PARASITOLOGY
Parasitology - study of the life cycle, morphology, pathogenecity, transmission, epidemiology, and control (diagnosis,
treatment, and prevention) of parasites
History
•17th century - mostly external parasites; few
external parasites (large)
•Francesco Redi - grandfather of Parasitology
•Demonstrated obligatory parenthood in
parasites
•Leeuwenhoek - described various kinds of
microscopic animals
•Linnaeus - described and classified the
helminths
•Rudolphi - gave scientific names to parasitic
worms
•Leuckart - demonstrated that insects serve as
INTRODUCTION
3 Categories of Symbiosis:
1. Mutualism - there is reciprocal advantage derived
from the union e.g. flagellate (Trichonympha
campamula) and wood termite (Temopsis
nevadensis). Flagellate digest wood particle for the
termite while the latter gives protecti9on to the
former.
Parasite - an organism which for the purpose of procuring food and shelter, visits briefly or take up abode temporarily or
permanently outside or inside the body of another organism where it usually does harm. The symbiont receiving the
advantage is known as the parasite while the injured/harmed is the host.
KINDS OF PARASITES
1. Optional occasional parasite - parasite that
briefly visits their host to obtain nourishment but
not dependent upon them for either nourishment
or shelter e.g. mosquitoes, sandflies
2. Obligate occasional parasites - those that do not
permanently live upon their host but are
dependent upon them for nourishment and to
some extent for shelter e.g. fleas and ticks
3. Determinate transitory - parasitism is limited to a
definite stage or stages in their life cycle, during
which time, parasitism is obligate or continuous
e.g. botflies, marble flies e.g. larva of dipteran flies
which are deposited in dead or living tissue
4. Permanent parasite - parasitism extends from the
time of hatching of the eggs to the time that the
eggs are produced by the adult e.g. lice and
mange mite
5. Fixed parasite - parasites that can not pass
spontaneously from one host to the other e.g.
helminthes
6. Erratic parasite - those that occur in organs far
remoter from their normal location e.g. Ascaris
suis in the fallopian tube, bile ducts of pigs;
Stephanurus dentatus in the lungs
intermediate hosts and vectors of parasites
•First nematodes recorded in the Philippines by
Schneider (German biologist)
Auchenatha corrolata - from the flying lemur
(Cyanocephalus volans)
Gnathostoma spinigerum - from the Philippine
Civet cat (Paradoxorus philippinensis)
•Trypanosoma evansi - first pathogenic protozoan
parasite recorded in the Philippines in horses imported
from India
•Liborio Gomez - grandfather of Philippine Parasitology
•Candido Africa (MD) and Marcos Tubangui (DVM) -
fathers of parasitology
2. Commensalisms - only one symbiont is benefited
although the other suffers no harm e.g.
Entamoeba coli and small intestine of man.
3. Parasitism - one symbiont receives the
advantages to the detriment of the other e.g.
Ascaris suis and pig
7. Monoxenous parasite - those that require only one
host to complete their life cycle e.g. Ascaridia galli in
chicken and Trichuris vulpis in dogs
8. Heteroxeneous parasite - those that require 2 or
more hosts to complete their life cycle
- If 2 or more hosts are required, that host wherein
sexual maturity (eggs and oocysts are formed) is
reached is known as the primary host, definitive or
final host; the other host in which the parasite
undergoes juvenile or larval development of asexual
multiplication in the secondary or intermediate host
e.g. Plasmodium sp - final host - mosquito;
man - intermediate host
Fasciola gigantica - final host - cattle, goat;
snail - intermediate host
Paragonimus westermani - final host –
man; snail - 1st i.h.; crab - 2nd i.h)
9. Pseudoparasites - objects which are often mistaken
for true parasite eggs and larvae because it
resembles them e.g. pollen grain, fungal spores,
yeast cells, plant spines
10.Ectoparasites or external parasites - parasites
occurring on the surface of the body e.g. ticks, lice,
mites.
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 Infestation - condition produced by external
parasites
11.Endoparasites or internal parasites - parasites
found in the alimentary canal, blood, muscle, and
other tissues of the host and the condition is term
as infection e.g. roundworms, Plasmodia,
coccidian
12.Facultative parasites - parasites that could exist
both as free-living or parasitic e.g. larva of
blowflies and flesh flies in tissues or wounds
causing myiasis or in decomposing organic matter
13.Reservoir hosts - final hosts that harbor the
infection but show no outward sign of infection.
They serve as 'carriers', the organism multiply but
not enough to cause a disease e.g. Trypanosoma
evansi in carabaos
14. Transport or paratenic host - unnatural hosts in
which parasites are accidentally lodged and
transmission is though ingestion of paratenic host.
Parasites remain in a dormant or
suspended/inhibited stage (no development and
multiplication) e.g. Toxocara eggs ingested by rats
Transmission of Disease by Arthropods
1. Mechanical / Non-cyclical transmission - when no
change in form or development occur in the arthropod
body e.g T. evansi; amoeba; helminth ova
2. Biological transmission / Cyclical transmission -
there is change in form or development of the parasite
or orgaism in the body of the arthropod
>Types of Biological Transmission:
1. Cyclopropagative transmission - the organism
undergoes cyclical changes or change in form as
well as in number (multiplication) in the body of the
arthropod e.g Plasmodia in mosquito
2. Cyclodevelopmental transmission - the
organism undergoes cyclic development changing
in form and size but no change in number, no
multiplication in the body of the arthropod e.g.
Dirofilaria immitis in the mosquito
3. Propagative transmission - the organism
undergoes multiplication in the arthropod but there
is no cyclical development or change in form and
size e.g. Pasteurella pestis in the gut of the rat flea
Factors that influence the degree of harm done by various parasites are as follows:
1. Number of parasites present 3. nature of their food
2. location of the parasite 4. movement of parasites
Effects of parasitic life on the parasites:
1. Loss of certain sense organs - eye spots in some
external parasites (Melophagus ovinus)
2. Loss of wings - bedbugs, lice
3. Loss of alimentary canal – tapeworms
4. Special development of some organs or adhesions
5. Special development of organ of reproduction for
fecundity. Some flukes lay 250,000 to 2 million
eggs/day. Reproductive organs occupy 2/3 of the
body cavity in general
or birds (paratenic hosts), when they are eaten by
the susceptible host the encysted larva develop into
the adult
15.Prepatent period - time of infection to the time eggs
or larvae are demonstrated/produced in the feces to
the time eggs disappear
16.Parasitic zoonoses - parasite transferable from
animal to man and vice versa for parasites affecting
man and animals e.g. Trichenella spiralis,
Entamoeba histolytica
17.Parasitemia - presence of parasites in the blood
18.Zooparasite - parasite that is highly specific for
animals e.g. Oxyuris equi
19.Anthropoparasite - highly specific parasite for man
e.g. Enterobius vermicularis
20.Anthropozooparasite - equally specific for man and
animals e.g. Trichinella spiralis
21.Enzoonoses - man is essential for the life cycle of
the parasite e.g. Taenia solium; T. saginata
22.Parazoonoses - unstable and changeable group;
man is just accidentally involved e.g. Ascaris suis
(Bubonic plague)
3. Transovarian transmission or hereditary
transmission - transmission of infection is through
the next generation of ticks. After the mature female
tick ingests the parasite, the parasite invades the
developing tick egg and when the young tick
emerges, it carries with it the infective organism,
then the mother dies after laying eggs e.g. Babesia
in tick
4. Transtadial - organism is transmitted by the next
developmental stage of ticks
5. Phoresy - transport of small parasite (lice and mites)
by bigger parasite (flies, mosquitoes). Eggs of some
flies are attached to abdomen of another fly,
becomes hatched then deposited or transferred in
another host e.g. Dermatobia hominis egg in the
abdomen of mosquito; when Tabanus feeds, it could
have lice attached to its leg and transfer it to another
host
5. Age of the host
6. Virulence of the parasite
6. Sexual dimorphism - female are larger than male
7. Complex life cycle - need for the intermediate host to
increase chances of perpetuating species;
multiplication in the i.h.
8. Greatly alters metabolism (some parasites can live
anaerobically). Internal parasites that live
anaerobically obtain energy by converting glycogen
into fat. Internal parasite absorbs nutrients and
vitamins from the host body.
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 9. Stay in the dormant/inhibited stage in the unnatural host (paratenic host) or even in the natural
host (hypobiosis)

