Professional Documents
Culture Documents
FINAL
REPORT--SEPTEMBER
15, 1989
B.C.
Wolverton,
Ph.D.
Principal
Investigator
Anne
Johnson,
M.S.
and
Keith Sverdrup
Bounds,
M.S. Inc.
Technology,
This
work
was
jointly
by
the
NASA
Office
of
Commercial Landscape
Division,
National
C. Stennis
Science Stennis
CONTENTS. Abbreviations Introduction A Promising, Chemicals and Acronyms ................................................ v 1 Air Pollution ..................... 2 3 3 5 5 6 for Trace Metabolites ...... 8 8 8 9 18 18 19
Screening
Benzene
Methods
Chromatograph-Mass Analysis
Analysis
......................................................
................................................................. ..........................................................
Acknowledgments References
................................................................ FIGURES
1. 2.
Indoor Man's
system
combining
houseplants soil,
and
activated
carbon...
sealed
chambers
using golden
in an 8-in.
activated 16
system .................................................... of benzene using and golden trichloroethylene pothos from the air
sealed
chambers
in an 8-in.
activated 17
system ....................................................
III
PREC, EDING
P:IGE
During
Period
Removed During
Experimental Period
a 24-h
Exposure a Sealed
.............................. Chamber
Removed and
from
Experimental Period
Soil During
......................
Chemicals During
Removed
a Sealed
Experimental
Benzene During
a 24-h Exposure
During
Exposure
Period
Removal
Houseplants
Potting Exposure
Foliage
During
Benzene after
Removal Exposed
and
of a Chinese to Benzene
Being
24-h Periods
Experimental
Chamber
.................................................
14
iv
ABBREVIATIONS
AND
ACRONYMS
Term
ALCA EPA GC HP NASA PCA TCE UF UFFI cfu/g cm cm 2 g h in. m mE min m3 p/m
S
Definition Associated Environmental gas chromatograph Hewlett-Packard National plate Aeronautics agar and Space Administration Landscape Contractors Agency of America
Protection
count
per gram
centimeter square gram hour inch meter milliliter minute cubic parts second year microliter degrees Celsius meter per million centimeter
yr /zL C
INTERIOR INDOOR
.PLANTS
FOR
ABATEMENT
INTRODUCTION During in heating to help efficiency the late alleviate included 1970s, when the energy costs, buildings costs. and spiraling energy crunch was being designed fresh felt at both the gas pump to maximize changes that energy improved and
and cooling
superinsulation
air exchange.
However,
occupation of these buildings, such as itchy eyes, skin rashes, other allergy-related symptoms. contributed significantly
the workers began to complain of various drowsiness, respiratory and sinus congestion, It was determined workers' health that problems. various equipment of the the airtight Similarly,
sealing
to the
materials, which are known to emit or "off-gas" linked to numerous health complaints. The office buildings manufacture Man himself of people are also a contributing factor because and design. should be considered ventilated in a confined another
organic compounds, have been and furnishings placed in these types of materials used in their
source
of indoor
especially period
when
living in a closed,
poorly
very apparent
are present
All of these factors collectively One world or remodeled health organization buildings
contribute recently
have varying
degrees
Two major problems with indoor air pollution are the identification of the trace chemicals and their correlation with diseaselike symptoms. Energy-efficient buildings that are filled with modern possibly furnishings and high-tech equipment off-gas hundreds of volatile organics limits, which some interact with each other. and reactive years.(1-27) Even at concentrations may adversely Pickering buildings below present detection
of these chemicals The problems over the past Manchester, symptoms ten
of indoor England,
have been studied and documented sick building ventilated syndrome extensively
are minimal
of microorganisms. On the other hand, the highest levels of symptoms mechanically ventilated buildings containing low levels of microorganisms. his analyses indicate that it is unlikely to microorganisms. environmental threat scientists to human and government agencies agree that symptoms associated can be attributed Now pollution that most
syndrome
that
indoor
air
is a realistic
health,
be solved?
