Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2010
()
(2009-10)
:
. &
20/2/2010
. &
. &
. 2 .
. 2 .
. 4 .
. 1 .
. 1 .
. 1 .
. 1 .
. 1 .
. 1 .
. 1 .
. &
. &
,
.
10
. &
6
. 216
1.
.
.
. ( . 196 6.1, 1 ).
2.
..
( . 197, 6.2, 2 ).
3.
modem :
. .
. .
. ( . 197, 6.2 1).
4.
Internet WAN . ,
, /
.
( )
5.
1 ..
.
( )
6.
.
( )
7.
.25, .
( )
8.
.25
;
( )
9.
.
ISDN
, -
10. ISDN;
ISDN :
. ' '
, .
, (common channel signaling).
(, , ).
.
.
( . 203)
11. ISDN , .
.
.
. ( . 205, 2 ).
12. Frame Relay
( )
. &
21.
.
( )
WAN
.
22. 4
.
( )
23. , ,
64 Kbps. ,
.
24. , Internet Web,
. ISDN , ;
( )
7
INTERNET
. 290
1.
:
.
.
.
.
.
. ( 7.1.1, 2 , . 220).
2.
( . 222 . 224)
3.
:
TCP/IP internet
Internet
Intranet
, TCP/IP
TCP/IP
,
Internet
WWW
13
TCP/IP internet
,
TCP/IP
Internet
Intranet
TCP/IP
,
Internet
WWW
4.
OSI TCP/IP
.
,
M.
TCP/IP ) )
OSI
TCP/IP ) )
) OSI.
5.
,
, :
.
.
.
.
. , . . . . , .
6.
TCP port ;
TCP ,
16 bit TCP .
TCP TCP (TCP port)
.
, TCP port ,
. TCP
port
.
TCP port
.
14
. &
TCP port :
TCP port
. , , (File Transfer
Protocol, FTP) TCP port 21. ,
, TCP port 21. O
FTP , TCP port
21 .
7.
TCP;
TCP,
.
, TCP.
. ,
.
.
,
.
.
, 12001
1000, 12001Byte
13000 Byte.
8.
,
TCP port.
,
:
( , , )
TCP port
. TCP port
TCP ,
15
. ,
TCP port
,
.
9.
TCP
TCP , :
10. TCP ;
O TCP , TCP . ,
.
, ,
, . ,
( ,
IP ) ,
. TCP
,
.
TCP :
.
TCP port .
11. UDP port ;
UDP (UDP port) UDP
. UDP port
16 bit, UDP .
UDP, UDP port. UDP port .
UDP port UDP ,
TCP port.
12. :
. To UDP
. To UDP TCP
. To UDP TCP
. To UDP , TCP
. ( 7.4 . 240, , 2 ).
. ( 7.4 . 240, ).
. ( 7.4 . 240, , , ).
16
. &
. ( 7.4 . 240, ).
13. , UDP, TCP;
. , (7.4 . 240, 1
), (7.4 . 240, 2 ).
14. , IP:
. 64 byte
. 64 Kbyte
. 64 Mbyte
. 128 Kbyte
. ( 7.5 . 242, 2 ).
15. P
.
:
, .
243, 244.
16. , , DF, MF
5.000 byte
20 byte,
820 byte.
, , .
5000 byte ,
820 byte. 820 byte.
T , , 20 byte. 800
byte.
5000 800
,
5000/800=6 7 5000 byte 6X800
byte = 200 byte.
DF 0 .
MF 1,
, 7 220 byte (200 + 20 ), MF 0.
17
, :
1 =0.
2 =800/8=100.
3 =1600/8=200.
4 =2400/8=300.
5 =3200/8=400.
6 =4000/8=500.
7 =4800/8=600.
:
(byte)
byte)
(byte)
1
DF
MF
5
800
820
800
820
100
800
820
200
800
820
300
800
820
400
800
820
500
200
220
600
(20)
2
5
(20)
5
(20)
5
(20)
5
(20)
5
(20)
5
(20)
17. IP DF 1 ,
;
,
.
DF , , 1.
.
18
. &
, . ,
.
18. DF MF ;
, MF 0.
, DF 1 DF
0.
19. IP 0 MF
1. ;
MF=1
. 0, .
.
20. IP 200
MF 1. ;
MF=1
. 200, . .
21. IP 1.500 DF 1
1.500 . 2.000 4.470 . ;
DF 1. 2000 4470 1500 , . [
1500
, ].
22. IP 1.500 100 DF 0 1.500 . 2.000 . 1.500 .
; , , : , MF, DF
.
1500 ,
. DF 0,
1500 .
,
2000 1500 .
23. IP 1.500 100 DF 0 1.500 . 628 2 .
1.500 .
; , , 2
625.
5 (=20 byte) .
19
: , MF, DF
.
1500 628 ,
. ,
5 = 5 32 bit = 160 bit = 20 byte. 1480 byte. H
608 byte (+20 byte , 628 byte). : 608
byte 1480 608 608 = 264 byte. DF 0 (fragment). MF
1 0.
:
1 : 0.
2 : 608/8 = 76.
3 1216/8=152.
100.
:
32 bit
(fragment)
(byte)
(byte)
(byte)
DF
MF
608
820
100
608
820
100
76
264
284
100
152
(20)
(20)
(20)
24. MAC .
48 bit.
24 bit OUI (Organization Unique
Identifier).
bit (/G)
(0, 1 ). 1,
, .
bit OUI 1, ,
).
bit (U/L) .
0, IEEE,
1, . O , ,
, , IEEE,
.
20
. &
, ,
, ,
IEEE.
22 bits ,
IEEE .
24 bits ,
. ,
(OUI) IEEE, ,
Ethernet, ,
, (24 bits
) .
, ,
(OUI).
25. IP .
,
187.164.72.38.
8bit. , 48=32, 32 bit.
: ,
:
,
.
26. IP , ;
()
, , B, C, D ,
.
. , (
) ,
(.. ).
27. .
. .
(.250,251 ), (
) 0. ,
7 bit ( ),
27=128 .
, 00000000 01111111.
00000000 ,
, 00000001 01111111.
1 127.
, 1.0.0.0
127.255.255.255
21
. .
255.0.0.0. ,
(.250,251 )
. , 255.255.254 3
111111111111111111111110=16.777.214 host.
,
.
,
.
host.
1:
1bit ,
: 11111111.10000000.00000000.00000000, ( 255.128.0.0).
, .0 .1 , 0
1. 23 bit
8.388.606 host .
2:
21 bit (
29 ), 2 21 =2.097.152
. 3 ( 001
110) 6 host.
, , ,
host .
