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DaceyTraversFiore: Human Development Across the Lifespan, Seventh Edition I. Introduction 1. Lifespan Psychology: An Introduction The McGrawHill Companies, 2009

Part One Introduction

LIFESPAN PSYCHOLOGY: An Introduction

chapter

Chapter Outline
An Example of Development through The Lifespan 3 Thinking about Lifespan Development 4 Why Study the Lifespan? 4 What Is Development? 5 Changing Views of the Lifespan 6 Changing Perspectives on Aging 10 The Importance of Biopsychosocial Interactions 13 Understanding Childrens Cultures 13 Contributors to Biopsychosocial Interactions 15 Issues in Lifespan Development 16 Continuity versus Discontinuity 16 Nature versus Nurture 17 Developmental Research 18 Data Collection Techniques 18 Time-Variable Designs 20 Conclusion & Summary 23 Key Terms 24 What Do You Think? 24 Chapter Review Test 25

Chapter Objectives
After you read this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions.

How would you define and describe lifespan development? What are the different views of lifespan development? What role do biopsychosocial interactions play in lifespan development? What are the major issues in lifespan development? What is the role of research in studying lifespan development?

DaceyTraversFiore: Human Development Across the Lifespan, Seventh Edition

I. Introduction

1. Lifespan Psychology: An Introduction

The McGrawHill Companies, 2009

part

Introduction

Emmy Werners studies have provided invaluable insights into the characteristics of resilient children.

he year was 1955. Through those 365 days, psychologists Emmy Werner and Ruth Smith (1992, 1995, 2001) began to collect data on every child born on the island of Kauai, a part of the Hawaiian chain. That year a total of 837 children were born. Amazingly, Werner and Smith studied 505 of these children from their prenatal days until they were in their early 30s. (The drop in the number of children studied was due to some of the children dying, some moving to other islands, and some moving to the U.S. mainland.) Of the 505 children in the group, one in three was born with the threat of serious developmental difficulties, such as the effects of a difficult birth or an environment that triggered formidable challenges. Some faced the prospect of a life of grinding poverty. Throughout their lives, others experienced divorce, desertion, alcoholism, or mental illness. Two out of three people in this vulnerable group were born exposed to four or more formidable risk factors. And yet, one in three of these high-risk children developed into confident, competent young adults. How can we explain this phenomenon? What developmental forces were at work that enabled certain people to overcome dramatically difficult obstacles and yet permitted others to succumb? In a sense, the children of Kauai provide us with a window through which we can view the events that shape the lifespan, the biological, psychological, and environmental interactions that make us what we are. The encouraging story of the children of Kauai testifies to the remarkable changes that occur in the course of the lifespan. But much more is hidden in the chronicle of these lives. What combination of biological, psychological, and environmental forces interacted at what levels to produce these differences? What were the processes at work that explain what happened? These are the questions that will guide our work together as we explore the mysteries of the lifespan. With these ideas in mind, then, well first explore the meaning of lifespan development and follow the developmental path of one distinguished individual. Well then attempt to indicate its importance to you by illustrating how peaks and valleys come into all our lives. Although we all chart an individual course, we can still identify many similarities in our lives. We walk, we talk, we attend school, and we search for a satisfying career. Yet within this sameness, we all have and choose different experiences that shine a unique light on our journey through the lifespan. To aid in this analysis of lifespan development, well introduce the notion of biopsychosocial interactions, those forces that act together to shape the path of development. Such biopsychosocial interaction in turn leads to a consideration of several issues that must be addressed in any scrutiny of lifespan development. Finally, well complete this introduction by analyzing pertinent research techniques used in studies of human development.

DaceyTraversFiore: Human Development Across the Lifespan, Seventh Edition

I. Introduction

1. Lifespan Psychology: An Introduction

The McGrawHill Companies, 2009

chapter

Lifespan Psychology: An Introduction

AN EXAMPLE OF DEVELOPMENT THROUGH THE LIFESPAN

Another book was opened, which is the book of life. Revelations

If you think about your own lifestarting school, perhaps going off to college, beginning a job, getting married, having a childyou begin to appreciate the complexity of development. Since its usually difficult to look at ourselves objectively, lets examine the life of an outstanding individualBarack Obamawhose rise to fame and power with all its accompanying triumphs and tragedies offers an insightful view into what is meant by lifespan development. Barack ObamaThe Promise of Development Tonight is a particular honor for me becauselets face itmy presence on this stage is pretty unlikely. My father was a foreign student, born and raised in a small village in Kenya. He grew up herding goats, went to school in a tin-roof shack. His fathermy grandfatherwas a cook, a domestic servant to the British. I stand here today, grateful for the diversity of my heritage, aware that my parents dreams live on in my two precious daughters. I stand here knowing that my story is part of the larger American story, that I owe a debt to all of those who came before me, and that in no other country on earth is my story even possible. These words, spoken on July 27, 2004, to a tumultuous gathering at Boston Garden were part of Barack Obamas keynote address to the Democratic National Convention. The remarkable story of this young United States senator from Illinois is a great example of the potential inherent in human development. Tracing the path that Obama followed in his lifespan dramatically illustrates the trials and tribulations and the success and joys of human development. Born in 1961 in Honolulu, Hawaii, Obama is the son of Barack Obama (Sr.) and Ann Dunham of Wichita, Kansas. At the time of his birth, Obamas parents were both students at the East-West Center of the University of Hawaii. Following the divorce of his parents, his mother later married Lolo Soetoro from Indonesia, where the family then lived for several years. Obama returned to Hawaii to finish his early education and later graduated from Columbia. He spent three years at Harvard, received his law degree, and joined a corporate law firm. During these years he met and married Michelle Robinson. He and his wife returned to Chicago, where he became active in community affairs and joined a Chicago civil rights law firm. He also lectured on constitutional law at the University of Chicago. In 1996, he took the first step in a political career when he was elected to the Illinois State Senate. After an unsuccessful campaign for Congress in 2000, an overwhelming majority elected Obama to the United States Senate in 2004. As a United States senator, he has demonstrated an ability to work well with both Democrats and Republicans while furthering his efforts to improve education at all levels. Gradually extending his interest and growing influence to national and international affairs, Obama has become a powerful figure in helping to shape United States policy. In 2006, he led a Congressional delegation to several African countries and made international headlines as he traced his familys origins in Kenya. As one prominent Kenyan noted, Hes a role model for all of Africa. And as of this printing hes a candidate for President of the United States. In 2005, Time Magazine selected Obama as one of the 100 most influential people in the world.

DaceyTraversFiore: Human Development Across the Lifespan, Seventh Edition

I. Introduction

1. Lifespan Psychology: An Introduction

The McGrawHill Companies, 2009

part

Introduction

Barack Obama with his family.

