( )

A = = = = =
i
i i
dt
d
r m I r I I
2
; ; e o t p r L
L

( ) ( ) f k t kx H t x h T Y v t e e

t
2 , ; sin , ; / /
2
= = = = =
( )( ) ( )
V
N
av V
N mv
K p
3
2
3
2
= =
( ) ( ) IR V IA q = = = + = ; ; t B B v E F
( )
( ) x t t
vt x x
c
v
2
'
'
=
=

( )
( ) ' '
' '
2
x t t
vt x x
c
v
+ =
+ =

( )
2
1
1
c
v

=
t t = ' ; L L

1
' = ; u u tan ' tan = ; | | u v v cos 1 '
c
v
= ;
u
v u
u
c
v
2
1
'

=
invariants: ( ) ( )
2 2
2 1
2 2
2 1
4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
; ; s p p c E E c m c p E t c r s + + = =
( ) away observer source
c
v
c
v
&
1
1
'
+

=v v
v p m = ; ( ) 1
2
= mc K ;
4
2
0
2 2 2
c m c p mc E + = =
E
c
c
p v
= (for massless particles: E = pc)
( ) ( )( ) ( ) pc E v E
c
v
= ' ; ( )| | E p v p
c
v
2
' =
( )( )
( )
2
'
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1 1
1
c
uv
c
v
c
u
c
u

=
dt
dp
F =

e v
h
c
h
c
E hc
p h E = = = = = = ;
W hf K =
( ) u v v cos 1 ' =
c m
h
e

p
h
=
u sin 2a n =


J eV
s J s J h
19
34 34
10 6022 . 1
10 0546 . 1 ; 10 6261 . 6

=
= =

( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
b T
T d T u t U
T u d
e
h
E
T high or small at
c
kT
T u
e
c
h
T u
T u
av
E
kt
h
kt
h
tot
=
= =
A =

=
~

=
=
}

max
4
0
3
2
3
3
4
,
,
1
8
,
1
1 8
,

o v v
v v
v
v
tv
v
v t
v
o
v
v