SOLUTION
The first and most obvious step in reducing from building materials and furnishings before Aeronautics with sealed contamination for off-gassing Space Administration space habitats over problems (NASA) 16 years that
indoor air pollution is to reduce off-gassing they are allowed to be installed. The National indoor Although air pollution a final space problems solution NASA structures. associated to the trace does screen
identified ago.(1)
Another promising approach to further reducing trace levels of air pollutants inside future space habitats is the use of higher plants and their associated soil microorganisms.(28-29) Since man's relationship he attempts problems existence with plants to isolate will arise. on Earth himself depends in tightly upon sealed a life support buildings away system it should from involving be obvious this ecological organic would an intricate that when system, chemicals and their associated microorganisms, of hundreds
Even without
the existence
of synthetic
sealed environments,
man's
cause indoor
problems he must
If man nature's
environments, to solve
on Earth achieved,
At John
C. Stennis
this ecological
Josef Gitelson
of scientists and engineers have also been working with closed ecological systems for many years in Krasnoyarsk, Siberia.(30) Only recently, however, have critical parts of this complex puzzle begun to come together. Although maintaining the balance of the complete cycle involves treating and recycling sewage, toxic chemicals, and other industrial air pollutants, In this study evaluated of using plant only indoor the leaves, means systems air is addressed roots, here. microorganisms Additionally, of indoor of plants air pollutants have been ecological water and
as a possible
of reducing
air pollutants.
for removing
cigarette smoke, organic solvents, and possibly radon This air filter design combines plants with an activated The rationale moving organic by the large carbon for this design, volumes filter. pathogenic Plant which evolved of contaminated roots and air through their
has been designed from this work. carbon filter as shown in Figure 1. treatment carbon and possibly microorganisms studies, radon then is based on smoke, the are absorbed destroy bed where
an activated
chemicals,
microorganisms
pathogenic viruses, bacteria, and the organic chemicals, air pollutants into new plant tissue.(31"37) It is believed would be taken being conducted National up by the plant roots and retained to test this hypothesis in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. of sealing people for NASA
eventually converting all of these that the decayed radon products are currently Oak Ridge of Energy
Laboratories looks
toward
the possibility
inside
a Space Station,
or moon
(interactions
GOLDEN
POTHOS ......... ..
ACTIVATED
\
/
ELECTRIC
TIMER EXCESS
houseplants be further
carbon. 2.
microorganisms,
See Figure
As plant studies continue at Stennis Space identifying trace chemical contamination, metabolites This joint (ALCA) that effort may be off-gassed between NASA of data by plants
Center, emphasis is being placed not only on but also on identifying any volatile organic themselves. Landscape Contractors of America
covers
two years
use of houseplants
as a tool in solving
indoor air pollution problems on Earth, and has gone a long way toward reminding man of his dependence on plants for his continued existence and well-being on our planet. CHEMICALS Benzene Benzene gasoline, is a very commonly inks, oils, paints explosives, used solvent and is also present In addition, dyes. it has been shown activity and factor and in many basic items including USED IN THE PLANT SCREENING TESTS
plastics,
and rubber.
of detergents, Benzene to be
mutagenic
cultures
embryotoxic
carcinogenicity
may be a contributing
4q_o
c_
Q.
i
Q_
E
I=
o
i.m.
q_
,w..
,4=
qw
q)
q_O l.b
I=
c_
c_ 14,.
aberrations inflammation,
of high levels of
vision, respiratory diseases, tremors, irregular heartbeat, liver and kidney damage, paralysis, and unconsciousness. In animal tests, inhalation of benzene led to cataract formation and diseases causes diseases of the blood headaches, of the blood and lymphatic system, systems. drowsiness, anemia Chronic exposure to even relatively disease. low levels and loss of appetite, nervousness, and bone psychological marrow disturbances,
including
Trichloroethylene Trichloroethylene Over 90 percent industries, carcinomas this chemical Formaldehyde Formaldehyde is a ubiquitous chemical found in virtually all indoor environments. The (TCE) of the Cancer is a commercial produced reported product with a wide variety metal degreasing varnishes, high incidence lacquers, of industrial and and adhesives. of hepatocellular considers uses. In
TCE
is used
in the
dry-cleaning
inks, paints,
that an unusually
TCE by gastric
intubation.