How did this individual from a modest background achieve such a lofty position? One path leads to the conclusion that Obamas familyparents, wife, childrenare of paramount importance to him. Another path identifies those personal concerns that shaped his thinking. His decision to follow a political career provided opportunities for him to influence legislation affecting education, the poor, minorities, and international affairs. Barack Obama is an excellent example of an individual proceeding through his lifespan by remaining faithful to his beliefs, recognizing opportunities, and making the most of his unique abilities. The story of Obamas interactions with his environment is a story of human development.

THINKING ABOUT LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT

When you pick up this book and open to Chapter 1, you have every right to expect some clues about what lifespan psychology is, this subject that will demand your attention for the next 14 or 15 weeks. So first lets be technically accurate about what youll be studying. Lifespan psychology studies human development from conception to death. In our work, well adopt a normative approach to developmentstudying the typical or average developmental path that people followbut also point out individual variations where necessary.

lifespan psychology Study of human development from conception to death.

Why Study the Lifespan?

As a discipline, lifespan psychology gathered momentum when developmental psychologists began to realize that development didnt cease when human beings passed from adolescence to adulthood. A developmental view originally inferred a focus on the early years and their experiences, but gradually a lifespan perspective took psychologists into a wider field. The range of explanations included study of the brain, analysis of the development of the mind, and research into the ways developmental levels influence individuals responses to their experiences

DaceyTraversFiore: Human Development Across the Lifespan, Seventh Edition

I. Introduction

1. Lifespan Psychology: An Introduction

The McGrawHill Companies, 2009

chapter

Lifespan Psychology: An Introduction

(Rutter, 2006). So today we see development as a lifelong process. But there also can be no argument with the idea that each age (infancy, adolescence, and so on.) has its own developmental agenda and contributes to the entire lifespan. Consequently, lifespan psychology has several objectives.

To offer an organized account of development across the lifespan. To identify the interconnections between earlier and later events. To account for the mechanisms responsible for lifespan development. To specify the biological, psychological, and environmental factors that shape an individuals development (Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, 1998, 2006).

Once these objectives are identified, Baltes and his colleagues believe, developmental psychologists can attempt to trace the range of individual development, encourage individuals to live their lives as positively as possible, and help them avoid negative outcomes (Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, 2006, p. 570).

What Is Development?
Few readers would argue with the belief that individuals respond to the events of their lives in a manner consistent with their age at that time. But is age alone the cause of their varied responses? Age, as Rutter (2006) points out, is an ambiguous explanation for behavior because: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Age tells us about biological maturity and little else. Different elements of biological growth proceed at different rates. Age reflects past experiences that may influence current behavior. Age reflects current social situations. Age tells us little about the underlying causal mechanisms (Rutter, 2006, p. 314).

For example, consider hospital admission at various ages. In the early days of infancy, separation from parents does not seem to cause unusual psychological effects, unlike what happens in the toddler years (one to two years) when a childs upset is much more intense. In the school years, upset occurs, but again is less intense. Age alone doesnt inform us of the psychological mechanism at work here. What seems to happen is that the attachment of toddlers to their parents has developed to the extent that separation causes a severe upset. Although older children also have formed a firm attachment to their parents, their increased cognitive ability allows them to realize that separation does not destroy their parental relationship. Consequently, what appear to be solely age-related changes are due to social relationships and cognitive development. (For an excellent discussion of age, development, and psychopathology see Rutter, 2006.) Development also implies change, but the two terms are not equivalent. For change to be used in a developmental sense, it must possess a systematic, organized structure that contains a successive theme; that is, it should be clear that the changes that occurred at a later time were influenced by earlier changes. Thus the concept of development signifies systematic and successive changes over time (Lerner, 2002, p. 16). (Even this definition may vary according to the orientation of the psychologists involvedbiological, philosophical, and so on.) Consequently, our focus should be on how changes come about, how they are maintained or lost, and how the course of development varies from individual to individual (Rutter & Rutter, 1993). For purposes of research and analysis weve divided the lifespan into the segments and presented these in Table 1.1. We urge you to remember that each segment is part of a whole.

DaceyTraversFiore: Human Development Across the Lifespan, Seventh Edition

I. Introduction

1. Lifespan Psychology: An Introduction

The McGrawHill Companies, 2009

part

Introduction

T A B L E 1.1

Developmental Periods of the Lifespan

Period Prenatal (conception to birth) Infancy (birth to 2 years) Early childhood (2 to 6 years) Middle childhood (7 to 11 years) Adolescence (12 to 18 years) Early adulthood (19 to 34 years) Middle adulthood (35 to 64 years)

Characteristics Nine months of rapid growth in which organs and systems appear; extreme sensitivity to negative influences. Continued rapid growth; brain development provides the basis for the emergence of motor, cognitive, and psychosocial accomplishments. Physical growth slows somewhat; substantial gains in cognitive and language development; the interplay between socialization and individuation shapes personality and influences adjustment. School becomes a major force in development; physical, cognitive, and psychosocial abilities become apparent. The changes of puberty affect all aspects of development; thought becomes more abstract, academic achievement begins to shape the future; the search for identity continues unabated. Higher education or the beginning of work beckons; relationships are a major focus of these years; marriage and children become central concerns of the lifespan. Heightened responsibility; may include care of children and aging parents; growing community involvement; peak period for leadership and influence; a time of physical change (for example, menopause). Retirement; declining health and strength; adjusting to death of loved ones; facing ones own mortality; changing lifestyle to enhance successful aging; enjoying greater wisdom.

Later adulthood (651)

With these ideas in mind, its interesting to follow the varied interpretations that society has given lifespan developmentchildhood, adolescence, and adulthood over the years.

Guided Review
1. 2. 3. 4. Lifespan psychology studies human development from Development is about . alone. responsible for human Development cannot be explained by Lifespan psychology attempts to specify the development. to .

CHANGING VIEWS OF THE LIFESPAN

If, as we insist throughout our work, that development is change, then interpretations of the lifespan over the years should also reflect the notion of change. And, not too surprisingly, they do. As we trace the differing images of children, adolescents, and

Answers

1. conception, death 2. change 3. age 4. mechanisms

DaceyTraversFiore: Human Development Across the Lifespan, Seventh Edition

I. Introduction

1. Lifespan Psychology: An Introduction

The McGrawHill Companies, 2009

chapter

Lifespan Psychology: An Introduction

In earlier times, children were often viewedand treatedas mature adults.