Pathogenic Effects of parasites

1. Absorb part of the digested nutrients, vitamins, b. Digestive enzymes harmful to host tissue
and minerals c. Anti-coagulatory and hemolytic enzymes
2. Suck blood or lymph d. Other secretions and excretions and body
3. Mechanical obstruction or pressure fluids
4. Growth of nodules 10. Transmits causal agents of some infectious diseases
5. Development of tumors 11. Reduce the resistance of the host to other infections
6. Cause wounds 12. Cause allergy (local or general)
7. Destruction of tissues 13. Serve as intermediate host and cyclic transmitter of
8. Irritation and annoyance - interferes with feeding certain parasites
which lead to loss of wt / meat / milk 14. Abortion, infertility, lowered productive and
9. Secretion of toxins and other harmful substances reproductive performance
a. Anti-digestive enzymes 15. Decreases feed conversion efficiency

Host specificity - parasite species associate only with one species of host, and if a parasite has more than one host,
these hosts are usually closely related; only few parasites can live in a variety or a wide range of hosts

Organ specificity - each species of parasite has its predilection site in or on the host

ENTOMOLOGY
Entomology - the study of arthropods and allied insects

General Characteristics of Arthropods:

1. bilaterally symmetrical 2. body divided into head, thorax, and 3. joined with appendages
(appendages are always paired) abdomen

General structure and function

I. Integument - the body is covered by chitin; this exoskeleton
forms the typical body segment (sclerite) which are IV. Digestion
divided into tergum (dorsal), sternum (ventral), and a. Foregut or stomodeum - buccal cavity, pharynx,
pleuron (lateral) proventriculus, gizzard; involved in ingestion,
II. Circulation - the hemocoele is a space full of passage, and disintegration of food particles
blood which bathes all body organs; the system is b. Midgut or mesenteron - storage of food and
composed of an enlarged dorsal blood vessel enzyme secretion
(heart), pericardium (encloses the heart), paired c. Hindgut or proctodeum - absorption of food and
ostia (opening in the pericardial walls), and short expulsion of fecal materials
arteries V. Excretion
III. Respiration - the arthropod may possess any or a. Paired nephridia – crustaceans
2 of these short arteries b. Malpighian tubules – insects
a. Gills (bronchiae) - found in larva, nymph, and c. Coxal glands
adult aquatic species of various kinds VI. Nervous system
b. Trachea - fine elastic tubes in the chitinous lining a. Supraesophageal center (brain)
which branches and ramifies among the internal b. Ganlionated ventral nerve cord
organs VII. Reproduction
c. Lung book - found in spiders a. Male - paired testes, vas deferens, paired seminal
d. Gill book - found in crabs vesicle, penile organ
e. Spiracle - smaller circular opening in the b. Female - paired ovaries, oviduct, uterus, vagina,
spermatheca

Types of Development
1. Direct / incomplete metamorphosis / hemimetabolous life cycle - 1 or 2 of the stages are missing with the
exception of the adult; hatched insect (nymph) is a miniature of the adult e.g. lice, bedbugs
2. Indirect / Complete metamorphosis / holometabolous life cycle - characterized by having the 4 stages: egg,
larva, pupa, adult; the hatched insect differs morphologically from parent. Each form of the insect after each
ecdyses is known as the instar e.g. mosquitoes
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Stages in the Life Cycle of an Arthropod
1. egg - stage that undergoes a series of
segmentation
2. larva - developing form after it has emerged from
the egg and before it is transformed into a pupa; it
is the feeding stage of the parasite
3. pupa - the quiescent stage of metamorphosis that
Types of larva:
1. Polypod - larva with a marked head, a 3-
segmented thorax with legs, a 10-sefmented
abdomen and pairs of abdominal legs or fleshy
hooked legs e.g. caterpillars
Types of Pupa:
1. Free or exarate - the wings and legs are free from
the body and can be seen externally e.g. beetles
2. Obtectate - pupa with legs and wings bound to
the body by molting fluid but still visible externally
Types of Female
1. Oviparous - lay undeveloped eggs e.g. housefly,
stable fly
2. Ovoviviparous - lays larvated egg
3. Viviparous / larviparous - lays fully-developed
General Classes of Arthropods
1. Crustacea - main body divisions are
cephalothorax and abdomen; legs are found on
thoracic and abdominal segments
2. Arachnida - adults with 4 pairs of legs; 2 pairs of
mouthparts without antennae and wings
3. Pentastomida - adults without legs except 2 pairs
of hooks near the mouth, larvae with 2 leg pairs
4. Insecta - largest group; adults with 3 pairs of legs;
body divided into 3 main parts: head, thorax and
CLASS INSECTA
General characteristics
1. Body divided into head, thorax, and abdomen
2. 3 pairs of legs attached to the thorax and 2 pairs
of wings attached to the 2nd and 3rd thoracic
segment
Classification of mouthparts
1. mandibulate (chewing) - Orthoptera, Diptera
2. haustellate (sucking) - Diptera, Hymenoptera
General Anatomy of Insects
1. Nervous system - large ganglion (brain), thoracic
and abdominal ganglia, lateral nerve fibers
2. Circulatory system -large dorsal tube (heart) and
emerge from the larval stage
4. nymph - form that leaves the egg with similarity in
morophology with that of the adult
5. adult - the reproductive stage of the parasite
6. imago - the young adult
2. oligopod - larva with a well-marked head, 3 pairs of
thoracic legs, but no abdominal legs e.g. beetles
3. apodous - larva with no legs on the thorax and
abdomen e.g. maggots
e.g. mosquitoes
3. Coarctate - last larval skin retained; this hardened
skin (puparium) encloses the pupa, hence it cannot
be seen externally
larva e.g. flesh flies, tsetse flies, Oestrus ovis
4. Pupiparous - lays larva that immediately turns into
pupa e.g. pigeon louse fly
5. Parthenogenetic - reproduce without males /
fertilization e.g. silkworm, Strongyloides sp
abdomen
5. Myriapoda
a. Diplopoda - elongated, cylindrical body,
terrestrial with numerous segments, each
bearing 2 pairs of legs, with a pair of
antennae
b. Chilopoda - long, narrow, and dorso-
ventrally flattened; body with several
segments each bearing a pair of jointed legs
3. Veins - wings with hollow tubes which are useful
for identification
4. The body is a rigid exoskeleton which is a
deposition of chitin
3. piercing - Siphonaptera, Diptera
4. non-piercing / reduced / non-functional -
Hymenoptera and certain Lepidoptera
valves; blood consists of watery fluid (serum or
plasma) and white corpuscles which are colorless
or greenish yellow
3. Respiratory system - tracheae, tracheoles,
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 spiracles or stigmata 5. Reproductive system
4. Digestive system a. Male reproductive system - testes, vas
a. Foregut or stomodeum - mouth, pharynx, deferens, accessory organ, seminal
esophagus, crop and gizzard / vesicle, ejaculatory duct, penis or
proventriculus aedeagus
b. Hindgut or proctodeum - colon, rectum, b. Female reproductive system - ovaries,
anus, malpighian tubules oviduct, vagina, ovipositor, spermatheca
c. Midgut or mesenteron - midintestine (most insects)
connects the stomodeum to the proctodeum