The Institute
liver carcinogen.
major sources, which have been reported and publicized, include urea-formaldehyde foam insulation (UFFI) and particle board or pressed-wood products. Consumer paper products, including grocery bags, waxed papers, facial tissues, and paper towels, are treated with ureaformaldehyde (UF) resins. Many common household cleaning agents contain formaldehyde. UF resins are used as stiffeners, wrinkle resisters, water repellants, fire retardants, and adhesive binders in floor covering, carpet backing, and permanent-press and cooking clothes. Other sources of formaldehyde kerosene. include cigarette smoke and heating fuels such as natural gas and
irritates the mucous membranes of the eyes, nose, and throat. It is a highly that combines with protein and can cause allergic contact dermatitis. The symptoms tract from exposure exposure conducted to high levels of this chemical Until recently, was asthma. cancer However, in long-term include irritation the most serious and eyes and headaches.(2,3) research
respiratory (EPA)
which indicates
MATERIALS The
AND
following
ALCA
Common
Chamaedorea seifritzii Aglaonema modestum Hedera helix Ficus benjamina Gerbera jamesonii Dracaena deremensis Dracaena marginata Dracaena massangeana Sansevieria laurentii
Gerbera daisy Janet Craig Marginata Mass cane/Corn Mother-in-law's Peace lily Pot mum Warneckei All plants original a healthy Chemical constructed tested
"'Janet
Craig"
cane tongue
Spathiphyllum "'Mauna Loa'" Chrysanthemum morifolium Dracaena deremensis "'Warneckei'" from nurseries Miracle-Gro in our local area. fertilizer They were kept in their and were maintained in
were obtained
in a greenhouse
for the project. tests were dimensions: Width* Depth* 0.76 (30) 0.76 (30) Height* 0.76 (30) 1.53 (60.5) conducted in four Plexiglas chambers, which were
Two chambers
measuring
0.76 (30)
Two larger
chambers
measuring
0.76 (30)
The tops of the small chambers and side sections of the large chambers were removed to allow entry. Bolts and wing-nuts ensured complete sealing of the lids and created airtight chambers for testing. Constant illumination was provided during the testing from a bank of Damar Gro-lights that encircled the outside of each chamber. Mounted on the inside of each chamber has a coil of copper tubing through which water at a temperature of 7 C was circulated. This cooling coil prevented the Gro-lights from causing excessive heat buildup inside the chambers and minimized any fogging from plant respiration in the chambers. The chambers also contained two small removable ports, each 0.6 cm (1/4 in.) in diameter, through which contaminants could be introduced and air samples could be obtained. A small fan was used to circulate air within each chamber.
