Energy Resources

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition
by Stephen Marshak 2011 W.W. Norton & Company
Chapter 2 Journey to the Center of the Earths
Squeezing Power from a Stone: Energy Resources
prepared by: Dan Wynne PG, CEG, CHG and Davis, California
Ronald Parker Senior Geologist Fronterra Geosciences, Denver

2011, W. W. Norton
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 14: Squeezing Power from a Stone
Sources of Energy
Five fundamental sources of energy.
Energy stored in chemical bonds. Nuclear fusion (inside the Sun). Energy in the Earths interior. The pull of gravity. Nuclear fission.
Fig. 14.2
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Sources of Energy
Energy produced by fusion in the Suns interior.
Heat and light are radiated out from the Sun (solar output). A tiny portion of the solar output reaches Earth.
Solar energy can be used by humans.

Conversion into electricity by photovoltaic cells. Conversion into heat.
Humans cannot control fusion.
Fig. 14.18d
2011, W. W. Norton
PowerPoint slides prepared by Ronald L. Parker, Fronterra Geosciences, 700 17th Street, Suite 900, Denver, CO, 80202

Sources of Energy
Energy from gravity.
Gravitational pull of the Moon causes tides on Earth. Tidal flow in oceans can be harnessed to drive turbines.
Gravity pulls water downhill.

Energy can be extracted from moving water by turbines, to create electricity.
Fluids in complex motion.

Energy can be extracted from air and ocean currents by turbines.
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Sources of Energy
Photosynthesis converts solar energy into chemical energy via chlorophyll molecules.
Water and carbon dioxide react to form sugar and oxygen. 6CO2 + 12H2O + light C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
H-C bonds release energy when sugar is oxidized.

Organic respiration (breakdown of food by organisms). Rapid thermal oxidation (combustion).
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Sources of Energy
Energy from chemical reactions.
Chemical reactions may consume or give off energy. Exothermic chemical reactions give off energy as heat, light, explosions, etc.
Bx 14.4c
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Sources of Energy
Energy from fossil fuels.
Oil, natural gas, and coal are derived from living organisms. These materials have energy stored in HH-C bonds:
Created by photosynthesis; is solar energy from the past. Thus, oil, gas, and coal represent fossilized sunshine.
Fig. 14.7
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Fig. 14.14c
Sources of Energy
Energy from nuclear fission.
Certain radioactive atoms can be broken apart (fission). Fission yields tremendous energy. Nuclear power plants use fission of uranium to create electricity.
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Sources of Energy
Earths internal heat is from two sources.
Radioactive decay of naturally occurring isotopes. Residual heat from planet formation.
Geothermal energy drives tectonic plates. Heat lost through Earths crust can be harnessed.
Fig. 14.17
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Oil and Gas

Industrial society depends on oil and natural gas. Oil and gas (hydrocarbons) are complex organic molecules. Were produced by onceonce-living creatures. May consist of only H and C. Many hydrocarbon types.
Occur as complex mixtures. Hydrocarbon compounds are separated by refining.
Fig. 14.3
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Oil and Gas

Hydrocarbon properties due to size and structure.
Viscositytendency to flow. Viscosity Volatility Volatility tendency to evaporate.
ShortShort -chain hydrocarbons (one to four carbon atoms).

Low viscosity and high volatility. Vapors at room temperature. Examples: methane, propane.
Fig. 14.3
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Oil and Gas

ModerateModerate -chain hydrocarbons (5 to 40 C atoms).
Medium viscosity and volatility; liquids at room temperature. Examples: hexane, octane, nonane.
LongLong -chain hydrocarbons (>40 C atoms).

High viscosity and low volatility; solids at room temperature. Examples: tar.
Fig. 14.3
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Oil and Gas Genesis

Oil and gas are derived from plankton and marine algae.
Dead plankton and algae sink. This organic material accumulates offshore as fine mud. Under anoxic conditions, the material is preserved. Lithification forms a dark shale, a petroleum source rock.
Fig. 14.4
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Oil and Gas Genesis

The shale is buried and warms up.
Heating breaks organics down into waxy kerogen. KerogenKerogen -rich source rocks are called oil shales.
Heating decomposes kerogen into oil. Oil and gas form within specific temperature ranges:
Oil and gas: 90o160oC. Gas only: 160o250oC.
At temperatures >250oC, oil and gas decompose to form graphite and water.
Fig. 14.5
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Oil and Gas Genesis

The oil window (range of temperatures at which oil forms) is 90o160oC. Depth of the oil window depends on geothermal gradient.
Typical geothermal gradient:
25oC/km. Oil window is 3.5 3.56.5 km.
Some sedimentary basins have lower gradient:

15oC/km. Oil window is 5 511 km.
Natural gas window may be as deep as 9 915 km.