Orders of Veterinary Importance under Class Insecta

1. Diptera - true flies 4. Siphonaptera – fleas 7. Phthiraptera - lice

2. Hymenoptera - bees, wasp 5. Orthoptera – cockroaches
3. Coleoptera – beetles 6. Hemiptera – bugs

ORDER DIPTERA (TRUE FLIES)

General Characteristics

1. well-developed anterior wings; posterior wing tube) formed by labrum and labium within which
represented by haltere (organ of balance) are the mandible and maxilla; in some species,
2. wings with hollow tubes called veins mandibles and maxilla are modified for piercing
3. mouthparts adapted for sucking; haustellum (sucking 4. complete metamorphosis

Suborder of Veterinary importance

1. Nematocera 2. Brachycera 3. Cyclorrhapha

SUBORDER: NEMATOCERA
General Characteristics:

1. antenna usually longer than head and thorax; more 3. larva with well-developed head and mandible; bite
than 8 segments; wings without cross veins horizontally
2. larva and pupa are aquatic 4. obtectate pupa

Family:
•Culicidae - mosquitoes •Psychodidae - sandflies
•Ceratopogonidae - biting midges •Simuliidae - black flies

SUBORDER: BRACHYCERA

General Characteristics
1. antenna shorter than thorax; 3-8 segments
2. arista usually absent; if present, located terminally
3. maxillary palps held stiffly forward
4. wings with cross veins
5. abdomen with 7 visible segments
6. larva with incomplete retractile head
7. obtectate pupa

Family: Tabanidae

SUBORDER: CYCLORRHAPHA

1. antenna with 3 segments 4. wings with limited cross veins

2. arista present, located dorsally 5. abdomen less than 7 visible segments
3. small maxillary palps 6. larvae with vestigial head; apodous

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 7. mouthpart has simple hooks used for tearing 8. coarctate pupa
debris

Family:
•Muscidae •Sarcophagidae •Gasterophilidae
•Glossinidae •Oestridae •Hippoboscidae
•Calliphoridae •Cuterebridae

SUBORDER: NEMATOCERA

CULICIDAE (MOSQUITOES)

Characteristics:
1. slender insects
2. larvae and pupa are both aquatic and active
3. scales are present on the head, thorax, abdomen,
legs, and wings
4. antenna plumose in male and pilose in female
5. head is spherical and the mouthparts form the long,
slender proboscis
6. only female are blood sucking; male subsist on
juices of flowers and fruits
7. proboscis consists of the mandibles and maxillae
which are the piercing instruments enclosed in the
upper lip called labrum epipharynx and the lower
lip, the labium; it also encloses the hypopharynx;
the tip of the labium is modified to form the
labellum; mandibles are absent in the male
mosquito

Genera of Veterinary and Medical Importance:

1. Anopheles (A. maculippennis) 4. Mansonia sp. 7. Myzorhynchus sp.
2. Culex (C. pipiens) 5. Theobaldia sp. 8. Taeniorhynchus sp.
3. Aedes (A. aegypti) 6. Orthopodomyia sp. 9. Luzonia sp.

TABLE 1: Differential characteristics of Anopheles, Aedes and Culex mosquitoes

Anopheles sp. Aedes sp. Culex sp.
Egg Laid singly with lateral floats Laid singly without lateral Laid inmass (egg raft)
floats
Larvae Lies parallel to the water surface; no Hangs diagonally from the Hangs diagonally from
siphon tube water surface the water surface
Pupa Short and stout breathing trumpet Long and narrow breathing Long and narrow
trumpet breathing trumpet
Adult palpi Female palp is as long as the Palp of female is shorter Palp of female is shorter
proboscis than the proboscis than the proboscis
Resting Diagonal against the landing surface Parallel to the landing Parallel to the landing
position surface surface
Feeding Crepuscular Diurnal Nocturnal

Life cycle:

Eggs laid on the surface of water or on floating vegetable matter  eggs hatch in 16-24 hours into larvae or
wrigglers  larvae feed on algae but others are carnivorous; they breathe through a siphon tube  larva molts 4 times in
about 7 days  becomes an obtectate pupa or thumbler; they breathe through a trumpet; it does not feed  imago
emerges after 2-3 days then sucks blood after 24 hours  lay eggs after about a week.

