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There are two kinds of research papers. Primary or experimental research papers describe
an experiment performed by the author. (I mean "experiment" in the broadest sense, as in
a scientific investigation. The investigation may employ a rigorously controlled lab
experiment, a controlled field experiment, a theoretical/mathematical investigation, or
simply some new scientific observations. The key is that the body of the paper is about a
novel investigation conducted by the author.) Secondary or review research papers
summarize the research that has been done in a particular area. Reviews generally do not
introduce much new information or new results, but rather synthesize a larger body of
work, providing a new perspective on a field or question. In this class, you will be
required to write a scientific review paper.
A secondary research paper or review paper is not a 'book report' or an annotated list of
experiments in a particular field, but demands a considerable, complete literature review.
However, beyond just reporting the results and conclusions of other studies, the review
must integrate, interpret and expand these conclusions. Often, articles must be read over
and over again to really understand the subtle relevance of a particular result or
conclusion. Then, the independent conclusions of separate investigations must be
combined into a cohesive presentation. They must be contrasted and compared; are there
conflicting conclusions? Can apparent conflicts be resolved through a new outlook or
interpretation? Review papers often take historical perspectives, describing how a field
(and the major questions in that field) changed as more information was accumulated. Or,
review papers may focus on 'the state of the art' in a particular field; interpreting
divergent results and suggesting an appropriate avenue for future research.
Who writes review articles? Usually, it is the experts in a particular field. They have the
experience and knowledge to critically evaluate experiments and organize them in a new
provocative way; perhaps incorporating them into a new, unifying theory. Good review
papers are not easy to write; if they were, more scientists would write them. By writing
your review paper, I expect you to become a 'departmental expert' on a topic, able to
'wow' your fellow AP biology students with your new knowledge about your field. I do
expect to see a creative synthesis of the literature, rather than a jumbled regurgitation of
facts.
II. Writing a Review Paper
• Title
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Body
• Conclusion
• Acknowledgements
• Literature Cited
Although you are not conducting an experiment in the physical sense, you should
consider your paper a 'thought' experiment. You are going to read a body of
information and provide a new outlook on a topic. You will not reveal a new
scientific 'fact' as an experimenter would, but you will reveal a new idea or
interpretation. As such, build your paper the way an experimenter would: 1)
research a topic and find a particular set of issues, results or opinions that seem in
conflict; 2) research this area in more detail, and then think independently. Build
an argument or thesis that either supports one side of the conflict or resolves it.
This is the 'experimental' part of the work, and it is as unique as a new
experiment.
A. Ask a Question. Usually this is a broad, unrefined question; after all, you haven't
researched the topic yet. If you have been 'given' a question, don't fool yourself into
thinking you are ahead of the game. You are really no better off. You don't know why it is
a relevant question, or how you are going to address it.
Take notes in your own words. Keep the notes in a binder. Record the complete citation,
so you don't have to look it up again. Relate their findings to your question.
B. Review Literature. With the advent of on-line search capabilities, most student head
straight for the computer terminal to start their literature search. THIS IS A FATAL
MISTAKE, BECAUSE IT FOCUSES YOUR ATTENTION ON THE PRIMARY
RESEARCH LITERATURE BEFORE YOU HAVE A SOLID BACKGROUND IN THE
FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF THE FIELD. Before you attempt an on-line search,
HIT THE STACKS. Go to the library and find general references on your topic.
Introductory textbooks can be a big help to you at this stage, providing important
background information in language the non-specialist can understand. After you
familiarize yourself with the background material that specialists assume you know,
proceed to the technical literature; this includes both primary research articles and
secondary research articles by scientists studying your topic. Your best bet here would be
a review article. Again, before the computer search, go to the stacks and look for review
series in your discipline. In ecology, for example, there is Annuals Reviews of Ecology
and Systematics, Advances in Ecological Research, and Trends in Ecology and Evolution.
Review articles are "gold mines" of relevant literature; the author has already compiled
and integrated some of the major articles on the topic! By finding one good review
article, you can save yourself hours at the computer terminal navigating through a
complete on-line search. BE SMART! Even if you have to pull volumes down one by one
and check the table of contents, you will probably find a review article that is relevant to
your topic. A good review article will: 1) integrate lots of articles (even into the 100's!),
2) show you what major research directions in the field, and 3) summarize the major
conclusions. It would take you hours at the computer to sift through searches to locate all
these articles; you'd probably delete some you didn't think were relevant and print out a
lot that you find to be irrelevant later. SO AGAIN, DO NOT START WITH AN ON-
LINE SEARCH. I KNOW IT IS EASY, BUT IT IS A DECEPTIVELY INEFFICIENT
WAY TO START A PROJECT. YOU WILL FIND YOURSELF COMING BACK TIME
AFTER TIME, DOING NEW SEARCHES AS YOUR KNOWLEDGE IN THE FIELD
MATURES. SAVE IT FOR LATER WHEN YOU CAN OPTIMIZE ITS POWER AND
MAXIMIZE YOUR OWN EFFICIENCY.
Again, the space limitations may force you to be selective. In addition, the methods and
result may be difficult to describe completely in single sentences, and may require a
larger fraction of the space budget. However, you must also include a conclusion
sentence; what do the results from your research mean? If published, the abstract will
appear in citation sources such as Biological Abstracts and Science Citation Index. It is
the first thing someone will read, and it must be descriptive and interesting! The abstract
demands clear, direct writing. When readers finish the abstract, they should be so
intrigued by the experiment that they decide to read the entire paper. What search strategy
do you use when you pick up a journal? You read down the titles. Then, you read the
abstract. Here is where you try to gain the attention of the reader. If you do not succeed,
your reader may not want to continue reading your paper. Abstracts are very difficult to
write; it will take more time to write than any other paragraph in the whole paper.