adults through time, we must remember that these snapshots of development were powerfully influenced by cultural forces reflecting the ideas and values of a particular era. Childhood Childhood, according to the seventeenth-century French cleric Pierre de Berulle, is the most vile and abject state of human nature, after that of death. It is tempting to agreenot least as an antidote to all the sentimental nonsense surrounding the supposedly pure and innocent child of the Victorian era. Such extremes serve to remind us that childhood is a social construct, which changes over time and, no less importantly, varies between social and ethnic groups within any society. (Heywood, 2001, p. 9) Heywoods somewhat sarcastic words highlight a major obstacle in our attempt to understand children: Without understanding the context of the times how can we interpret childrens growth, development, and behavior? How does any society define child? Are children seen as miniature adults or youths with potential? What is appropriate for children? As you follow these paths, youll come to one inescapable conclusion that will guide your reading and understanding of the history of childhood: Any interpretation of childhood is a product of the prevailing view of children at any particular time. As Heywood (2001) notes in his history of childhood, if historians wish to understand children of the past, they must first discover how adults have viewed the young. Peter Hunt (1995, p. ix) also emphasizes this theme when he states that the concept of childhood changes constantly from period to period, place to place to place, culture to cultureperhaps even from child to child. Viewing children as miniature adults (and treating them this way) is quite different from recognizing the significance of the interactions of heredity and environment in a childs development. We begin to observe a difference in the manner in which societies viewed children when Greek and Roman scholars came to realize that ideal human development involved the cultivation of body and mind. With the gradual spread of

DaceyTraversFiore: Human Development Across the Lifespan, Seventh Edition

I. Introduction

1. Lifespan Psychology: An Introduction

The McGrawHill Companies, 2009

part

Introduction

Early societies such as the Greeks and Romans, although viewing children as small adults, nevertheless saw them as cheerful and playful.

Christianity, a small number of schools began to appear. But it wasnt until the invention of the printing press that a changing concept of childhood emerged and children entered the symbolic world of the written word. Children were slowly becoming objects of concern. Great philosophers such as Locke and Rousseau, for example, presented challenging, often contradictory, ideas of child rearing. As the concept of childhood became more accepted and subject to various interpretations, an important article by Charles Darwin that appeared in 1877 heralded a new and innovative analysis of childhood. Entitled Biographical Sketch of an Infant, it provided a scientific basis for studying children. When this was followed in 1882 by William Preyers The Mind of the Child, childhood was firmly entrenched as a separate subject deserving of study to answer growing questions about human development. The 19th century was to prove remarkably fertile in studies of child development, particularly with Alfred Binets study of intelligence and G. Stanleys Halls writings on childhood and adolescence. As the notion of childhood acquired more credit, no one assumed greater importance than did Sigmund Freud, who was among the first to emphasize the importance of the early years. Today children are viewed as the product of genetic, biological, behavioral, and contextual forces constantly interacting. And we see the same level of sophistication applied to the adolescent years. Adolescence: A Time of Storm, Stress, or Calm? Boy! I said. I also say Boy! quite a lot. Partly because I have a lousy vocabulary and partly because I act quite young for my age sometimes. I was 16 then and Im 17 now, and sometimes I act like Im about 13. Its really ironical, because Im six feet two and a half and I have gray hair. I really do. The one side of my headthe right sideis full of millions of gray hairs. Ive had them ever since I was a kid. And yet I still act sometimes like I was only about 12. Everybody says that, especially my father. Its partly true, too, but it isnt all true. (Salinger, 1945, p. 7) Here, in The Catcher in the Rye, Holden Caulfield provides a taste of adolescent thought. Storm and stress? Yes, some. Turbulence and uncertainty? Yes, some. But he also offers a thoughtful analysis of his own behavior. Perhaps the best way of

DaceyTraversFiore: Human Development Across the Lifespan, Seventh Edition

I. Introduction

1. Lifespan Psychology: An Introduction

The McGrawHill Companies, 2009

chapter

Lifespan Psychology: An Introduction

Sigmund Freud with daughter Anna.

thinking about adolescence is to realize that it begins in biology and ends in culture (Petersen, 1988). In other words, the physical maturation of human development initiates the process, but adolescent experiences strongly shape the nature and direction of behavior. Lerner and Galambos (1998, p. 414) nicely summarize the nuances of adolescence when they state that adolescence is that time when a persons biological, cognitive, psychological, and social characteristics are changing from what is considered childlike to what is considered adultlike. As with childhood, the concept of adolescence has changed remarkably through the years. Adolescents were seen as simply younger adults who were subject to strict rules and harsh discipline. Not until the Industrial Revolution in Western societies was the need for better education seen, and with the passage of child labor laws and a demand for universal school attendance came a separation of adolescents from children and adults (Grotevant, 1998). With the advent of the 20th century, adolescence, as a separate phase of development, was popularized by the writings and teachings of G. Stanley Hall. In his two-volume text Adolescence (1904), he popularized a label of adolescence that is still with us todaya time of storm and stress. But as the days of the 20th century dwindled and with the coming of the 21st century, continued speculation and research has changed the picture of adolescence again. Today most psychologists agree that the majority of adolescents have accepted the values and standards of their parents and that friction between the generations is only slightly higher than that of childhood (Dacey, Kenny, & Margolis, 2002). Musing about the internal and external changes of adolescence, Lerner and Galambos (1998) have identified a cluster of adolescent risk behaviors, certainly not the storm and stress of earlier interpretations of adolescence but more in the nature of modern challenges facing young adults. These include:

Substance Abuse. There is little doubt that adolescents drink, some heavily, and engage in widespread drug abuse. Sexual Behavior. It certainly comes as no surprise that young adults frequently engage in sex that produces sexually transmitted diseases and unwanted pregnancies, given the highly erotic nature of modern society.

DaceyTraversFiore: Human Development Across the Lifespan, Seventh Edition

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Introduction

The many faces of adolescence.

School Underachievement, Failure, and Dropout. About 25% of all elementary and secondary school students in the United States are at risk for school failure. Estimates are that the high school dropout rate has remained fairly consistent at 10%. Delinquency, Crime, and Violence. Youth gangs, youth unrest, youth violence are all familiar terms with which the public is too familiar and reflect both personal (personality) and societal conditions (poverty, environmental models).

Yet, in spite of these risk factorsthe temptations, the dangers, and the seductivenessmost of our young adults accept the challenges of their environment, adjust to the demands made on them, and, with adult patience and understanding, achieve their goals. Finally, we turn our attention to adulthood. Adulthood One life stage is not better or more virtuous than another. Adult development is neither a footrace nor a moral imperative. It is a road map to help us make sense of where we and where our neighbors might be located. It also contributes to our wholeness from which our word health is derived. In old age there are many losses and these may overwhelm us if we have not continued to grow beyond ourselves. (Vaillant, 2002, p. 50) Today we realize that lifespan development involves change throughout the lifespan, adulthood as well as infancy. As Baltes and his colleagues (2006) state, development is not complete at adulthood (maturity). Rather, development (change) reaches across the entire life course, and developmental changes involve lifelong adaptive processes unique for each phase of the life course, including adulthood.

Changing Perspectives on Aging

As an example of the changed view of aging, consider the results of the Seattle Longitudinal Study of Adult Intelligence (Schaie, 1994). Research suggests that as

DaceyTraversFiore: Human Development Across the Lifespan, Seventh Edition

I. Introduction

1. Lifespan Psychology: An Introduction

The McGrawHill Companies, 2009

chapter

Lifespan Psychology: An Introduction

11

people age, their physical stamina, memory, and cognitive processing dont decline as much as previously thought. Although some aspects of cognitive functioning lose a degree of efficiency (speed of processing for example), such losses in a healthy 60-, 70-, or 80-year-old is more than offset by gains in knowledge and skill due to experience. Analyzing the cause of an apparent decline in intelligence (as measured by intelligence tests), leads to several conclusions.

