ylrae fo gnidnatsrednu na evah ton od ohw slaudividni yb desiar era seussi suoitnetnoc ,yllareneG .

)8002 ,dieR & nagaK( tnorferof eht ot emoc evah noitacude doohdlihc ylrae fo dleif eht ni tnempoleved lanoisseforp dna noitacude rehcaet rof deen eht gnidnuorrus seussi eht taht si seiriuqni eseht fo tluser A .nevig eb dluohs erac ylrae dezilamrof erehw dna ,ti rof elbisnopser eb dluohs ytitne tahw enimreted ot redro ni noitacude dna erac ylrae dezilamrof rof deen eht otni seiriuqni suoremun neeb evah erehT

no ttcudorttnII no cudor n noiiiittcudorttnII no cudor n

.seirtnuoc htob ni dedeen si noitacude yraitret-erp dna erac dlihc lasrevinu rof gnidnuf latnemnrevog lluF .ega fo sraey 8 0 nerdlihc gnuoy rof srehcaet evitceffe emoceb setaudarg noitacude doohdlihc ylrae pleh dluow ,secneirepxe gnihcaet tneduts sa llew sa ,tnemssessa dna mulucirruc etairporppa yllatnempoleved ,noitamrofni tnetnoc dezilaiceps ,stcurtsnoc lacigoloicos dna lacihposolihp edulcni taht seerged rolehcab doohdlihc ylrae gnireffO .noitacude yraitret-erp rof setatS detinU eht fo taht ot ralimis noissergorp a gniwollof si anahG taht tseggus sgnidnif eht ,revewoh ;nerdlihc gnuoy yrev rof noitacude dna erac ylrae fo noisivorp tnerruc eht ni anahG dna setatS detinU eht neewteb secnereffid era ereht taht swohs osla repap ehT .erac dlihc lasrevinu hsilbatse ot yrassecen si tahw senimreted osla repap ehT .laitnesse si noitacude doohdlihc ylrae ni gnizilaiceps srehcaet yraitret-erp yhw dna ,erac dlihc ytilauq senifed ;dedeen si yrtnuoc hcae ni erac dezilamrof hcihw rof sisab eht senimaxe repap ehT .8- 0 fo sraey eht neewteb nerdlihc gnuoy fo srehcaet rof smargorp noitaraperp rehcaet dezilamrof ot noitaler ni anahG ni dna setatS detinU eht neewteb noitalsigel serapmoc repap sihT

ttcarttsbA car sbA ttcarttsbA car sbA

sllllaog AFE ehtt dna anahG ,,settattS dettiiiinU ::noiiiittacudE yraiiiittreT-erP dna doohdlllliiiihC yllllraE s aog AFE eh dna anahG se a S de nU no acudE yra reT-erP dna doohd hC y raE s aog AFE ehtt dna anahG ,,settattS dett nU ::no ttacudE yra ttreT-erP dna doohd hC y raE s aog AFE eh dna anahG se a S de nU no acudE yra reT-erP dna doohd hC y raE

Winston Salem State University, USA Kay Hamlin

.13 -71 ,1.on .3.lov ,

AEHR

rof edivorp ot dekrow stnerap esohw nerdlihc tnargimmi ydeen rof erac dedivorp sloohcs tnafnI .setatS detinU eht ot daerps dna ,s0081 ylrae eht ni nodnoL fo sloohcS tnafnI eht htiw nageb stroffe noitacude dna erac ylrae ,trap nI .noitulover lairtsudni eht gnirud sdeen citamard ot esnopser a sa emac nerdlihc gnuoy yrev rof gninrael fo retnec a rof deen ehT .)1102 ,noitacude yroslupmoC( .neethgie dna neetxis fo ega eht neewteb sdne dna thgie dna evif fo sega eht neewteb snigeb yllacipyt noitacude yroslupmoC .etats ot etats morf seirav deriuqer si ecnadnetta loohcs hcihw gnirud egnar ega eht tub ,setatS detinU eht ni nerdlihc lla rof yroslupmoc si noitacudE
The United States

.seirtnuoc owt eht neewteb noitacude ylrae fo dleif eht ni secitcarp tnerruc ot setaler elcitra siht woh dna ,acirfA tseW ,anahG dna )ASU( aciremA fo setatS detinU eht ni noitacude dna erac ylrae sdnuorrus taht noitalsigel eht enimaxe lliw ew repap siht ni ,eroferehT .dlrow eht dnuora seirtnuoc suoirav ni noitacude doohdlihc ylrae fo noisulcni eht sserdda taht smetsys eht enimaxe tsum ew ,noitacude dna erac ylrae rof snoitacilpmi tnerruc yduts nac ew erofeb ,revewoH .sraey ylrae eht fo gnidnatsrednu na rof deen eht sesserdda laog sihT .)1102-5991 ,slaog AFE ,OCSENU( nerdlihc degatnavdasid dna elbarenluv tsom eht rof yllaicepse ,noitacude dna erac doohdlihc ylrae evisneherpmoc evorpmi dna dnapxe ot si AFE eht fo laog tsrif ehT .5102 yb stluda dna ,shtuoy ,nerdlihc lla fo sdeen gninrael eht teem ot demia hcihw slaog nopu deerga yllanoitanretni xis erew erehT .detaerc saw slaog )AFE( llA rof noitacudE eht taht gniteem OCSENU 8002 eht gnirud saw tI .)1102-5991 ,doohdlihC ylraE ,OCSENU( sraey 8 ot htrib morf doirep eht sa denifed si doohdlihc ylrae ,OCSENU fo tinU noitacudE dna eraC doohdlihC ylraE eht ot gnidroccA .)1102-5991 ,sseccA ,]OCSENU[ noitazinagrO larutluC dna cifitneicS ,lanoitacudE snoitaN detinU( .noitacude doohdlihc ylrae fo ecnatropmi eht demriffaer noitcA rof krowemarF rakaD 0002 eht ,retal edaced A .htrib ta snigeb gninrael taht stseggus )AFE( llA rof noitacudE rof noitaralceD neitmoJ 0991 ehT .loohcs yratnemele ro yramirp htiw gnitrats ,21 5 morf sraey eht ;noitacude )yramirp( yraitret htiw detaicossa sraey doohdlihc eht htiw setalerroc doohdlihc ylrae mret eht ,ynam roF .sraey ylrae rof dengised metsys lanoitacude lamrof a fo ecnatropmi eht ees ot liaf sretnessid ,revoeroM .doohdlihc