(host)
255.0.0.0
/8
16.777.214
255.128.0.0
/9
8.338.606
255.192.0.0
/10
4.194.302
255.224.0.0
/11
2.097.150
255.240.0.0
/12
16
1.048.574
255.248.0.0
/13
32
524.286
255.252.0.0
/14
64
262.142
255.254.0.0
/15
128
131.070
255.255.0.0
/16
256
65.534
255.255.128.0
/17
512
32.766
255.255.192.0
/18
1.024
16.384
255.255.224.0
/19
2.048
8.190
255.255.240.0
/20
4.096
4.094
. &
255.255.248.0
/21
8.192
2.046
255.255.252.0
/22
16.384
1.022
255.255.254.0
/23
32.768
510
255.255.255.0
/24
65.536
254
255.255.255.128
/25
131.072
126
255.255.255.192
/26
262.144
62
255.255.255.224
/27
524.288
30
255.255.255.240
/28
1.048.576
14
255.255.255.248
/29
2.097.152
255.255.255.252
/30
4.194.304
28. , , IP . .
.
32 bit
, AND.
:
/
11000000.10101000.01111011.10000100
:
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
AND
------------------------------------------------------11000000.10101000.01111011.00000000
/ :
192.168.123.0
:
00000000.00000000.00000000.10000100
0.0.0.132
29. 255.255.255.255 124.56.255.255.
255.255.255.255 ,
. ,
.
124.56.255.255
124.56.
30. IP
- (CIDR);
CIDR ,
.
,
( ) . O . ,
207.13.01.48/25 /25 ,
25 bits
7 .
CIDR
(Internet Service Providers - ISPs),
,
23
. ,
, ISP.
,
/ , ISP.
31. ARP:
. IP
. IP MAC
. ,
).
32. ARP
RARP.
ARP MAC.
RARP MAC .
33. ARP;
,
,
. ARP
.
34. IP :
.
.
.
).
35. ,
IP MAC
IP .
. ,
.
36. DNS
.
DNS ,
,
. , :
24
. &
. , ,
, :
.arpa:
.com:
.edu:
.gov:
.mil:
.net:
.org:
,
, ,
( ). , ,
.
.gr .ca.
,
, .
domains . , (domain names),
,
, . domain names
.
, ntua.gr domain
name ntua ,
... (National Technical University of Athens - NTUA).
, domain name,
.
.
, subdomain.
, domain names
. , telecom.ntua.gr
( .gr), domain name ... (ntua.gr), subdomain.
To telecom.ntua.gr ,
..., ,
.
ektor
telecom, ,
ntua ... . gr
. ektor.telecom.ntua.gr.
37. DNS ;
(DNS server) (.. www.in.gr)
.
()
, . .
, ().
( )
. ,
.
25
DNS .
( ) .
38. ,
.
, , ,
, .
, .
, ,
. ,
.
39. , .
, :
(), , ( ),
.
, .
. ,
: ,
, .
40.
:
(
)
41. ;
, , , .
.
,
, . ,
,
, , .
,
.
, ,
(),
.
,
26
. &
, , :
- .
ICMP.
,
.
42. , IP.
()
()
() ,
,
.
()
, ()
,
()
,
:
27
28
. &
43. , (,,,) , .
, IP Ethernet (), ,
.
4 ,
223.1.2.4, 2 223.1.3.2.
2 , .
4 Ethernet 4,
2 Ethernet
, Ethernet .
, (4)
(4) Ethernet 4, .
223.1.2.4
223.1.3.2
Ethernet 00-B0-D0-86-BB-F7 1A-2B-3C-4D-5E-6F mac Ethernet 1
,
Ethernet ,
.
29
2. Ethernet
, Ethernet 2.
223.1.2.4
223.1.3.2
Ethernet 3A-4B-5C-6D-7E-8F mac Ethernet 2
00-0-C9-14-C8-29
44. .
( ).
45. , .
( ).
46. RIP (
);
( ).
47. EGP.
( ).
48. ;
. ,
, FAX . ,
, ,
.
.
,
( )
.
,
.
.
49. FTP Telnet SMTP;
FTP TCP , 21 ftp
20 .
Telnet ,
,
. Telnet TCP 23 .
SMTP SMTP . TCP ,
25.
FTP Telnet, SMTP FTP ,
( 21,20),
Telnet, SMTP.
50. .
(World Wide Web, WWW Web)
,
30
. &
.
.
(hypermedia), , , , ,
(video) .
(links), ,
.
51. ;
,
,
.
,
.
(links).
,
.
.
(hypermedia) ,
, : , , , .
52. intranet ;
TCP/IP (intranet)
. intranet
.
, ,
. intranet
,
, , , ,
.
53.
Internet;
, ,
( ),
.
, , , , ,
.
54. ,
;
video ,
.
, video
, , ,
.
55. ,
.
31
.
,
,
.
,
, ,
.
, , ,
. ,
, .
56. ;
(Web Site) ,
.
, (e-mail), ( ) .
,
,
.
, , .
, .
8
. 329
1.
, .
OSI, : (configuration management),
(performance management), (fault management),
(accountig management) ,
(security management).
:
o 8.1.1.
o 8.1.2.
o 8.1.3.
o 8.1.4.
o 8.1.5.
2.
SNMP
agent
.
( ).
3.
cmmunities SNMP;
32
. &
( ).
4.
agents
agents cmmunity name,
managers;
( ).
5.
RMON OSI;
( )
6.
: , , .
(authentication): .
(integrity):
.
(confidentiality):
.
(validity)
. .
7.
,
,
;
.
.
( , , ).
( . 316, ).
8.
passwords,
.
, :
,
.
(keystroke mnitring),
o , ,
o ( ).
scial engineering, .
.
passwrd, . ,
password crack, .
9.
: ) ) .
.
.
33
10. 5;
( ) .
tunneling, ,
TCP/IP .
.
11. firewall
;
firewall / ,
( ) , . Internet / , .
/ Firewall,
.
firewall,
, ,
, .
12. - .
, , client - server. ,
(main site) .
site,
.
site ,
site.
, site switches, routers LAN.
,
(.. back up).
. VPN
. 325, . , 6.9
.
34
. &
.
! .
35
36
. &
6
6.1
1. WAN LAN ;
WAN;
(LAN) .
,
(Wide Area Network, WAN).
WAN
, modem, ,
, ..
2. WAN;
WAN
(, ), , , ,
.
3. WAN ,
LAN, ;
.
4. WAN;
WAN, ,
.
5. ) ) ( WAN).
,
( WAN)
, :
X.25
:
Frame Relay
ISDN
ATM
xDSL
6.2
1.
(PSTN);
WAN;
(Public Switched Telephone Network, PSTN)
37
.
.
, PSTN,
, WAN.
2.
modem ;
PSTN
.
, modem. modem
. , modem
,
.
- , .
.
3.
; ;
, . 56 Kbps 7.
4.
;
:
.
on-line .
.
.
,
.
5.
, ,
.
,
.