When physical health remains good, cognitive performance suffers only a slight decline. Sight, hearing, and motor coordination play key roles in maintaining the link between health and intellectual performance. Speed of response is the time taken to perform any task that involves the central nervous system such as perception, memory reasoning, and motor movement. It is the basis for efficient cognitive functioning, especially memory. Much of the decline in memory performance in the later years can be attributed to a decline in verbal speed. If nervous system involvement is slowed, cognitive performance declines because information may be lost during the required cognitive processing (Birren & Fisher, 1992). Attitude, especially in a testing situation, affects cognitive performance. Test anxiety lowers test scores when older adults find themselves in strange settings. They may fear that their memory will fail them; they may be uncomfortable with the tests problems; they may simply have an expectation of failure because of all theyve heard and read about the declining mental abilities of older adults.

As research continues to add to our knowledge of development, the concept of aging itself has also changed. Todays focus is on successful aging.

DaceyTraversFiore: Human Development Across the Lifespan, Seventh Edition

I. Introduction

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The McGrawHill Companies, 2009

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part

Introduction

These and similar reasons, either singly or in combination, have often led to an underestimation of older peoples intelligence. For example, reasoning, problem solving, and wisdom hold up well with age and may even improve. The Seattle Study showed that people with the higher scores, as you would expect, tended to be healthier and better educated, had higher incomes and stable marriages, and were still leading active, stimulating lives (Papalia & Olds, 2004). To conclude this discussion of aging, we turn once again to Vaillants study of aging. [W]isdom involves the toleration of ambiguity and paradox. To be wise about wisdom we need to accept that wisdom doesand wisdom does not increase with age. Age facilitates a widening social radius and more balanced ways of coping with adversity, but thus far no one can prove that wisdom is greater in old age. (Vaillant, 2002, p. 256) Thus we end this section as we began it: Different eras have conceived different views of the various developmental epochs. Consequently, these differences clearly call for us to appraise the meaning of development more closely.

AN APPLIED VIEW
Chart Your Own Lifespan
Endeavoring to illustrate how important knowledge of the lifespan is to each of us, Sugarman (1986) has devised a simple exercise that you can do quickly. Using a blank sheet of paper, assume that the left edge of the page represents the beginning of your life and the right edge where you are today. Now draw a line across the page that indicates the peaks and valleys that you have experienced so far. For example, the chart for one of the authors of this book (JFT) is shown below. In this chart, the first valley was a financial reversal for the authors parents. The first peak represents happy and productive high school years, followed by entry into teaching, and then marriage a few years later. The deep valley was a serious accident followed by years of recuperation and then the birth of children and the publication of a first book. You can see that it looks like a temperature chart. Try it for yourself.

Financial reversal

Marriage, School (high school, career college)

Accident

Birth of children, first book Death of parents

Sugarman (1986) suggested that when you finish, sit back and ask yourself these questions:

What happened during the plateaus? Whats my view of these highs and lows in my life?

Are there more peaks than valleys? Is there a definite shape to my chart? Would I identify my peaks and valleys as major or minor? What caused the peaks and valleys? Could I have done anything to make the peaks higher and the valleys more shallow?

You have drawn a picture of your lifespan, and the questions that you have just answered are the subject matter of lifespan development.

DaceyTraversFiore: Human Development Across the Lifespan, Seventh Edition

I. Introduction

1. Lifespan Psychology: An Introduction

The McGrawHill Companies, 2009

chapter

Lifespan Psychology: An Introduction

13

Guided Review
5. The infancy period extends from 6. Later adulthood includes the years over to . . . . viewed children. years. 7. Interpretations of the lifespan should reflect the reality of 8. Questions persist as to whether adolescence is a time of storm and 9. wrote an important analysis of childhood that appeared in 1877. 10. One of the great fictional classics of adolescence is 11. Any view of childhood is shaped by how

THE IMPORTANCE OF BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL INTERACTIONS

biopsychosocial interactions The idea that development proceeds by the interaction of biological, psychological, and social forces.

To aid our understanding of human development, we have turned to an examination of biopsychosocial interactions, that is, the influence of genetic, biological, environmental, and social forces on development. In this model, development is considered to result from the interaction of genetic, environmental, social, and biological processes. Thinking of lifespan development as the product of the interaction of biological, environmental, as well as psychological forces, helps us to better understand and appreciate the complexity of development. Consequently, the goal of lifespan psychology is to probe the multiple and integrated layers (genetic, physical, behavioral, environmental) that drive development.

Understanding Childrens Cultures

culture The values, beliefs, and behaviors characteristic of a large group of peoplefor example, those of Hispanic origin.

We think its important to recognize the contributions that a particular culture makes to the development of its children. Think of culture as the customs, values, and traditions inherent in ones environment, that is, the features that define values and styles of life (Rutter & Nikapota, 2006). Different cultures have different developmental expectations for their children. Asian children, for example, are encouraged to avoid emotional displays, a characteristic that does not necessarily apply to Asian-American

We pride ourselves on being a nation of immigrants, a country that welcomes newcomers with the promise of unrestricted opportunity. To achieve this objective during a time of increasing immigration demands consideration and tolerance for those of different color, nationality, and beliefs. Can you make several suggestions for achieving this objective?

Answers

5. birth, 2 6. 65 7. change 8. calm 9. Darwin 10. The Catcher in the Rye 11. adults

DaceyTraversFiore: Human Development Across the Lifespan, Seventh Edition

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Introduction

A S O C I O C U LT U R A L V I E W

The Impact of the Cultural Climate

We are a country of Muslims, atheists, Jews, Christians, Hindus, and devout spiritualists without a specific religious affiliation. We celebrate the winter solstice, Hanukkah, Christmas, Kwanza, and Ramadan. We brought longstanding cultural traditions and rites of passage from Haiti, Laos, Ghana, El Salvador, France, Germany, England, and Samoa, among countless others. Many of our children are taken through rites of passage that include bar mitzvahs, inceneros, debutante balls, and gang initiation. (Muse, 1997, p. 285) Perhaps nowhere are these words brought to life more dramatically than in the American classroom. A good example of this kind of endeavor can be seen in Kims (1990) description of Hawaiian childrens school experiences. Many Hawaiian children achieve at the lowest academic level and are labeled as lazy and disruptive by some teachers. Yet these same children are remarkably responsible at homecooking, cleaning, and taking care of their brothers and sisters. They demonstrate considerable initiative and a high performance level. When something needs to be done, they get together and make a group effort to do whatever is necessary. When they find themselves in an individualistic, competitive classroom, however, their performance suffers. In a series of experiments, teachers were encouraged to model desired behaviors and not assign specific tasks to students. By the end of the academic year, the students would begin the day by examining the schedules of their learning centers and then divide themselves into groups that assigned