*Each dimension
is given in meters
in inches
All tests wereconducted a periodof 24h. Experimental for testing included sealing selected a plant in the Plexiglas chamber,injectingoneof the threechemicals the chambern the into i methoddescribed elow,andcollecting b airsamples immediately followingchemical introduction, at 6 h and, finally, 24 h later. Leak testcontrols,whereinthe samechemicals were injectedinto an empty,sealed chamber,wereconducted periodicallythroughoutthe study. In addition, soil controlswithout plantsweretestedto determineif the potting soil and associated microorganisms ereeffectivein removingthe different chemicals. heseconw T trol testswereconducted usingpotsof the samesizecontainingthe samepottingsoil as by the pottedplantsused actualtesting.Experimental in procedure thenfollowedthesameorder asdescribed above. Benzene testingat high concentrations asperformedby introducing35#L of benzene w into thechamberusinga 50#L microsyringe. he benzene T wasinjectedonto a ,_:mall metal trayattached the chamber alljust belowtheintroductionport andallowedto evaporate to w with the helpof the fan insidethe chamber. periodof 30min wasallowedfor complete A evaporation the benzene of prior to withdrawingthe initial sample. Samplingwasdonewith a Sensidyne-Gastec samplingpumpandgasdetectortubes air specificfor benzene concentrationsangingbetween and100p/m. In sampling,a 200-mL r 1 volume air fromthechamber asdrawnthrougha Gastecube.Detection a colorchange of w t of in the benzene-specific indicatorreagent resentin the tubemeasured concentration p the of benzene. Introductionandsamplingof TCE wasperformedin a similar manner,exceptthat the indicatingreagentn the Gastec i tubeswasspecificfor TCE. The levelsof TCE that could be detected rangedfrom 1 to 25 p/m. Because formaldehyde a water-solublehemicalandis routinelysupplied is c asa 37.9percentsolutionin water,it wasnecessary utilizea differentmethod introduce to to thischemical into thetestchambers. formaldehyde solution was placed into a gas scrubber apparatus, The
which Tygon was attached tubing, to both an air pump through and to the chamber the formaldehyde sample inlet using pieces of Air was bubbled solution and introduced into the
chamber as a gas. The time necessary in the two chambers was determined 120 s for the large chamber. benzene detection Because range Sampling
to achieve the desired concentrations of formaldehyde experimentally to be 50 s for the small chamber and was performed air pump tubes in the same manner as that used for tubes. The and formaldehyde-specific was 2 to 20 p/m. enough for testing less than
the Sensidyne-Gastec
1 p/m concentrations,
a gas chromatographic
was developed
for low-concentration
analysis of benzene and TCE simultaneously in single sample. For the low-concentration benzene-TCE studies, two chambers of similar size were used, having volumes of 0.868 and 0.694 equal formed m 3. Benzene volume and TCE were introduced of benzene and TCE. for a 30-min period to withdraw into the chambers The sample before the initial using a I-#L sampling. volume of an tissue mixture was injected onto a Kimwipe Sampling a glass tube
and allowed
to evaporate
was percontaining
by using
promptly ionization
unit with
GAS CHROMATOGRAPH-MASS FOR TRACE After METABOLITES injection, (1/4-in.) 500-mL outside
SELECTIVE
DETECTOR
ANALYSIS
chemical
were collected
stainless chemical
with a 30-m, 0.32 mm inside diameter, was initially beginning program separation the sample to 0 C using carbon at 0 C, with a 30-s hold ended when the temperature on the GC, the sample was conducted
Rtx--volatiles
200 C, for a total run time of 25.5 min. After of 35 to 400 atomic
entered
using a scanning
ANALYSIS plants and potting soil controls, 1-g samples of soil were taken from
surface and subsurface regions (approximately analyzed by means of the pour plate technique
10 cm in depth). Samples were subsequently to determine the number of "colony forming as the primary
units" per gram of sample (cfu/g). Plate count agar (PCA) was utilized microbiological medium. Plate count data reflect bacteriological counts.
Triplicate samples were taken both before and after exposure of the plants and soil to benzene and TCE. Following incubation at 25 C for 24 h, samples were examined for the presence After cultures isolates of bacteria. Due to the inherently cannot be detected and slower growth rate of fungi samples agar, and actinomycetes, have elapsed. Stock Bacterial were isolated. these microorganisms plate count until three to five days of incubation and fungal dextrose Sabouraud's of biochemical
both bacterial
respectively.
to a series
isolates spores.
were examined
by light microscopy
AIR FILTER
l were tested in one of the large Plexiglas Benzene and TCE in 500/_L and were allowed desorber were drawn, the chamber
removal
volumes
onto a Kimwipe
to evaporate
air samples
were drawn
chemicals
were removed.