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.)2991 ,wohcneuM & ralgiZ( .tinu )SHO( tratS daeH fo eciffO dna ,uaeruB eraC dlihC ,secivreS namuH dna htlaeH fo tnemtrapeD eht ni desuoh si tI .S.U eht ni margorp ytrevop-itna gninnur-tsegnol eht sa yad siht ot deunitnoc margorp eht ",ytrevoP no raW" eht fo traP .margorp remmus keew-thgie na sa nageb ,seilimaf emocni-wol morf nerdlihc rof margorp noitacude loohcserp a ,tratS daeH tcejorP - 5691 .)69 .p ,.d.n ,yrubdooW( sproC srehcaeT lanoitaN a dehsilbatse dna ,snaol tneduts ,spihsralohcs rof dedivorp dna noitacude rehgih ot dia laredef desaercni tI .8 rebmevoN no egelloC etatS saxeT tsewhtuoS ta dengis saw )923-98 LP( tcA noitacudE rehgiH ehT - 5691 .)2002 ,yksneruguhcS( noitacude laugnilib dna I eltiT sa hcus smargorp lanoitacude fo noitaitini eht ni stluser hcihw ,stneduts emocni-wol pleh ot sdnuf laredef dedivorp ti ",ytrevoP no raW" s'nosnhoJ nodnyL fo traP .9 lirpA no dessap saw )AESE( tcA noitacudE yradnoceS dna yratnemelE ehT - 5691 :woleb deton era noitacude rof stcA evitalsigeL kramdnal gniwollof ehT .metsys lanoitacude eht ni sedirts taerg gnikam ni latnemurtsni saw s0691 eht fo noitalsigel eht ,nerdlihc rof noitacude troppus rehtruf ot detcane saw retal noitalsigel lanoitidda hguohtlA .are wen a otni seilimaf rieht dna nerdlihc troppus dluow dna deunitnoc tnemevlovni laredef tub ,denessel sisirc erac dlihc eht ,II raW dlroW fo dne eht retfA .)92 .p ,6991 ,nehoC( emit siht gnirud dehsilbatse saw ,II raW dlroW gnirud nemow rof secivres erac dlihc detroppus taht noitalsigel ,tcA mahnaL ehT .ecivres keew-a-syad-7 ,yad-a-ruoh-42 dedulcni hcihw dedeen saw erac dlihc ,troffe raw eht fo troppus ni emoh eht edistuo gnikrow nageb nemow ynam sA .stroffe raw yratilim ni devlovni emaceb nemow sa erac dlihc no ecneulfni gniniatsus erom a dah II raW dlroW ni tnemevlovni setatS detinU ehtt ,revewoh ;)8002 ,dieR & nagaK( emit taht ta erac ylrae fo noisivorp eht rof gnidnuf edivorp dluow hcihw desoporp saw noitalsigel on dna ,gnidnuf fo kcal ot eud desolc sloohcs tnafni ehT .nerdlihc nwo rieht evres osla dluoc etutitsed eht fo nerdlihc eht detifeneb tahw taht dezilaer yllautneve seilimaf ssalc reppu dna elddim ,roop eht fo nerdlihc eht rof edivorp ot dengised yllaitini erew sloohcs tnafni sA .seilimaf rieht fo ecnanetsus eht slaog AFE eht dna anahG ,setatS detinU :noitacudE yraitreT-erP dna doohdlihC ylraE