tasks to individual members, obtained materials, and used worksheets. Although their achievement scores improved significantly, once the students were returned to regular classrooms for the fourth grade, a familiar pattern of problems appeared (Kim, 1990). The classroom is not the only location in which cultures merge. In the business world, people of various cultures work side by side; those designated as minorities may have leadership positions in which members of the dominant culture report to them. As companies become more global and as the number of international markets increases steadily, the workplace is beginning to resemble the classroom as a meeting place of cultures. Our goal in urging you to adopt a multicultural perspective is to help you reach a level of significant understanding of people who seem different. If you adopt this perspective, you will come to realize that different people have different worldviews that decisively influence their thinking. People from different cultures do not all think alike. Recognizing how diverse people are in their thinking and behavior will help you to identify and comprehend variations in peoples backgrounds and how they become functioning members of their culture. In this way, you will work, play, and study more congenially with others, thus fostering more positive relations in our society. Finally, cultural awareness should also make us aware that we are all alike in important ways. Its mainly in our behavior, the manner in which we deal with the demands of our environments, that we differ.

children. We also urge you to remember that the equation biology plus environment equals development plays out within the confines of a particular culture. To help you grasp the significance of culture in development, remember that there are three answers to the question: How well do you understand the cultures of your friends, workmates, and your neighbors? 1. You may understand at a superficial level; that is, you know only the facts that make up a persons cultural history. 2. You may understand at an intermediate level; that is, you understand the central behaviors that are at the core of a persons social life. Language usage is a good example here. Does a childs culture tolerate, even encourage, calling out in class, for example, which could be a major problem for teachers not familiar with the acceptable behaviors of this childs culture? 3. You may understand at a significant level; that is, you grasp the values, beliefs, and norms that structure a persons view of the world and how to behave in that world. In other words, you change psychologically as a result of your interactions with a different culture (Casas & Pytluk, 1995). Consequently, as we begin our work of studying lifespan development we want to impress on you the need to be aware that different does not mean deficient.

DaceyTraversFiore: Human Development Across the Lifespan, Seventh Edition

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Lifespan Psychology: An Introduction

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We have integrated examples of the cultural influence on development in a dual manner: through A Sociocultural View boxes and by age-specific examples. In this way we hope to accomplish several objectives:

To understand the relationship between culture and development. To identify the values and attitudes that promote healthy development. To trace the impact of cultural transmission, such as parenting practices and the influence of peers, schools, and media. To assess current cultural change initiatives, such as intervention programs in the United States, and program development in other countries, such as Perus Human Development Institute, which encourages development through the schools (Harrison, 2000).

Contributors to Biopsychosocial Interactions

If you examine Table 1.2 carefully, youll note several characteristics listed for the biological, psychological, and social aspects of interactions. These certainly arent exhaustive but indicate several developmental features that affect growth during the lifespan. More importantly, however, we would like you to think about the interactions that occur among the three categories and how these interactions affect development, which is known as the epigenetic view of development. A leading proponent of this view, Gilbert Gottlieb, has defined epigenesis as an increase in novelty and complexity of organization over time (Gottlieb, Wahlsten, & Lickliter, 2006). These changes in process and function occur as the result of interactions between the organism and the environment at four levels: genetic, neural, behavioral, and environmental. To give a simple example, genetic damage (biological) may negatively affect cognitive development (psychological), and lead to poor peer relationships (social). We believe that by recognizing the significance of biopsychosocial interactions, youll better understand and remember the material of any chapter. This perspective also helps to emphasize those social-cultural features that so powerfully influence development through the lifespan.

T A B L E 1.2

Elements of Biopsychosocial Interactions

Bio Genetics Fertilization Pregnancy Birth Physical Development Motor Development Puberty Menstruation Disease

Psycho Cognitive Development Information Processing Problem Solving Perceptual Development Language Development Moral Development Self-Efficacy Personality Body Image

Social Attachment Relationships Reciprocal Interactions School Peers Television Stress Marriage Family

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12. The biopsychosocial model illustrates the interaction of in development. and 13. The values, beliefs, and behaviors that characterize a large group of people refer to that groups . 14. You react to a culture at the of understanding. , , or level

ISSUES IN LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT

In lifespan psychology, as in any discipline, several issues or themes appear with sufficient frequency to warrant special mention. Here well discuss two issues that affect your understanding of development and that appear repeatedly throughout the book.

Continuity versus Discontinuity

In 1980 Orville Brim and Jerome Kagan published Constancy and Change in Human Development, which highlighted a long-simmering controversy among developmental psychologists. Arguing that humans have a capacity for change across the lifespan, Brim and Kagan brought new life to the question How do these changes occur? Does each new stage of development contain most of the structures that appeared in an earlier stage (Kagan, 1998)? Do you think you are basically the same person you were when you were 3 years old? 12 years old? 20 years old? Or do you feel quite different? How would you explain your answer? These questions introduce the issue of continuity versus discontinuity; that is, do developmental changes appear as the result of a slow but steady progression (continuity) or as the result of abrupt changes and stages (discontinuity)? As a rather dramatic illustration, consider the phenomenon known as attachment in infancy. Sometime after 6 months of age, babies begin to show a decided preference for a particular adult, usually the mother. We then say that the infant has attached to the mother. During any time of stressanxiety, illness, appearance of strangersthe baby will move to the preferred adult. With regard to continuity or discontinuity, does attachment appear suddenly as completely new and different behavior, or do subtle clues signal its arrival? (For an excellent summary of current research, see Thompson, 2000.) Continuities and discontinuities appear in all our lives because the term development implies change. Puberty, leaving home, marriage, and career all serve to shape psychological functioning. Continuities occur, however, because our initial experiences, our early learning, and our temperaments remain with us. The form of the behavior may change over the years, but the underlying processes remain the same. For example, the conduct disorders of childhood (stealing, fighting, truancy) may become the violence of adulthood (theft, spousal abuse, child abuse, murder, personality disorders). Surface dissimilarities may be evident in the types of behavior, but the processes that cause both kinds of behavior may be identical, thus arguing for continuity in development (Rutter & Rutter, 1993).

continuity The lasting quality of experiences; development proceeds steadily and sequentially. discontinuity Behaviors that are apparently unrelated to earlier aspects of development.

development The changes that occur in the lifespan.

Answers

12. heredity, environment 13. culture 14. superficial, intermediate, significant

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Other behaviors in our lives, however, seem to be quite different from those that preceded them; for example, walking and talking. We also negotiate transitions at appropriate times in our lives, such as leaving home, beginning a career, getting married, adjusting to the birth of children. Events such as these have caused some developmental psychologists, such as Michael Lewis (1997), to note that accidents, wars, famines, disease, and chance encounters have always been our bedfellows. Consequently, Lewis believes that the study of developmental change is actually the study of complex, often random, and certainly unpredictable conditions. Most developmental psychologists now believe that both continuity and discontinuity characterize development. As Lerner notes (2002, p. 118), any developmental change may be characterized as being either continuous or discontinuous and either stable or unstable.