Fig. 14.5
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Hydrocarbon Systems
Oil and gas preservation is geologically rare. A known supply of oil is called an oil reserve. Oil reserves are geographically limited.
60% of world reserves are in the Persian Gulf. South Atlantic deep water and Arctic are new exploration areas.
Fig. 14.10a
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Hydrocarbon Systems
Shale-oil plays (as of May 2011).
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Hydrocarbon Systems
Creation of an oil or gas reserve requires four features.
A source rock.
Usually an organicorganic-rich shale.
A migration pathway.
Fractures and/or bedding porosity.
A reservoir rock.
Permeable, or can be fractured.
A trap.
These features must develop in a specific order.
Fig. 14.7
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Hydrocarbon Systems
Reservoir rocks and hydrocarbon migration.
Reservoir rocks store and transmit oil and gas. Porosity Porosity open space in the rock that stores fluid. Permeability Permeability ease of fluid movement through pore space.
Low small well yields. Low High High large well yields.
Fig. 14.6a-c
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Hydrocarbon Systems
Reservoir rocks and hydrocarbon migration.
Oil and gas migrate upward from source. Migration is facilitated by porosity, fractures, permeability, pressure gradients, density, and buoyancy differences. Reservoirs fluid is layered: gas overlies oil, overlies water. Reservoirs can leak to form an oil seep at the surface.
Fig. 14.7
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Hydrocarbon Systems
Traps and seals.
Oil and gas reserves are found in traps. Seal Seal a low low-permeability rock that prevents upward migration. Trap Trap reservoir and seal sealrock system that contains and retains oil and gas.
Fig. 14.7
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Hydrocarbon Systems
Traps and seals.
Anticline trap trapstructural arch trap for oil or gas within a permeable bed such as a sandstone.
Bx 14.1a
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Hydrocarbon Systems
Traps and seals.
Salt-dome trap Salttrap salt buoyancy and plastic flow disrupt nearby rocks, forming traps.
Bx 14.1c
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Hydrocarbon Systems
Traps and seals.
Fault trap trapdisplacement juxtaposes rocks with varying permeability.
Bx 14.1b
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Hydrocarbon Systems
Traps and seals.
Stratigraphic trap trapdepositional features (such as sand pinchpinch -out between shales) create traps.
Bx 14.1d
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Oil Exploration
Seismic reflection profiles layers and discontinuities.
Sound bounces off contrasts between layers. Allows geologists to look for traps without drilling. Seismic surveys are conducted on land and at sea. Is a discipline of geophysics.
Fig 14.8
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Oil Exploration
Diamond-coated rotary bit grinds rock. DiamondRapid circulation of highhigh-density drilling mud: Lifts cuttings to the ground surface. Reduces the risk of blowouts. Cools the drill bit.
Fig. 14.9a
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Oil Production
When a reservoir is penetrated, the drilling ceases. Steel casing is used to prevent collapse of weaker rocks into the hole. After the hole is cased, the well is tested and pumped.
Fig. 14.9b
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Oil Production
Primary recovery.
Uses reservoir fluid pressure and pumping to extract oil. Can only recover ~30% of the oil.
Secondary recovery.
Uses fluids (steam, CO2) to heat, thin, and push oil. Hydraulic fracturing fracturingartificially increases permeability. Can only recover ~20% of the oil.
Fig. 14.9c, e
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Oil Production
Crude oil must be refined.
Crude oil is distilled into separate mixtures by weight. Lighter molecules rise to the top of distillation columns. Heavier molecules remain at the bottom.
Fig. 14.9e
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Alternative Hydrocarbons
Natural gas gasshort short-chain hydrocarbons.
Methane, ethane, propane, butane, and others. Form at temperatures just above the oil window. Natural gas is more abundant than oil; a cleaner fuel. Now being drilled from shale oil, using direction drilling and hydraulic fracturing.
Bx14.3b
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Oil shale shalea shale containing abundant kerogen.
A source rock that has not reached the oil window. Burning transforms kerogen into liquid hydrocarbon. Shale oil abundant in:
Wyoming. China. Russia. Scotland. Estonia.
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Tar sands sandsheavy residual petroleum found in sand.
Heavy oil (bitumen) is the residue of a former oil field. Lighter hydrocarbons removed by migration and/or bacterial digestion. Bitumen hydrocarbons are too viscous to be pumped. Tar sands must be mined (dug out) and processed. Extensive deposits in Alberta and in Venezuela.
Fig. 14.11a
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Gas hydrate hydratemethane (CH4) in a cage of ice.
CH4 is from bacterial decomposition of organic matter. Methane hydrate forms in cold water at depths >300 m. Stores more carbon than all other reservoirs combined. Recovery not feasible yet. Burning produces CO2.
Fig. 14.11b, c
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Coal
Black, brittle, carboncarbon-rich, lowlow-silica sedimentary rock. Produced from burial and heating of vegetation. Important global energy source; also CO2 emitter. Did not form until land plants evolved ~420 Ma. Around 60% of world reserves formed in the Carboniferous Period (354 (354286 Ma). The Carboniferous Period had:
Warm climate. Broad epicontinental seas. Tropical deltaic wetlands.
Fig. 14.12d
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Coal Formation
Vegetation accumulates in anoxic (O2-poor) setting. Absence of oxygen retards decay of organic matter. Common depositional environments that yielded coals:
Marine deltas. Tropical coastal wetlands.
Sea level rises, buries vegetation deposits under clastics.
Fig. 14.12a, b
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Coal Formation
Compaction and decay turn plant debris into peat.
Peat is ~50% carbon. Peat is easily cut, dried, and burned.
Burial to several km increased heat and alters the peat.

