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1

2010


()

(2009-10)
:




. &
20/2/2010

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. 1 .

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. 1 .

. 1 .

. &

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,
.

10

. &

6

. 216
1.


.
.
. ( . 196 6.1, 1 ).

2.

..

( . 197, 6.2, 2 ).

3.

modem :
. .
. .
. ( . 197, 6.2 1).

4.

Internet WAN . ,
, /
.
( )

5.

1 ..
.
( )

6.

.
( )

7.

.25, .
( )

8.

.25
;
( )

9.

.
ISDN

, -

10. ISDN;
ISDN :
. ' '
, .
, (common channel signaling).

(, , ).

modem . 198, 6.3, 2 . ,


.
11

.

.
( . 203)

11. ISDN , .
.
.
. ( . 205, 2 ).
12. Frame Relay
( )

13. Frame Relay


; .
( )
14. CIR;
( )
15. , ;
( )
16. :
. .
. 43 byte.
. .
( )
17. :
.
.
( )
18. CD
622 Mbps;
( )
19.
xDSL;
xDSL .
(loading coils) ,
. 3 8 KHz (voice band).
( . 210, ).
20. ADSL SDSL;
ADSL
(downstream,
upstream). SDSL
.. , .
( . 211, 212).
12

. &

21.
.
( )

WAN
.

22. 4
.
( )
23. , ,
64 Kbps. ,
.
24. , Internet Web,
. ISDN , ;
( )

7
INTERNET
. 290
1.


:
.
.
.
.
.
. ( 7.1.1, 2 , . 220).

2.

( . 222 . 224)
3.

:
TCP/IP internet
Internet

Intranet

, TCP/IP
TCP/IP
,
Internet
WWW

13

TCP/IP internet

,
TCP/IP

Internet
Intranet

TCP/IP

,
Internet
WWW

4.

OSI TCP/IP
.

,
M.
TCP/IP ) )
OSI
TCP/IP ) )
) OSI.
5.

,
, :
.
.
.
.
. , . . . . , .

6.

TCP port ;
TCP ,
16 bit TCP .
TCP TCP (TCP port)
.
, TCP port ,
. TCP
port
.
TCP port
.
14

. &

TCP port :
TCP port
. , , (File Transfer
Protocol, FTP) TCP port 21. ,
, TCP port 21. O
FTP , TCP port
21 .
7.

TCP;
TCP,

.
, TCP.

. ,
.

.
,

.

.
, 12001
1000, 12001Byte
13000 Byte.

8.

,

TCP port.
,
:

( , , )
TCP port
. TCP port
TCP ,
15

. ,
TCP port
,
.
9.

TCP
TCP , :




10. TCP ;
O TCP , TCP . ,
.
, ,
, . ,
( ,
IP ) ,
. TCP
,
.
TCP :
.
TCP port .
11. UDP port ;
UDP (UDP port) UDP
. UDP port
16 bit, UDP .
UDP, UDP port. UDP port .
UDP port UDP ,
TCP port.
12. :
. To UDP
. To UDP TCP
. To UDP TCP
. To UDP , TCP
. ( 7.4 . 240, , 2 ).
. ( 7.4 . 240, ).
. ( 7.4 . 240, , , ).
16

. &

. ( 7.4 . 240, ).
13. , UDP, TCP;
. , (7.4 . 240, 1
), (7.4 . 240, 2 ).
14. , IP:
. 64 byte
. 64 Kbyte
. 64 Mbyte
. 128 Kbyte
. ( 7.5 . 242, 2 ).
15. P
.
:

, .
243, 244.
16. , , DF, MF
5.000 byte
20 byte,
820 byte.
, , .
5000 byte ,
820 byte. 820 byte.
T , , 20 byte. 800
byte.
5000 800
,
5000/800=6 7 5000 byte 6X800
byte = 200 byte.
DF 0 .
MF 1,
, 7 220 byte (200 + 20 ), MF 0.

17

, :
1 =0.
2 =800/8=100.
3 =1600/8=200.
4 =2400/8=300.
5 =3200/8=400.
6 =4000/8=500.
7 =4800/8=600.
:

(byte)
byte)
(byte)
1

DF

MF

5
800

820

800

820

100

800

820

200

800

820

300

800

820

400

800

820

500

200

220

600

(20)
2

5
(20)

5
(20)

5
(20)

5
(20)

5
(20)

5
(20)

17. IP DF 1 ,
;

,
.
DF , , 1.

.

18

. &

, . ,
.
18. DF MF ;
, MF 0.
, DF 1 DF
0.
19. IP 0 MF
1. ;
MF=1
. 0, .
.
20. IP 200
MF 1. ;
MF=1
. 200, . .
21. IP 1.500 DF 1
1.500 . 2.000 4.470 . ;
DF 1. 2000 4470 1500 , . [
1500
, ].
22. IP 1.500 100 DF 0 1.500 . 2.000 . 1.500 .
; , , : , MF, DF
.
1500 ,
. DF 0,

1500 .
,
2000 1500 .
23. IP 1.500 100 DF 0 1.500 . 628 2 .
1.500 .
; , , 2

625.
5 (=20 byte) .
19

: , MF, DF
.
1500 628 ,
. ,
5 = 5 32 bit = 160 bit = 20 byte. 1480 byte. H
608 byte (+20 byte , 628 byte). : 608
byte 1480 608 608 = 264 byte. DF 0 (fragment). MF
1 0.
:
1 : 0.
2 : 608/8 = 76.
3 1216/8=152.
100.
:

32 bit

(fragment)

(byte)


(byte)
(byte)

DF

MF

608

820

100

608

820

100

76

264

284

100

152

(20)

(20)

(20)

24. MAC .
48 bit.
24 bit OUI (Organization Unique
Identifier).
bit (/G)
(0, 1 ). 1,
, .
bit OUI 1, ,
).
bit (U/L) .
0, IEEE,
1, . O , ,
, , IEEE,
.
20

. &

, ,
, ,
IEEE.
22 bits ,
IEEE .
24 bits ,
. ,
(OUI) IEEE, ,
Ethernet, ,
, (24 bits
) .
, ,
(OUI).
25. IP .
,
187.164.72.38.
8bit. , 48=32, 32 bit.
: ,
:

,
.
26. IP , ;
()
, , B, C, D ,
.


. , (
) ,
(.. ).
27. .

. .
(.250,251 ), (
) 0. ,
7 bit ( ),
27=128 .
, 00000000 01111111.
00000000 ,
, 00000001 01111111.
1 127.
, 1.0.0.0
127.255.255.255

21

. .
255.0.0.0. ,
(.250,251 )

. , 255.255.254 3
111111111111111111111110=16.777.214 host.


,
.
,
.
host.
1:
1bit ,
: 11111111.10000000.00000000.00000000, ( 255.128.0.0).
, .0 .1 , 0
1. 23 bit
8.388.606 host .
2:
21 bit (
29 ), 2 21 =2.097.152
. 3 ( 001
110) 6 host.
, , ,
host .