Life span of mosquito - 15 to 20 days under favorable conditions; longer period if otherwise

Life cycle of anopheles mosquito

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Feeding period of mosquitoes:
A. Nocturnal - active at night time B. Diurnal - active at day time e.g. C. Crepuscular - active at
or in the dark e.g. Culex Aedes twilight e.g. Anopheles

Pathonegenic Effects of Mosquito

1. annoyance and blood loss Culex, Aedes

2. decreased milk and meat production
3. serve as intermediate host of several parasites:
a) filarial parasite
• Wucheraria bancrofti - Culex,
Aedes, Anopheles (elephantiasis)
• Dirofilaria immitis - Culex,
Anopheles (heartworm)
b) Malaria parasite (Plasmodia)
• Plasmodium juxtanucleare and
P. gallinaceum (avian malaria) -
• Simian malaria - Aedes
4. serve as mechanical carriers of pathogenic
bacterial and viral diseases
a. fowl pox - Culex, Aedes
b. viral encephalitis - Culex pipiens
c. yellow fever - Aedes aegypti
d. H-fever - Aedes aegypti
e. Dengue - Aedes aegypti
f. Tularemia - Anopheles, Aedes
g. Fowl cholera - Culex

Control of mosquitoes
1. Physical means insecticides
a. Destruction of breeding places • 1.0% dieldrin
• Drain stagnant pools • 2.0% lindane
• Dispose empty cans / containers • 0.5% gm/ha malathion
• Clear breeding places of b. cover pond surface with petroleum or
vegetation kerosene
b. Screen stables, barns, and animal houses c. saturate sawdust with 2.0% DDT in diesel
2. Chemical means oil and scatter upstream
a. Spray breeding places with appropriate d. use of mosquito repellents

Biological control
a. Use of predators like fish and ducks to control larva and pupa
larvae and pupa c. Use of protozoan parasites (Microsporidia sp)
b. Use of bacteria (Bacillus thuringiensis) to kill d. Sterile male technique
e. Use of chemical sterilant

CERATOPOGONIDAE (MIDGES)

Genus: Culicoides
1. very small; 1-3 mm long; can pass through 2. thorax humped over the head
mosquito screens 3. wings oval in shape; usually spotted; no scales but
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 hairs pilose in female
4. long antenna (14 segments); plumose in male, 5. short proboscis; only female are blood sucking

Species:
Culicoides arakawae C. palawanensis C. baisasae
C. damnosus C. pungens

Life cycle:
Eggs laid in objects partly submerged in water  hatch into larva in a few days; worm-like with 3 thoracic and 9
abdominal segments; feeds on tiny aquatic nematodes  obtectate pupa emerges after 1-2 weeks; covered with spines
and tubercles  adult develops in few days

Importance:
1. bites cause itching and swelling Onchocerca in cattle and horses
2. causes allergic dermatitis in horses (Queensland 4. Intermediate host of Leucocytozoon caulleryi
itch) - Culicoides robersi 5. transmits Blue tongue in sheep
3. serve as i.h. of filarial worms in man: 6. transmits fowl pox virus
Dipetalonema and Manzonella spp; in animals: 7. Nocturnal

Control:
1. screen treated with insecticide to repel entry 3. spray with adulticide (chlordane, lindane,
2. application of 5% dieldrin in breeding places dichlorvos, endrin, parathion)

SIMULIIDAE (BLACKFLIES, BUFFALO GNATS)

Genus: Simulium
1. small; 1-4 mm long sucking
2. stout; short legs; thorax humped over the head 4. broad wigs; not spotted; no scales; not hairy
(humped back appeatance) 5. holoptic eyes in male; dichoptic in female
3. short piercing proboscis; only females are blood-

Species:
Simulium indicum S. baltazarae S. philippinensis
S. venustrum S. baisasae

Life cycle:
Eggs laid on objects partly submerged in water in running streams  hatch into larvae in 4-12 days depending on
temperature; larvae are carnivorous  develops into pupa after 6 molts  adults emerge after 5-6 days which are active
early in the morning and in the morning and in early evening

Life cycle of Blackfly

Importance:
1. causes painful bites and gives rise to vesicles and 5. serve as i.h. of Leucocytozoon anatis / simondi in
wart-like lesions ducks and L. smithi in turkeys
2. swarms cause animal to stampede as well as Haemoproteus nettionis in ducks and
3. causes anemia in poultry in severe infestation geese
4. low milk and meat yield 6. serve as i.h. of filarial nematodes - Onchocerca
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 gutturosa - cattle, O. volvulus – man pneumonia
7. inhalation of flies may cause foreign body

Control:

1. medicated screen / clothing 3. apply 0-1-0.3 ppm DDT to streams in 2 cycles,

2. spray with 0.5% lindane each cycle lasting 10 days as larvicide

PSYCHODIIDAE (SANDFLIES, OWL MIDGES)

Genus: Phlebotomus

1. small, slender flies, up to 1.5 mm long 7. nocturnal feeding habit

2. wing and body are hairy
3. legs long •Note: Lewis classified these flies into 2 families:
4. long, slender, and hairy antennae; with 16 segments; •Phlebotomidae (sandflies) - blood sucking
often with beaded appearance •Psychodiidae (moth flies) - not blood
5. recurved palpi; hairy sucking
6. piercing mouthparts; only females are blood sucking

Species:
Phlebotomus philippinensis
P. nicnic
P. mangyanis
P. lagunensis

Life cycle:

Eggs laid in batches of 40-60 in moist dark places between stones, loose soil, rock, crevices, etc.  larvae molt
4x  pupae  adult (entire life cycle takes 6 weeks)

Importance:

1. P. papatasi, P. sergenti, and P. major serve as i.h. of leishmniasis or Kala-azar

a. Leishmania tropica - cutaneous 2. P. mongolensis and P. verrucarum serve as
leishmaniasis transmitter of Bartonella bacilliformis, the
b. Leishmania brazilensis - mucocutaneous causative organism of Carrion's disease (Oroya fever)
leishmaniasis 3. Transmit virus of 'sandfly fever' where a
c. Leishmania donovanii - visceral transmission is possible

Control:

1. removal of dense vegetation 3. treatment of breeding places

2. spray walls with insecticides

SUBORDER: BRACHYCERA
TABANIDAE (HORSEFLIES OR BREEZE FLIES)

Genera:
Tabanus Pangonia Silvius
Chrysops Hybometra Haematopota

General characteristics:
1. large robust flies with powerful wings and large
eyes
2. eyes holoptic inmales, dichoptic in females
3. antenna with 2 short basal segments, the 3rd
segment being large and usually ringed or
annulated
4. proboscis is relatively short in Tabanus and
Hematopota, longer in Chrysops and very long in
Pangonia which projects forward
5. eyes are metallic in color
6. wings of Chrysops has a dark band and is
divergent at rest; Hematopota has mottled wings;
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 Tabanus has a clear wing which is horizontal at rest

Habits of Adults:
1. most active on hot sunny days
2. attack singly, chiefly large animals like cattle,
carabaos, buffaloes, and horses
3. feeds mainly of the underside of the abdomen,
around the navel, on the legs, neck, and withers
4. intermittent feeding habit (bite in a number of ties
in different places or different animals before they
are replete with blood)

Life cycle:
Eggs laid in batches of 300-600 in stones or leaves overhanging body of water or marshy places  larva drops to
the ground after about a week; larva is maggot-like, aquatic, and carnivorous larva undergoes 6 ecdyses for 2-3 months
pupate in the drier ground for 2-3 weeks adult (cycle completed in 4-5 months)

Life cycle of Horsefly

Pathogenic effects:

1. bites are painful and irritating that animals become • nagana or sleeping sickness
restless caused by T.brucei and T. vivax
2. acts as mechanical carrier of diseases • anaplasmosis caused by
a. bacterial diseases - anthrax, tularemia Anaplasma marginale et
b. viral diseases - equine infectious anemia centrale
c. protozoan disease: 3. serve as i.h. of filarial nematodes
• surra caused by Trypanosoma a. Loa loa – Chrysops
evansi b. Elacophora schneideri - Hybometra and
• mal de cadera caused by T. Tabanus
equinum 4. serve as i.h. of Trypanosoma theileri of cattle and
carabaos

Control
1. use of fly trap or net 3. spray with mixture of 1% pyrethrin and 10%
2. catching manually using animals as baits piperonyl butoxide at the rate of 1 L/large animal

SUBORDER: CYCLORRHAPHA
MUSCIDAE

10
 Genera:

Musca Stomoxys
Fannia Haematobia / Lyperosia

Musca domestica "common housefly" - human and animal houses and buildings
Musca autumnalis "face fly" - nostrils and eyes of cattle and horse
Musca sorbens - markets and houses
M. conducens - animal houses

Characters:
1. not blood-sucking, non-biting, indoor flies
2. 6-7 mm long
3. arista bilaterally plumose up to the tip, thorax
4. thorax and abdomen with stripes on the dorsum
5. mouthparts are lapping type; fleshy, expanded labella and covered by pseudotrachea adapted for imbibing
liquid food

Life Cycle:
Eggs are laid in batches of 100-150 at a time (about 1,000 eggs) in animal manure or any fermenting or decaying
organic matter eggs hatch in 20-24 hours larva persists for 4-8 days then pupate pupal stage lasts 4-5 days or
longer young adult emerges from the puparium by means of the ptilinium fertilization and oviposition takes a few days
after emergence of the fly from the puparium
Note: It has been estimated that a pair of Musca can be a progenitor of 191,000,000,000,000,000,000 in 6 months with
100% survival

Habits of houseflies and their role in disease transmission:

1. adults feed on human food, blood and serum from meat, or from blood that oozes out from other insect bites,
mucus, sputum, excretions from sores, wounds, etc
2. female deposit eggs on human and animal manure; they go back and forth between food and feces which is ideal
for disease transmission
3. after a full meal, part of the ingested food is regurgirated back to the outside, this material is called "vomit drop"
or "vomit spot"
4. fly specks or fecal deposits - houseflies also deposit feces or defecate on food
5. labella are fleshly and wrinkled, the presence of pseudotrache make them very efficient as disease transmitters
6. hairy legs, body, foot pads - efficient disease transmitter
7. M. autumnalis - commonly found around the nostrils and eyes of cattle, horses and other animals including man
especially during summer

Disease transmitted:
11
 1. Mechanically transmitted
a. Viral
Cholera
El tor
Poliomyelitis
b. Bacterial
• Salmonella --- typhoid
• Vibrio – dysentery
• Bacillus anthracis – anthrax
• Moraxella bovis - Infectious Bovine Keratitis (Pink eye)
• Mycobacterium sp. – Tuberculosis
c. Parasites
1. amebiosis – Entamoba histolytica
2. coccidiosis – Eimeria and Isospora
3. helminths – Ascaris, Trichuris, Enterobius
2. Serves as intermediate host of the ff:
a. Raillietina sp
b. Habronema muscae - equine stomach worm
c. Thelazia rhodesii (cattle eye worm) - by Musca autumnalis
Control
1. Larvae
a. Destruction of breeding places
• Spreading manure thinly on pasture
• Spraying manure with larvicide like Borax powder over a heap of manure
c. Inhibit larval development - Larvadex in feed
d. Frequent removal of manure
2. adult
a. mix molasses (sugar) with insecticides (diazinon, dieldrin, parathion, neguvon) and sawdust
b. spray with insecticides (baygon, malathion, neguvon)
c. backrubbers with either 2% malathion dust, dichlorvos, and 5% metoxychlor
d. insecticidal dust bags
3. proper garbage disposal
4. efficient sewage disposal
5. screening of houses
Relatives of houseflies
1. Fannia canicularis - lesser housefly
2. Fannia scalaris "little housefly" - may cause "urogenital myiasis"; smaller than Musca; larvae with feathered
protuberances; arista is bare
3. Muscina stabulans - may cause "intestinal myiasis"; larger and more robust than the housefly; common in stables
4. Morrelia hortorum "sweat fly" - adults attracted to sweat and mucus

Stomoxys calcitrans "stablefly"

1. proboscis is sucking type, directed horizontally forward
2. arista plumose only dorsally
3. thorax has 4 longitudinal stripes of which the 2 lateral are broken
4. the abdominal segment which is shorter and broader is provided with 3 dark spots
5. outdoor flies and both male and female are blood sucker

Life cycle:
Female lays 25-50 eggs at a time (total of 800) in decaying vegetable matter after at least 3 blood meals 1eggs
hatch in 3 days larval stage lasts for 12 days pupate on drier ground for 6-9 days oviposition begins 9 days after
emergence
Life cycle completes in 30 days; life span is about 72 days

12
 The Life Of Stomoxys Calcitrans

Pathogenic effects:
1. cause annoyance
2. serves as mechanical transmitter of :
a. protozoa
• T. evansi
• T. equinum
• T. brucei
• T. vivax
• T. gambiense
• T. rhodesiense
b. Bacteria
• B. anthracis
• Hemorrhagic septicemia (P. multocida)
• Equine infectious anemia
3. Serve as i.h. of equine stomach worm (Habronema spp)

Control:

1. frequent removal of manure and fermenting materials

2. spray manure thinly on the pasture
3. spray animal houses and animal with insecticides like DDT in kerosene
4. backrubbers

Hematobia (Lyperosia or Siphona)

Hematobia exigua - buffalo fly

H. irritans - hornfly
13
 1. smaller than S. calcitrans; about 4 mm in length
2. male and female are blood suckers
3. palpi as long as proboscis
4. thorax with 2 dark stripes
5. hovers around face and body of carabaos, cattle, and buffalo
6. rarely leave the host except for a brief flight when disturbed
7. infestation reaches 1000-4000/animal to as high as 10,000 to 20,000/animal

Life cycle:
Eggs laid in fresh Carabao or cattle manure hatch in 24 hours larval stage lasts for 4 days pupate for 5-10
days adult

Life cycle of Hornfly

Effects on the hosts:

1. interferes during grazing periods
2. animal develop sores and wounds resulting to myiasis
3. fly specking - animals constantly shake their head to drive away flies
4. cause blood loss, low milk and meat yield by 10-20%
5. transmits mechanically surra, anthrax, hemorrhiagic septicemia.
6. serve as i.h. of Habronema sp and Stephanofilaria stilesi

Control:
1. backrubbers impregnated with 5% rotenone, 5% methoxychlor dust, 2% malathion
dust
14
 2. regular insect spray

GLOSSINIDAE (TSETSE FLIES)

Glossina morsitans
G. palpalis, G. longipalpalis, G. brevipalpalis
G. tachinoides

1. larger than the houseflies, narrow-bodied, yellowish to dark brown

2. common in Africa
3. both sexes are blood suckers
4. arista bears dorsal branching hairs
5. proboscis is held horizontally and ensheathed in long palpi which is as long as the proboscis

Life cycle
Larviparous female lays on fully-grown larva at a time pupates upon liberation in sandy soil with humus around
tree trunk, crack or crevices under shaded areas pupal period is 35 days
Note: Gestation period is 10 days; one female may produce 8-10 larvae; one act of mating renders a female fertile
for life; the larvae within the uterus is attached to a "teat" from which "milk is obtained

Habits:
1. adult flies subsist on blood of warm blooded animals
2. fly feeds every 3 days; active in forenoon and afternoon; some spp. Are noctural (G. brevipalpalis)
3. rest on shady places

Effects on the host

1. serve as i.h. of Trypanosoma brucei, T. congolense, and T, vivax which cause "Nagana" in animals and T.
gambiense and T. rhodesiense which cause "sleeping sickness" in man

Control:
1. Previous strategies
• Large scale killing of game animals which are reservoir hosts
• Clearing large areas of bush to destroy the fly habitat
2. Current strategies
• Insecticides sprayed from the ground or by aircraft
• Non-residual or residual insecticide
• Trapping - use of dark cloth impregnated with insecticide
• Catching with hand nets
• Fly screens
• Biological control - release of sterile males

MYIASIS FLIES

Myiasis flies - dipterous insects whose larvae invade tissues or organs of man and animals causing a condition known as
myiasis. The adults do not suck blood

Myiasis may be grouped according to their ovispositioning and larvipositioning habits:

1. Accidental myiasis - eggs or larvae are deposited in manure or decaying organic matter, garbage, carcasses, and
myiasis is usually acquired accidentally by ingestion of eggs or larvae with contaminated feed or water. Eggs may
be deposited around the anus or vulva and larvae, and upon hatching, migrate to the rectum or intestine and
vagina respectively.
Species Involved
Blue Bottle Flies - Calliphora sp.
Green Bottle Flies - Lucilia sp.
Fleshflies - Sarcophaga sp.
Houseflies sp. - Musca sp

15
 2. Specific or obligate myiasis - eggs or larvae are deposited in or near living tissues / organs and larvae inevitably
become parasitic
a. Screw worm flies
• Callitroga sp
• Chrysomyia sp.
b. Bot flies
• Gasterophilus sp
c. Warble flies
• Hypoderma sp

3. Semi-obligate myiasis - eggs and larvae are deposited in decaying organic matter and less frequently in
diseased tissues and neglected wounds
a. Flesh flies - Sarcophaga sp
b. Green Bottle Flies - Lucilia sp
c. Blue Bottle Flies - Calliphora sp
d. Black Bottle Flies - Phormia sp

Myiasis may also be classified according to organ affected:

•Cutaneous - skin
•Ocular - eyes
•Aural - ears
•Gastric - stomach
•Intestinal - intestine
•Vaginal, nasal, scrotal, rectal, etc.

Myiasis belong to four important families:

Calliphoridae
Sacrophagidae
Oestridae
Cuterebridae

Identification key for agents of wound myiasis:

16
CALLIPHORIDAE

Genera:
•Calliphora - blue bottle flies
•Lucilia - green bottle flies / copper bottle flies
•Phormia - black blow fly
17
 •Chrysomyia - screw worm fly
•Callitroga - screw worm fly
•Cordylobia - skin maggot fly
•Booponus - foot maggot fly

Calliphora vomitoria
C. erythrocephala
•Stout with metallic blue color
•Measures about 12 mm; with red eyes
•Squama with short and long hairs

Lucilia cuprina / Caesar - affects sheep in Australia

L. sericata - affects sheep in the US
•Stout flies with metallic coppery green
•Squama with short hairs only
•Eyes are brownish red
•Measures about 8-10 mm
Phormia regina
P. terrae-novae
•Black with metallic blue-green sheen
Note: maggots of these 3 genera produce 'blowfly strike' in sheep

Life cycle of calliphorine flies in general:

eggs are laid in cluster in batches of 50-150 (around 3,000-5,000 eggs are laid in a lifetime) eggs hatch in 8 hrs
to 3 days giving rise to larvae which are segmented, wormlike, mobile, and apodous larvae molt twice and becomes a
fully-grown maggot in 2-19 days prepupal period of 2-7 days mature larvae leave the host or carcass to pupate on the
ground pupa persist for 3-7 days adult
Life cycle is complete in 2-5 weeks
Life span of adult - 1 month or longer; 9-10 generation may be completed in a year

Pathogenesis:

1. wounds on the skin attract blowflies

2. eggs are laid on the wool
3. larvae form deep tunnels in tissues; maggots secrete proteolytic enzymes which digest and liquefy tissues of the
host then feed on them
4. foul smell attracts other flies to lay their eggs
5. larval movements cause irritation; animal does not feed properly resulting in emaciation and weakness and
consequent reduction in meat and milk yield
6. burrowing of larvae into the skin may be complicated by secondary bacterial infection
7. animals may die of toxemia or septicemia
8. the value of the fleece becomes reduced

Treatment

1. clip wool and surgically remove the larvae

2. use of low concentration dressing compounds
3. dip or spray with insecticides

Callitroga hominivorax - primary screw worm fly

C. macellaria - secondary screw worm fly
•bluish green color with 3 longitudinal stripes on thorax
•eggs are laid at the edge of the wound or on the carcass
•adult is formed after 3-7 days

Effects on the host:

Rainy weather predisposes the animal to screw worm infection; they penetrate into the tissues, which they liquefy
18
and extend the lesions considerably. The effect on the animal is more on the production aspect, as the animal becomes
weak and restless.

Treatment:

1. thorough cleaning of wounds and dressing it with appropriate antiseptics

2. destroy larvae

Chryzomyia bezziania - "bluish green fly"

•most important myiasis fly in the Philippines particularly in Negros and Panay islands
•maggots of Callitroga and Chryzomia are known as screw worms
•attack man and animals

Life cycle:

Eggs laid in clusters of 150-300 at the edges of wound or sore  eggs hatch in 10-12 hours and mature in 3-6
days drops to the ground and pupate for 3-7 days but may reach up to 2 months adult

Pathogenic effects:

1. maggots penetrate and liquefy tissues

2. lesions attract more flies
3. severe cases may cause death
4. myiasis of the navel may lead to peritonitis, septicemia, and death

Treatment:

1. dress wound with 0.3% dieldrin or 0.5% BHC

2. dipping or spraying with 5.0% coumaphos, 0.25% diazinon
3. 3% of lindane in gel base
4. Myiasis smear / paste #1
•chloroform - 40 ml (larvicidal)
•tincture of iodine - 25 ml (stimulate tissue growth)
•pine tar - 28 ml (fly repellent)
•charcoal powder enough to make a pasty consistency (gives thickness to smear)
Apply two times a week

Myiasis paste #2
•Charcoal powder - 95 parts
•Coumaphos powder - 5 parts
•Pine tar - q.s. [aste

Cordylobia anthropophaga - tumbu fly or skin maggot fly

•Occurs in tropical Africa
•Measures 9.5 mm and light brown in color

Life cycle:
Eggs laid on sleeping places of man and other animals with perspiration odor larvae produced after 2-4 days 
penetrate intact skin and produce painful swellings pupa is produced after 8-15 days adult develops after 3-4 weeks

Pathogenic effects:
The larva is situated ion a swelling which is about 1 cm in diameter, painful, and has a small, central opening.

