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Material Science and Testing Lab

Experiment No. 1
Aim : To compare the Brinell Hardness number of the specimen before and after heat treatment.

Apparatus :Brinell hardness testing machine , Ball indenter, Brinell Microscope, Tongs, Muffle furnace. Theory : Hardness, BHN, indenter, Hardness test types.

Procedure : 1. Select the ball Indenter and fix the indenter into the indenter holder. 2. Place the specimen on the anvil. By rotating the hand wheel raise the anvil so that the testing specimen touches the indenter. 3. Press the specimen against indenter for the small movement of the needle, in this position the minor load is applied. 4. Select the Load to be applied. 5. The major load is applied slowly by the movement of the lever. 6. Slowly move back the lever and rotate the anvil in opposite direction in order to lower the anvil in down ward direction. 7. Measure the diameter of the dent or impression on the specimen d by Brinell Microscope. 8. Calculate the hardness number. 9. The procedure is repeated after Heat Treating the specimen. 10.Compare the Hardness number before and after heat treatment.

Observation and Tabular Column: Type of heat treatment done: BHN = 2P ------------------------ D ( D - (D - d )) Where, P = Load applied D = Diameter of the ball d = Diameter of the indentation or impression. Before Heat Treatment: S.N O 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Load applied ( kg.) Dia of the Ball (mm) Dia of the indentatio n ( mm) BHN Remarks

After Heat Treatment:


S.N O 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Load applied ( kg.) Dia of the Ball (mm) Dia of the indentatio n ( mm)

BHN

Remarks

Result: BHN before heat treatment: BHN after heat treatment:.. Conclusion: Precautions: 1. Apply the minor load carefully. 2. Release the lever gently while applying the major load. 3. Observation should be made at a sufficient distance from previous indentation. 4. Handle the Brinnel microscope carefully. 5. Care must be taken to set the anvil and indenter firmly. Viva Questions: 1. What is meant by heat treatment? 2. What are the different types of heat treatment? 3. Enumerate the need for heat treatment of steel? 4. List different types of hardness testing methods? 5. What is meant by BHN? 6. Differentiate between hardenability and hardness? 7. What are the different types of indenters used in hardness testing? 8. What are the factors which effect the hardness of steels? 9. Why is the minor load applied before applying the major load? 10.Derive the formula to calculate BHN.

Material Science and Testing Lab


Experiment No. 2
Aim : To compare the Charpy and Izod Toughness of the specimen Before and after Heat Treatment. Impact Testing Machine, Muffle furnace. Toughness, Impact test methods, stress concentration, stress riser, Notch Sensitivity, Fracture.

Apparatus : Theory :

Procedure : 1. Place the specimen on the supports or anvil so that the blow of hammer be opposite to the V-notch for Charpy test and V- notch facing hammer for Izod test . 2. Rise the pendulum to the standard height (H) and make the loose pointer in contact with the fixed pointer. 3. Release the pendulum which will strike the specimen through its momentum. 4. Stop the pendulum and note down the reading as indicated by the loose pointer on the scale (h). 5. Stop the hammer by applying brake. Observation:

Type of heat treatment done:


Before Heat Treatment:
Specimen No. UI = Energy loss (H-h) without specimen Energy Us (H-h) with Specimen Nett energy Un = ( Us-Ui) Mean Energy Jouls

1.

2. After Heat Treatment:


Specimen No. UI = Energy loss (H-h) without specimen Energy Us (H-h) with Specimen Nett energy Un = ( Us-Ui) Mean Energy Jouls

1. 2. Result: Izod toughness before heat treatment: Izod toughness after heat treatment:...... Charpy toughness before heat treatment:... Charpy toughness after heat treatment:.. Conclusion: Precautions: 1. Nobody should stand within the range of swing of the pendulum. 2. Release the pendulum lever carefully. 3. Specimen should be placed carefully, considering the correct position of the Vnotch. 4. Pendulum brakes should not be applied while the pendulum is returning. 5. Adjust the loose pointer in contact with the fixed pointer after setting the pendulum. Viva Questions : 1. What is meant by toughness? 2. What is the purpose of V-notch in impact testing and what is its dimension? 3. What is resilience? 4. How does tempering changes the toughness of a material? 5. Define Notch Impact Strength & Modulus of Rupture. 6. Differentiate between Izod & Charpy impact testing techniques?