38
. &
6.5 ISDN
1.
, , ;
, :
.
, ,
.
.
2.
ISDN;
ISDN ,
,
.
3.
ISDN;
Integrated Services Digital Network - .
4.
POTS ;
POTS Plain Old Telephone System.
, .
5.
ISDN
( );
(),
, (
). ISDN
( , , video,
).
6.
, ISDN;
. ' '
, .
, (common channel signaling).
(, , ).
.
.
7.
ISDN;
ISDN ,
.
39
8.
.
(Basic Rate Interface, BRI), (2
-B) (1 -D). -B
64 Kbps
. -D 16 Kbps
.
-
-B, ,
144 Kbps (2B + D).
9.
.
(Primary Rate Interface, PRI) 30 64
Kbps (30 B-) 64 Kbps (1 D-).
64 Kbps (framing)
. , , 2,048 Mbps,
1. B.
23B+1D ( 64 Kbps) 8 Kbps , ,
1,544 Mbps ( 1).
10. 1; ;
To ISDN ,
NT1.
- ISDN
, ,
,
.
, (
, ..). NT1
8 150 .
ISDN,
, Fax 4, , ,
, , ..
, , (Terminal
Adaptor, TA).
40
. &
11. B D ;
.
12. ;
.
, -
30 - (23 ).
13. ISDN;
ISDN ,
. , '
.
14. ISDN ;
.
15. ,
ISDN.
41
6.8 xDSL
1.
xDSL;
xDigital Suscriber Line . x
ADSL, R-ADSL, HDSL, SDSL VDSL.
2.
xDSL ;
xDSL
,
.
xDSL ISDN BRI 2 ( BRI2 2
64 Kbps 16 Kbps). , xDSL
,
: ,
(upstream - )
(downstream ).
3.
xDSL
;
modem (V.90) 56
Kbps , e-mail
( ,
, ).
(Fiber to the Home)
, 8.
xDSL Mbps
9 .
1 (2,048 Mbps) T1 (1,544 Mbps) ,
.
. modem,
,
( baseband modem).
(, )
.
9
= .
.
42
. &
4.
xDSL;
(loading coils)
, .
xDSL ,
3 8 kHz (voice band).
5.
6.
baseband modem
;
baseband modem, xDSL,
.
, DSL;
xDSL ,
ADSL ADSL Lite.
,
Internet ,
VDSL.
,
E1/T1, HDSL, SDSL.
7.
43
6. ,
xDSL.
7
INTERNET
7.1
7.1.1
1. ;
.
2. OSI
;
44
. &
OSI
.
.
3. ;
.
.
4. , ; ;
,
.
,
. .
5. ;
. (
).
6. ;
: ) )
.
7.
;
(VC virtual circuits)
(datagrams).
8.
.
.
. ,
. ,
.
. :
, ,
. ,
, .
. ,
,
.
45
.
,
.
9.
;
:
.
.
.
.
10. .
.
11.
;
, ,
. (
. 7-3 . 223).
12. ;
. ( . 7-3).
.. VC
3 VC .
13. (datagram).
, ,
.
.
, ()
.
7.2 TCP/IP
7.2.1 TCP/IP
1.
TCP/IP;
TCP/IP
.
(TCP - Transmission Control Protocol) ( IP Internet Protocol) .
2.
TCP/IP;
TCP/IP :
.
46
. &
.
TCP/IP .
3.
TCP/IP;
TCP/IP
, ,
.
,
.
4.
5.
TCP/IP;
1960
.. (Advanced
Research Projects Agency ARPA 10).
ARPA
, , .
.
,
. ,
,
.
,
,
(
),
,
,
. , ARPANET
,
.
To ARPANET
1971 , ,
10
.
.
ARPANET, 1974
TCP/IP
.
,
.
,
, ,
,
.
1982 TCP/IP ,
.
TCP/IP ARPANET
.
ARPANET ,
. , MILNET
, ARPANET
. ARPANET
, ,
(Internet).
48
. &
OSI 7 TCP/IP 4.
2. TCP/IP;
TCP/IP , , , , .
3. SI TCP/IP ;
.
4. SI TCP/IP;
TCP/IP )
) OSI.
5. SI TCP/IP;
TCP/IP ) )
) OSI.
6. TCP/IP ,
.
7. , TCP/IP.
(IP)
M E (Internet Control Message Protocol - ICMP).
8. , TCP/IP.
(Transfer Control
Protocol - TCP) (User Datagram
Protocol UDP).
9.
TCP/IP. ;
, TCP/IP,
(Telnet), (File Transfer, FTP),
(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, SMTP),
(Trivial File Transfer Protocol TFTP).
, Telnet, FTP SMTP TCP, TFTP
UDP.
10. .
.
.
49
(, ,
, ).
.
11. .
TCP UDP.
(. IP)
.
IP :
o .
o ,
(
MAC (Media Access Control) OSI).
:
(ARP
Address Resolution Protocol)
(RARP)
(Reverse Address Resolution Protocol).
IP,
,
(ICMP- Internet Control Message Protocol).
To (ICMP ) :
o
.
o ( ),
TCP/IP
. ..
,
ICMP, :
.
12. IP;
;
11.
13. ICMP ;
.
11.
14. .
.
TCP
UDP.
To TCP , ,
:
o : TCP
.
TCP,
50
. &
.
o :
TCP
.
o :
.
(UDP-User Datagram-Protocol)
o 11.
o .
o ,
( TCP) .
15. ;
;
14, . TCP.
16. TCP;
14, .
17. UDP;
14, .
18. .
:
,
.
, .
TCP/IP.
19. TCP/IP; .
TCP
(client server).
,
, .
.
11
,
( ) . UDP, ICMP, IPX,
NetBEUI .
51
,
.
,
.
7.2.3 TCP/IP
1. - TCP/IP.
, .
,
.
.
2. ;
.
3.
;
, :
.
/ , .
:
.
.
.
.
TCP IP. [
TCP IP
].
4. TCP/IP;
TCP/IP :
( ).
( TCP
).
( IP,
).
, (
.. Ethernet).
52
. &
5.
; ;
(Internet IP ).
.
6. (), ;
,
IP .
7. TCP/IP
;
.
8.
TCP/IP;
,
.
9.
TCP;
15.000 byte.
. :
, .. 30
500 byte.
.
,
. . 14
. 13.
,
TCP.
10. ) ,
, ; ) ;
) ) TCP/IP.
11.
,
.
53
1.
,
.
2. , .
3. [
].
4.
,
.
5. ,
. ,
.
6. ,
.
7. , .
8. ,
.
9.
.
7.3 TCP
1. TCP;
(Transmission Control Protocol, TCP)
TCP/IP.
.
.
TCP .
,
.
, (segment).
TCP , TCP
.
54
. &
,
, TCP .
TCP , TCP
IP,
.