Nature versus Nurture

An enduring issue in developmental psychology has been the question of which exercises a greater influence on development, our inborn tendencies (nature) or our surrounding world (nurture)? Again, most developmental psychologists lean toward an interplay between these two forces in shaping development. We (the authors) would argue strongly that the interaction between genes and environment explains the individual developmental path each of us follows through our lifespan. Lerner (2002, p. 89) has neatly summarized this argument as follows. 1. Nature and nurture are both involved in the production of behavior. 2. Consequently, they cannot function in isolation from each other but must interact. 3. The resulting interaction implies that both nature and nurture are completely intertwined. Perhaps Bjorklund (2005, p. 7) summarized this issue as well as anyone can when he stated that, for developmental psychologists, there is no nature-nurture controversy because biological factors are inseparable from experiential factors, with the two constantly interacting. It is how they interact that produces a particular pattern of development. These issues help to identify lifespan psychology as a dynamic discipline, one with great theoretical and practical implications. But, as fascinating as these issues are, we cant forget the integrated nature of development. With these ideas in mind to use as we interpret developmental data, we turn now to those research techniques that developmental psychologists use in resolving questions about the lifespan.

Guided Review
15. Developmental psychologists are mainly interested in change occurs. 16. Those who believe that developmental change occurs because of a slow and . steady progression believe in 17. Todays developmental psychologists interpret the influence of nature and nurture as one of an between the two.

Answers

15. how 16. continuity 17. interaction

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DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH
Having identified several key developmental issues and theoretical viewpoints, it is time to ask: How can we obtain reliable data about these topics so that we may better understand them? Today we use many approaches to understanding human behavior. Each has its strengths and weaknesses; none is completely reliable. Most developmental psychologists employ one of three data collection methods: (1) descriptive studies, (2) manipulative experiments, and (3) naturalistic experiments. In the first type, information is gathered on subjects without manipulating them in any way. In the second two, an experiment is performed before the information is gathered. Developmental psychologists also use one of four time-variable designs: one-time, one-group studies; longitudinal studies; cross-sectional studies; and a combination of the last two, called sequential studies. Each type of study varies according to the effect of time on the results.

Data Collection Techniques

The three data collection techniques are described and explained in the following sections.

Descriptive Studies
descriptive studies Gather information on subjects without manipulating them in any way.

Descriptive studies are quite common. Most are numerically descriptive; for example, how many 12-year-olds versus 17-year-olds think the government is doing a good job? How much money does the average 40-year-old woman have to spend

AN APPLIED VIEW
When Are Research References Too Old?
Probably for the rest of your career, you will be reading researcharticles, chapters in books, monographs, and so on. When should you decide that a reference is too old to be credible any longer? As with so many aspects of social science, the answer is it all depends. Guidelines exist, however, so lets try to understand them by looking at several references. Before reading our decision, you might try to guess what a good judgment would be. As many as one-third of adolescents receive less than 70% of their minimum daily requirement for the most common minerals, such as calcium and iron (U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1972). Since eating habits of adolescents are likely to change with the times (depending, among other things, on the economic condition of the country), this statistic is unreliable, because about 30 years have passed since the data were collected. Although the average number of homosexuals who are contracting AIDS each year is decreasing, homosexuals are still the most vulnerable group (U.S. National Center for Health Statistics, 1990). This study is much more recent, but it too is suspect because we know that the AIDS epidemic is changing very rapidly. In fact, heterosexual females are now experiencing the greatest rate of increase per capita. Noise-induced hearing loss is recognized as the second most common cause of irreversible hearing loss in older persons (Surjan et al., 1973). Here is another study that is quite dated, but because there is no known reason to believe that aging factors have changed much over the years, if the study was well designed, we may still accept the results. The major crisis in the first year and one-half of human life is the establishment of basic trust (Erikson, 1963). This statement is not a research finding but rather represents Eriksons belief as reflected in his psychosocial theory of human development. As such, it is accurate because that is exactly what Erikson said. Can you think of other factors that influence the timeliness of research references? Can you think of other criteria for judging them?

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per week? How many pregnant teenage girls were or were not using birth control? How happily or unhappily does the average 66-year-old man view his sex life? Some studies (called self-report studies) ask people their opinions about themselves or other people. These studies may use interviews or questionnaires. Other studies (called observational studies) describe people simply by counting the number and the types of their behaviors. A third type of study, the case study, presents data on an individual or individuals in great detail, in order to make generalizations about a particular age group. An example of the case-study approach is Mack and Hicklers Vivienne: The Life and Suicide of an Adolescent Girl (1982). After Viviennes death, the researchers obtained the familys permission to read her diary, poems, and letters. They also interviewed her relatives, friends, and teachers to shed light on her thinking as she came closer and closer to committing this tragic act. Although their findings may explain the suicide of only this one person, the researchers hope was to discover the variables that caused such a decision. A more recent case-study approach is of the biographical type. For example, Gardner (1997) closely examined the biographies of four eminent persons: Wolfgang Mozart, Sigmund Freud, Virginia Woolf, and Mahatma Gandhi. From these four cases, he built a new theory about creative innovation. Descriptive studies have the advantage of generating a great deal of data. Because the sequence of events is not under the observers control, however, causes and effects cannot be determined; that is, just because two variables are associated does not mean that one causes the other. Typically, the association between variables is established through a statistical technique known as correlation. This technique provides a numerical evaluation of how great the degree of association is between any two variables. For instance, height and weight are associated with each other, but not perfectly. The taller people are, the more they weigh, but this is not always true; the correlation between height and weight for a typical sample of people is moderately high. Although there is a definite association, we would not say the height causes weight, or vice versa they are simply correlated. We examine the correlation between variables to see how high they are. If high, we may want to set up experiments to further examine the relationship.

Manipulative Experiments
manipulative experiments The experimenter attempts to keep all variables (all the factors that can affect a particular outcome) constant except one, which is carefully manipulated. treatment The variable that the experimenter manipulates.

In the quest for the causes of behavior, psychologists have designed many manipulative experiments. In these, the investigators attempt to keep all variables (all the factors that can affect a particular outcome) constant except one, which they carefully manipulate; this is called a treatment. If differences occur in the results of the experiment, they can be attributed to the variable that was manipulated in the treatment. The experimental subjects must respond to some test the investigator selects to determine the effect of the treatment. Figure 1.1 illustrates this procedure. In the figure, E is the experimental group and C is the control group, which receives no special treatment; x stands for the treatment; and the lowercase b and a refer to measurements done before and after the experiment. The two groups must have no differences between them, either before or during the experiment (except the treatment). Otherwise, the results remain questionable. An example would be a study in which 6th- and 7th-grade inner-city students were taught relaxation techniques as part of a conflict prevention program (Dacey,

F I G U R E 1.1
The classic experiment
Eb X Ea

Cb

Ca

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deSalvatore, & Robinson, 1997). Most students benefited from the instruction, but boys were much more apt to use the physiological relaxation technique taught in the program, whereas girls were more likely to employ the cognitive method that was taught. Though manipulative experiments often can lead us to discover what causes what in life, they have some problems. How do you know your results are reliable? Was the treatment similar to normal conditions? Do subjects see themselves as special because you picked them and thus react atypically? For these reasons, researchers may turn to naturalistic experiments.