(host)

255.0.0.0

/8

16.777.214

255.128.0.0

/9

8.338.606

255.192.0.0

/10

4.194.302

255.224.0.0

/11

2.097.150

255.240.0.0

/12

16

1.048.574

255.248.0.0

/13

32

524.286

255.252.0.0

/14

64

262.142

255.254.0.0

/15

128

131.070

255.255.0.0

/16

256

65.534

255.255.128.0

/17

512

32.766

255.255.192.0

/18

1.024

16.384

255.255.224.0

/19

2.048

8.190

255.255.240.0

/20

4.096

4.094

255.255.254 255.255.255.255 broadcast ,


, .
0
. , 182.158.1.0
182.158.1.x, x 1 254.
22

. &

255.255.248.0

/21

8.192

2.046

255.255.252.0

/22

16.384

1.022

255.255.254.0

/23

32.768

510

255.255.255.0

/24

65.536

254

255.255.255.128

/25

131.072

126

255.255.255.192

/26

262.144

62

255.255.255.224

/27

524.288

30

255.255.255.240

/28

1.048.576

14

255.255.255.248

/29

2.097.152

255.255.255.252

/30

4.194.304

28. , , IP . .

.
32 bit
, AND.
:
/
11000000.10101000.01111011.10000100
:
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
AND
------------------------------------------------------11000000.10101000.01111011.00000000

/ :
192.168.123.0

:
00000000.00000000.00000000.10000100
0.0.0.132
29. 255.255.255.255 124.56.255.255.
255.255.255.255 ,

. ,
.
124.56.255.255
124.56.
30. IP
- (CIDR);
CIDR ,

.
,
( ) . O . ,
207.13.01.48/25 /25 ,
25 bits
7 .
CIDR
(Internet Service Providers - ISPs),
,
23

. ,
, ISP.
,
/ , ISP.
31. ARP:
. IP
. IP MAC
. ,
).
32. ARP
RARP.
ARP MAC.
RARP MAC .
33. ARP;
,
,
. ARP
.
34. IP :
.
.
.
).
35. ,
IP MAC
IP .


. ,
.
36. DNS
.
DNS ,
,
. , :

24

. &


. , ,
, :
.arpa:

.com:

.edu:

.gov:

.mil:

.net:

.org:
,

, ,
( ). , ,
.
.gr .ca.
,
, .
domains . , (domain names),
,
, . domain names
.
, ntua.gr domain
name ntua ,
... (National Technical University of Athens - NTUA).
, domain name,
.
.
, subdomain.
, domain names
. , telecom.ntua.gr
( .gr), domain name ... (ntua.gr), subdomain.
To telecom.ntua.gr ,
..., ,
.
ektor
telecom, ,
ntua ... . gr
. ektor.telecom.ntua.gr.

37. DNS ;
(DNS server) (.. www.in.gr)
.
()
, . .
, ().
( )
. ,

.

25

DNS .

( ) .
38. ,
.
, , ,
, .

, .
, ,
. ,
.
39. , .
, :
(), , ( ),
.
, .
. ,
: ,
, .
40.
:



(
)

41. ;
, , , .
.
,
, . ,
,
, , .
,
.
, ,
(),
.
,
26

. &

, , :
- .
ICMP.
,
.
42. , IP.
()
()
() ,
,
.
()

, ()

,
()

,
:

27

28

. &

43. , (,,,) , .
, IP Ethernet (), ,
.

4 ,
223.1.2.4, 2 223.1.3.2.
2 , .
4 Ethernet 4,
2 Ethernet
, Ethernet .
, (4)
(4) Ethernet 4, .



223.1.2.4
223.1.3.2
Ethernet 00-B0-D0-86-BB-F7 1A-2B-3C-4D-5E-6F mac Ethernet 1

,

Ethernet ,
.
29

2. Ethernet
, Ethernet 2.



223.1.2.4
223.1.3.2
Ethernet 3A-4B-5C-6D-7E-8F mac Ethernet 2
00-0-C9-14-C8-29
44. .
( ).
45. , .
( ).
46. RIP (
);
( ).
47. EGP.
( ).
48. ;
. ,


, FAX . ,
, ,
.
.
,
( )
.
,
.
.
49. FTP Telnet SMTP;
FTP TCP , 21 ftp
20 .
Telnet ,
,
. Telnet TCP 23 .
SMTP SMTP . TCP ,
25.
FTP Telnet, SMTP FTP ,
( 21,20),
Telnet, SMTP.
50. .
(World Wide Web, WWW Web)
,
30

. &

.

.

(hypermedia), , , , ,
(video) .

(links), ,
.
51. ;
,
,
.
,
.
(links).
,
.
.
(hypermedia) ,
, : , , , .
52. intranet ;
TCP/IP (intranet)

. intranet

.
, ,
. intranet
,
, , , ,
.
53.
Internet;
, ,
( ),
.
, , , , ,
.
54. ,
;
video ,

.
, video
, , ,
.
55. ,
.

31

.
,
,
.
,
, ,
.
, , ,
. ,
, .
56. ;
(Web Site) ,
.
, (e-mail), ( ) .
,
,
.

, , .

, .

8

. 329
1.

, .
OSI, : (configuration management),
(performance management), (fault management),
(accountig management) ,
(security management).
:
o 8.1.1.
o 8.1.2.
o 8.1.3.
o 8.1.4.
o 8.1.5.

2.

SNMP
agent
.
( ).

3.

cmmunities SNMP;

32

. &

( ).
4.

agents
agents cmmunity name,
managers;
( ).

5.

RMON OSI;
( )

6.

: , , .
(authentication): .
(integrity):
.
(confidentiality):
.
(validity)
. .

7.

,
,
;
.
.
( , , ).
( . 316, ).

8.

passwords,
.
, :
,
.
(keystroke mnitring),

o , ,
o ( ).
scial engineering, .
.
passwrd, . ,
password crack, .

9.

: ) ) .

.
.

33

10. 5;
( ) .
tunneling, ,
TCP/IP .
.
11. firewall
;
firewall / ,
( ) , . Internet / , .
/ Firewall,
.
firewall,
, ,
, .
12. - .
, , client - server. ,
(main site) .
site,
.
site ,
site.
, site switches, routers LAN.
,
(.. back up).

. VPN
. 325, . , 6.9
.
34

. &

.
! .
35

36

. &

6


6.1
1. WAN LAN ;
WAN;
(LAN) .
,
(Wide Area Network, WAN).
WAN
, modem, ,
, ..
2. WAN;
WAN
(, ), , , ,
.
3. WAN ,
LAN, ;
.
4. WAN;

WAN, ,

.
5. ) ) ( WAN).
,
( WAN)
, :


X.25
:
Frame Relay
ISDN
ATM
xDSL

6.2
1.

(PSTN);
WAN;
(Public Switched Telephone Network, PSTN)

37

.
.
, PSTN,
, WAN.
2.

modem ;
PSTN
.
, modem. modem
. , modem
,
.
- , .

.

3.


; ;

, . 56 Kbps 7.

4.

;
:
.
on-line .
.
.
,
.

5.

, ,
.

,
.
38

. &

6.5 ISDN
1.


, , ;
, :
.
, ,
.
.

2.

ISDN;
ISDN ,
,
.

3.

ISDN;
Integrated Services Digital Network - .

4.

POTS ;
POTS Plain Old Telephone System.
, .

5.

ISDN
( );
(),
, (
). ISDN

( , , video,
).

6.

, ISDN;
. ' '
, .
, (common channel signaling).

(, , ).
.

.

7.

ISDN;
ISDN ,
.

39

8.

.
(Basic Rate Interface, BRI), (2
-B) (1 -D). -B
64 Kbps
. -D 16 Kbps
.
-
-B, ,
144 Kbps (2B + D).