19

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.)7002 ,9241 .R.H( 7002 ni dezirohtuaer saw tratS daeH .loohcs rof nerdlihc eht eraperp ot dedeen tnempoleved dna htworg eht stroppus taht tnemnorivne emoh a evah ton od ohw nerdlihc rof ecived noitnevretni ylrae na sa evres ot dengised saw tcejorp ehT .).d.n ,trats daeH( seilimaf rieht dna nerdlihc gnuoy ot secivres laicos dna ,tnemevlovni tnerap ,htlaeh ,noitacude :stnenopmoc rojam 4 fo gnitsisnoc secivres sedivorp hcihw margorp evisneherpmoc a sniamer tI .ytrevop fo tuo-dna-pu gnivom ni seilimaf tsissa ot hcaorppa lanoitareneg-owt a troppus ot dengised saw tratS daeH ,seilimaf dna nerdlihc emocni-wol gnitegraT .)2991 ,wohcneuM & ralgiZ( .5691 fo tcA noitacudE yradnoceS dna yratnemelE eht htiw noitcnujnoc ni 5691 ni decudortni saw tcejorp tratS daeH eht nehw ,s0691 eht ni detcane saw noitacude dna erac ylrae troppus ot setatS detinU eht ni noitalsigel tnatropmi nA .)6991 ,nehoC( troffe raw eht fo tluser a sa gnikrow erew srehtom esohw nerdlihc fo erac eht detroppus tcA mahnaL ehT .tcA mahnaL eht ,noitalsigel kramdnal eht troppus ot derrefsnart gnidnuf eht dna 3491 ni desolc sretnec esehT .noisserpeD eht yb deyolpmenu deredner sretneprac dna ,srotinaj ,skooc ,sesrun ,srehcaet fo sdnasuoht rof sboj diap-tnemnrevog edivorp ot yliramirp ,3391 ni edam saw erac dlihc ni tnemtsevni laredef tsrif ehT .yroslupmoc ton si tratS daeH ,secivres eht eviecer ot yfilauq ohw lla rof eerf si margorp tratS daeH eht hguohtlA .)1102 ,setatS detinU eht ni noitacudE( eracdlihc ro loohcserp gnidnif rof elbisnopser era seilimaf tsom tub ,seilimaf emocni-wol fo nerdlihc rof margorp loohcserp tratS daeH eht sdnuf tnemnrevog laredef ehT .setatS detinU eht ni smargorp ehcrc ro netragrednikerp cilbup yrotadnam on era ereht ,deednI .detcane neeb ton sah hcus rof noitalsigel eht ,loohcserp lasrevinu dednuorrus sah noissucsid hcum hguohtlA .nerdlihc erom ot ssecca gnidnapxe dna ytilauq margorp gnivorpmi yb deeccus ot ydaer netragrednik ta evirra nerdlihc erom pleh ot si smia sti fo enO .desserdda ,,7002 nII gnilaitnederc rehcaet htiw ,dessap 7002 fo tcA tratS daeH gnivorpmI eht ,7002 nI ,7002 nI 7002 n .)9002 ,tratS dooG ,]SHHSU[ secivreS namuH & htlaeH fo tnemtrapeD .S.U( deeccus ot ydaer eb ot deen yeht slliks eht htiw netragrednik retne nerdlihc gnuoy lla taht erusne ot setatS htiw gnirentrap dedulcni SGSG fo laog yramirp A .nerdlihc gnuoy rof gninrael ylrae nehtgnerts ot stroffe ytinummoc 2002 2002 lacol dna setatS gnitroppus no desucof evitaitinI tramS worG ,tratS dooG eht ,2002 nI 2002

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eht yb nwod dial sa noitcurtsni fo esruoc a dnetta llahs retsiniM eht yb denimreted sa ega gniog loohcs eht deniatta sah ohw dlihc yrevE ,yllacificeps eroM .ega loohcs htiw nigeb dluohs noitacude yroslupmoc taht setatcid tcA eht ,deednI .noitalsigel siht ni 5 fo ega eht rednu nerdlihc rof noitacude yroslupmoc rof snoisivorp on era erehT .6 edarg yramirp hguoht )6 ega( 1 edarg yramirp ni nerdlihc htiw nigeb noitacude yroslupmoc taht detadnam ,acirfA tseW ,anahG ,1691 fo tcA lanoitacudE eht ,1691 nI .ecivres eht ni snoitisop evitartsinimda dna laireganam lla ot lennosrep deifilauq ylhgih fo gnitsop eht yb denehtgnerts neeb sah slevel tcirtsid dna lanoiger ,lanoisivid ta noitacude fo tnemeganam eht ,deednI .tnemnrevog eht fo srotces dezilartneced tsom eht fo eno si dna ,lareneG -rotceriD a yb dedaeh si tI .noitacudE fo yrtsiniM eht yb detalumrof seicilop noitacude yraitret-erp gnitnemelpmi rof elbisnopser si )SEG( ecivreS noitacudE naianahG ehT
Ghana

.)BBC( uaeruB eraC dlihC eht yb detaluger dna ,)SHHD( secivreS namuH dna htlaeH fo tnemtrapeD eht ni desuoh si ,noitacude dna erac ylraE .seerged detadnam eht reffo noitan eht ssorca seitisrevinu dna segelloc suoremun dna ,noitacude yraitret -erp ro ,doohdlihc ylrae ni seerged rehgih rof llac eht ot dednopser evah )EHI( noitacude rehgih fo snoitutitsnI .evoba ro ,)ytisrevinu ro egelloc a ta yduts fo sraey ruof( eerged srolehcab a ot ,tnelaviuqe sti ro amolpid loohcs hgih a gnivah morf egnar stnemeriuqer laitnederc etatS .slaitnederc emas eht eriuqer setats lla ton ,revewoh ;noitacude rehgih ni seerged evah srehcaet tratS daeH dna doohdlihc ylrae eriuqer SU eht ni setats emoS
.)8002 , eerged yrotutatS ,SHHSU( noitacud e dooh dlihc ylra e ni reh gih ro srolehcab a evah tsum yll anoitan srehcaet

tratS daeH fo %05 tsael ta ,3102 r ebmetpeS yB .noitac ude doohdlihc ylrae ni ,retteb ro ,eerged setaicossa na htiw rehcaet a evah ot deriuqer eb lliw smoorssalc tratS d aeH llA .1102 re botcO evitceffe , desiar eb ot eud era snoitacifilauq re hcaet tratS daeH mumi niM