2. (segment) TCP ;
,
TCP , (segment).
(), TCP
.
TCP
.
3. ,
(segment) ;
To TCP.
4. TCP ;
, E
TCP .
3,
.
5. - ,
) )
;
) TCP. ) .
6. TCP
;
.
7.
;
, , .
, , .
8. ;
. :
55
,
, ,
.
12. ,
1501 13
1500.
, .
9. TCP
;
TCP,
.
, .
. ,
.
.
,
.
.
10. 1000
12000. .
12000
1000, 12001
13000 .
11. ; .
TCP,
,
. .
() TCP port
.
. TCP TCP (TCP port)
.
12
56
. &
7.3.1 TCP
1. TCP ;
. ( 7.3.1 1 ).
2. TCP;
O TCP , TCP . ,
( ).
57
, ,
, . ,
( ,
IP ) ,
. TCP
,
.
3. TCP (FTP) .
FTP.
FTP ( ) FTP
.
, FTP ( ),
TCP port (.. 1234) TCP port
21, FTP .
:
o ) FTP (
).
.
o ) ,
. TCP port 21.
4. TCP , ; (
: TCP ;)
TCP :
.
TCP port .
5. ,
TCP , . ,
;
, IP
58
. &
. , FTP,
( ) TCP port
21.
TCP port ( ),
.
7.4 UDP
1. UDP; ;
UDP = User Datagram Protocol . UDP
.
2. UDP; .
UDP :
.
.
: .
()
.
3. TCP UDP.
TCP
UDP
,
.
TCP
UDP
59
.
14
.
.
4. UDP;
UDP (UDP port) 16 bit,
UDP .
UDP UDP
.
UDP, UDP port. UDP port
, .
UDP port UDP
,
TCP port.
5. UDP port, ;
TCP port, UDP port,
.
UDP port,
, ,
, , .
, (Simple
Network Management Protocol, SNMP), ,
UDP port 161.
6. UDP ;
UDP TCP.
, 15 .
7. IP ,
UDP, UDP;
;
,
UDP 16, UDP.
.
14
TCP
.. 3 1.
. .
15
UDP port .
port 16 bit.
16
7.5.
60
. &
7.5 IP
1. TCP/IP IP;
IP TCP/IP.
2. IP;
IP
(datagrams),
, .
TCP.
3. (TCP, UDP)
IP;
.
4. IP ; ;
TCP UDP
IP .
64Kbyte.
5. (64 Kbyte);
,
61
.
(fragment).
.
6.
;
;
,
,
, , , ,
.
, ,
,
. IP
, ,
IP ( 4).
, ,
.
7. IP, , ; [ :
MF IP ;]
IP
(More
Fragments, MF). MF 1, ,
. ,
, 17, MF 1.
8.
, ;
,
(Don't Fragment,
DF) 1. 1 DF ,
. ,
,
, , .
, .
9. IP , , , ,
;
.
18.
10. IP;
17
18
0.
.
62
. &
IP ,
( ,
).
11. IP;
H IP ,
.
,
, ,
.
12. IP;
IP ,
(
TCP UDP). ,
, IP
, .
13. IP;
IP
.
, ,
, ,
.
14. IP;
, IP,
. ,
19.
15. IP;
32-bit.
, , 5.
.
16. IP;
32 bit, ,
32 bit.
17. IP;
.
18. IP;
(
). 65.536 byte (64 Kbyte = 64 * 1.024 byte =
65.536 byte). , ,
.
19. IP;
19
IPv4 IPv6.
63
, ,
. ,
,
IP, : ,
.
20. IP;
, ,
.
, .
, . ,
,
,
.
21. -.
) , IP 1.400
byte , 20 byte.
, 620 byte.
.
(fragment) ,
MF,
.
- .
) , : 2,
1, 3. .
)
DF
,
, DF ,
0.
. .
IP 1420byte (1400byte
+ 20byte )
620byte,
:
o 1 : 620 byte (600 byte + 20 byte ).
o 2 : 620 byte (600 byte + 20 byte ).
o 3 : 220 byte (200 byte + 20 byte ).
64
. &
MF, , .
MF 1,
,
0.
.. 100,
. ( )
0 ( ),
75 (600/8=75, 2
75 1) 3 150 (1200/8,
3 150 1
2 ). , DF,MF, , ,
, :
=100
1 DF=0
MF=1
=0
=100
2 DF=0
MF=1
=75
=100
3 DF=0
MF=0
=150
(fragment)
( 32 bit).
= 20 byte = 160 bit
32 bit, ,
, 160/32 =
5 .
20 byte
5 .
(
) 0
. ,
.
. .
,
1.
(
.. MF).
. .
. .
. .
. .
65
) 2, 1, 3,
:
2
.
=100.
MF = 1
.
20=75 .
2 (buffer)
.
1
.
=100.
.
MF = 1
.
=0 .
1 (buffer) /
/.
3
.
=100.
.
MF = 0 .
=150
.
.
7.6
1. TCP/IP, ) ) ) ;
) ,
.
)
.
)
.
, ,
,
.
.
66
. &
,
(hardware address) MAC.
2. MAC ;
MAC ,
. MAC
(
) Ethernet 48bit.
3. OSI MAC,
;
OSI, MAC 21
.
MAC . MAC
, ,
. OSI
,
,
.
4. ;
(Institute of Electrical and
Electronic Engineers, IEEE). IEEE
(Organization Unique Identifier - OUI), 24 bits,
24 bits
, .
5. ;
. :
21
48 bit.
24 bit OUI (Organization Unique
Identifier).
bit ((/G))
(0, 1 ). 1,
,
. bit OUI 1,
,
).
.
67
7.6.2
1. 22 bit;
() 23
. ,
,
. 32 bit 24.
2.
;
; .
IP ,
(
).
, , .
3. ;
.
O IP ,
.
. .
22
4.
, , .
24
12. 32 bit 4 8 bit (=1byte)
4 . :
00010110.00100011.00000010.00000101, 22.35.2.5
, 22.35.2 3
( 7-17 ).
23
68
. &
, :
22.
: 35, 45 55.
,
(1,2,3 4).
,
.
4. ; , 32 bit ,
;
,
187.164.72.38.
8bit. , 48=32, 32 bit.
: ,
:
,
.
() , 32it ,
3 8 =24bit 1 8 = 8 bit
.
5. , TCP/IP
;
IP
(Network Information Center, NIC).
TCP/IP , ,
, NIC
.
, ,
, . ,
69
.
6. ;
()
, , B, C, D 25,
.
7. A,B,C,D;
bit
. , ,
0, 10, C 110 D 1110,
, 1111 .
8. .
. 7 bit
, 27 =128 26 24 bit ,
16
27.
9. .
. 14bit
16.384 (=214) .
16 bit, 65535 (=216) .
10. C.
C 21bit ,
2 (221 = 2097152).