9.

.
(Primary Rate Interface, PRI) 30 64
Kbps (30 B-) 64 Kbps (1 D-).
64 Kbps (framing)
. , , 2,048 Mbps,
1. B.
23B+1D ( 64 Kbps) 8 Kbps , ,
1,544 Mbps ( 1).

10. 1; ;
To ISDN ,
NT1.
- ISDN
, ,
,
.
, (
, ..). NT1
8 150 .
ISDN,
, Fax 4, , ,
, , ..
, , (Terminal
Adaptor, TA).

40

. &

11. B D ;

.
12. ;

.

, -
30 - (23 ).
13. ISDN;
ISDN ,
. , '
.
14. ISDN ;
.
15. ,
ISDN.

41

6.8 xDSL
1.

xDSL;
xDigital Suscriber Line . x
ADSL, R-ADSL, HDSL, SDSL VDSL.

2.

xDSL ;
xDSL

,
.
xDSL ISDN BRI 2 ( BRI2 2
64 Kbps 16 Kbps). , xDSL
,
: ,
(upstream - )
(downstream ).

3.

xDSL
;
modem (V.90) 56
Kbps , e-mail
( ,
, ).
(Fiber to the Home)
, 8.
xDSL Mbps
9 .
1 (2,048 Mbps) T1 (1,544 Mbps) ,
.
. modem,
,
( baseband modem).

(, )
.
9
= .
.
42

. &

4.


xDSL;
(loading coils)
, .
xDSL ,
3 8 kHz (voice band).

5.

xDSL (upstream downstream);


xDSL
. ,
(downstream upstream).
, ,
(..
) (..
1, ).

6.

baseband modem
;
baseband modem, xDSL,

.
, DSL;
xDSL ,
ADSL ADSL Lite.
,
Internet ,
VDSL.
,
E1/T1, HDSL, SDSL.

7.

43

6. ,
xDSL.

7
INTERNET

7.1
7.1.1
1. ;

.
2. OSI
;

44

. &

OSI
.

.
3. ;

.

.
4. , ; ;
,
.
,
. .
5. ;

. (

).
6. ;

: ) )
.
7.
;

(VC virtual circuits)
(datagrams).
8.
.
.

. ,
. ,

.

. :
, ,
. ,
, .

. ,
,
.
45


.
,
.
9.
;

:
.
.
.
.
10. .

.
11.
;
, ,
. (
. 7-3 . 223).
12. ;
. ( . 7-3).
.. VC
3 VC .
13. (datagram).
, ,

.
.
, ()
.

7.2 TCP/IP
7.2.1 TCP/IP
1.

TCP/IP;
TCP/IP
.

(TCP - Transmission Control Protocol) ( IP Internet Protocol) .

2.

TCP/IP;
TCP/IP :

.
46

. &

.
TCP/IP .

3.

TCP/IP;
TCP/IP
, ,

.

,
.

4.

TCP/IP internet (TCP/IP ),


(Internet), TCP/IP (intranet).
TCP/IP internet
TCP/IP.
() (Internet)
,
TCP/IP.
TCP/IP (intranet) TCP/IP
,
(WWW)
.

5.


TCP/IP;
1960
.. (Advanced
Research Projects Agency ARPA 10).
ARPA
, , .
.
,
. ,
,
.

,

,
(
),
,
,
. , ARPANET
,
.
To ARPANET
1971 , ,

10

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency - DARPA.


47

.
.

ARPANET, 1974
TCP/IP
.
,
.
,
, ,
,
.
1982 TCP/IP ,
.
TCP/IP ARPANET
.
ARPANET ,

. , MILNET
, ARPANET
. ARPANET
, ,
(Internet).

7.2.2 OSI TCP/IP


1. OSI TCP/IP. ;
OSI TCP/IP.

48

. &

OSI 7 TCP/IP 4.
2. TCP/IP;
TCP/IP , , , , .
3. SI TCP/IP ;
.
4. SI TCP/IP;
TCP/IP )
) OSI.
5. SI TCP/IP;
TCP/IP ) )
) OSI.
6. TCP/IP ,
.

7. , TCP/IP.
(IP)
M E (Internet Control Message Protocol - ICMP).
8. , TCP/IP.
(Transfer Control
Protocol - TCP) (User Datagram
Protocol UDP).
9.
TCP/IP. ;
, TCP/IP,
(Telnet), (File Transfer, FTP),
(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, SMTP),
(Trivial File Transfer Protocol TFTP).
, Telnet, FTP SMTP TCP, TFTP
UDP.
10. .

.

.

49

(, ,
, ).
.

11. .

TCP UDP.
(. IP)
.
IP :
o .
o ,
(
MAC (Media Access Control) OSI).
:
(ARP
Address Resolution Protocol)
(RARP)
(Reverse Address Resolution Protocol).
IP,
,
(ICMP- Internet Control Message Protocol).
To (ICMP ) :
o
.
o ( ),
TCP/IP
. ..
,
ICMP, :
.
12. IP;
;
11.
13. ICMP ;
.
11.
14. .

.
TCP
UDP.
To TCP , ,
:
o : TCP
.
TCP,

50

. &


.
o :
TCP

.
o :
.
(UDP-User Datagram-Protocol)
o 11.
o .
o ,
( TCP) .

15. ;
;
14, . TCP.
16. TCP;
14, .
17. UDP;
14, .
18. .
:
,
.
, .

TCP/IP.
19. TCP/IP; .
TCP
(client server).
,
, .

.

11

,

( ) . UDP, ICMP, IPX,
NetBEUI .
51

,
.
,
.

7.2.3 TCP/IP
1. - TCP/IP.
, .
,
.
.
2. ;

.
3.
;
, :
.
/ , .
:
.
.
.

.
TCP IP. [
TCP IP

].
4. TCP/IP;
TCP/IP :
( ).
( TCP
).
( IP,
).
, (
.. Ethernet).

52

. &

5.
; ;

(Internet IP ).
.
6. (), ;
,
IP .
7. TCP/IP
;
.
8.
TCP/IP;
,
.
9.
TCP;
15.000 byte.
. :
, .. 30
500 byte.

.
,
. . 14
. 13.
,
TCP.
10. ) ,
, ; ) ;
) ) TCP/IP.
11.
,
.

53

1.
,
.
2. , .
3. [
].
4.
,
.
5. ,
. ,
.
6. ,

.
7. , .
8. ,
.
9.
.

7.3 TCP
1. TCP;
(Transmission Control Protocol, TCP)
TCP/IP.
.

.
TCP .
,
.

, (segment).
TCP , TCP

.
54

. &

,
, TCP .
TCP , TCP
IP,
.

2. (segment) TCP ;

,
TCP , (segment).
(), TCP
.
TCP
.
3. ,
(segment) ;
To TCP.
4. TCP ;
, E
TCP .
3,
.
5. - ,
) )
;
) TCP. ) .
6. TCP
;
.
7.
;
, , .
, , .
8. ;

. :
55

,
, ,
.
12. ,
1501 13
1500.
, .
9. TCP
;
TCP,

.
, .

. ,
.

.
,

.


.
10. 1000

12000. .
12000
1000, 12001
13000 .
11. ; .
TCP,
,
. .
() TCP port
.
. TCP TCP (TCP port)
.

12

, (Acknowledgement Number) 32 bit,


TCP. 1
, .
13
. 234 1500.
1501. .. , ()
, .