RESULTS
AND
DISCUSSION or potting soil to remove benzene, TCE, and formaldehyde 8. The screening while from data
The ability of houseplants sealed experimental shown shown in Tables in Tables chambers 1 through 4 through 1 through Although found
1 through
of plants
the second
Plants to 20 p/m
in Tables range.
plants
might
suited
of one or more of these chemicals, atmospheres. Results During the final of benzene
were conducted
analytical
Experimental Period
Total
Plant (cm 2)
Leaf Area
Total
Micrograms per
Surface
4,581
981
7,161
7,581 marginata) 7,960 "Mauna tongue laurentii) 7,242 deremensis "Warneckei") 10,325 seifritzii) 7,215 massangeana) 15,275 deremensis "Janet Craig") Loa") 3,474
27,292
lily
27,064
9,727
13,760
16,520
10,101
18,330
(Dracaena
Table
2. Benzene
Removed
from During
a Sealed a 24-h
Experimental Period
Chamber
by
Houseplants
Exposure
Total
Plant (cm 2)
Leaf Area
Total
Micrograms per
Surface
Removed Plant
daisy jamesonii)
4,581
107,653
76,931
13,894
tongue laurentii)
2,871
28,710
7,242 deremensis "Warneckei") 7,960 "Mauna Loa") 3,085 Queen") 7,581 marginata) palm seifritzii) 15,275 deremensis "Janet Craig") 10,325
39,107
41,392
(Spathiphyllum Chinese
evergreen "Silver
14,500
30,324
34,073
25,968
(Dracaena
]0
Table
3. Formaldehyde by Houseplants
from During
a Sealed a 24-h
Chamber
Total
Plant (cm 2)
Leaf Area
Surface
1,000
11,700
2,871
31,294
985
9,653
76,707
philodendron oxycardium)
8,480
(Philodendron Elephant
2,323
9,989
2,471
10,378
2,723
8,986
aureus) 15,275 deremensis "Janet Craig") 7,581 marginata) 8,509 "Mauna Loa") 2,373 8,656 16,167 20,469 48,880
philodendron selloum)
evergreen modestum)
1,894
4,382
713
1,555
]!
Table
4. Chemicals Experimental
Removed Chamber
Formaldehyde Initial (p/m) Mass cane Pot mum Gerber daisy Warneckei Ficus Leak control Note: 20 18 16 8 19 18 Final (p/m) 6 7 8 4 10 17.5 Percent Removed 70 61 50 50 47.4 2.8 Initial
Trichloroethylene
Initial (p/m) 16 17 20 20 19 20
Final
Percent
in a commercial-type
ing. Each test, 24-h in duration, was conducted in a sealed chamber with temperature and light intensity of 30 C +1 and 125 footcandles _+5, respectively.
Table
by
Initial (p/m)
Final (p/m)
Percent Removed
0.024 0.097 0.034 0.034 0.107 0.037 0.074 0.055 0.162 0.095
89.8 77.6 73.2 79.5 47.6 79.0 52.6 70.0 5.3 20.1
M argi n ata Mother-in-law's Warn ec kei Leak Soil test control control
0.171 0.119
12
Table
6. Trichloroethylene Chamber
(TCE)
Removal During
from a 24-h
a Sealed Exposure
Experimental Period
by Houseplants
Initial (p/m) English Janet Golden Peace ivy Craig pothos lily 0.174 0.321 0.207 0.126 0.114 0.136 tongue 0.269 0.121 0.141
Final (p/m) 0.155 0.265 0.188 0.097 0.091 0.118 0.233 0.120 0.128
Percent Removed 10.9 17.5 9.2 23.0 20.2 13.2 13.4 <1.0 9.2
During
the first-year
chamber
from
to the plant
expected
to determine
in chemical
removal
plant-soil system, plants were tested with foliage and then the same pots and soil were tested again after removing all foliage. Controls using full plant foliage with pea gravel covering the soil were also tested (Table 7). A microbiologist themicrobial profile found in the potting that potting soils. soil, after all foliage had been removed, was more was brought into these studies to determine
effective in removing benzene studies and careful observation amounts of foliage covered the air inside the chamber.
than pots containing full foliage determined that this phenomenon soil surface, reducing
and soil. However, further occurred only when large contact between allowing chemicals. the soil and maximum Results
contact between the soil-root zone and the chamber air containing of these new studies are shown in Tables 7 and 8.