8 bit 28 = 256
.
11. D.
O D (multicast),
, .
12. ; .
IP 8 bit,
. , IP
... ... C ( ,
25
.
7
2 2 =126 0 128 .
27
24
2 -2= 16.777.214 .
26
70
. &
, ). , IP
, 147.10.13.28, ,
, 147.10
13.28.
7.6.3
1.
;
,
, bits
.
2. ;
128.6.. .
,
, .. Ethernet, (
, ).
. (,
128.6.. ,
. , ,
,
,
128.6.4. 128.6.5.).
, ( ),
, 128.6.4,
,
128.6.5. ,
128.6.4 128.6.5 .
, , ,
128.6...
3. C , ; ;
C, ...,
,
( ).
71
, ,
. ,
.
, , . , .
.
4. (subnet mask);
.
32 bit
, AND.
5. 192.168.123.132 255.255.255.0.
.
: 11000000.10101000.01111011.10000100
: 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
AND
------------------------------------------------------11000000.10101000.01111011.00000000
:
192.168.123.0
:
00000000.00000000.00000000.10000100
0.0.0.132
6. 255.255.192.0 208.85.90.172.
.
AND.
:
: 208.85.64.0
7.
208.85.64.. ;
,
bit 1.
byte,
11111111 ( =255 ). :
208.85.64.255.
8.
147.10.0.0. ;
72
. &
, :
147.10.255.255.
9. 255.255.255.255;
255.255.255.255
.
10. CIDR ( 28
-). ;
CIDR ,
.
,
( ) . O . ,
207.13.01.48/25 /25 ,
25 bits
7 .
CIDR
(Internet Service Providers - ISPs),
,
. ,
, ISP.
,
/ , ISP.
7.7 ARP
1. ARP;
,
,
. ARP
29 .
2. ARP;
ARP IP
, .
ARP , IP
, .
.
.
ARP IP ,
ARP , , .
28
29
, , .
.
73
,
.
, , ,
ARP .
o ARP IP
.
IP
IP , ARP
.
o H .
, ARP ,
ARP , .
,
IP ARP.
3. ARP , ARP;
ARP ARP , ,
, ARP .
. ARP
ARP ,
.
,
. O ARP , IP (.. Ethernet)
,
.
4. (Reserve
Address Resolution Protocol RARP);
(RARP)
ARP. , ,
IP .
RARP ,
, RARP .
5. ARP.
, 128.6.4.194
128.6.4.7.
, , , 128.6.4.7
128.6.4.194, (..
Ethernet).
, ARP ,
128.6.4.7,
Ethernet .
, Ethernet Ethernet
.
128.6.4.7 APR ,
Ethernet 128.6.4.7
.
, ARP, ARP .
ARP : Ethernet 128.6.4.7.
, , ARP .
74
. &
IP , . ,
128.6.4.7 , IP
ARP : 128.6.4.7
8:0:20:1:56:34. (, Ethernet 48 bits, 6
).
, ARP , ,
ARP , ,
.
6. ARP.
,
(TELNET), TCP,
TCP IP. IP
TCP IP.
TCP IP , IP IP
, Ethernet,
. , Ethernet
.
Ethernet ARP .
, ARP
IP .
ARP : IP
223.1.2.2. IP , Ethernet
.
ARP ARP
IP .
IP , Ethernet
. ARP : IP
, Ethernet . ARP
ARP .
, . ARP
IP Ethernet
ARP .
ARP . , IP ,
, .
IP Ethernet
ARP , Ethernet
.
75
7.
ARP,
.
ARP .
IP .
ARP ARP .
IP Ethernet ARP
.
IP , Ethernet
.
ARP ,
, , ARP IP
IP , .
8.
ARP ;
ARP ,
ARP
, .
76
. &
5. ,
;
, .
,
,
.
6.
;
,
, , .
:
7.
/ /
; .
,
.
ASCII
.
, .
. O , ,
(
) , , .
8. (Domain Name System DNS)
;
(Domain Name System DNS)
. DNS
77
30.
,
, .
,
.
,
, ,
.
, DNS (name
server), ,
(
).
9. (DNS server);
,
.
()
, . .
, ().
( )
. ,
.
DNS .
( ) .
7.8.1 DNS
1. DNS;
DNS ,
,
. , :
30
.. .. () , .
78
. &
. , ,
, :
.arpa:
.com:
.edu:
.gov:
.mil:
.net:
.org:
,
, ,
( ). , ,
.
.gr .ca.
,
, .
domain . , (domain names),
,
, . domain names
.
, ntua.gr domain
name ntua ,
... (National Technical University of Athens - NTUA).
79
, domain name,
.
.
, subdomain.
, domain names
. , telecom.ntua.gr
.gr, domain name ... ntua.gr, subdomain. To
telecom.ntua.gr ,
..., ,
.
ektor
telecom, ,
ntua ... . gr
.
2. ektor.telecom.ntua.gr;
ektor,
telecom, ,
ntua ... .gr .
7.9
1. . ;
.
.
80
. &
2. ; ;
, ,
, ,
.
,
, ,
( ).
,
.
, , .
3. ;
:
. ( ,
,
,
).
. (
,
, ).
4. ;
,
OSI TCP/IP ( ).
,
.
5. ;
;
:
1.
.
2. ,
.
.
6. ;
.
7.
; ;
81
, , ,
, .
.
,
, .
, ,
.
. ,
. ,
. .
,
,
.
. ,
,
,
.
8. , )
) .
)
)
, .
9. .
:
.
,
.
.
(Central
Processing Unit, CPU), .
:
(
).
, .
10.
.
, ,
.
.
.
.
, ,
,
,
82
. &
.
.
11.
.
, :
(), , ( ),
.
, .
. ,
: ,
, .
7.9.1 TCP/IP
1. (host)
;
(host)
,
.
,
, .
2. ;
,
( ) .
,
. .
3.
;
. IP ,
, IP
.
4. ;
.
,
, ,
. ,
, . ,
.
,
, .
, .
, ,
.
5.
;
83
, ,
,
.
()
. , , ,
.
. ,
, . ,
,
, , .
,
. ,
,
(),
.
, ,
, : .
ICMP.
, .
6.
, .
()
()
() ,
,
.
()
, ()
,
()
7.
;
ICMP.
8.
, .
, 128.6.4,
, : 128.6.4.59 128.6.4.1.
128.6.4.59 ,
.
128.6.4.1 .
128.6.4.59 .
.
-
,
128.6.4.59.
84
. &
,
128.6.4.1.
,
,
128.6.4.1 (
ICMP).
IP
.
,
, 128.6.4.1.
7.9.2
1.
,
:
IP ,
IP , IP
.
Ethernet ,
, Ethernet
Ethernet .
:
85
IP IP , IP
, . ,
.
.
2.