Body of Paper Next, mold this argument, this synthesis, into the body of your
paper. An experimenter writes his methods and results first. Similarly, this is the
new information and interpretation that you are presenting. It may be largely
descriptive, but it should have a unique perspective. Outlines will be a big help to
you at this stage. Don't be afraid to write your ideas done before they are perfectly
formed! If you can get them down on paper, you can place them in a logical
sequence and develop them into a flowing presentation. After your body is
complete, you can move on to your introduction and conclusion.
Conclusion Likewise, the conclusion section is usually not separated from the
body of the paper (although it can be, if it is particularly long). In the conclusion,
you should redefine the objective of the study and show how you satisfied these
goals. It should strengthen the relationship between the ideas you have built in the
body of the paper.
Acknowledgments. Thank the people who helped you research the question,
design or conduct the experiment, and review drafts. Also acknowledge any
funding support, and the source (check a few acknowledgement sections for
examples).
When you are all done, set it aside for at least one day. Re-read your paper,
sentence by sentence, as if you were reading it for the first time. Be hard on
yourself; any improvements that you make at this stage will directly enhance the
quality of your paper and your grade.
Formatting: Use double spacing (or 1.5), 12 pt. new times roman, and one inch
margins. Page numbering in upper right is preferred.
AS WELL AS - =and.
FELT - (it was felt that...) - One feels cloth, but believes
ideas.
THAT, WHICH - two words that can help, when needed, to make
intended meanings and relationships unmistakable, which
often is important in scientific writing. If the
clause can be omitted without leaving the modified noun
incomplete, use which and enclose the clause within
commas or parentheses; otherwise use that.
A review paper is not a "term paper" or book report. It is not merely a report on some
references you found. Instead, a review paper synthesizes the results from several
primary literature papers to produce a coherent argument about a topic or focused
description of a field.
• Scientific American
Scientists commonly use reviews to communicate with each other and the general public.
There are a wide variety of review styles from ones aimed at a general audience (e.g.,
Scientific American) to those directed at biologists within a particular subdiscipline (e.g.,
Annual Review of Physiology).
A key aspect of a review paper is that it provides the evidence for a particular point of
view in a field. Thus, a large focus of your paper should be a description of the data that
support or refute that point of view. In addition, you should inform the reader of the
experimental techniques that were used to generate the data.
• Introduction
• The body of the paper
• Conclusion and future directions
• Literature cited
Review articles contain neither a materials and methods section nor an abstract.
Use topic headings. Do not use a topic heading that reads, "Body of the paper." Instead
the topic headings should refer to the actual concepts or ideas covered in that section.
Example
Introduction & Background • Make it brief (~1/5 of the paper’s total length).
• Grab the reader's interest while introducing the
topic.
• Explain the "big picture" relevance.
• Keep it brief.
...assigned a topic Your instructor may assign everyone in the class a different topic.
...asked to pick a You may have heard about a topic in class that you found particularly
topic, and have some interesting. A family member may have just been diagnosed with a
idea what you would disease that you would like to study further.
like to choose
The first step is to perform a preliminary survey of the literature.
...asked to pick a
topic, and have no The first step is to find a general topic (see next section below).
idea what you would
like to choose
Review tables of Pick prominent journals in the appropriate field of biology. Consult
contents of some your instructor for a list of respected journals in that field.
recent issues of
journals in the Read the abstracts of those papers with interesting titles.
library
If you find a good article, this may help narrow your topic and serve
as a good research resource.
Read review articles These journals provide good review articles in many fields of science.
journals like For example, in Science these are called "Perspectives" or "Reviews".
American Scientist, In Nature these are called "News and Views".
Scientific American,
BioScience, Nature, If you find a good article, this may help to narrow down your topic,
the Quarterly Review and serve as a good research resource.
of Biology, or
Science When you find a topic (you guessed it!), go to preliminary survey of
literature.
AVOID performing It would be difficult to take the first eight references from a database
a database or search and tie them together into a cohesive story.
internet search with
a general topic like It would be difficult and time consuming to read through the first 50
"cancer" or papers in a general search to decide which are relevant to your story.
"evolution"
Internet sites are usually not peer-reviewed and the scientific content
is not always reliable.
The following approaches are useful to obtain a good idea about the
variety of reference information available on specific topics. Also, feel
free to consult with your instructor or someone else who is
knowledgeable in the topic area that interests you.
Use the electronic card catalog in Murphy Library. You can even
access card catalogs from other campuses. You may want to do your
searches using key words.
Breadth of the topic Choose a topic with enough background material available to make
your project factual and interesting, but not so broad that you cannot
address the topic thoroughly in the allotted space.
Examples of good "The use of Taxol from the Pacific Yew to Treat Ovarian Cancer" is a
topics fairly concise topic thesis that should yield enough scientific data for a
decent project.
"Is Taxol from the Pacific Yew Effective in Treating Ovarian Cancer?"
is a concise topic question.
You should discuss your topic with your instructor and if she/he
approves it, go on to research your topic (see next topic below).
Researching your topic
Finding relevant As noted elsewhere, you will want to base most of your research on
papers scientifically legitimate sources of information obtained from primary
literature and other appropriate technical references.
Interlibrary Loan
If you find a technical book or journal article that Murphy does not
carry, you may request these materials through "Interlibrary Loan".
Murphy has an online interlibrary loan request form to complete.
Interlibrary loan requests are free. However, you should allow at least
two weeks for your requests to be filled.