56

. &

, TCP port 1002 TCP port


1003
. ,
.
12. CP ; ;
TCP ,
16 bit TCP .
TCP TCP (TCP port)
.
, TCP port ,
. TCP
port
.
TCP port,
.
TCP port :
TCP port
. , , (File Transfer
Protocol, FTP) TCP port 21.
, TCP port 21. O
FTP , TCP port
21 .

7.3.1 TCP
1. TCP ;
. ( 7.3.1 1 ).
2. TCP;
O TCP , TCP . ,
( ).

57

, ,
, . ,
( ,
IP ) ,
. TCP
,
.
3. TCP (FTP) .
FTP.
FTP ( ) FTP
.
, FTP ( ),
TCP port (.. 1234) TCP port
21, FTP .
:
o ) FTP (
).

.
o ) ,
. TCP port 21.
4. TCP , ; (
: TCP ;)
TCP :
.
TCP port .
5. ,
TCP , . ,
;

, IP
58

. &

. , FTP,
( ) TCP port
21.
TCP port ( ),
.

7.4 UDP
1. UDP; ;
UDP = User Datagram Protocol . UDP
.
2. UDP; .
UDP :
.

.
: .
()

.
3. TCP UDP.

TCP

UDP

,


.

TCP


UDP

59


.



14


.



.

4. UDP;
UDP (UDP port) 16 bit,
UDP .
UDP UDP
.
UDP, UDP port. UDP port
, .
UDP port UDP
,
TCP port.
5. UDP port, ;
TCP port, UDP port,
.
UDP port,
, ,
, , .
, (Simple
Network Management Protocol, SNMP), ,
UDP port 161.
6. UDP ;
UDP TCP.
, 15 .

7. IP ,
UDP, UDP;
;
,
UDP 16, UDP.
.

14

TCP
.. 3 1.
. .
15
UDP port .
port 16 bit.
16
7.5.
60

. &

7.5 IP
1. TCP/IP IP;
IP TCP/IP.
2. IP;
IP
(datagrams),
, .

TCP.
3. (TCP, UDP)
IP;

.
4. IP ; ;
TCP UDP
IP .
64Kbyte.

5. (64 Kbyte);

,
61

.
(fragment).

.
6.
;
;
,
,
, , , ,
.
, ,
,
. IP
, ,
IP ( 4).
, ,
.
7. IP, , ; [ :
MF IP ;]
IP

(More
Fragments, MF). MF 1, ,
. ,
, 17, MF 1.
8.
, ;

,
(Don't Fragment,
DF) 1. 1 DF ,
. ,
,
, , .
, .
9. IP , , , ,
;
.

18.
10. IP;

17
18

0.
.
62

. &

IP ,
( ,
).
11. IP;
H IP ,
.
,
, ,
.
12. IP;
IP ,
(
TCP UDP). ,
, IP
, .
13. IP;
IP
.
, ,
, ,
.
14. IP;
, IP,
. ,
19.
15. IP;
32-bit.
, , 5.
.
16. IP;

32 bit, ,
32 bit.
17. IP;
.
18. IP;
(
). 65.536 byte (64 Kbyte = 64 * 1.024 byte =
65.536 byte). , ,

.
19. IP;
19

IPv4 IPv6.
63

, ,
. ,
,
IP, : ,
.
20. IP;
, ,
.
, .
, . ,
,

,
.
21. -.
) , IP 1.400
byte , 20 byte.
, 620 byte.
.
(fragment) ,
MF,
.
- .
) , : 2,
1, 3. .
)
DF
,

, DF ,
0.
. .
IP 1420byte (1400byte
+ 20byte )
620byte,
:
o 1 : 620 byte (600 byte + 20 byte ).
o 2 : 620 byte (600 byte + 20 byte ).
o 3 : 220 byte (200 byte + 20 byte ).

64

. &

MF, , .
MF 1,
,
0.
.. 100,
. ( )
0 ( ),
75 (600/8=75, 2
75 1) 3 150 (1200/8,
3 150 1
2 ). , DF,MF, , ,
, :
=100
1 DF=0
MF=1
=0
=100

2 DF=0
MF=1
=75
=100
3 DF=0
MF=0
=150

(fragment)
( 32 bit).
= 20 byte = 160 bit
32 bit, ,
, 160/32 =
5 .


20 byte
5 .
(
) 0
. ,

.
. .

,
1.
(
.. MF).

. .
. .
. .
. .

65

) 2, 1, 3,
:

2
.
=100.
MF = 1
.
20=75 .
2 (buffer)
.
1
.
=100.
.
MF = 1
.
=0 .
1 (buffer) /
/.
3
.
=100.
.
MF = 0 .
=150
.

.

7.6
1. TCP/IP, ) ) ) ;
) ,
.
)
.
)
.
, ,
,

.

7.6.1 (Media Access Control, MAC


)
1. , ,
;
20

.
66

. &

,
(hardware address) MAC.
2. MAC ;
MAC ,

. MAC
(
) Ethernet 48bit.
3. OSI MAC,
;
OSI, MAC 21
.
MAC . MAC
, ,
. OSI
,
,
.
4. ;

(Institute of Electrical and
Electronic Engineers, IEEE). IEEE
(Organization Unique Identifier - OUI), 24 bits,
24 bits
, .
5. ;
. :

21

48 bit.
24 bit OUI (Organization Unique
Identifier).
bit ((/G))
(0, 1 ). 1,
,
. bit OUI 1,
,
).

.
67

bit (U/L) . 0, IEEE,


1, . O , ,
, ,
IEEE, .
,
, ,
, IEEE.
22 bits ,
IEEE .
24 bits ,
. ,
(OUI) IEEE,
, Ethernet, ,
, (24 bits
) .
, ,
(OUI).

7.6.2
1. 22 bit;
() 23
. ,
,
. 32 bit 24.
2.

;
; .
IP ,
(
).
, , .

3. ;
.
O IP ,
.
. .

22

4.
, , .
24
12. 32 bit 4 8 bit (=1byte)
4 . :
00010110.00100011.00000010.00000101, 22.35.2.5
, 22.35.2 3
( 7-17 ).
23

68

. &

, :
22.
: 35, 45 55.
,
(1,2,3 4).
,
.
4. ; , 32 bit ,
;
,
187.164.72.38.
8bit. , 48=32, 32 bit.
: ,
:

,
.
() , 32it ,
3 8 =24bit 1 8 = 8 bit
.
5. , TCP/IP
;
IP
(Network Information Center, NIC).
TCP/IP , ,
, NIC
.
, ,
, . ,

69


.
6. ;
()
, , B, C, D 25,
.
7. A,B,C,D;
bit
. , ,
0, 10, C 110 D 1110,
, 1111 .

8. .
. 7 bit
, 27 =128 26 24 bit ,
16
27.
9. .
. 14bit
16.384 (=214) .
16 bit, 65535 (=216) .
10. C.
C 21bit ,
2 (221 = 2097152).
8 bit 28 = 256
.
11. D.
O D (multicast),
, .
12. ; .
IP 8 bit,
. , IP
... ... C ( ,
25

.
7
2 2 =126 0 128 .
27
24
2 -2= 16.777.214 .
26

70

. &

, ). , IP
, 147.10.13.28, ,
, 147.10
13.28.