, ;
, IP
, Ethernet. ,
IP ,
, IP .
7.9.3
1. TCP/IP , Ethernet.
.
, TCP/IP
Ethernet , .
, TCP /IP ,
.
.
, )
() () ) Ethernet ()
().
86
. &
, ,
, ,
Ethernet .
7.9.4
1. IP ,
, IP .
To IP ,
.
IP .
.
: IP,
, IP
. IP
. , IP
,
, .
2.
) ) 31:
31
.
Ethernet . 3
3 Ethernet , .
87
) :
IP IP (223.1.2.2).
To IP IP ,
(223.1.2) .
, ,
.
.
ARP IP
Ethernet , Ethernet
.
) .
IP
(223.1.3.2).
To IP IP
(223.1.3).
, , ,
.
88
. &
. , 223.1.3
.
ARP , IP
Ethernet , Ethernet
1 ( ).
, IP IP
IP .
Ethernet 1 (
) IP .
IP IP , ,
IP , .
To IP IP
( )
, (223.1.3)
( ) ,
.
, .
IP IP
3. , , IP , .
Ethernet .
Ethernet 3,
IP . IP IP
, ,
.
7.11
7.11.1
1. , ..
, ;
;
, :
.
.
.
.
.
2.
TCP,
;
89
TCP
,
.
,
( )
.
3. ,
.
, :
(ASCII, EBCDIC).
.
.
,
.
7.11.2
1. ;
(e-mail) ,
/ .
, ,
, . ,
,
.
2. ,
;
.
.
, .
, ,
, .
3. .
.
. , Los Angeles
, Los Angeles
.
, FAX .
, , ,
.
90
. &
.
,
( )
.
,
.
.
4. ;
, .
5. ;
.
6. ,
(Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol SMTP).
SMTP TCP/IP(
7 OSI ).
( )
32 (.. Outlook, Eudora, )
.
( - Send
), e-mail
(.. net, Forthnet, Hol, ).
(mail server)
.
,
.
(DNS Server)
.
SMTP
TCP
, TCP port 25.
SMTP
.
TCP ,
, ,
.
, .
, ,
.
,
, .
.
, SMTP
33.
32
91
92
. &
FTP:
FTP ,
, FTP .
FTP :
) - TCP port 21
- . , ,
, XX,
.
) ,
. TCP port 20
34.
,
. ,
.
9. FTP, ;
;
, FTP,
(Trivial File Transfer Protocol, TFTP).
TFTP:
.
.
.
( ) UDP.
34
.
, ,
.
.
,
.
11. ;
, ,
.
,
. Telnet ,
.
12. Telnet;
Telnet,
, .
Telnet ( FTP) ,
.
,
.
, ,
, .
,
. (..
94
. &
)
, .
14. ;
,
,
. ,
, .
. ,
.
(link).
95
,
. ,
, ,
.
35 (highlighted) ,
.
(highlighted) ()
.
15. / (browser);
,
- (browser).
, ,
.
16. (hypermedia) (hypertext);
, : , ,
, (hypermedia).
, .
17. ;
, ,
(HyperText Transfer Protocol, HTTP),
-.
18. ;
(Web servers)
, ,
.
,
.
19. (Web Clients);
(Web clients)
.
.
: Mozilla Firefox,
Microsoft Internet Explorer, Apple Safari Netscape Navigator, Netscape
Communicator, Microsoft Internet Explorer 36.
20. ;
(Web site).
, .
.
(Internet Service Providers, ISPs).
,
.
35
,
.
36
Mosaic,
.
96
. &
21. ,
;
, (WWW)
, . (WWW
, .. www.ntua.gr ), .
(Web site)
(Home page) (WWW ).
22. ;
;
, .
,
.
Google Yahoo Alta Vista, Lycos, Excite,
Infoseek, ..
23. ;
. 130 Web sites
1993, 1994 10.000, 1996 100.000 1997
650.000. 1994
6 % , 1995
24 %.
5 1996 22 2000. ,
1 700 . .
24. WAP;
WAP
,
, .
25. WAP;
:
.
.
(e-mail).
.
, .
.
TCP/IP (Intranet)
26. TCP/IP (Intranet);
TCP/IP (Intranet)
. Intranet
.
, intranet Internet .
, ,
. intranet
,
97
, , , ,
.
27. Intranet;
, intranet :
.
Web.
.
28. intranet.
,
( WWW clients, browsers),
.
.
(VoIP)
29. 37;
,
.
38,
: , ,
, , .
, , .
: , ,
( ),
. , ,
, , ,
.
30. video ;
video ,
( ).
37
.
:
) Skype: .
messenger /
( usb )
.
) VoIP Buster: Skype PC PC
.
) Teamspeak: Voice over IP,
. online
.
38
98
. &
, video
, , ,
.
31. / video
;
video ,
, . ,
, . , ,
, .
MPEG1 MPEG2
MPEG4
H.323.
32. ;
,
.
, ,
.
.
33. ;
:
:
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
:
.323,
CU-SeeMe
NetMeeting
.
34. ;
,
. ,
,
.
, ,
.
() ,
. ,
99
TCP/IP ,
.
35.
;
.
,
,
.
,
,
, .
, , ,
.
,
, .
36. IRC (IRC clients).
mIRC. - , ViRC, leafChat, Klient , Win Talk, irk ii .
37. ; ;
,
.
, , , .
, ,
, fax.
,
.
(Electronic Data Interchange - EDI),
e-mail.
38. ;
(Web Site) ,
.
,
(e-mail),
( ) .
,
,
.
, ,
.
, .
39. ;
, ,
, , , ,
CD, ,
, , , ..
100
. &
40. ,
;
,
.
8
8.1
1. OSI ;
OSI, : (configuration management),
(performance management), (fault management),
(accounting management) ,
(security management).
;
,
, ,
.
2.
OSI;
,
, OSI
.
101
, (,
) . ' ,
.
3.
; ;
, :
(.
, ,
...).
.
.
, o (inventory database)
, .
4.
; ;
, , (switches), , (hubs),
( ethernet, token ring ..), wan .
, , , , . ,
.
;
/ , , ,
.
102
. &
( , , ...) , , .
,
, . O , ,
, . .
2.
;
(alarm) (log) / .
3.
;
. , ,
.
,
,
.
, ,
,
,
. , ,
,
.
2. ;
:
,
,
,
.
103
8.3
8.3.1
1. ;
, ,
.
2. ;
, ,
. ,
.
3. , , ,
.
(authentication): .
(integrity): H
.
(confidentiality): O
.
(non repudiation):
.
4. (validity);
(validity) . .
5. ;
(information availability):
.
6. ,
.
(security): ,
.
(information security): , .
(vilatin) , , , .
7. ; .
. O .
, (
).
O (.. ) , .
,
. O
,
(.. ).