Material Science and Testing Lab


Experiment No. 3
Aim : To find the value of E for a simply supported beam subjected to point load due to deflection. Supporting stand, mirror stand, scale, beam, weight. Beam, Bending moment equation, center of gravity, Youngs Modulus. Place the beam on the support as a simply supported, check for its straightness. Select the loading point on the beam, place the load. By using mirror measure the deflection of the beam at that point. Measure the distance of load acting point. Repeat the procedure for different beam, different load and for different position of load.

Apparatus : Theory :

Procedure :1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Observation and Tabular column. W = weight on the beam a = distance measured from first support b = distance measured from second support I = moment of inertia of the beam y = deflection at the point of loading L = length of beam E = Youngs Modulus
=

______________kg

= ___________ mm = ___________ mm = ____________ mm 4 = ___________ mm = ____________ mm

W. a b
_______________ = _________ Kg / mm2

3. I. y. L

Trial no: 1 Type of Sl.no. Beam Square 1. beam Square 2. beam Rectangula 3. r beam Rectangula 4. r beam Wooden 5. beam Wooden 6. beam Load (Kg) a (mm) b (mm) Deflection y (mm) Youngs modulus E1

Trial no: 2 Type of Beam Square beam Square beam Rectangula r beam Rectangula r beam Wooden beam Wooden beam Sl.no. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Load (Kg) a (mm) b (mm) Deflection y (mm) Youngs modulus E2

Trial no: 3 Type of Sl.no. Beam Square 1. beam Square 2. beam Rectangula 3. r beam Rectangula 4. r beam Wooden 5. beam Wooden 6. beam Result: E1+ E2+ E3 Average Youngs Modulus of the square beam =
-----------------------------=

Load (Kg)

a (mm)

b (mm)

Deflection y (mm)

Youngs modulus E3

Kg/mm2 Kg/mm2

3 E1+ E2+ E3 Average Youngs Modulus of the Rectangular beam =


---------------------------- =

3 E1+ E2+ E3 Average Youngs Modulus of the Wooden beam Conclusion: Precautions: 1. While taking the readings in the mirror, the needle pointer should coincide with its image in the mirror. 2. The supports of the beam should be leveled before taking the readings. 3. The load should be applied carefully. =
____ --------------------=

Kg/mm2

Viva Questions : 1. What is Youngs Modulus? 2. What is meant by Moment of Inertia? 3. How to find out the least count of vernier caliper. 4. What is the effect of temperature on Youngs Modulus? 5. How will you define a beam? 6. What is the difference between a simple supported beam & cantilever beam? 7. What is the formula used to calculate the Moment of Inertia of a Square section beam; Rectangular section beam and a circular beam about the axis. 8. What is meant by Polar Moment of Inertia & how is it calculated? 9. Derive the relationship between Youngs Modulus, Modulus of Rigidity & Bulk Modulus. 10.Describe different types of loads on beam with the help of sketches.

Material Science and Testing Lab


Experiment No. 4
Aim : To find the strength of the given specimen and compare the strength before and after heat treatment. UTM, Dial gauge, vernier caliper. Stress, strain, True stress, True strain, Fracture.

Apparatus : Theory :

Procedure : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Measure the original gauge length and diameter of the specimen. Set up the UTM machine for conducting Tensile test. Fix the specimen ends in the upper and lower jaw of the UTM platen. Gradually apply load and for each equal increment of the load note down the corresponding dial gauge reading. After taking eight to ten reading, remove the dial gauge. Test is carried out till failure of the specimen. Remove the specimen from the jaw. Measure the fracture length and diameter of the specimen. Repeat the procedure for the specimen after heat treatment. Draw Stress vs Strain graph.