H, N, and S are expelled as gases; C content increases. At 70% carbon, material becomes coal.
Fig. 14.12c
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Coal Rank
Classification (rank) of coal based on the carbon content.
HigherHigher -rank coal yields more energy when burned.
Anthracite may form metamorphically in an orogenic belt.
Fig. 14.14c
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Coal Rank
Table 14.1
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Coal Mining
Geologists look for specific sedimentary sequences deposited in shallow marine, coastal, fluvial, and deltaic environments, and in warm paleoclimates. Typically occurs in beds beds never massive. To be mined, coal must be:
Not too deep. Have a thick enough bed (>1 m).
Fig. 14.12d
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Coal Mining
Coal deposits are found worldwide.
The U.S. and Canada have vast bituminous and lignite

coals.
Minable by stripping
(open pit) or underground.
Fig. 14.13a, b
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Coal Mining
Strip mining.
A large dragdrag-line bucket removes overburden (spoil).
Spoils stockpiled nearby for sale or reuse in restoration.
Exposed coal is removed.
Hazard Hazard acid
Excavation is ideally backfilled with soil and replanted.
mine drainage.
Fig. 14.14a
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Coal Mining
Underground mining. Tunnels and/or shafts used to access and remove coal.
Dangers and hazards:
Tunnel collapse. Methane gas:
Asphyxiation. Explosions.
Black lung disease.
Coalbed fires:
Occur naturally. Hard to extinguish. Render areas uninhabitable.

Fig. 14.14b
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Coal Gasification; Nuclear Power

Coal can yield energy without direct combustion.
Coalbed methane methanenatural gas trapped in buried coal. Coal gasification gasificationcoal changed to gas without burning. Old coal gas plants are modern hazardous waste sites. Modern coal gasification is cleaner.
Nuclear power powerenergy from breaking apart atoms.

Neutrons strike nuclei of fuel molecules to cause fission. Fission produces neutrons to split other nuclei. Fission produces other elements. Fission produces heat.
Most reactors use fuel rods of uranium oxide pellets.
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Nuclear Power
Nuclear power can be used to make electricity. Nuclear power emits no greenhouse gasses. A nuclear power plant selfself-sustains by balancing neutron generation and absorption by the uranium fuel. Control rods absorb neutrons, slowing fission.
Fig. 14.16a
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Nuclear Power
The geology of uranium.
Uranium occurs naturally in all rocks; amount varies.
Uranium is leached from minerals and transported by water. Uranium in groundwater may solidify in fractures and veins.
Radiation detectors are used to find uranium.
Not all uranium is the same sameU has two major isotopes:
99.3% 99.3% this isotope is not fissionable. 0.7%this isotope is fissionable, and used for 0.7% generating power and making bombs.
235U: 238U:
is the most common nuclear fuel. must be enriched several times to be fissionable. Mining and enrichment are complex and energyenergy-intensive.
235U
235U
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Nuclear Power
Fission produces enormous amounts of energy.
High-pressure steam is created in a closed reactor loop. HighHeat is transferred to an external water loop. Steam in the external loop spins turbines to create electricity.
Can be safe if wellwell-designed and constructed, placed in safe locations, and operated properly. Fukushima (2011) cast doubt on safe siting and operation of reactors in geologically active areas.
Fig. 14.16b
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Nuclear Power Problems