8. ;
104
. &
.
, .
o
, , , .
, , , ,
.
.
8.3.2
1. (encryption);
.
, (). .
2. (decryption);
.
, .
3. (key) ;
bit, .
4. (public key).
, / .
.
5. (private key).
, / . , .
6. (secret key).
, ,
/ .
7. (hash function);
,
.
8. (message digest);
.
9. (digital signature);
bit,
.
105
8.3.3
1.
;
( , ...),
.
,
.
2.
.
:
o
o
o
o
o
(Passwrd attacks).
(Network Monitoring Network Packet Sniffing)
(Masquerade)
(Denial of Service)
(Application-Layer Attacks)
3. password ; ;
password :
- password, .
- password . passwrd .
, Unix Windws, passwrd.
4. passwrd,
;
. (,
).
5. password .
, :
,
.
(keystroke mnitring),
o , ,
o ( ).
scial engineering, .
.
passwrd, . ,
password crack, .
106
. &
6. social
engineering;
scial
engineering, .
, , (help desk) passwrd ,
.
shulder surfing,
passwrd .
7. crack
;
crack ,
password .
password , passwords. crack Unix .
8. (packet sniffing);
H .
(clear text),
. , , , .
(packet sniffing).
packet sniffers
,
.
9.
(packet sniffer);
, (packet sniffing),
promiscuous mode. ,
, .
10. ;
107
!
.
.
,
, password.
password.
11. (masquerade) spoofing ;
IP spoofing
.
.
firewall
, (trusted).
IP Spoofing
, client / server
.
,
, , (spoofed IP address).
spoofed IP . , passwrd. ,
, e-mail.
12. (DoS Denial of Service).
, , , (.. web server, mail server).
, (, , )
.
.
,
,
.
13. ; (Application Layer attack);
HTTP, ActiveX, Telnet, Ftp, ...,
, .
, ,
.
8.3.4
1. .
.
.
.
108
. &
, :
/ :
, Caesar Cipher.
39
.
109
, ,
, ,
, .
3. ;
(Data Encryption Standard, DES),
3DES (triple DES) ,
(International Data
Encryption Algorithm, IDEA).
64 bits.
, 64 bits.
4.
;
. ,
.
,
,
.
, Diffie Hellman.
5. .
( ) , . .
:
- .
- .
110
. &
, ,
/ .
, .
. ( , ).
,
,
, ,
, .
,
.
.
, . .
,
.
6. ;
.
, , , (smartcard).
7. .
RSA
(Rivest, Shamir, Adelman) ElGamal.
8. ; ; ;
() ,
.
.
)
(hash algorithm) ) .
() ( ) .
:
111
.
(1)
(message digest).
(message digest) (2).
.
(3).
, , .
, :
(1).
, (2).
, (message
digest) (3).
,
(4).
(5).
112
. &
(message digest) , ,
(
)
,
message digest .
9. ;
! , () , ( ). ()
( ).
10. .
: Message Digest 4(MD4),
Message Digest 5(MD5) Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA).
113
8.3.5
1. .
:
passwords passwords .
SSL / SSH / SOCKS -
Radius / Tacacs -
.
PAP / CHAP -
Single Sign On - . ,
password.
-
.
IPSec (IP Security) - Internet Protocol Security
. OSI . IPSec
VPN
.
IPSec :
- ,
.
- ESP (Encapsulation Security Protocol),
.
2. (firewall).
Firewall / ,
( )
, . Internet / , .
/ Firewall,
.
firewall,
114
. &
, , , .
, firewall.
3. , ,
.
, ,
, ,
,
,
. ,
, .
, ,
.
4. ,
.
.. IP
, HTTP.
.. telnet, ftp, tftp rtagin ..
.
TCP/IP .
,
, TCP IP .
5. ;
.
, firewall. .
8.3.6
1.
;
:
) 40 41 .
) ,
.
2. ;
:
(. , ).
40
41
, , .
.. .
115
(. bugs)
(. , )
(. , ).
3.
;
, ,
,
, ,
. ,
, . ,
.
4. (Recovery), (Continuity Plan), (Information back up).
(Recovery)
.
(Continuity Plan) , .
oo (Information back up) -
, , .
, ,
. , , , . , , , .
5. ;
, , .
, ,
.
, , client - server. ,
(main site) .
site,
.
site ,
site.
, site switches, routers LAN.
,
(.. back up).
116
. &
117
118
. &
1. ( 242 . .7-14),
4 bit / 4 bit. 8 bit: 01000011.. .
;
bit , . 4 bit ,
, 3.
5
(. . .244).
.
2. 0101
0000000000110010. byte .
5,
, 5 x 4 = 20byte.
50. 50byte 20byte = 30byte .
3. . MF 0.
; ,
;
MF. , ,
MF 0. , MF=0.
4. . MF 1.
; ,
;
MF 1, ) ) MF 1. .
.
5. . MF 1 0
; , ;
MF 1 . , MF 0,
. 0 .
6. 5140 byte 20 byte
,
1500byte. 100 DF, MF
0.
, , DF, MF .
119
1
2
3
4
100
100
100
100
DF
MF
1500
1500
1500
700
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
185
370
555
1. ( )
;
.
.
.
2. ( )
;
.
( ) Ethernet,
( ) .
3. (bit); byte; .
0 1. bit.
To byte . byte
10010110, 11100011, 00001111 00000000 11111111.
4. ) 1 bit ) bit ) 3 bit ) 4
bit.
;
) 1 bit : 0, 1
21=2
) 2 bit : 00, 01, 10, 11
22=4
) 3 bit : 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111
23=8
) 4 bit : 0000, 0001, 0010, 0011, 0100, 0101, 0110, 0111
1000, 1001, 1010, 1011, 1100, 1100, 1110, 1111 24=16
120
. &
: bit 2 .
5. bit 4;
32 bit.
6. bit,
4, () ;
32 bit, ()
:
232= 4.294.967.296, 4 . ,
.
7. ) )
.
32 (byte),
4 byte. , byte .
,
) 11001101.10001110.00010011.11100111
) : 205.142.19.231
8. 10000001.11011011.11111111.00001111
.
, .
10000001.11011011.11111111.00001111
129. 219.255.15
9. 193.11.139.155 .
.
193.11.139.155
) .
11. ,
;
,
( ).
(. . 250 .251, 7-19).
, 0, 10, C 110 D
1110.
12. :
) 10100011.11100011.10111000.11110110
) 00000011.11110000.10101010.01101111
) 11100011.11011011.10111000.11100111
)11010000.10101010.11110000.00001111
) 10 .
) 0 .
) 1110, D.
) 110, C.
13. , ,
. [: A,B,C,D .
1 ] 42.
42
. 250,
, : (
).
122
. &
14. ,
;
,
, 1 byte.
, byte :
0 127 ( 00000000 011111111) / .