Observation and calculation. Before Heat Treatment Lo = original gauge length. Lf = fracture length Do = original diameter of the specimen Df = diameter at the point of fracture Ao = original cross sectional area Af = cross sectional area at the point of Fracture Percentage Elongation % EL = = .mm = ..mm = .mm = ..mm = . ..mm2 = ..mm2

Lf - Lo = Lo Ao - Af Ao
2

X 100 = X 100 =
Strain g / Lo

Percentage Reduction in Area % RA =


S. N. Load (kgf) Stress (kgf/mm )

Dial gauge reading (g mm)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1

0 After Heat Treatment Lo = original gauge length. Lf = fracture length Do = original diameter of the specimen Df = diameter at the point of fracture Ao = original cross sectional area Af = cross sectional area at the point of Fracture Percentage Elongation % EL = = .mm = ..mm = .mm = ..mm = . ..mm2 = ..mm2

Lf - Lo = Lo Ao - Af Ao

X 100 = X 100 =
Strain g / Lo

Percentage Reduction in Area % RA =


S. N. Load (kgf) Stress (kgf/mm2)

Dial gauge reading (g mm)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1

0 Result: Before Heat Treatment: Ultimate Tensile Strength:.. Percentage Elongation: Percentage Reduction in Area: .. After Heat Treatment: Ultimate Tensile Strength:.. Percentage Elongation: Percentage Reduction in Area: .. Conclusion:

Precautions: 1. The specimen should be prepared in uniform cross-sectional area. 2. Load should be applied gradually. 3. The test specimen should be free from stress raisers like scratch marks in the gauge length portion. 4. The specimen should be fixed firmly in the vise on the UTM. 5. The readings for stress and strain should be taken simultaneously, during the test. 6. The dial indicator should be fixed firmly on the moving arm of the UTM and the indicator needle should be set to zero before starting the experiment.

Viva Questions: 1. Differentiate between Engineering Stress/Strain and True Stress/Strain. 2. What is meant by Plastic & Elastic Deformation? 3. Define Upper Yield Point; Lower Yield Point; Ultimate Strength; Fracture Strength. 4. What is meant by Gauge Length. 5. What are the various types of fractures? 6. Differentiate between Brittleness and ductility? 7. Define the term Malleability? 8. What is Strain hardening? 9. How the microstructural defect like slip effects the deformation? 10.Suggest a heat treatment process to increase ductility of the material.

Material Science and Testing Lab Experiment No.5


Aim : Comparison of the Compression strength of the given Specimen before and after heat treatment.

Apparatus : UTM Machine, vernier caliper. Theory : compression strength, malleability, ductility. Measure the original length and diameter of the specimen 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Set up the UTM Machine for conducting compression test. Place the specimen on the lower platen of the UTM Machine. Gradually apply load and for particular load, stop the machine . Release the load and remove the specimen. Measure the length and diameter of the specimen. Repeat the procedure for the specimen after heat treatment for the same load. Note down the difference in the property.

Procedure : 1.

Observation and calculation:

Type of heat treatment done:


Before Heat treatment Lo Lf Do Df Ao Af = Original length = ------------------mm = Final length = -------------------mm = Original diameter of the specimen = -------------------mm = Diameter after test = Original cross sectional area = Cross sectional area after test = ------------------mm = ---------- --------mm = ------------------ mm

Percentage Elongation % EL = Percentage Reduction in area % RA = Af Ao Ao X 100 = ______ % Lf Lo Lo X 100 = ______ %

After Heat treatment Lo Lf Do Df Ao Af = = = = = = Original length Final length Original diameter of the specimen Diameter after test Original cross sectional area Cross sectional area after test = ------------- mm = ------------- mm = ------------- mm = ------------- mm = ------------- mm = ------------- mm

Percentage Elongation % EL = Percentage Elongation % RA = Result: Before Heat Treatment: Percentage Elongation: Percentage Reduction in Area: .. After Heat Treatment: Percentage Elongation: Percentage Reduction in Area: .. Conclusion: Precautions: Af Ao Ao X 100 = ______ % Lf Lo Lo X 100 = ______ %

1. The specimen should be prepared in uniform cross-sectional area. 2. Load should be applied gradually. 3. The specimen should be fixed firmly in the vise on the UTM. 4. The readings for stress and strain should be taken simultaneously, during the test. 5. The dial indicator should be fixed firmly on the moving arm of the UTM and the indicator needle should be set to zero before starting the experiment. 6. The fracture point in compression should be observed carefully. Viva Questions: 1. Differentiate between Compressive strength and tensile strength. 2. Describe the fracture mechanism of a material under compressive loading. 3. Theoretically compressive strength should be same as the tensile strength of a material, but practically it is not. Why? 4. What is anisotropy? How does it effects the mechanical properties?