:setats ,tratS daeH tcejorp ,setatS detinU eht ni yrotarobal doohdlihc ylrae lanoitan tsrif eht rof etadnam tsetal eht ,etats -yb-etats ylegral yrav gnilaitnederc rehcaet rof setadnam hguohtlA .nerdlihc gnuoy rof evorpmi lliw noitacude fo ytilauq eht taht stseggus hcihw gnilaitnederc rehcaet doohdlihc ylrae rof setadnam wen era ereht ,noitalsigel lanoitacude tnerruc tsom eht ot noitidda nI slaog AFE eht dna anahG ,setatS detinU :noitacudE yraitreT-erP dna doohdlihC ylraE

21

.13 -71 ,1.on .3.lov ,

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)0102 ,atad dlroW ,OCSENU( )CAWOM( sriaffA nerdlihC dna nemoW fo yrtsiniM eht fo tnemhsilbatse eht htiw 1002 ni CCNG eht morf detfihs sah nerdlihc ot tcepser ni gnikam-ycilop rof ytilibisnopser ehT .nerdlihc lla fo eraflew eht rof elbisnopser saw )CCNG( nerdlihC no noissimmoC lanoitaN anahG eht ,seitilicaf rof elbisnopser erew seicnega denoitnemerofa eht elihW .)snetragrednik ,seiresrun ,sretnec eracyad ,ehcrc( seitilicaf doohdlihc ylrae rof seitilibisnopser tnioj dah erafleW laicoS dna tnemyolpmE dna noitacudE fo seirtsiniM ehT .dlihc eht fo tnempoleved evitingoc eht no neeb dah )DCCE( tnempoleved dna erac dlihc ylrae fo sucof eht ,1002 erofeB .)6002 ,eliforp yrtnuoC ,EBI-OCSENU( sloohcs yresrun ro ,ehcrc/doohdlihc ylrae rof noitalsigel sesserdda hcihw elbaliava si atad oN .)0102 ,atad dlroW ,EBI-OCSENU( )ega fo sraey 41 4 puorg ega( noitacude yroslupmoc dna eerf ot dedda erew noitacude netragrednik fo sraey owt ,8002/7002 nI .)0102 ,atad dlroW ,EBI-OCSENU( snoitutitsni )DCCE( tnempoleved dna erac doohdlihc ylrae rehto dna ,sretnec eracyad fo tnemhsilbatse eht etatilicaf ot stnemtraped dezilartneced 8991 fo 065 .on tcA s nerd hC rehto dna seilbmessA tcirtsiD eht sniojne 8991 fo 065 .on tcA snerdlllliiiihC 8991 ffo 065 ..on ttcA s nerd hC 8991 o 065 on cA s nerd hC

6991 6991 dehcnual saw margorP noitacudE cisaB lasrevinU yroslupmoC ehT 6991 6991
snaianahG lla rof thgir cisab a si noitacude taht detadnam noitutitsnoC 2991

1691 ffo ttcA no ttacudE 1691 fo tcA no tacudE noitacude yramirp rof latnemadnuf sevorp 1691 fo tcA noiiiitacudE 1691 o cA no acudE
:woleb nwohs si noitacude yraitret-erp ot sdael hcihw enilemit A .nerdlihc ega-loohcs lla rof noitacude yroslupmoc eerf eveihca ot krowemarf eht etaerc ot dengised saw ,5002 ni dedne taht margorp raey -01 a ,margorP noitacudE lasrevinU yroslupmoC eerF eht ,6991 ni ,retal sraey evif-ytrihT .)4002 ,noisiviD noitacudE cisaB( .retsiniM eht yb esoprup eht rof dezingocer loohcs a ni retsiniM

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dlroW troppus ot dehsilbatse saw 2491 ni tcA mahtaL setatS detinU

noitacude 1691 1691 yramirp rof latnemadnuf si 1691 fo tcA noitacudE 1691 anahG

noiiiittacude lllloohcs yresrun//lllloohcserp ttroppus hciiiihw snoiiiittca eviiiittallllsiiiigeL no acude oohcs yresrun oohcserp roppus hc hw sno ca ev a s geL no ttacude oohcs yresrun// oohcserp ttroppus hc hw sno ttca ev tta s geL no acude oohcs yresrun oohcserp roppus hc hw sno ca ev a s geL
.secivres erac dlihc setaluger uaeruB eraC dlihC secivreS namuH dna htlaeH fo tnemtrapeD eht ,setatS detinU eht nI .)6002 ,eliforp ytnuoC ,EBI-OCSENU( erafleW laicoS fo tnemtrapeD eht yb detaluger era ,ehcrc eht sa llew sa ,seitilicaf yraitret-erp naianahG .anahG dna setatS detinU eht ni etats-ot-etats morf seirav gnittes loohcs cilbup eht evael ot dewolla si dlihc a taht ega ehT .gnittes netragrednik setatS detinU eht ni ro ,sedarg yramirp eht ni ega fo sraey 6 5 ta loohcs nigeb noitacude otni tnemnrevog eht yb dellepmoc era ohw nerdlihc ,yllacipyT .nerdlihc gnuoy yrev rof noitacude ylrae lasrevinu stroppus taht gnidnuf ro noitalsigel fo kcal a si ereht ,seirtnuoc htob nI .ylimaf eht troppus ot pleh ot dekrow yeht elihw nerdlihc rieht fo erac eht ni ecnatsissa deriuqer ohw srehtom gnikrow fo tluser a sa detaerc saw ega fo sraey 5 ot 0 morf nerdlihc rof noitacude yraitret-erp ro loohcserP