128 191( 10000000 10111111) / .
192 223 ( 11000000 11011111) / C.
224 239 ( 11100000 11101111) / D.
15. :
) 132.17.87.65
) 226.13.15.78
)17.28.132.8
)194.18.65.32
:
)
) D
)
) C
1 byte
, 13:
) 132 10000100 .
) 226 11100010 D.
) 17 00010001 .
)194 11000010 C.
16. , ) )
) C ) D;
,
( 1).
:
: 01111111.11111111.11111111.11111111 2.147.483.647
:
00000000.00000000.00000000.00000000 0
= 2.147.483.647 0 + 1 = 2.147.483.648
: 10111111.11111111.11111111.11111111 3.221.225.471
:
10000000.00000000.00000000.00000000 2.147.483.648
: 3.221.225.471 - 2.147.483.648 + 1 = 1.073.741.824
123
C
: 11011111.11111111.11111111.11111111 3.758.096.383
:
11000000.00000000.00000000.00000000 3.221.225.472
: 3.758.096.383 - 3.221.225.472 + 1 = 536.870.912
D
: 11101111.11111111.11111111.11111111 4.026.531.839
:
11100000.00000000.00000000.00000000 3.758.096.384
: 4.026.531.839 - 3.758.096.384 + 1 = 268.435.456
17. 4
, , C D; .
4 :
: 11111111.11111111.11111111.11111111 4.294.967.295
:
00000000.00000000.00000000.00000000 0
= 4294967295 0 + 1 = 4.294.967.296
=
=
C=
= 12,5%
D=
= 6,25%
50% .
.
18. 74. ; ;
74
. 74.0.0.0 74.255.255.255.
byte
.
224=16777216 . 24
3 byte .
(
, .
= 16777215 0 + 1 = 16777216).
124
. &
.
19. 178.6. ; ;
178.6 .
178.6.0.0 178.6.255.255.
216=65536.
, .
20. C.
C 192 223.
C 192.0.0.0 223.255.255.255.
21. 143.54.78.2.
.
(143) .
143.54 78.2.
22. 219.54.17.255,
C. ;
125
1. (/n)
) 255.0.0.0
)255.255.0.0
)255.255.255.0
)255.255.240.0
)255.252.0.0
)/8
)/16 )/24 )/20 )/14
2. 196.174.14.0, 4
. ( .251 -254 .
).
) .
) .
) .
)
, .
) , 196.174.14.0,
126
. &
. , .
bit
.
196.174.14.0 C, 255.255.255.0.
( : 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000),
,
.
4 (=22) , 2 (
). , 00,
01, 10, 11.
, 24+2=26
8-2=6 .
x
=2 ( x ).
(y-x)
( y ,
/ = 2
).
, 2, 4 y 8
26=64 43.
/ . ,
, 0 (
) 1 ( ).
43
/ 2
(y-x)
-2.
127
) C
255.255.255.0 ( 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000).
, bit
, .
11111111.11111111.111111111.11000000,
255.255.255.192.
) , byte .
byte. ,
1 4 byte 00000000
196.174.14.0.
2 4 byte 01000000
196.174.14.64.
3 4 byte 10000000
196.174.14.128.
4 4 byte 11000000
196.174.14.192.
)
1 bit (. . 253, ). :
1 , byte 00111111 63, 196.174.14.63.
2 , byte 01111111 127, 196.174.14.127.
3 , byte 10111111 191, 196.174.14.191.
128
. &
/
/
1
00011001.00000000.00000000.00000000
25.0.0.0
2
00011001.00100000.00000000.00000000
25.32.0.0
3
00011001.01000000.00000000.00000000
25.64.0.0
4
00011001.01100000.00000000.00000000
25.96.0.0
5
00011001.10000000.00000000.00000000
25.128.0.0
6
00011001.10100000.00000000.00000000
25.160.0.0
7
00011001.11000000.00000000.00000000
25.192.0.0
8
00011001.11100000.00000000.00000000
25.224.0.0
) :
/
1
00011001.00011111.11111111.11111111
2
00011001.00111111.11111111.11111111
3
00011001.01011111.11111111.11111111
4
00011001.01111111.11111111.11111111
5
00011001.10011111.11111111.11111111
6
00011001.10111111.11111111.11111111
7
00011001.11011111.11111111.11111111
8
00011001.11111111.11111111.11111111
/
25.31.255.255
25.63. 255.255
25.95. 255.255
25.127. 255.255
25.159. 255.255
25.191. 255.255
25.223. 255.255
25.255. 255.255
4. . 138.112.80.24/20. ( ), 44 .
) 20,
1 .
AND ( ) ,
44
.
129
AND
(/ )
/
10001010.01110000.01010100.00011000
11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000
10001010.01110000.01010000.00000000
138.112.80.0
, 138.112.80.0.
) 12 ,
212= 4096.
) : 10001010.01110000.01011111.11111111
138.112.95.255
5. .
1, . , 0,
0. , 1 0,
1. , :
.
1 0. , 20, 2
1, 1 ( 20) 0.
0.
1, byte . ,
1 byte , 138 112 .
0, byte 0. ,
0, byte 0.
, 1
1. ,
1 0, ( 0101) 0. byte 01010000
80.
, 1, 2, 4 byte
3 byte.
6. ) 2 ) 6
) 28 )62 ) 120 ;
,
2. .. ,
21=2 .
130
. &
2,
2 . , 6
, 3 . , 23=8 , 2 , 22=4 .
, :
) 2
1
) 6
>>
>>
3
)28 >>
>>
5 >>
) 62 >>
>>
6 >>
)120 >>
>>
7 >>
7. , ,
32.0.0.0/8.
500 .
) .
) ;
) ;
) ;
) 8 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000.
500 < 512 (=29),
9 .
: 11111111.11111111.10000000.00000000 /17.
) 32-17 = 15 , 215= 32768 .
) 32.0.0.0 17
(32 0), 0
( 0) 0. :
32.0.0.0. ( : 00100000.00000000.00000000.00000000.
).
, 1, 00100000.00000000.01111111.11111111. 32.0.127.255.
) 500 ( 0 499),
499 ( 111110011 ->(! )).
499
00100000.11111001.10000000.00000000 32.249.128.0
00100000.11111001.11111111.11111111 32.249.255.255.
8. C,
6
.
131
C, 255.255.255.0
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000.
, :
11111111.11111111.11111111.11111100.
,
22=4. , (
0 1)
.
1.
, .
132
. &
2. Caesar Cipher 3,
:
8-12 . 321
, . ,
, , . :
133
134
. &
6
7 ( 7.3.1 (.240))
7.4 7.6.2 (.251)
7.6.3 7.7 (.259)
7.8 7.9.1 (.269)
7.9.2 8.1.5 (.303)
8.3 8.3.6 (. 330)
135
136
. &