7.6.3
1.
;
,
, bits
.
2. ;

128.6.. .
,
, .. Ethernet, (
, ).
. (,

128.6.. ,
. , ,
,
,
128.6.4. 128.6.5.).
, ( ),
, 128.6.4,
,
128.6.5. ,
128.6.4 128.6.5 .
, , ,
128.6...
3. C , ; ;
C, ...,
,
( ).
71

, ,
. ,
.
, , . , .

.
4. (subnet mask);

.
32 bit
, AND.
5. 192.168.123.132 255.255.255.0.

.
: 11000000.10101000.01111011.10000100
: 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
AND
------------------------------------------------------11000000.10101000.01111011.00000000

:
192.168.123.0

:
00000000.00000000.00000000.10000100
0.0.0.132
6. 255.255.192.0 208.85.90.172.
.

AND.
:

: 208.85.64.0
7.
208.85.64.. ;
,
bit 1.
byte,
11111111 ( =255 ). :
208.85.64.255.
8.
147.10.0.0. ;
72

. &

, :
147.10.255.255.
9. 255.255.255.255;
255.255.255.255
.
10. CIDR ( 28
-). ;
CIDR ,

.
,
( ) . O . ,
207.13.01.48/25 /25 ,
25 bits
7 .
CIDR
(Internet Service Providers - ISPs),
,
. ,
, ISP.
,
/ , ISP.

7.7 ARP
1. ARP;
,
,
. ARP
29 .
2. ARP;
ARP IP
, .
ARP , IP
, .
.
.

ARP IP ,
ARP , , .
28
29

, , .
.
73

,
.
, , ,
ARP .
o ARP IP
.
IP
IP , ARP
.
o H .
, ARP ,
ARP , .
,
IP ARP.
3. ARP , ARP;
ARP ARP , ,
, ARP .

. ARP
ARP ,
.
,
. O ARP , IP (.. Ethernet)
,
.
4. (Reserve
Address Resolution Protocol RARP);
(RARP)
ARP. , ,
IP .
RARP ,

, RARP .
5. ARP.
, 128.6.4.194
128.6.4.7.
, , , 128.6.4.7
128.6.4.194, (..
Ethernet).
, ARP ,
128.6.4.7,
Ethernet .
, Ethernet Ethernet
.
128.6.4.7 APR ,
Ethernet 128.6.4.7
.
, ARP, ARP .
ARP : Ethernet 128.6.4.7.
, , ARP .
74

. &

IP , . ,
128.6.4.7 , IP
ARP : 128.6.4.7
8:0:20:1:56:34. (, Ethernet 48 bits, 6
).
, ARP , ,
ARP , ,
.

6. ARP.
,
(TELNET), TCP,
TCP IP. IP
TCP IP.
TCP IP , IP IP
, Ethernet,
. , Ethernet
.
Ethernet ARP .
, ARP
IP .
ARP : IP
223.1.2.2. IP , Ethernet
.
ARP ARP
IP .
IP , Ethernet
. ARP : IP
, Ethernet . ARP

ARP .
, . ARP
IP Ethernet
ARP .
ARP . , IP ,
, .
IP Ethernet
ARP , Ethernet
.

75

7.
ARP,
.

ARP .
IP .
ARP ARP .
IP Ethernet ARP
.
IP , Ethernet
.
ARP ,
, , ARP IP
IP , .

8.
ARP ;
ARP ,
ARP
, .

7.8 (Domain Name System DNS)


1. , ;
(
)
.
, IP ,

. , ,
,
, .
2.
, ;

. , ( )
, .
3. , ()
;

,
. ,
.
, .
4. . )
) ;

.
.

76

. &

5. ,

;

, .
,
,
.
6.
;

,
, , .
:

7.

/ /
; .
,
.
ASCII
.

, .

. O , ,
(
) , , .
8. (Domain Name System DNS)
;
(Domain Name System DNS)
. DNS

77

30.
,
, .

,
.
,
, ,
.

, DNS (name
server), ,
(
).
9. (DNS server);
,
.
()
, . .
, ().
( )
. ,

.
DNS .

( ) .

7.8.1 DNS
1. DNS;
DNS ,
,
. , :

30

.. .. () , .
78

. &


. , ,
, :
.arpa:

.com:

.edu:

.gov:

.mil:

.net:

.org:
,

, ,
( ). , ,
.
.gr .ca.
,
, .
domain . , (domain names),
,
, . domain names
.
, ntua.gr domain
name ntua ,
... (National Technical University of Athens - NTUA).

79

, domain name,
.
.
, subdomain.
, domain names
. , telecom.ntua.gr
.gr, domain name ... ntua.gr, subdomain. To
telecom.ntua.gr ,
..., ,
.
ektor
telecom, ,
ntua ... . gr
.

2. ektor.telecom.ntua.gr;
ektor,
telecom, ,
ntua ... .gr .

7.9
1. . ;

.
.
80

. &

2. ; ;
, ,
, ,
.
,
, ,

( ).
,
.
, , .
3. ;
:



. ( ,
,
,
).
. (
,
, ).
4. ;


,
OSI TCP/IP ( ).
,
.
5. ;
;
:
1.
.
2. ,
.

.
6. ;

.
7.
; ;

81

, , ,
, .
.
,
, .
, ,
.
. ,
. ,

. .
,
,
.
. ,
,
,
.
8. , )
) .
)
)
, .
9. .
:
.
,
.
.
(Central
Processing Unit, CPU), .
:
(
).
, .
10.
.


, ,
.
.

.

.
, ,
,
,
82

. &

.
.
11.
.
, :
(), , ( ),
.
, .
. ,
: ,
, .

7.9.1 TCP/IP
1. (host)
;
(host)
,
.
,
, .
2. ;

,
( ) .
,
. .
3.
;

. IP ,
, IP
.
4. ;
.
,
, ,
. ,
, . ,
.
,
, .

, .
, ,
.
5.

;
83

, ,
,
.
()
. , , ,
.
. ,
, . ,
,
, , .
,
. ,
,
(),
.
, ,
, : .
ICMP.
, .
6.

, .
()
()
() ,
,
.
()

, ()

,
()

7.
;

ICMP.

8.

, .
, 128.6.4,
, : 128.6.4.59 128.6.4.1.
128.6.4.59 ,
.
128.6.4.1 .
128.6.4.59 .
.
-
,
128.6.4.59.

84

. &

,
128.6.4.1.
,
,
128.6.4.1 (
ICMP).
IP
.
,
, 128.6.4.1.

7.9.2
1.
,
:

IP ,
IP , IP
.
Ethernet ,
, Ethernet
Ethernet .
:

85

IP IP , IP
, . ,
.
.
2.
, ;

, IP
, Ethernet. ,
IP ,
, IP .

7.9.3
1. TCP/IP , Ethernet.

.

, TCP/IP
Ethernet , .
, TCP /IP ,
.


.
, )
() () ) Ethernet ()
().

86

. &

, ,
, ,
Ethernet .

7.9.4
1. IP ,
, IP .
To IP ,
.
IP .
.
: IP,
, IP
. IP
. , IP
,

, .
2.
) ) 31:

31

.
Ethernet . 3
3 Ethernet , .
87

) :
IP IP (223.1.2.2).
To IP IP ,
(223.1.2) .
, ,
.


.
ARP IP
Ethernet , Ethernet
.

) .
IP
(223.1.3.2).
To IP IP
(223.1.3).
, , ,
.