::se tt ra m S se ra m S ::seiiiittiiiiralllliiiimiiiiS se ra m S
.noitacude d oohdlihc yl rae ro loohcserp ni sesruoc gni reffo trats tsum seitisrevinu ruO .rorre dna lairt tsuj si sraey eht revo gniod neeb evah ew tahw ,aera taht ni slanoisseforp laer on era ereht tceffe ni oS .s eod anahG ni egelloc gniniart on dna noitac ude doohdlihc ylrae ro noitac ude loohcserp ni esruoc a reffo seitisrevinu ruo fo e noN .noitacude d ooh dli hc

ylrae ro loohcserp ni dezilaiceps ohw srehcaet skcal anahG taht si ytilaer das ehT

)8002( haippA-usofO neB ot gnidrocca ,revewoh ;nerdlihc gnuoy yrev fo noitacude eht gnitroppus ni latnemurtsni sa deifitnedi si gnilaitnederc rehcaeT .1691 fo tcA lanoitacudE eht fo trap sa desserdda gnieb si noitacude yraitret-erp ,anahG ni yadoT .)0102 ,atad dlroW ,OCSENU( )ega fo sraey 41 4 puorg ega( noitacude yroslupmoc dna eerf ot dedda erew noitacude netragrednik fo sraey owt ,8002/7002 nI .)4002 ,noisiviD noitacudE cisaB( 2002 ni smrofeR noitacudE fo weiveR no eettimmoC stnediserP eht yb edam noitadnemmocer eht fo tluser a sa decudortni saw dna metsys lamrof eht fo trap ton saw noitacude loohcs-erp ,2002 erofeb ,revewoH slaog AFE eht dna anahG ,setatS detinU :noitacudE yraitreT-erP dna doohdlihC ylraE

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se t ra m S se ra m S seiiittiiirallliiimiiiS
smargorp eerged noitacude rehcaet doohdlihc ylrae reffo setatS detinU eht ssorca seitisrevinu dna segelloc suoremuN

smoorssalc yresrun/yraitret-erp/doohdlihc ylrae sserdda ton od smargorp noitacude rehcaeT shtnom eerht retfa dedrawa si noitacifitrec srehcaet ,loohcs yresrun ro ,loohcserP 2002 erofeb desserdda ton saw noitacude yraitret-erp ro ,loohcserP

secnereffff D secnere D secnereffffiiiiD secnere D 7002 ffo ttcA 7002 o cA 7002 ffo ttcA 7002 o cA ttrattS daeH gn vorpmII 7002 ra S daeH gn vorpm 7002 ttrattS daeH gniiiivorpmII 7002 ra S daeH gn vorpm 7002
tramS 2002 2002 worG ,tratS dooG ,2002 nI 2002 noitacude yroslupmoc dna eerf ot dedda 8002//7002 8002/7002 erew noitacude netragrednik fo sraey owt ,8002/7002 8002 7002

.)0102 ,atad dlroW ,EBI-OCESENU( snoitutitsni seilimaf )DCCE( tnempoleved dna erac doohdlihc ylrae emocni-wol morf nerdlihc rof rehto dna sretnec eracyad fo tnemhsilbatse eht etatilicaf margorp noitacude loohcserp ot stnemtraped dezilartneced rehto dna seilbmessA 5691 8991 a ,tratS daeH tcejorP - 5691 tcirtsiD eht sniojne 8991 fo 065 .on tcA snerdlihC dessap si )923-98 LP( tcA dehcnual saw margorP 5691 5691 6991 6991 noitacudE rehgiH ehT - 5691 5691 noitacudE cisaB lasrevinU yroslupmoC ehT 6991 6991 dessap si )AESE( tcA noitacudE yradnoceS 5691 5691 dna yratnemelE ehT - 5691 5691 troffe II raW snaianahG lla rof thgir cisab 2991 2991 a si noitacude cisab taht detadnam noitutitsnoC 2991 2991