Naturalistic Experiments
naturalistic experiments The researcher acts solely as an observer and does as little as possible to disturb the environment. Nature performs the experiment, and the researcher acts as a recorder of the results.

In naturalistic experiments, the researcher acts solely as an observer and does as little as possible to disturb the environment. Nature performs the experiment, and the researcher acts as a recorder of the results. (Note: Do not confuse these experiments with descriptive studies that are done in a natural setting, such as a park; those are not experiments.) An example is the study of the effects of the Northeast blizzard of 1978 by Nuttall and Nuttall (1980). These researchers compared the reactions of those people whose homes were destroyed with the reactions of people whose homes suffered only minor damage. Only with a naturalistic experiment do we have any chance of discovering causes and effects in real-life settings. The main challenges with this technique are that it requires great patience and objectivity, and it is impossible to meet the strict requirements of a true scientific experiment.

Time-Variable Designs
In the following sections, well describe the four time-variable designs.

One-Time, One-Group Studies

one-time, one-group studies Studies carried out only once on one group of studies.

As the name implies, one-time, one-group studies are those that are carried out only once on one group of subjects. Thus investigating causes and effects is impossible because the sequence of events cannot be known.

Longitudinal Studies
longitudinal studies The experimenter makes several observations of the same individuals at two or more times in their lives. Examples are determining the longterm effects of learning on behavior; the stability of habits and intelligence; and the factors involved in memory.

The longitudinal study, which makes several observations of the same individuals at two or more times in their lives, can answer important questions. Examples are determining the long-term effects of learning on behavior; the stability of habits and intelligence; and the factors involved in memory. A good example of a longitudinal growth study is that of Werner and Smith (1992), who investigated the long-term effects of birth problems. They found that, even when the problems were of a serious nature, some children proved to be remarkably resilient. The chief advantage of the longitudinal method is that it permits the discovery of lasting habits and of the periods in which they appear. A second advantage is the possibility of tracing those adult behaviors that have changed since early childhood. Longitudinal research, however, has many problems. It is expensive and often hard to maintain because of changes in availability of researchers and subjects. Changes in the environment can also distort the results. For example, if you began in 1960 to study changes in political attitudes of youths from 10 to 20 years of age, you would probably have concluded that adolescents become more and more radical as they grow older. But the war in Vietnam would surely have had much to do with this finding. The results of the same study done between 1970 and 1980 would probably not show this trend toward the left. And today the data would show something else again.

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F I G U R E 1.2
Comparison of the longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches

Crosssectional 10-yearolds 12-yearolds 14-yearolds Longitudinal 10-yearolds 1998 12-yearolds 2000 14-yearolds 2002 16-yearolds 2004 16-yearolds 18-yearolds 2006

Cross-Sectional Studies
cross-sectional studies Compare groups of individuals of various ages at the same time in order to investigate the effects of aging.

Cross-sectional studies compare groups of individuals of various ages at the same time to investigate the effects of aging. For example, if you want to know how creative thinking changes or grows during adolescence, you could administer creativity tests to groups of 10-, 12-, 14-, 16-, and 18-year-olds and check on the differences of the average scores of the five groups. Jaquish and Ripple (1980) did this, but their subjects ranged in age from 10 to 84! As with each of the other research designs, a problem occurs with this method. Although careful selection can minimize the effects of cultural change, it is possible that the differences you may find may be due to differences in age cohort, rather than maturation. Age cohorts are groups of people born at about the same time. Each cohort has had different experiences throughout its history, and this fact can affect the results as well as the actual differences in age. Figure 1.2 compares the longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches.

Sequential (Longitudinal/Cross-Sectional) Studies

sequential (longitudinal/ cross-sectional) studies A cross-sectional study done at several times with the same groups of individuals.

When a cross-sectional study is done at several times with the same groups of individuals (such as administering creativity tests to the same five groups of youth, but at three different points in their lives), the problems mentioned before can be alleviated. Table 1.3 illustrates such a study. Although sequential research is complicated and expensive, it may be the only type that is capable of answering important questions in the complex and fast-changing times in which we live.

T A B L E 1.3

Illustration of a Sequential (Longitudinal/ Cross-Sectional) Study

CREATIVITY TEST

Test 1 March 4, 1999 Group A (12 years old) Group B (14 years old) Group C (16 years old) Mean score 1999

Test 2 March 4, 2001 Group A (14 years old) Group B (16 years old) Group C (18 years old) Mean score 2001

Test 3 March 4, 2003 Group A (16 years old) Group B (18 years old) Group C (20 years old) Mean score 2003 Mean Score Group A Mean Score Group B Mean Score Group C

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T A B L E 1.4

Relationships of Data Collection Techniques and Time-Variable Designs

DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES

Time-Variable Designs One-time, one-group Longitudinal Cross-sectional Sequential

Descriptive

Manipulated

Naturalistic

Table 1.4 shows how each of the data collection methods may be combined with each of the time-variable designs. For each of the cells in this table, a number of actual studies could serve as examples. Can you see where each study mentioned in this section would go?

AN APPLIED VIEW
Understanding the Research Article
As you continue your reading and work in lifespan development, your instructor will undoubtedly ask you to review pertinent articles that shed light on the topic youre studying. Many of these articles present the results of an experiment that reflects the scientific method. The typical research article contains four sections: the Introduction, the Method section, the Results section, and Discussion (Moore, 1983). Well review each of these sections using a well-designed studyThe Effects of Early Education on Childrens Competence in Elementary School, published in Evaluation Review (Bronson, Pierson, & Tivnan, 1984)to illustrate each of the four sections. chosen?), describes any tests that were used, and summarizes the steps taken to carry out the study. In the study by Bronson and associates, the subjects were 169 2nd-grade children who had been in an early education program and 169 other children who had not been in the preschool program. The outcome measure was a classroom observation instrument. The authors then explained in considerable detail how they observed the pupils.

3. The Results Section

In the results section, the results gathered on the subjects is presented, together with the statistics that help us to interpret the data. In the article we are using, the authors present their data in several clear tables and show differences between the two groups using appropriate statistics.

1. The Introduction
The introductory section states the purpose of the article (usually as an attempt to solve a problem) and predicts the outcome of the study (usually in the form of hypotheses). The introduction section also contains a review of the literature. In the introductory section of the article by Bronson and associates, the researchers state that their intent is to coordinate the effects of early education programs on the performance of pupils in elementary school. They concisely review the pertinent research and suggest a means of evaluating competence.