88

. &


. , 223.1.3
.
ARP , IP
Ethernet , Ethernet
1 ( ).
, IP IP
IP .
Ethernet 1 (
) IP .
IP IP , ,
IP , .

To IP IP
( )
, (223.1.3)
( ) ,
.
, .
IP IP
3. , , IP , .
Ethernet .
Ethernet 3,
IP . IP IP
, ,
.

7.11
7.11.1
1. , ..
, ;
;

, :
.
.
.
.
.
2.
TCP,
;
89

TCP
,
.
,
( )
.
3. ,

.

, :
(ASCII, EBCDIC).
.

.
,
.

7.11.2

1. ;
(e-mail) ,
/ .
, ,
, . ,

,
.
2. ,
;
.
.
, .
, ,
, .
3. .
.


. , Los Angeles
, Los Angeles
.

, FAX .
, , ,

.

90

. &

.
,
( )
.
,
.
.
4. ;
, .
5. ;


.
6. ,
(Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol SMTP).
SMTP TCP/IP(
7 OSI ).
( )
32 (.. Outlook, Eudora, )
.
( - Send
), e-mail
(.. net, Forthnet, Hol, ).
(mail server)
.
,
.
(DNS Server)
.
SMTP
TCP
, TCP port 25.
SMTP
.
TCP ,
, ,
.
, .
, ,
.
,
, .

.
, SMTP
33.
32

User Agent UA.



, POP3 / ( ),
.
33

91

(File Transfer Protocol, FTP)


7. FTP; .
To (File Transfer Protocol, FTP)
, TCP/IP.

,
TCP.
FTP
. , ,
, .

, .

.
,
.
FTP ,
.
, FTP
.
,
, .
8. .

92

. &

FTP:
FTP ,
, FTP .
FTP :
) - TCP port 21
- . , ,
, XX,
.
) ,
. TCP port 20
34.
,

. ,

.
9. FTP, ;
;
, FTP,
(Trivial File Transfer Protocol, TFTP).
TFTP:
.
.
.
( ) UDP.

(Telecommunications Network, Telnet)


10. Telnet ;
Telnet ,
,
.
, ,

. , , -

34

(active) FTP . (passive) ,


.
93

.
, ,
.
.

Telnet ( FTP SMTP) . Telnet


, , .

Telnet TCP port 23.

,
.

11. ;
, ,
.

,
. Telnet ,
.
12. Telnet;
Telnet,
, .
Telnet ( FTP) ,
.
,
.
, ,
, .
,
. (..
94

. &

)
, .

(World Wide Web)


13. (World Wide Web);
(World Wide Web, WWW Web)
,
.

.

(hypermedia), , , , ,
(video) .

(links), ,
.

14. ;
,
,
. ,
, .

. ,
.
(link).

95

,
. ,
, ,
.

35 (highlighted) ,
.
(highlighted) ()
.
15. / (browser);
,
- (browser).
, ,

.
16. (hypermedia) (hypertext);
, : , ,
, (hypermedia).
, .
17. ;
, ,
(HyperText Transfer Protocol, HTTP),
-.
18. ;
(Web servers)
, ,
.
,
.
19. (Web Clients);
(Web clients)
.

.
: Mozilla Firefox,
Microsoft Internet Explorer, Apple Safari Netscape Navigator, Netscape
Communicator, Microsoft Internet Explorer 36.
20. ;

(Web site).
, .
.

(Internet Service Providers, ISPs).
,
.
35

,
.
36
Mosaic,
.
96

. &

21. ,
;
, (WWW)
, . (WWW
, .. www.ntua.gr ), .
(Web site)
(Home page) (WWW ).
22. ;
;

, .
,
.
Google Yahoo Alta Vista, Lycos, Excite,
Infoseek, ..
23. ;
. 130 Web sites
1993, 1994 10.000, 1996 100.000 1997
650.000. 1994
6 % , 1995
24 %.
5 1996 22 2000. ,
1 700 . .


24. WAP;
WAP
,
, .
25. WAP;
:

.
.
(e-mail).
.
, .
.

TCP/IP (Intranet)
26. TCP/IP (Intranet);
TCP/IP (Intranet)

. Intranet
.
, intranet Internet .
, ,
. intranet
,
97

, , , ,
.
27. Intranet;
, intranet :
.

Web.
.
28. intranet.

,
( WWW clients, browsers),
.

.

(VoIP)
29. 37;
,
.
38,
: , ,
, , .
, , .

: , ,
( ),

. , ,
, , ,
.


30. video ;
video ,

( ).
37

.
:
) Skype: .
messenger /
( usb )
.
) VoIP Buster: Skype PC PC
.
) Teamspeak: Voice over IP,
. online
.

38

98

. &

, video
, , ,
.
31. / video
;
video ,
, . ,
, . , ,
, .
MPEG1 MPEG2
MPEG4
H.323.
32. ;

,
.
, ,
.

.
33. ;
:
:
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
:
.323,
CU-SeeMe
NetMeeting

.


34. ;
,
. ,
,
.
, ,
.
() ,
. ,

99

TCP/IP ,
.
35.
;
.
,
,
.
,
,
, .
, , ,
.
,
, .
36. IRC (IRC clients).

mIRC. - , ViRC, leafChat, Klient , Win Talk, irk ii .


37. ; ;
,
.
, , , .
, ,
, fax.
,
.

(Electronic Data Interchange - EDI),
e-mail.
38. ;
(Web Site) ,
.
,
(e-mail),
( ) .
,
,
.

, ,
.

, .
39. ;
, ,
, , , ,
CD, ,
, , , ..
100

. &

40. ,
;
,
.

8


8.1
1. OSI ;
OSI, : (configuration management),
(performance management), (fault management),
(accounting management) ,
(security management).

8.1.1 (Configuration Management)


1.

;
,
, ,

.
2.


OSI;
,
, OSI
.

101

, (,
) . ' ,
.
3.

; ;
, :
(.
, ,
...).
.
.
, o (inventory database)
, .

4.

; ;
, , (switches), , (hubs),
( ethernet, token ring ..), wan .
, , , , . ,
.

8.1.2 (Performance Management)


1. ;
, :
WAN
.. IP, IPX, Netbios ..



.

(alarm).
2. ;

.

.

. ,
, , .

8.1.3 (Fault Management)


1.

;
/ , , ,
.

102

. &

( , , ...) , , .
,
, . O , ,
, . .
2.

;
(alarm) (log) / .

3.

;

. , ,
.

8.1.4 (Accounting Management)


1. ;

,

,
.

8.1.5 (Security Management)


1. ;

, ,
,

,
. , ,
,
.
2. ;
:

,
,
,
.
103

8.3
8.3.1
1. ;
, ,
.
2. ;
, ,
. ,
.
3. , , ,
.
(authentication): .
(integrity): H
.
(confidentiality): O
.
(non repudiation):
.
4. (validity);
(validity) . .
5. ;
(information availability):
.
6. ,
.
(security): ,
.
(information security): , .
(vilatin) , , , .
7. ; .
. O .
, (
).
O (.. ) , .
,
. O
,
(.. ).
8. ;
104

. &

.
, .
o
, , , .
, , , ,
.
.

8.3.2
1. (encryption);

.
, (). .
2. (decryption);
.
, .
3. (key) ;
bit, .
4. (public key).
, / .
.
5. (private key).
, / . , .
6. (secret key).
, ,
/ .
7. (hash function);
,
.
8. (message digest);
.
9. (digital signature);
bit,
.