13
Table After
Removal
from
a Sealed
Experimental
by
Initial (p/m)
Final (p/m)
Percent Removed
Marginata Full Fresh foliage removed potting soil control chamber control empty 0.343 0.348 0.206 0.215 0.144 0.175 0.164 0.199 58.0 49.7 20.4 7.4
Foliage
Leak test, Marginata Full Full with Janet Full foliage foliage
0.037 0.069
79.0 66.3
pea gravel Craig foliage removed pothos foliage removed control 0.122 0.175 0.099 0.262 0.040 0.062 0.091 0.254 67.2 64.6 8.1 3.1 0.369 0.321 0.077 0.176 79.1 45.2
Foliage
Table Chinese
8. Benzene
Removal
and Soil
Bacterial for
of a 24-h Periods
Initial After
]4
counts
correlated
chemical Therefore,
removal study
in some
of the
studies as shown
8, this finding
other yet unidentified indicate that when 8. This to such toxic chemicals in Table have the ability
the same plants and potting their capacity adapt, thereby is not surprising,
as shown
since it is a well-established
their ability
when continuously exposed to such chemicals. toxic chemicals from wastewater. (31-37)
This phenomenon
Bacterial
isolates
found
tongue
for
marginata root soil. Bacteria such as Bacillus, Flavobacterium, Leuconostoc, and Micrococcus were also found in the Chinese evergreen potting soil. The peace lily potting soil contained A ureobacterium, These toxic are common chemicals Bacillus, when Curtobacterium, by plant Micrococcus, root growth. studies are shown control in Figures study, 3 and 4. Although it is an essential This biological indoor air; move and source; Pseudomonas, to be capable and Streptomyces. of biodegrading soil microorganisms activated and most are known
this research
two-year
their associated
plant
large volumes
an activated
holds them until the plant roots and therefore, bioregenerating the carbon. To assure carbon-plant no pathogenic It is common certain that no disease-causing filter, exhaust air from have microorganisms knowledge
microorganisms
were released
from
the
was analyzed
for microorganisms.
To date,
that plants give off trace levels of volatile off-gassing studies were conducted plants were normally not expect significant
organic
chemicals
under of
conditions,
so metabolic
several
the ALCA plants. These low-light-requiring low metabolic rates; therefore, one would terpenes, Tenax that or any other metabolite. tubes to analyze metabolites adsorption
Gas chromatograph-mass the air inside the sealed were negligible. it is expected off-gassing.
selective experimental
and light levels are increased, along with some plant metabolite removal should also increase organic chemicals.
pollution
removal
volatile
15
0.250
0.225
0.200
0.175 E
Z
0.150
I-Z ILl Z
0.125
0.100
0.025
0.000
, 0.5
' 1.5
' 2.0
[WO LV8"9-0031
Figure
3, Removal of low concentrations of benzene and trichloroethylene from the air inside sealed experimental chambers using golden pothos in an 8.in. activated carbon filter system.
]6
4O
3G
32
28
E
Q. Z C_
24
20
16
12
Figure
4. Removal of high concentrations of benzene and trichloroethylene from the air inside sealed experimental chambers using golden pothos in an 8.in. activated carbon filter system,
]7
of the beneficial
plant man,
in a soil 2 in means
system
available
that harmful
can be expected
microorganisms.
by Biosphere picture
are beginning
a clearer
of whatman
Low-light-requiring
houseplants,
along
with
activated
carbon
plant
filters,
have
demonstrated the potential for improving pollutants from the air in energy-efficient
indoor air quality by removing trace organic buildings. This plant system is one of the most
promising means of alleviating the sick building syndrome associated with many new, energyefficient buildings. The plant root-soil zone appears to be the most effective area for removing volatile organic chemicals. Therefore, maximizing air exposure to the plant root-soil area should be considered when placing plants in buildings for best air filtration. Activated carbon filters containing fans have the capacity an integral part for rapidly filtering large volumes for
of polluted air and should be considered solving indoor air pollution problems. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
contribution
of Willard
Ph.D.,
Travis
to the preparation
18
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