Many power plants store used reactor cores in spent fuel pools. Circulation of water prevents rodrod-jacket melting and release of radiation, which occurred at Fukushima, Japan (2011).
Spent Fuel Pool

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Mining often leaves radioactive tailings and leachate. Fission creates highly radioactive wastes and toxins.
Wastes are harmful for thousands of years. Storage/disposal of radioactive wastes is a multifaceted, complex societal issue.
1979Three Mile Island (Pennsylvania) released little 1979 radiation but focused U.S. public concern. Two nuclear accidents released more radiation, causing human and environmental damage:
1986Chernobyl weapon and power facility (Ukraine). 1986 2011 2011 Fukushima power plant (Japan).
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Nuclear power plants are hugely expensive to build. Western acceptance of nuclear power is in question after the 2011 Fukushima meltdowns and releases of radioactive steams, fumes, and waters. Loss of reactor control may start core meltdown.
Molten reactor materials could bore through containment. A steam explosion could then spread radioactivity.
The common practice of storing decades of spent UU-fuel rods in water baths at power plants may not be wise. A comprehensive, safe program for managing spent fuel rods is needed in the U.S. and elsewhere.
2011, W. W. Norton
Other Energy Sources

Not all energy options require digging, pumping, or processing mass chemical or nuclear fuel. These alternatives produce little to no CO2 and are renewable:
Geothermal energy. Hydroelectric power. Wind energy. Solar power. Hydrogen fuel cells.
Biofuelsprocessed or refined plant matter. Are semiBiofuels semirenewable, and produce CO2 when burned.
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Geothermal Energy
Energy from Earth's internal heat.
Geothermal gradient: Earth becomes hotter with depth. Geothermal gradients vary from 15oC/km to 50oC/km. High geothermal gradients: hotter at shallower depths.
Geothermal may produce waste brines. Geothermal produces no CO2.
Fig. 14.17
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Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy utilized in two ways.
Hot water is pumped from the ground to heat buildings. Steam flows from the ground to drive turbines to create electricity.
Most power in Iceland is from geothermal energy.
Fig. 14.17
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Hydroelectric Power
Running water represents kinetic energy (KE). Dams halt the flow of water, converting KE to potential energy (PE) by storing water above sea level. Water is released, converting PE back to KE, and flows through turbines to create electricity. Tidal flux used at some dams.
Fig. 14.18a, b
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Hydroelectric Power
Positive aspects:
Reduces flood risks. Stores water for drinking, irrigation, and recreation. Provides renewable energy (hydrothermal electricity). Does not create hazardous waste or produce CO2.
Negative aspects:
Dams and reservoirs alter landscapes and ecosystems. Filling of reservoirs often triggers seismicity. Reservoirs halt the downstream movement of sediment:
Downstream delta and beaches destabilized. Reservoir loses capacity and must be dredged.
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Wind Energy
Wind farms enjoying a second renaissance.
Wind turns turbines to produce electricity. Wind electricity is renewable; does not produce CO2. Turbine blades kill birds. Turbines expensive to maintain. Some windfarms were abandoned because of maintenance costs.
Fig. 14.18c
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Solar Power
The most abundant energy source at Earths surface. Solar energy availability >> hydrocarbon availability. Challenges to wider use:
Solar energy is diffuse. Must be collected and converted.
Produces no CO2.
Fig. 14.18d
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Hydrogen Fuel Cells