105

8.3.3
1.


;

( , ...),
.
,
.

2.
.

:
o
o
o

o
o

(Passwrd attacks).
(Network Monitoring Network Packet Sniffing)
(Masquerade)
(Denial of Service)
(Application-Layer Attacks)

3. password ; ;
password :
- password, .
- password . passwrd .
, Unix Windws, passwrd.
4. passwrd,
;
. (,
).
5. password .
, :
,
.
(keystroke mnitring),

o , ,
o ( ).
scial engineering, .
.
passwrd, . ,
password crack, .

106

. &

6. social
engineering;
scial
engineering, .
, , (help desk) passwrd ,
.
shulder surfing,
passwrd .

7. crack
;
crack ,
password .
password , passwords. crack Unix .
8. (packet sniffing);
H .
(clear text),
. , , , .
(packet sniffing).
packet sniffers
,
.
9.
(packet sniffer);
, (packet sniffing),
promiscuous mode. ,
, .
10. ;

107

!
.
.
,
, password.

password.
11. (masquerade) spoofing ;
IP spoofing
.
.
firewall
, (trusted).
IP Spoofing
, client / server
.
,
, , (spoofed IP address).
spoofed IP . , passwrd. ,
, e-mail.
12. (DoS Denial of Service).

, , , (.. web server, mail server).
, (, , )
.
.
,
,
.
13. ; (Application Layer attack);
HTTP, ActiveX, Telnet, Ftp, ...,
, .
, ,
.

8.3.4
1. .
.

.
.

108

. &


, :

/ :

, Caesar Cipher.

, (Caesar Cipher 39)



. ,
, ,
.
.
2. ;
, , .
, , , ,
.
, .
, , , .

39


.
109

, ,
, ,
, .
3. ;

(Data Encryption Standard, DES),
3DES (triple DES) ,
(International Data
Encryption Algorithm, IDEA).
64 bits.
, 64 bits.
4.
;

. ,
.
,
,
.
, Diffie Hellman.
5. .
( ) , . .
:
- .
- .

110

. &

, ,
/ .
, .

. ( , ).
,
,
, ,
, .

,

.

.
, . .
,
.
6. ;

.
, , , (smartcard).
7. .
RSA
(Rivest, Shamir, Adelman) ElGamal.
8. ; ; ;
() ,
.
.
)
(hash algorithm) ) .
() ( ) .
:

111

.
(1)
(message digest).
(message digest) (2).

.
(3).
, , .
, :
(1).
, (2).
, (message
digest) (3).
,
(4).

(5).

112

. &

(message digest) , ,
(
)
,
message digest .

9. ;
! , () , ( ). ()
( ).
10. .
: Message Digest 4(MD4),
Message Digest 5(MD5) Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA).

113

8.3.5
1. .

:
passwords passwords .
SSL / SSH / SOCKS -

Radius / Tacacs -
.
PAP / CHAP -
Single Sign On - . ,
password.
-
.
IPSec (IP Security) - Internet Protocol Security
. OSI . IPSec
VPN
.
IPSec :
- ,
.
- ESP (Encapsulation Security Protocol),
.
2. (firewall).
Firewall / ,
( )
, . Internet / , .
/ Firewall,
.

firewall,
114

. &

, , , .
, firewall.
3. , ,

.
, ,
, ,
,
,
. ,
, .
, ,

.
4. ,
.
.. IP
, HTTP.
.. telnet, ftp, tftp rtagin ..
.
TCP/IP .
,
, TCP IP .
5. ;
.
, firewall. .

8.3.6
1.
;
:
) 40 41 .
) ,
.
2. ;
:
(. , ).
40
41

, , .
.. .
115


(. bugs)
(. , )
(. , ).

3.
;
, ,
,
, ,
. ,

, . ,
.
4. (Recovery), (Continuity Plan), (Information back up).
(Recovery)
.
(Continuity Plan) , .
oo (Information back up) -
, , .
, ,
. , , , . , , , .
5. ;
, , .
, ,
.
, , client - server. ,
(main site) .
site,
.
site ,
site.
, site switches, routers LAN.
,

(.. back up).

116

. &

117

118

. &


1. ( 242 . .7-14),
4 bit / 4 bit. 8 bit: 01000011.. .
;
bit , . 4 bit ,
, 3.
5
(. . .244).
.
2. 0101
0000000000110010. byte .
5,
, 5 x 4 = 20byte.
50. 50byte 20byte = 30byte .
3. . MF 0.
; ,
;

MF. , ,
MF 0. , MF=0.
4. . MF 1.
; ,
;
MF 1, ) ) MF 1. .

.
5. . MF 1 0
; , ;
MF 1 . , MF 0,
. 0 .
6. 5140 byte 20 byte
,
1500byte. 100 DF, MF
0.
, , DF, MF .
119

20 byte, 5120 byte.


1500 byte,
, 1480 byte. 5120 byte 3 1480 byte 680 byte.
0.
1480 / 8 = 185.
2960 / 8 = 370.
4440 / 8 = 555.
.

1
2
3
4

100
100
100
100

DF

MF

1500
1500
1500
700

0
0
0
0

1
1
1
0

0
185
370
555


1. ( )
;
.
.
.
2. ( )
;
.
( ) Ethernet,
( ) .
3. (bit); byte; .
0 1. bit.
To byte . byte
10010110, 11100011, 00001111 00000000 11111111.
4. ) 1 bit ) bit ) 3 bit ) 4
bit.
;
) 1 bit : 0, 1
21=2
) 2 bit : 00, 01, 10, 11
22=4
) 3 bit : 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111
23=8
) 4 bit : 0000, 0001, 0010, 0011, 0100, 0101, 0110, 0111
1000, 1001, 1010, 1011, 1100, 1100, 1110, 1111 24=16
120

. &

: bit 2 .
5. bit 4;
32 bit.
6. bit,
4, () ;
32 bit, ()
:
232= 4.294.967.296, 4 . ,
.
7. ) )
.
32 (byte),
4 byte. , byte .
,
) 11001101.10001110.00010011.11100111
) : 205.142.19.231
8. 10000001.11011011.11111111.00001111
.
, .
10000001.11011011.11111111.00001111
129. 219.255.15
9. 193.11.139.155 .
.
193.11.139.155

11000001.00001011. 10001011. 10011011


10. :
) 142.013.65.87
) 156.17.20.5.7
) 221.14.301.56
)19.178.00001111.9
) , .
) .
) 255.
121

) .
11. ,
;
,
( ).
(. . 250 .251, 7-19).
, 0, 10, C 110 D
1110.
12. :
) 10100011.11100011.10111000.11110110
) 00000011.11110000.10101010.01101111
) 11100011.11011011.10111000.11100111
)11010000.10101010.11110000.00001111
) 10 .
) 0 .
) 1110, D.
) 110, C.
13. , ,
. [: A,B,C,D .
1 ] 42.