4. Discussion
Finally, the authors of any research article will discuss the importance of what they found (or did not find) and relate their findings to theory and previous research. In the Bronson article, the authors report that the pupils who had experienced any early education program showed significantly greater competence in the second grade. The authors conclude by noting the value of these programs in reducing classroom behavior problems and improving pupils competence. Dont be intimidated by research articles. Look for the important features and determine how the results could help you to understand peoples behavior at a particular age.

2. The Method Section

The method section informs the reader about the subjects in the experiment (Who were they? How many? How were they

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F I G U R E 1.3
A comparison of research techniques
Par retr ental osp and ect ive biogra stu p Cas die hical es s tud ies Num stu erica die l de s scr ipti ve Lon g cro itudi ssn sec al/ tion al s Lon tud ies gitu din al s tud ies Cro sssec tion al s Na tud tura ies list ic e xpe rim Ma ent nip s ula tive exp erim ent s

Least controlled, most inclusive

Most controlled, least inclusive

To conclude this section, Figure 1.3 compares the various research techniques. By controlled, we mean the degree to which the investigator can control the relevant variables. By inclusive, we mean the degree to which all relevant information is included in the data.

Guided Review
18. In a manipulative experiment, the experimenter attempts to keep all the variables constant except one, which is called the . 19. A study that observes the same individuals two or more times in their lives is study. known as a 20. Comparing groups of individuals of various ages at the same time is an example of research.

Answers

CONCLUSION & SUMMARY

In this chapter we urged you to think about lifespan development as a rich, multilayered complex of interactions. We presented a model of development the biopsychosocial modelthat forms the structure of this book. We urge you to use this model to help you grasp and retain the material and meaning of the various chapters. We have also identified the age groups that constitute the lifespan and that are the focus of this book. As a result of reading about the strengths and weaknesses of different research methods, you should be more analytical and critical of the studies that are presented. Lifespan study can aid us in adjusting to a society in which rapid change seems to be an inevitable process. By acquiring insights into your own development and recognizing the developmental characteristics of people of differing ages, you can hope to have more harmonious relationships with others. The timing of experiences as well as the transitions during the lifespan help us to gain insights into developmental processes. Development cannot be explained by age alone.

How would you define and describe lifespan development?

As psychologists realized that development did not cease at adolescence but continued into adulthood and old age, lifespan psychology assumed an important place in developmental psychology. To understand development is to accept the positive and negative features of change.

How have views of lifespan development changed over the years?

Children today are seen as complex individuals who develop subject to the interaction of many external and internal factors. Conflicting interpretations of adolescence (storm, stress, or calm) continue to rage today.

18. treatment 19. longitudinal 20. cross-sectional

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The adult years are no longer seen as a time devoid of change until decline sets in.

What are the different views of lifespan development?

A biological interpretation of development emphasizes the powerful impact the genes have on development. The bioecological model recognizes the importance of proximal processes in development. The need for more sophisticated perspectives on development has highlighted the place of reciprocal interactions in development.

person, from the genetic to the environmental levels. Analyzing development from a biopsychosocial perspective helps to identify the complexities of human development.

The controversy over stability versus change continues to divide developmental psychologists. Resiliency is a fact of human development that requires cautious interpretation.

What are the major issues in lifespan development?

If it is to present a complete picture of development, any analysis of lifespan development must address key developmental issues, such as the importance of culture and development. Many psychologists believe that development occurs as a steady progression of small accomplishments (for example, most infants begin to move on the floor by pulling themselves on their stomachs; they then move to a position on their hands and knees and move much more quickly, which is an example of continuous development); other psychologists believe that development occurs in spurts or stages, such as the marked difference between crawling and walking, which is an example of discontinuity.

What is the role of research in studying lifespan development?

To explain the various ages and stages of development, we must use the best data available to enrich our insights and to provide a thoughtful perspective on the lifespan. Good data demand careful research methods; otherwise, we would be constantly suspicious of our conclusions. The most widely used research techniques include descriptive studies, manipulative experiments, and naturalistic experiments. Developmental psychologists also use four time-variable designs: onetime, one-group; longitudinal studies; cross-sectional studies; and sequential studies.

What role do biopsychosocial interactions play in lifespan development?

Biopsychosocial interactions in human development refer to the interactions of biological, psychological, and social forces. Biopsychosocial interactions occur at multiple levels of the developing

KEY TERMS
biopsychosocial interactions continuity cross-sectional studies culture descriptive studies discontinuity lifespan psychology longitudinal studies manipulative experiments naturalistic experiments One-time, one-group studies sequential studies time-variable designs treatment

WHAT DO YOU THINK?

1. We urged you to refer to the biopsychosocial model as you continue your reading of the text. Can you explain its potential value? Now think of an example in your own life, or in the life of a family member, and describe how biological, psychological, and social factors interacted to produce a particular effect. Do you think the model helped you to explain that persons behavior? 2. We presented several issues that thread their way through lifespan studies; for example, culture and development and continuity versus discontinuity. Why do you think these are issues? Examine each one separately and defend your reasons for stating that each has strong developmental implications. 3. Throughout the chapter, we have stressed the important role that the environment or context plays in development. What do you think of this emphasis? Think about your own life and the influences (both positive and negative) that those around you have had. Cite these personal experiences in your answer.

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CHAPTER REVIEW TEST

1. Development is about a. change. b. age. c. gender. d. genes. 2. Development is a. a lifelong process. b. age focused. c. topically restricted. d. circular in nature. 3. Lifespan psychology assumes that development is a. unidimensional. b. chronologically explained. c. multidimensional. d. age limited. 4. Understanding childhood at any historical period depends on what think of children. a. peers b. scientists c. siblings d. adults 5. A model that uses the interaction of biological, psychological, and social influences to explain development is the a. psychoanalytic. b. cognitive. c. biopsychosocial. d. behavioral. 6. One of the first outstanding theorists to recognize the importance of the early years was a. Skinner. b. Freud. c. Bandura. d. Hebb. 7. Lifespan psychologists cannot focus solely on for explanation. a. maturation b. genes c. schooling d. age 8. When we refer to the values, beliefs, and characteristics of a people, we are referring to a. culture. b. race. c. ethnicity. d. customs. 9. Adolescence begins in ends in . a. biology, culture b. school, marriage c. structures, schema d. ego, superego and 11. When an experimenter keeps all variables constant but one, that one is called a. determined. b. predicted. c. descriptive. d. treatment. 12. An example of a cross-sectional study is a. comparing individuals of various ages at the same time. b. continued observations of the same individuals. c. careful description by the researcher. d. one that requires no manipulation. 13. The typical research article contains four sections. Which item is not included in a research article? a. introduction b. method c. results d. author biography

10. Descriptive studies a. determine cause and effect. b. manipulate variables. c. require experimenter control. d. generate considerable data.

Answers

1. a 2. a 3. c 4. d 5. c 6. b 7. d 8. a 9. a 10. d 11. d 12. a 13. d