Produce electricity via chemical reactions. Hydrogen (H2) and oxygen are reacted to yield electricity, heat, and water in fuel cells. Fuel cells may be usable as engines for motor vehicles. Technological problems:
Cost-effective mass production of H2. CostSafely storing compressed H2. Distributing hydrogen for widespread use.
Fig. 14.18e
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Biofuels
Biofuel Biofuel processing plant and animal matter.
Early humans used biomass (wood, charcoal, dung). Biofuel has most inert material removed before use. To be widely useful, biofuel must be grown quickly. Ethanol Ethanol alcohol derived from corn, cellulose, algae, etc.
Burned as a motor fuel. Used as a fuel oxygenate.
Biofuel use produces CO2.
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Energy Problems
Global energy use has increased dramatically. Use reflects industrialization and population growth. Oil Oil the dominant energy source sourceis dwindling. Many countries import oil to meet demands. Burning oil produces CO2.
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Energy Problems
The oil crunch.
Oil extinction will occur by 2050 to 2150. Future historians will see the Oil Age as a 200200-year era. We are near the peak of global oil production. Humanity faces many changes as oil runs out.
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Energy Problems
Renewable vs. nonrenewable.
Renewable Renewable replaced quickly.
Solar, wind, hydroelectric, geothermal.
Nonrenewablereplacement requires hundreds to millions Nonrenewable of years.

Oil, natural gas, coal, uranium ores.
Biofuels can be considered renewable or nonrenewable.
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Energy Problems
What can we do as the most convenient fuels (oil and gas) are depleted? Use other sources of energy:
Natural gas. Coal. Gas shales. Tar sands. Oil shales. Uranium (fission power). Coalbed methane. Renewables.
Each energy source has associated difficulties. Society faces difficult choices.
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Environmental Issues
Fossil fuel production and use damage the environment.
Oil spills spillsDeepwater Horizon spill, Gulf of Mexico. Coal Coal strip mining and acid drainage. Shale gas gasgroundwater contamination from fracking. Nuclear power powerradiation releases and destruction of Fukushima and Chernobyl stations.
Bx14.4c
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Environmental Issues
Using fossil fuels causes air pollution and affects climate.
Unburned hydrocarbons add to photochemical smog. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) contributes acid rain. Burning coal lofts toxic metals and soot into the air. CO2 stimulates global warming and climate change.
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Useful Web Resources

U.S. Energy Information Administration
http://www.eia.gov/
World Petroleum Council

http://www.worldhttp://www.world -petroleum.org/
United Nations Development Programme, Environment and Energy

http://www.undp.org/environment/index.shtml
International Atomic Energy Agency

http://www.iaea.org/
The Oklo Fossil Fission Reactors

http://oklo.curtin.edu.au/
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Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

by Stephen Marshak 2011 W.W. Norton & Company

Chapter 2 Journey to the Center of the Earths

Squeezing Power from a Stone: Energy Resources

Ronald Parker Senior Geologist Fronterra Geosciences, Denver

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 14: Squeezing Power from a Stone

Chapter 14: Squeezing Power from a Stone

Solar energy can be used by humans.

Humans cannot control fusion.

Chapter 14: Squeezing Power from a Stone

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 2 Journey to the Center of the Earths

Gravity pulls water downhill.

Fluids in complex motion.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 14: Squeezing Power from a Stone

H-C bonds release energy when sugar is oxidized.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 14: Squeezing Power from a Stone

Chapter 14: Squeezing Power from a Stone

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 2 Journey to the Center of the Earths

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 14: Squeezing Power from a Stone

Chapter 14: Squeezing Power from a Stone

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 2 Journey to the Center of the Earths

Oil and Gas

Chapter 14: Squeezing Power from a Stone

Oil and Gas

ShortShort -chain hydrocarbons (one to four carbon atoms).

Chapter 14: Squeezing Power from a Stone

Oil and Gas

LongLong -chain hydrocarbons (>40 C atoms).

Chapter 14: Squeezing Power from a Stone

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 2 Journey to the Center of the Earths

Oil and Gas Genesis

Chapter 14: Squeezing Power from a Stone

Oil and Gas Genesis

Chapter 14: Squeezing Power from a Stone

Oil and Gas Genesis

Some sedimentary basins have lower gradient:

Natural gas window may be as deep as 9 915 km.

Chapter 14: Squeezing Power from a Stone

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 2 Journey to the Center of the Earths

Chapter 14: Squeezing Power from a Stone

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 14: Squeezing Power from a Stone

These features must develop in a specific order.

Chapter 14: Squeezing Power from a Stone

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 2 Journey to the Center of the Earths

Chapter 14: Squeezing Power from a Stone

Chapter 14: Squeezing Power from a Stone

Chapter 14: Squeezing Power from a Stone

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 2 Journey to the Center of the Earths

Chapter 14: Squeezing Power from a Stone

Chapter 14: Squeezing Power from a Stone

Chapter 14: Squeezing Power from a Stone

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition