use relevant statutory and in-house regulations, design standards and codes of practice, and to appreciate the needs of operation, maintenance, and construction. Most importantly, perhaps, they also need to be able to apply engineering experience and common sense.

Thus this work may be carried out by designers and draftspersons supervised by process engineers or architects experienced in layout design. Exactly how this is done (and who it is done by) varies from sector to sector.

In the first edition of this book, it was implied that the various design activities were carried out in one organization. Reference was made to single monolithic companies with departments for every discipline. Such a situation is rare nowadays, but we still need civil engineers, even if we do not have a civil engineering department, so rather than referring to departments, this edition refers to disciplines. Who these engineers work for may well vary from job to job, from country to country, and from sector to sector, but their role is essentially the same as it ever was.

This edition thus reflects the more common modern default case although, in practice, the activities will still be split. The allocation of work between disciplines and the various types of organizations involved (listed in Section 2.7) will depend on the ownership of any proprietary technology used, the size and expertise of the plant owner’s organization, the size of the project, and the sector and country in which the plant is located.

A large operating company, which also owns the technology of the process, will probably carry out the preliminary design and feasibility work necessary for design sanction purposes. An EPC company will then take over detailed design and construction. Commissioning could be done either by the owner or by the EPC company. Similarly the site work could be split. In many cases the plant owner will provide detailed layout specifications and will monitor the EPC company’s design work closely. In particular the EPC company’s layout designer will have many informal discussions with the owner’s personnel—such as those from process, safety, operation, and maintenance departments—in addition to formal meetings.

A large operating organization has to have a fairly extensive engineering design team in order to monitor the EPC company closely. Consequently, this team often acts as an in-house EPC company for smaller plants or extensions. Where the technology is owned by the EPC company, or where the EPC company acts as