Kay Hamlin

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.13 -71 ,1.on .3.lov ,

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laicoS dna lanosreP :edulcni sniamod ehT .nerdlihc gnuoy rof gninnalp-nossel etairporppa erusni ot evah tsum srehcaet egdelwonk tnetnoc eht edulcni tnempoleved fo sniamoD .tnempoleved fo sniamod lla ni nerdlihc gnuoy ni tnempoleved dna htworg lamitpo etomorp taht snossel nalp dluohs noitacude ylrae ni ezilaiceps ohw srehcaeT .yalp hguorht -tseb snrael ehs ro eh yaw eht ni dlihc eht fo ytisoiruc larutan eht sezilitu ecitcarp etairporppa yllatnempoleveD .loohcs rof ydaer emoceb dna nrael dna worg a yeht sa nerdlihc lllllllla tsissa dna ,tnempoleved fo segats troppus ot pleh ,txetnoc lailimaf a a eht edulcni hcihw ,seigetarts gnihcaet etairporppa yllatnempoleveD .dlihc a fo segats dna sega eht ssorca secneuqes ,latnempoleved ,elbatciderp ni worg seitiliba esehT .)1 .p( depoleved era slliks dna ,ytilanosrep ,tcelletni sdlihc a fo %58 ,5 ega yb ,)2002( seilimaF dna nerdlihC no licnuoC )ASU( nisnocsiW eht ot gnidroccA .)4002 ,ylaeH( demrof era gninrael rof snoitadnuof eht taht efil fo sraey wef tsrif eht gnirud si ti ,tcaf nI .nrael ot nrob dlrow eht otni semoc ohw laudividni euqinu a si dlihc hcaE .snrael dna sworg dlihc a yaw eht rof elbisnopser era tnemnorivne eht dna seneg neewteb yalpretni eht taht dnif seiduts tnecer erom ,erutrun susrev erutan gnidrager etabed lacirotsih eht ot yrartnoC

no ttaraperp rehcaett no ttacude doohd hc y rae roff deen ehT no araperp rehcae no acude doohd hc y rae ro deen ehT noiiiittaraperp rehcaett noiiiittacude doohdlllliiiihc yllllrae roff deen ehT no araperp rehcae no acude doohd hc y rae ro deen ehT
nerdlihc tnegidni fo srehtom gnikrow ot esnopser ni nageB

srehtom gnikrow ,roop ot esnopser ni detratS

.)BBC( uaeruB eraC dlihC eht yb detaluger dna ,)SHHD( secivreS namuH dna htlaeH fo tnemtrapeD eht ni desuoh si noitacude dna erac ylraE noitacude doohdlihc ylrae yroslupmoc dna eerf troppus ot noitalsigel laredef oN

sriaffA nerdlihC dna nemoW fo yrtsiniM eht dna ,erafleW laicoS dna tnemyolpmE ,noitacudE fo seirtsiniM yb detaluger erac dlihC

noitacude )yraitret-erp( doohdlihc ylrae troppus ot gnidnuf ron noitalsigel on yltnerruC

slaog AFE eht dna anahG ,setatS detinU :noitacudE yraitreT-erP dna doohdlihC ylraE

25

.13 -71 ,1.on .3.lov ,

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a si mulucirruc yalP dennalP ehT .)1002 ,retsbeW & ,acuLeD ,rellimlethciD( gninnalp -nossel ot tnemssessa dlihc sknil mulucirruc yalP dennalP ehT .ecneuqes latnempoleved a no dessessa era sgnilpmas krow ehT .)1002 ,mulucirruC ,SHHSU( raey cimedaca eht ssorca dlihc hcae fo sgnilpmas krow sedulcni hcihw ,mulucirruc yalP dennalP eht ,mulucirruc a depoleved yltnecer )SHO( tratS daeH fo eciffO )SHHD( secivreS namuH dna htlaeH fo tnemtrapeD )FCA( seilimaF dna nerdlihC rof noitartsinimdA SU ehT
.).d.n ,noitaicossA lanoitaN( pol eved dna w org ,nrael nerdli hc woh fo ,snoitpmussa naht rehtar , egd elwonk lautca n o desab desu era secitcarp tseb taht dna ,t nempol ev ed dna gninrael ot detius era sla og dna s ec neirepxe taht serusne "etairp orppa yllat nempol eveD" . . . llew sa txetnoc la rutl uc d na laic os sih no tub ,egdelwonk roirp

s'tneduts a n opu ylno ton dli ub tsum dn a dennalp ylluferac eb tsum nossel hcaE

,noitidda nI .dlihc hcae fo tnemssessa citnehtua eht dnuora depoleved osla si ecitcarp etairporppa yllatnempoleveD
).d.n , noitaic ossA lanoitaN( erutaretil dna yroeht morf eurt eb ot nw onk si tahw rehtar tub ,kniht ew ta hw no desab t on si ecitcarp etairporppa yllatnempoleve d ,suhT

.gni nrael sih ot setaler sevil dlihc hcae hcihw ni txetnoc l aicos dna larutl uc eht woh tuo ba dna ,l audividni na s a dli hc hcae t uob a ,tnempoleved dlihc dna gninrael tuoba meht sllet hcraeser tahw redisnoc s rehcaet ,s noisiced hcus ekam oT .dlihc hcae fo secneirepxe l audividni dna

ega ,level latnem poleved e ht no desab snoisiced lan oitacude dn uos gnikam no deretnec si secitcarp gnihc aet etairporppa yllatnempoleved evitceffe fo eroc ehT

)CYEAN( nerdlihC gnuoY fo srotacudE fo noitaicossA lanoitaN eht ot gnidroccA .secitcarp gnihcaet desab-hcraeser htiw noitcnujnoc ni ,ylimaf reh ro sih dna ,dlihc eht fo txetnoc lacigoloicos eht nopu-desab eb dluohs seitivitca dna snosseL .moorssalc yraitret-erp eht rof snalp nossel etaerc ot ,tnemnorivne larutan eht gnizilitu ,tnempoleved dna htworg namuh fo krowemarf lareneg eht redisnoc ot ,erofereht ,yrassecen si tI .rehto hcae nopu dloffacs dna ,decneuqes ,detalerretni era tnempoleved fo sniamod eht ,seititne etarapes sa deweiv semitemos hguohT .)1002 ,retsbeW & ,acuLeD ,rellimlethciD( tnempoleveD lacisyhP dna ,strA ehT ,seidutS laicoS ,gniknihT cifitneicS ,gniknihT lacitamehtaM ,ycaretiL dna egaugnaL ,tnempoleveD