Material Science and Testing Lab Experiment No.6

Aim

To calculate the Modulus of Rigidity of a circular rod. Rod fixing arrangements, stand, weights. Torsion, torsion equation, modulus of rigidity, polar moment of inertia. Fix the given rod at its ends in the rod fixing arrangement. Select the twisting points, tighten the bolt for firm fixation. Measure the distance from point of load applied to the rod. Set the angle of twist pointers at different positions along the length of the rod. 5. 6. Note down the angle of twist at different twisting points. Repeat the procedure for different load and for different position of twisting .

Apparatus : Theory :

Procedure : 1. 2. 3. 4.

Observation and Calculation: T ----J C C -----L TL =


-----------J

Where, C= Modulus of rigidity = ------------------kgf/mm2 T= Torque =W S = -------------------kgf/mm W= Load applied = -----------------kgf S= Distance from load applied point to center of rod = -----------------mm L= Length of the rod from point of fixing to twisting point = -----------mm = Angle of twist = ------------------deg. J= Polar moment of inertia = d4 / 32 = -------------------mm4

Sl. No. 1.

Load (kgf)

Length of rod from Mean Angle of Modulus of fixed end to Modulus of twist (deg) rigidity twisting point (mm) rigidity 1 11= C1= C a= 12= 13=
2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

C2= C3= C1= C2= C3= C1= C2= C3= Cb= Cb=

2.

11= 12= 13=

3.

11= 12= 13=

Result: Ca +Cb +Cc Modulus of Rigidity of the rod = ------------------ = 3

Conclusion: Precautions: 1. The rod should be gripped firmly at both the ends to avoid slippage on application of load. 2. The load should be applied gradually. 3. The angle of twist readings should be taken carefully.

Viva Questions: 1. What is meant by modulus of rigidity?

2. Define torsion strength. 3. What are the factors which may affect the angle of twist. 4. What will be the effect on strength if a solid circular shaft is replaced by a hallow shaft of same dimension. 5. What is meant by strain energy? Give its expression in torsion for solid and hollow circular shaft. 6. What is Poissons Ratio.

Experiment No. 7

Aim:

Comparative study of microstructures of different given specimens (mild steel, gray C.I., brass, copper etc.)

Apparatus: Properly polished and etched specimen, metallurgical microscopes of 1500X to 2400X, an air drier (optional) to dry the specimen. Theory: Levels of material structure may be both macro/micro. Whereas the macro structure can be seen with naked eye or with an optical microscope of low magnification, the microstructures can be observed with high magnification metallurgical microscopes. In this experiment one can visualize the crystals, grain boundaries and solid solution phases in the material. In steel and gray C.I. different microstructures can be seen, these are due to presence of carbon in different forms that is ferrite, cementite, pearlite, ludeburite etc. In brass, the two components , copper and zinc can be seen in random mixing. In copper, different solid phases like phase, - phase, - phase and their combination will be visible.

Procedure: 1. Polish and etch the specimen, make it dry. Put it on the microscope base. 2. Make the power supply ON to microscope. Select an appropriate objective lens for vision. 3. Focus the microscope, first by using general knob and then by fine tuning knob. See the surface of specimen through eyepiece lens. Observation:

1. Sketch the visible structures. Measure their dimensions on horizontal and vertical scales, if provided on microscope. 2. The probable microstructures of some metals and alloys are illustrated in figures below. Find out as to which metals / alloys they belong top: copper, nodular CI and HSS. Precautions: 1. The specimen must be completely dry, otherwise the microstructure will not be clearly visible. 2. Focus the specimen clearly, before drawing the microstructures. 3. Handle the specimens carefully

Viva Questions: 1. Why are microstructures of metals are different from each other? 2. What are the effects of microstructure of steel and CI on their mechanical properties? 3. In which way is the microstructure of copper different from the microstructure of brass? 4. Define Pearlite, Austenite, Ferrite, Cementite, Martensite, Bainite, and Ledeburite. 5. What is the purpose of alloying. Describe few alloys of Copper and Aluminium. 6. How are steels classified based on their alloying (carbon) content?