Treatment:
Press out larva and apply a disinfectant

Booponus intonsus - foot maggot fly

•The same size as the housefly but light yellow in color
•Common during the dry season in Laguna, Quezon, Leyte, and Mindanao
19
 •Attack ruminants

Life cycle:
Eggs are laid on the hairs along the coronet and the posterior part of the hoof eggs hatch into larvae in 3-5 days
then penetrate and produce wounds pupa is produced after 2-3 weeks adult develops 10-12 days

Pathogenic effects
1. lameness due to pain in the foot parts
2. secondary bacterial infection (Bacteriodes nodusus) particularly Foot rot complicates the condition

Treatment:
1. apply grease mixed with 0.3% dieldrin/diazinon
2. soak large piece of cotton in chloroform or kerosene and pack affected foot; remove maggots with forceps then
paint with pine tar or myiasis paste

SARCOPHAGIDAE (FLESH FLIES)

Sarcophaga hemorrhoidalis
S. fusicauda
•light or dark grey in color
•thorax with 3 longitudinal stripes
•abdomen with dark checkered markings
•larviparous

Life cycle:
Larvae deposited in fresh or decomposing meat, wound, sores, and abscesses; larva becomes a pupa in 6 days à
the pupa transforms into imago after 12-24 days

Wohlfartia magnifica - deposit larva in cutaneous lesions or sores, nasal, and aural cavities, eyes and vagina
Wohlfartia vigil - deposit larvae on intact skin

GASTEROPHILIDAE (HORSE BOT FLIES)

Criteria Reference of the Different Gasterophilus sp.

Site of egg Routes of larval Larval predilection
deposition penetration site
Gasterophilus Hairs all over the body Tongue mucosa Cardiac portion of
intestinalis preferably on forelegs, stomach
around fetlock, and
underside of knees
Gasterophilus nasalis Hairs in the Mucosa between Pylorum an
intermandibular space molar teeth duodenum
(throat)
G. hemorrhoidalis Hairs of lips and Tongue mucosa Stomach and rectum
cheeks
G. pecorum Hooves and inanimate Cheek mucosa Stomach and rectum
objects
G. inermis Hairs of lips and Cheek mucosa Pharynx, esophagus,
cheeks and stomach

Life cycle:
Eggs hatch after 5-10 days (eggs of G. intestinalis and G. pecorum have to be licked or rubbed by the host to
hatch while others hatch spontaneously larva migrate in the mouth mucosa and wander as far as the pharynx for 3-4
weeks fully grown larvae pass down the stomach and lodge in predilection sites larvae remain in the host for 10-12
months detach and pass out in the feces to pupate in the ground (those of G. hemorrhoidales and G. pecorum reattach
for a few days in the rectum before leaving the host) pupal period lasts for 3-5 weeks before the adult is formed

Pathogenesis:
1. oviposition pattern cause annoyance
20
 2. stomatitis with tongue ulceration
3. cluster of maggots around pylorus mechanically interfere with action of sphincter and food passage
4. spines of the larvae may cause ulceration in the stomach which may be dramatic in appearance but have obscure
pathogenic significance
5. abscess formation, rupture of stomach, peritonitis
6. accidental larval infection in man is limited to skin "creeping eruptions"
Diagnosis:
1. Examination of sites at which eggs are deposited
2. direct inspection of the pharynx may reveal the larvae
3. larva in the stomach and rectum may be seen at necropsy

Treatment:
1. piperazine and carbon disulfide complex - 20-40 grams/500 lbs via stomach tube
2. dichlorvos - 14-15 mg/lb given in feed
3. neguvon - 40mg/kg/wt (98& trichlorfon)

OESTRIDAE
Genera:
Oestrus
Hypoderma
Rhinoestrus

Oestrus ovis 'sheep nasal fly' 'nasal bots' 'sheep Nose fly' 'head maggot fly'

Lifecycle:
Female infect sheep by squirting a jet of fluid with larvae during flight (up to 25 at a time/ 60 in an hour)→larvae
are deposited in nasal cavites and adjacent sinuses, sometimes in the eyes, nostrils, and lips of man→ larvae migrate to
nasal passages feeding on mucus whose secretion is stimulated by their movements (L1-L2)→frontal sinus (L3)→lavae
may die and calcify in this sites or larvae mature in 8-10 months then crawl out and drop to the ground to pupate →adult
emerges after 3-6 weeks

Pathogenic effects:
1. larviposition causes annoyance which may cause the animal to panic, stamp their feet, bunch together and press
their bodies together against the ground; this interruptions may cause decrease in the production.
2. larvae irritate the mucosa which may cause viscid mucus nasal discharge, sneezing and rubbing of nose to fixed
objects.
3. causes “false gid” – the bones of the skull may erode and cause injury to the brain producing nervous signs such
as high stepping gait, incoordination and paralysis.

Treatment:
1. induce sneezing by sprinkling snuff and pepper into the nostrils
2. administer 10 parts neguvon and 1 part coumaphos per os
3. apply 3% cresol-soap solution to the nostrils
4. trephination – create an opening to the skull

Hypoderma - “warble flies” ”ox bot flies” ”heel flies”

Hypoderma bovis “northern cattle grub” – affects cattle; most important species
H. lineatum “common cattle grub” – affects cattle
H. ageratum – sheep and goats (India)
H. crossi – sheep and goats
H. diana – deer (Europe)
- adults are hairy; 13-15cm long
- light yellow color as honey bees
- mouthparts are redumentary and do not feed
- most active during sunny days
- adults live for an average of 1 week
- female may lay 400-600 eggs in the course of her life

Life cycle:

Eggs are laid singly at hairs above the hock (H. bovis) or in rows of 6 or more at hairs below the hock (H.
21
Lineatum); 100 or more eggs are laid in a week→eggs hatch and larvae crawl down the hair and penetrate hair follicle→
migrate towards the diaphragm via the SQ tissue up the leg (L1) aided by mouth hooks and secreted proteolytic
enzymes→ submucosa of esophagus (H. lineatum) or epidural fat of spinal canal (H. bovis) – L2 for 2 to 5 months→
reaches the SQ tissue of the back (L3) and form swellings (warbles) that measures 3cm→ L3 creates a perforation and
apply their spiracles to the aperture for breathing purposes→larvae molt twice and mature in 30 days then fall to the
ground to pupate(4-5weeks) →adult
The complete life cycle takes about 1 year

Pathogenic effects:

1. economic losses due to fly attack

a. “Gadding” – animals panic when attacked by buzzing flies especially H. bovis that lay its egg singly
therefore has to repeatedly attack the animal. The animal tends to run away aimlessly and injure
themselves on fences or may die when they fall off in water over heights
b. interrupted feeding – low milk and meat yield
2. downgrading and condemnation of hides
3. carcass depreciation – the flesh under the skin infested with L3 may be damaged producing the characteristic
greenish gelatinous tissue which has to be trimmed “Butcher Jelly”
4. if the larvae dies in the spinal cord, the highly toxic proteolytic enzymes may cause paraplegia in the esophageal
wall, it may cause bloat due to esophageal stricture
5. aberrant migration due to other organs may cause anaphylactic reactions or signs relative to the organ
6. escape of the larvae leaves an open wound which attracts myiasis flies.