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gnihcaet noitacude doohdlihc ylrae ,loohcs rof nerdlihc gnuoy gniraperp htiw noitanibmoc nI .dedeen si ,loohcs rof nerdlihc gnuoy eraperp lliw taht eerged a ,srotacude doohdlihc ylrae evitcepsorp rof eerged srolehcab eht ,eunitnoc anahG ni smrofer lanoitacude eht sA .8991 ni 065 .on tcA snerdlihC eht htiw yraitret-erp desserdda anahG .enilediug laredef eht rednu deifilauq seilimaf esohw nerdlihc rof ylno tub ,nerdlihc gnuoy rof noitacude doohdlihc ylrae detroppus tcA tratS daeH ehT .tcA tratS daeH eht dna ,tca noitacudE rehgiH eht ,tcA noitacudE yradnoceS dna yratnemelE eht :setadnam suoiverp eerht desserdda dna detcane saw setatS detinU eht rof noitalsigel ,5691 nI .ega loohcs yramirp eht ta gnitrats ,nerdlihc lla rof noitacude desserdda 1691 ni anahG ni noitalsigel kramdnal ehT .nerdlihc lla rof noitacude doohdlihc ylrae yroslupmoc dna eerf stroppus taht noitalsigel laredef sah yrtnuoc rehtien ;nerdlihc rieht rof erac evah ot srehtom gnikrow rof deen eht htiw nageb erac dlihc rof setatS detinU eht dna anahG neewteb seitiralimiS .noitacude doohdlihc ylrae rof setatS detinU eht fo taht ot ralimis noissergorp a gniwollof si anahG taht sraeppa ti ,nerdlihc gnuoy yrev rof noitacude dna erac ylrae fo noisivorp tnerruc eht ni anahG dna setatS detinU eht neewteb secnereffid era ereht hguohtlA

::sno su cnoC sno su cnoC ::snoiiiisullllcnoC sno su cnoC

.nerdlihc gnuoy rof stnemnorivne gninrael etairporppa gninnalp ni ecneirepxe tcerid evah ot reh/mih pleh osla dluow dna ecitcarp ni hcraeser gnittup ni etadidnac rehcaet eht gnitsissa ybereht ,seigetarts etairporppani yfitnedi ot elba eb dluow rehcaet gnisivrepus ehT .nrael dna worg ot nerdlihc gnuoy rof yrassecen seigetarts detatilicaf-rehcaet dna ,yalp-dlihc eht troppus ton od hcihw seigetarts ssessop yam ,feileb etairporppa yllatnempoleved eht evah ton od taht sgnittes ni ro ,nerdlihc redlo htiw dekrow evah ohw slaudividnI .smoorssalc doohdlihc ylrae ni dekrow sah ohw rehcaet denosaes a fo noisivrepus eht rednu gnicitcarp morf tifeneb dluow smoorssalc yraitret-erp ni krow ot nalp ohw setadidnac rehcaeT .smoorssalc yraitret-erp eht ni krow rof srehcaet gniraperp nehw ecnatropmi tsomtu fo si gnihcaet tnedutS .anera lanoitanretni eht ni deredisnoc eb dluoc taht ,srehto htiw gnola ,eno dna ,tcurtsnoc laciteroeht etairporppa yllatnempoleved eht semussa taht mulucirruc slaog AFE eht dna anahG ,setatS detinU :noitacudE yraitreT-erP dna doohdlihC ylraE

27

Kay Hamlin

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.level noitacude doohdlihc ylrae eht ta srehcaet evitceffe emoceb setaudarg noitacude doohdlihc ylrae pleh dluow ,secneirepxe gnihcaet tneduts sa llew sa ,tnemssessa dna mulucirruc etairporppa yllatnempoleved ,noitamrofni tnetnoc dezilaiceps ,stcurtsnoc lacigoloicos dna lacihposolihp edulcni taht seerged doohdlihc ylrae gnireffO .)7 .on ,0002 ,noitacudE dlroW( .nerdlihc degatnavdasid dna elbarenluv tsom eht rof yllaicepse ,noitacude dna erac doohdlihc ylrae evisneherpmoc gnivorpmi dna gnidnapxE :1 laoG :0002 ,lirpA ,lageneS ,noitcA rof krowemarF rakaD eht yb htrof tes slaog xis eht fo eno sserdda dluow anahG ni seerged
References Basic Education Division, Ghana Education Service. (2004, June). The Development of education: national report of Ghana. [PDF document]. For presentation at the forty-seventh session of the International Conference on Education (ICE) Geneva. Retrieved on December 21, 2010, from http://www.ibe.unesco.org/International/ICE47/ English/Natreps/reports/ghana.pdf Cohen, A. J. (1996, Summer/Fall). A Brief history of federal financing for child care in the United States. [PDF document]. Financing Child Care 6(12). Retrieved December 12, 2010, from http://www.princeton.edu/futureofchildren/publications/docs/06_02_01.pdf Compulsory education: overview. (2011). (Go12943). National Conference of State Legislatures [NCSL]. Retrieved January 5, 2011, from http://www.ncsl.org/issuesresearch/education/ compulsoryeducationoverview/tabid/12943/default.aspx Dichtelmiller, M., DeLuca, M. C., and Webster, B. (2001). Linking assessment with curriculum. (Screening & Assessment in Head Start. Head Start Bulletin #70). U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Administration for Children and Families. ECLKC (Early Childhood Learning & Knowledge Center). Retrieved from http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/ttasystem/teaching/eecd/Curriculum/Definition%20and%20Requirements/edudev_art_00072_ 080505.html Head Start | National Association for the Education of Young Children. (n.d.). Retrieved November 19, 2010, from http://www.naeyc.org/policy/federal/headstart Healy, J.M. (2004). Your childs growing mind: Brain development and learning from birth to adolescence (3rd ed.). New York: Random House.
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H.R. 1429--110th Congress: Improving Head Start for School Readiness Act of 2007. (2007). In GovTrack.us (database of federal legislation). Retrieved May 19, 2011, from http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h110-1429 Kagan, S. L., & Reid, J. L. (2008, November 19). Advancing ECE2 policy: Early childhood education (ECE) and its quest for xcellence, coherence, and equity (ECE). [PDF document]. Retrieved from http://ccf.tc.columbia.edu/pdf/American%20ECE%20Policy %20Final%202.10.09.pdf National Association for the Education of Young Children. (n.d.). Key messages of the position statement. Retrieved from http://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/file/positions/ KeyMessages.pdf (Reprinted from Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs serving children from birth through age 8, 3rd ed., by C. Copple & S. Bredekamp, Eds., 2009, Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children) Ofosu-Appiah, Ben. (2008, February 20). Refocusing the aims and objectives of Pre School (Nursery and Kindergarten) Education in Ghana. Modern Ghana. Retrieved December 12, 2010, from http://www.modernghana.com/news/158139/1/refocusing-the-aims-andobjectives-of-pre-school-n.html Schugurensky, D. (2002, May 28). The History of education: Selected comments of the 20th Century. Retrieved from the University of Toronto, The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto (OISE/UT) Web site: http://fcis.oise. utoronto.ca/~daniel_schugurensky/assignment1/1965elemsec.html UNESCO. (1995-2011). Access | Education | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNESCO. Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/ themes/strengthening-education-systems/early-childhood/access/ UNESCO. (1995-2011). Early Childhood | Education | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNESCO. Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/ new/en/education/themes/strengthening-education-systems/early-childhood/ UNESCO. (1995-2011). EFA goal | Education | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNESCO. Retrieved September 29, 2010, from

slaog AFE eht dna anahG ,setatS detinU :noitacudE yraitreT-erP dna doohdlihC ylraE
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http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/leading-the-internationalagenda/education-for-all/efa-goals/ UNESCO-IBE (International Bureau of Education). (2010, September, updated version). World data on education. (IBE/2010/CP/WDE/GH). [PDF document]. 7th ed. 2010/11. Retrieved November 12, 2010, from http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ Publications/WDE/2010/pdf-versions/Ghana.pdf UNESCO-IBE. (2006). Country Profile commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2007, Strong foundations: early childhood care and education (IBE/2006/EFA/GMR/ CP/32). [PDF document]. Retrieved November 21, 2010, from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ images/ 0014/001471/ 147192e.pdf U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Administration for Children and Families. (2009, January). Good start grow smart history | NCCIC. Washington, DC: National Child Care Information & Technical Assistance (NCCIC). Retrieved from http://nccic.acf.hhs.gov/ poptopics/gsgs_history.html

U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Administration for Children and Families. ECLKC (Early Childhood Learning & Knowledge Center). (2001). Curriculum in Head Start: Head Start Bulletin #67. Washington, DC: National Center on Quality Teaching and Learning. Retrieved from http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/ttasystem/teaching/eecd/Curriculum/Definition%20and%20Requirements/CurriculuminHea.ht m U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Office of Head Start. (2008, August 9). Statutory Degree and Credentialing Requirements for Head Start Teaching Staff (ACFIMHS0812). Retrieved from http://www.acf .hhs.gov/ programs/ohs/policy/im2008/acfimhs_08_12.html Wisconsin Council on Children & Families. (2002 Win). Brain development and early learning: Research on brain development. Quality Matters: A Policy Brief Series on Early Care and Education, 1. [PDF document]. Retrieved from http://www.wccf.org/pdf /brain_dev_and_early_learning.pdf

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Woodbury, R. L. (n.d.). Higher education & the promise of opportunity. [PDF document]. Retrieved from the University of Maryland-Baltimore Web site: http://www.mccormack .umb.edu/centers/nejpp/articles/20_1/HigherEducationandthepromiseofOpportunity.pdf World Education Forum 2000. (2000). The Dakar framework for action. Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/education/wef/en-conf/dakframeng.shtm Ziglar, E., &. Muenchow, S. (1992). Head Start: The inside story of America's most successful educational experiment. Washington, DC: Library of Congress.

All correspondence on this paper should be directed to Dr. Kay Hamlin, Department of Education, Winston Salem State university, Winston Salem, NC 27110. E mail correspondence to hamlink@wssu.edu Dr, Kay Hamlin is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Education, Winston Salem State

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slaog AFE eht dna anahG ,setatS detinU :noitacudE yraitreT-erP dna doohdlihC ylraE
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