7. What is Cast Iron? What are its types? 8. What are stainless steels? Give its composition. 9. Discuss in brief, the steel manufacturing process. 10.Discuss the properties and manufacturing process of the following: Composites; Ceramics; Plastics and Glass.

Experiment No. 8

Aim:

Preparation of specimen for micro structural examination Cutting, Grinding & Rough (dry) Polishing.

Apparatus: Cutting saw/hand saw, grinding machine, dry belt grinder, four grades of emery papers, MS specimen. Theory: Grain boundaries are not visible in an ordinary piece of metal owing to deformed layer or corroded surface. Their removal is essential for preparation of the specimen to be viewed under a microscope. Therefore, grinding (rough and fine), polishing and etching are done on them . Rough polishing (dry polishing) is done by abrasive papers having silicon carbide (SiC) powder bonded to it. Abrasive grades of 320, 400, 600 grits and particle sizes of 33, 23, 17 microns are generally used. Test Set-up and Specifications of Machines: The experiment is carried out on a series of machines which are: Cut-off machine: (Fig. 1) This is an open type abrasive cut-off machine capable of cutting up to 60 mm, 80 mm, 100 mm round bar and square. It is equipped with a heavy duty vice, coolant circulation system along with a coolant tank and pump. Belt grinder (Fig. 2). This is used for initial rough grinding of specimen. It is mounted with hp, 200 V, 1-phase motor, endless belt of 100 mm width and 915 mm length on dynamically well balanced roller. It is also equipped with a water faucet for intermediate rinsing of specimen to avoid heating and burn formation. Procedure: The experiment is conducted in the following sequential steps.

1. Cut a cylindrical or square piece of MS of any size between 10 mm to 25 mm diameter/side as specimen. 2. Do its grinding on grinding machine . 3. Do its fine grinding on dry belt grinder. Continue grinding till the major scratches disappear. 4. Do the rough polishing by placing emery papers on a flat surface and moving the specimen along it in one direction. 5. Emery papers of various grades are used step wise, starting from the coarser one to the finer one. 6. Rough polishing is to be done in one direction, and the specimen has to be rotated by 90 when changing from one grade of emery paper to the next. Observations: 1. Grade and size of Emery Papers used:
S. No. 1. 2. Emery Paper 1 Emery Paper 2 Emery Paper 3 Emery Paper 4

Particles size (microns) Emery paper (grade)

Precautions: 1. Work carefully on cut-off machine & dry belt grinder. 2. Keep the emery paper on a flat surface, and do the polishing in one direction, holding the specimen firmly. 3. Rotate the specimen by 90, while changing from one grade of emery paper to another.

4. Polish the specimen on the emery paper until all the scratch marks are predominant in the direction of polishing.

Viva Questions: 1. What are the specifications of grinding and polishing machines? 2. What is lapping? Which degree of accuracy can be achieved in metals by polishing? 3. Why is grinding performed before polishing? 4. What is the need of polishing on four grades of emery paper? 5. Why is the specimen rotated by 90, while changing from one grade of emery paper to another? 6. Why is dry polishing done before wet polishing?

Material Science and Testing Lab


Experiment No. 9

Aim:

Preparation of specimen for micro structural examination & viewing it under the metallurgical microscope wet polishing, etching & microscopic examination.

Apparatus: Disc polishing machine, alumina powder, etchant (nitric acid & ethyl alcohol), metallurgical microscope. Theory: Grain boundaries a not visible in an ordinary piece of metal owing to deformed layer or corroded surface. Their removal is essential for preparation of the specimen to be viewed under a microscope. Therefore, grinding (rough and fine), polishing and etching are done on them . Wet polishing is done by polishing compound (Al 2O3 powder) of 0.05 micron, placed on a cloth that covers the wheel. Water is used as lubricant. Etching is done to make the grain boundaries visible. Test Set-up and Specifications of Machines: The experiment is carried out on a series of machines which are: Disc Polishing Machine (Fig.1): It is variable speed double disc machine for fine grinding and super polishing (lapping). It is mounted with a hp or 1 hp motor having continuous stepless variable speed upto 1400 rpm, digital rpm indicator, and discs of 200 mm/250 mm diameter. Metallurgical Microscope (Fig. 2): A metallurgical microscope is equipped with various attachments in order to magnify the surface of the specimen optically so that the microstructures can be viewed. Some of the basic accessories of a metallurgical microscope are eye-piece, viewing head, objective lenses, lenses changer, knobs for x-y movements, illuminator, focusing knobs etc. Depending upon the layout of viewing head, type of construction, purpose served and other versatile