42

. 250,
, : (
).
122

. &

14. ,
;
,
, 1 byte.
, byte :
0 127 ( 00000000 011111111) / .
128 191( 10000000 10111111) / .
192 223 ( 11000000 11011111) / C.
224 239 ( 11100000 11101111) / D.
15. :
) 132.17.87.65
) 226.13.15.78
)17.28.132.8
)194.18.65.32

:
)
) D
)
) C

1 byte
, 13:
) 132 10000100 .
) 226 11100010 D.
) 17 00010001 .
)194 11000010 C.
16. , ) )
) C ) D;
,
( 1).
:

: 01111111.11111111.11111111.11111111 2.147.483.647
:
00000000.00000000.00000000.00000000 0
= 2.147.483.647 0 + 1 = 2.147.483.648

: 10111111.11111111.11111111.11111111 3.221.225.471
:
10000000.00000000.00000000.00000000 2.147.483.648
: 3.221.225.471 - 2.147.483.648 + 1 = 1.073.741.824

123

C
: 11011111.11111111.11111111.11111111 3.758.096.383
:
11000000.00000000.00000000.00000000 3.221.225.472
: 3.758.096.383 - 3.221.225.472 + 1 = 536.870.912
D
: 11101111.11111111.11111111.11111111 4.026.531.839
:
11100000.00000000.00000000.00000000 3.758.096.384
: 4.026.531.839 - 3.758.096.384 + 1 = 268.435.456
17. 4
, , C D; .
4 :
: 11111111.11111111.11111111.11111111 4.294.967.295
:
00000000.00000000.00000000.00000000 0
= 4294967295 0 + 1 = 4.294.967.296
=
=
C=

= 12,5%

D=

= 6,25%

50% .
.
18. 74. ; ;
74
. 74.0.0.0 74.255.255.255.
byte
.
224=16777216 . 24
3 byte .
(
, .
= 16777215 0 + 1 = 16777216).

124

. &


.
19. 178.6. ; ;
178.6 .
178.6.0.0 178.6.255.255.
216=65536.

, .
20. C.
C 192 223.
C 192.0.0.0 223.255.255.255.
21. 143.54.78.2.
.
(143) .
143.54 78.2.
22. 219.54.17.255,
C. ;

219.54.17.255 C , 255 (=11111111).


bit 1, .
23.
. ;
;

125

, 255.255.255.255 (32 ). bit


1, ,,C,D. [
].
24. :
) 112.43.8.2
) 130.65.6.8
) 208.43.54.12
) 112
43.8.2
) 130.65
6.8.
) C 208.43.54 12.
25. 104.17.22.44
. .
104.
:
: 104.17.22.44
: 104.255.255.255


1. (/n)
) 255.0.0.0
)255.255.0.0
)255.255.255.0
)255.255.240.0
)255.252.0.0
)/8
)/16 )/24 )/20 )/14
2. 196.174.14.0, 4
. ( .251 -254 .
).
) .
) .
) .
)
, .
) , 196.174.14.0,

126

. &

. , .
bit
.
196.174.14.0 C, 255.255.255.0.
( : 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000),
,
.
4 (=22) , 2 (
). , 00,
01, 10, 11.
, 24+2=26
8-2=6 .

x
=2 ( x ).

(y-x)
( y ,
/ = 2
).

, 2, 4 y 8
26=64 43.

/ . ,
, 0 (
) 1 ( ).

43

/ 2

(y-x)

-2.

127

) C
255.255.255.0 ( 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000).
, bit
, .
11111111.11111111.111111111.11000000,
255.255.255.192.
) , byte .
byte. ,
1 4 byte 00000000
196.174.14.0.
2 4 byte 01000000
196.174.14.64.
3 4 byte 10000000
196.174.14.128.
4 4 byte 11000000
196.174.14.192.
)
1 bit (. . 253, ). :
1 , byte 00111111 63, 196.174.14.63.
2 , byte 01111111 127, 196.174.14.127.
3 , byte 10111111 191, 196.174.14.191.

128

. &

4 , byte 11111111 255, 196.174.14.255.


3. 25.0.0.0. 8 . ) ) / )
8 ) .
) , 255.0.0.0 (
11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000).
8 (=23) 3 000, 001,010,011,100,101,110,111
.
11111111.11100000.00000000.00000000 255.224.0.0.
) / , 2(24-3)2=221 2 = 2.097.150.
) :

/
/
1
00011001.00000000.00000000.00000000
25.0.0.0

2
00011001.00100000.00000000.00000000
25.32.0.0
3
00011001.01000000.00000000.00000000
25.64.0.0

4
00011001.01100000.00000000.00000000
25.96.0.0
5
00011001.10000000.00000000.00000000
25.128.0.0

6
00011001.10100000.00000000.00000000
25.160.0.0
7
00011001.11000000.00000000.00000000
25.192.0.0

8
00011001.11100000.00000000.00000000
25.224.0.0
) :

/
1
00011001.00011111.11111111.11111111
2
00011001.00111111.11111111.11111111
3
00011001.01011111.11111111.11111111

4
00011001.01111111.11111111.11111111
5
00011001.10011111.11111111.11111111

6
00011001.10111111.11111111.11111111
7
00011001.11011111.11111111.11111111

8
00011001.11111111.11111111.11111111

/
25.31.255.255
25.63. 255.255
25.95. 255.255
25.127. 255.255
25.159. 255.255
25.191. 255.255
25.223. 255.255
25.255. 255.255

4. . 138.112.80.24/20. ( ), 44 .
) 20,
1 .
AND ( ) ,

44

.
129

AND

(/ )
/

10001010.01110000.01010100.00011000
11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000
10001010.01110000.01010000.00000000
138.112.80.0

, 138.112.80.0.
) 12 ,
212= 4096.
) : 10001010.01110000.01011111.11111111
138.112.95.255
5. .

1, . , 0,
0. , 1 0,
1. , :
.
1 0. , 20, 2
1, 1 ( 20) 0.
0.
1, byte . ,
1 byte , 138 112 .
0, byte 0. ,
0, byte 0.
, 1

1. ,
1 0, ( 0101) 0. byte 01010000
80.
, 1, 2, 4 byte
3 byte.
6. ) 2 ) 6
) 28 )62 ) 120 ;
,
2. .. ,
21=2 .

130

. &

2,
2 . , 6
, 3 . , 23=8 , 2 , 22=4 .
, :
) 2
1
) 6
>>
>>
3
)28 >>
>>
5 >>
) 62 >>
>>
6 >>
)120 >>
>>
7 >>
7. , ,
32.0.0.0/8.
500 .
) .
) ;
) ;
) ;
) 8 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000.
500 < 512 (=29),
9 .
: 11111111.11111111.10000000.00000000 /17.
) 32-17 = 15 , 215= 32768 .
) 32.0.0.0 17
(32 0), 0
( 0) 0. :
32.0.0.0. ( : 00100000.00000000.00000000.00000000.
).
, 1, 00100000.00000000.01111111.11111111. 32.0.127.255.
) 500 ( 0 499),
499 ( 111110011 ->(! )).

499

00100000.11111001.10000000.00000000 32.249.128.0
00100000.11111001.11111111.11111111 32.249.255.255.
8. C,
6
.
131

C, 255.255.255.0
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000.
, :
11111111.11111111.11111111.11111100.
,
22=4. , (
0 1)
.


1.
, .

132

. &

2. Caesar Cipher 3,
:

8-12 . 321
, . ,
, , . :

133

134

. &

6
7 ( 7.3.1 (.240))
7.4 7.6.2 (.251)
7.6.3 7.7 (.259)
7.8 7.9.1 (.269)
7.9.2 8.1.5 (.303)
8.3 8.3.6 (. 330)

135

136

. &

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