Clinical signs:

1. usually, there is no appreciable manifestation until the larvae appear along the back when the swelling can be felt
and seen; larvae lies in a cyst containing yellow purulent fluid
2. poor growth is observed in severe cases
3. decreased milk yield

Treatment:

1. Removal of larvae (mechanical) – ineffective when larvae are immature because its rupture may lead to
inflammation, abscess formation or anaphylaxis
2. application of larvicide – organophosphate compounds and ivermectin

Rhinoestrus purpurensis “gadfly”

- larvae satges are obligatory parasites of the nasal sinuses and larynx of horses
- cause opthalmomyiasis of man

CUTEREBRIDAE

Genera:
Cuterebra
Dermatobia

Cuterebra emasculator “rodent bot fly”

- occurs under the ski of rodents, rabbits, dogs, cats and man
- present in north America

Life cycle:
Eggs are deposited I burrows of rodents; each females lays 2000 eggs→ eggs hatch and wait for host→
penetrate skin of nose and mouth and migrate to various SQ locations (frequently parasitizes the scrotum destroying the
testes (parasitic castration)→ larvae mature in 30 days the pupate on the ground.

Dermatobia hominis “human bot fly” “tropical warble fly”

 adult flies do not feed
- occurs in central and north America
- man are infected by association with domestic animals

22
Life cycle:

Adult females rest on leaves, captures a mosquito or other blood sucking fly→ glues a batch of eggs to the
abdomen of the capive fly in 7 days (L1 develops within the egss)→ eggs hatch when insect land on warm-blooded
animal when the latter sucks blood→ larvae penetrate skin using the skin puncture made by insect and migrate to the SQ
tissue (larvae grows and produce a swelling under the skin)→ pupate on the ground→adults develops after 5-10 weeks

Pathogenic effects:
1. cause “Uva” swellings in the various body parts which may suppurate and cause severe pain
2. attracts myiasis flies

Treatment:
1. surgical or mechanical removal
2. ivermectin or topical trichlorfon

HIPPOBOSCIDAE (LOUSEFLIES OR KEDS)

General characteristics:
 Pupiparous (female may lay larvae ready to pupate)
 Pupa is roughly rounded and smooth like a brownish bean seed
 With strong claws by means of which the parasite clings to the hairs or feathers of the host
 With piercing blood sucking mouthparts in both sexes
 Maybe permanent parasites

Genera:
Hippobosca “forest flies”
Pseudolynchia
Lepopthena
Melophagus

Hippobosca equina “horse lousefly” “horse ked” – attacks horse and cattle world wide
H. rufipes – attacks cattle and hoses in Africa
H. maculala – attacks cattle and horse in tropics and subtropics
o adults are 10 cm in length and pale reddish brown in color
o with yellow spots or bands
 wings extend beyond the margin of the abdomen
 proboscis are retracted when not feeding

Life cycle:
Female lays 1 larva at a time (max. Of 5-6) in dry soil or humus→ pupates almost immediately and change its
color from yellow to black → pupal period may be a month or longer

Habits:
1. adult flies are more frequent in warm weather
2. preferably bites on the hind legs and pubis but may bite another body parts
3. they are strong fliers but could not travel long distances
4. remains on the host for long periods and are not easily disturbed; when disturbed, they move sideways like a crab

Pathogenic effects:
1. annoyance to animals which are not accustomed to attack
2. transmits Trypanosoma theilieri of cattle/carabaos and Haemoproteus of anatids and birds
3. mechanical transmitter of B. anthracis

Control:
1. topical application of insecticides with repellant and residual effects (pyrethrin)

Pseudolynchia maura/cauariensis “pigeon lousefly or pigeon fly”

o attacks pigeons and wild birds in the tropics

23
 o resembles sheep ked but have wings; dark brown in color
o well-developed wings which extent beyond the tip of abdomen
o wing venation reduced and concentrated anteriorly
o female produces 4-5 young during life

Life cycle:
Larvae are laid in dark crevices of pigeon houses, in dry dust or nests (a female produces 4-5 larvae in an lifetime
of around 43 days → pupates in a few hours after deposition which lasts for 23-30 days in warm weather→ adult
(copulation takes place on the host)

Habits:
1. moves rapidly through feathers
2. fast fliers; not easily caught and handled

Pathogenic Effects:
1. serve as i.h of haemoproteus columbae “pigeon malaria”
2. suck blood and cause painful wounds in 2-3 weeks squabs
3. cause anemia in young pigeons

Control:
1. dust birds with 5% pyrethrum powder, 5% rotenone powder
2. regular or thorough cleaning of pigeon loft

Lepopthena cervi “deer ked”

o both sexes are winged but when the female found a host, the wings breaks off and resemble
Melophagus ovinus

Melophagus ovinus “sheep ked”

o wingless with strong legs and stout claws
o with brown hairy body
o more common in temperate countries
o longetivity of males – 90 days; females - 120 days

Life Cycle:
Female attaches its single immobile larva (max. of 10-20 larvae) to the wool by means of a sticky
substance→pupates within 12 hrs into a chestnut brown pupa (pupal period is 20-45 days) → adult → copulation begins
after 3-4 days (gestation period is 10-12 days)

Habits:
1. permanent ectoparasite
2. enorged female may live up to 8days off the host
3. pupae removed from the sheep could still “hatch” if the temperature is favorable but will die soon if they could not
find a sheep to feed on

Pathogenic significance:
1. anemia
2. wool damage – severe irritation will cause the animal to bite, rub, or scratch itself; ked’s feces stain the wool
which don’t wash out readily
3. transmits Trypanosoma melophagium which is actually non-pathogenic
4. heavy infestation causes emaciation, unthriftiness, loss of condition, and anemia
5. predisposes the sheep to “blowfly strike”

Control:
1. shearing to remove pupa and adults
2. dipping, spraying or dusting with dieldrin, aldrin, coumaphos, chlordane etc.

ORDER HEMIPTERA (Bugs)

General characteristics:

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1. body flattened dorsoventrally
2. jointed proboscis and flexed under the head when not in use
3. blood suckers
4. wing may or may not be present

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