features; metallurgical microscopes can be classified into following main types: a). Monocular, Binocular or Trinocular head type; b). Straight, Inclined or Inverted Head type; c). Stationary or Portable type; d). Dissecting or Polarizing type; e). Stereoscopic or stereoscopic zoom type; f). Modular or Profile Projection type. Procedure: The experiment is conducted in the following sequential steps. 1. Rough (dry) polished specimen having scratch free surface to be taken for wet polishing. 2. Perform fine (wet) polishing on disc polishing machine, by holding firmly the specimens on to the discs, having velvet cloth and alumina paste as abrasive to get a mirror like surface. 3. Now etch the specimen by immersing it in an etchant. Etchant for MS is a blend of 2% nitric acid + 98% ethyl alcohol (nital solution). Etching should be done for 5 to 10 seconds. 4. Keep the prepared specimen under a metallurgical microscope and select the desired magnification. 5. Adjust the lenses of the microscope by operating the knobs, to focus the specimen. 6. Note down the structures visible under the microscope.

Observations: 1. Polishing compound for wet polishing: 2. Composition of etchant used:

3. Etching time: 4. Magnification selected: 5. Microstructural Examination: Grain shapes & boundaries observed:............................. Crystal Irregularities Observed: Inclusions or cracks present:. Alloy distribution observed:..

Precautions: 1. Work carefully on the disc polishing machine. 2. Hold the specimen firmly on the disc, while wet polishing. 3. Prepare the etchant carefully, as it is acidic in nature. 4. Avoid excessive and unnecessary contact with the etchant. 5. Do not touch your eyes and other body parts until the hands are washed properly after using the etchant. 6. Wipe of the excessive etchant from the specimen before going for microstructural examination.

Viva Questions: 1. What is the purpose of wet polishing after dry polishing? 2. Why is alumina powder used in wet polishing? 3. What is the purpose of etching?

4. Which etchant is used for etching MS; aluminium; copper? 5. What is the principle of working of metallurgical microscope?

Material Science and Testing Lab


Experiment No. 10

Aim: Apparatus:

Grain size determination of a given specimen. A polished and etched metallic specimen, metallurgical microscope.

Theory:

Materials are composed of crystals (or grains) of various sizes. The grain sizes are specified by ASTM (American Society for Testing of Materials) numbers which specifies the grain sizes in materials from ASTM 1 to ASTM 12 of which ASTM 1 to ASTM 8 are the normal range in metals. The number of grains N observed in an area of one square inch (645 mm 2) on a micrograph at a magnification of 100X is given by N = 2(n-1), where n is the ASTM number of the grain size. Based on their sizes, the grains are called coarse grain (for ASTM 3 or less), medium grain (for ASTM 4 to 6), fine grain (for ASTM 7 to 9) and ultrafine grain (for ASTM 10 or more). The grain size affects various properties of materials as given below:

Fine Property grained structure

Coarse grained structure

Ductility Yield Strength Hardness Resilience Toughness Tensile Strength Fatigue Resistance Surface Finish Corrosion Resistance Creep Resistance Hardenability Machinability Strain Hardening

more more more more more more more more less less less less more

less less less less less less less less more more more more less

Procedure: 1. Take a thoroughly polished and etched specimen, and view it through a microscope. 2. View and area of one square inch (i.e. 645 mm 2) on a photomicrograph at a magnification of 100X. 3. If the number of observed grains is N, then N=2(n-1) Where n is ASTM number of the grain size. Thus log N n= log 2 Observation: Number of grains observed in one square inch area = +1

ASTM No.(n):.

Viva Questions: 1. What is the effect of grain size on mechanical properties of steel? 2. What are the factors which affect the grain size? 3. How is grain size determined? 4. What is the significance of ASTM no. in grain size determination?

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