TIPSONWRITINGAPHILOSOPHYPAPER

DouglasW.Portmore
Copyright2001(Revised2006)byDouglasW.Portmore.SomeRightsReserved.This workislicensedunderaCreativeCommonsLicense.Seefulllicensingdetailshere. 1.ConstructingaThesisStatement Athesisstatementisthatsentenceortwothatassertsyourpositiononagivenissue, specifically,thepositionthatyouwillbearguingforinyourpaper.Thisthesis statementshouldappearsomewhereintheintroductiontoyourpaper.Itcanbethe firstsentence,althoughthatsoftenarathersimplisticandunexcitingwaytobeginyour paper.Moreoften,then,athesisstatementshouldappearatorneartheendofthefirst paragraphortwo. Thefirststepindevelopingathesis(onceyouhavedecidedonatopic)isto determinewhatyourpositionis.Todothis,youwillneedtothoroughlyreviewallthe relevantcoursematerials.Inmostcases,youwillhavebeenpresentedwithanumberof argumentsonbothsidesoftheissue.Carefullyanalyzeandevaluateallthose arguments,takingnotesasyoudo.Intheprocess,youshoulddevelopyourowntake ontheissue. Itisimperativethatyouclearlydefineyourthesisbeforeyoubeginwriting,foritis yourthesisthatwillguideyouthroughouttheentirewritingprocesseverythingyou writeshouldsomehowcontributetoitsdefense.Thisdoesntmeanthatyourthesis cantberevised,narrowed,orrefinedduringthewritingprocess;itslikelythatitwill needtobe.Thepointisthatyouwontevenknowwheretostartunlessyouhaveat leastaworkingthesistoguideyou. Yourthesisshouldnarrowthefocusofyourpaper.Supposeyouareaskedtowrite onthemindbodyproblem.Itsimportanttorealizethatitwontbepossibletoaddress everyimportantphilosophicalissueconcerningsuchabroadtopicinjustonepaper. Youllneedtochooseathesisthatnarrowsthefocustosomethingmoremanageable. Dontbetooambitioushere.Yourenotgoingtosolvesomethinglikethemindbody probleminfive,oreventwenty,pages.Ofcourse,itsalsoimportantnottogotoofarin theoppositedirection.Yourthesismustntbetrivial.Instead,yourthesisshouldmake aninterestingassertion,oneoverwhichreasonablepeoplemightdisagree. Yourthesisshouldbequitespecific,therebydefiningasharpfocusforyourpaper. DontmakeaclaimsuchasPeopleshoulddonatemoneytohungerrelief organizations.Thisisvague.Areyousayingthatdonatingmoneytohungerrelief organizationsismoralobligatory,orareyoumerelyclaimingthatdoingsowouldbe supererogatory?Ineithercase,youshouldstateyourreasonsformakingtheclaimthat youdo,foryourthesisshouldprovidesomehintastowhatthemainargumentwillbe. Tosumup,athesisstatementshould:



Bespecific. Benarrowenoughastobepracticablydefendedwithinthelength parametersoftheassignment. Makeaninterestingclaim,oneoverwhichreasonablepeoplemightdisagree. Providesomehintastowhatthemainlineofargumentwillbe.

Thefollowingaresomedosanddonts. NO: Iwillarguethatactutilitarianismisthemostplausiblemoraltheoryaround. NOTE:Thisistooambitious.Thereisnochanceofadequatelydefendingsucha claiminanythingshorterthanabooklengthproject.Todefendsuchaclaim, youwouldhavetocompareactutilitarianismwithKantianism,rule utilitarianism,virtueethics,moralrelativism,moralsubjectivism,divine commandtheory,etc.andarguethatactutilitarianismdoesbetterthanallthe othersintermsofourstandardsforevaluatingmoraltheories(i.e.,consistency, determinacy,intuitiveappeal,internalsupport,etc.).Amoresensiblethesis wouldfocusondefendingactutilitarianismagainstcertainspecificobjectionsor wouldarguethatactutilitarianismismoreplausiblethan,say,Kantianism. Deathandsufferingfromalackfood,potablewater,andbasichealthcareisbad. NOTE:Thisistrivial;noreasonablepersonwoulddisagree. Iwilldiscussobjectionstomoralrelativism. NOTE:Itsnotenoughtosaythatyouwilldiscussacertainissue;youmuststate yourpositionontheissue. Ibelievethatthedivinecommandtheoryisanimplausiblemoraltheory. NOTE:Thisstatementmerelyreportswhatonebelieves;itdoesntassert anythingabouttheplausibilityofthedivinecommandtheory.Athesis statementmustmakeanassertionabouttheissueathand,notaboutonesbeliefs concerningthatissue. Iwillarguethatabortioniswrong. NOTE:Thisstatementisntspecificenough.Yourthesisshouldexplainwhy,on yourview,abortioniswrong.

 Iwillarguethatdonatingmoneytohungerrelieforganizationsis counterproductive. NOTE:Theissueofwhetherornotdonatingmoneytohungerrelief organizationsiscounterproductiveisanempiricalissue,notaphilosophical issue.Youmusttakeastandonsomephilosophicalissue. Iwillarguethatdonatingoursurplusincometohungerrelieforganizations wouldresultinmoredeathsandmoresuffering. NOTE:Theissueofwhetherornotdonatingoursurplusincometohungerrelief organizationswouldresultinmoredeathsandmoresufferingisanempirical issue,notaphilosophicalissue.Youmustaddresssomephilosophicalissue. Thusamoreinterestingthesiswouldaddressthefollowingissue:Ifdonatingour surplusincomewouldalleviatesignificantsufferingandsavelives,wouldwe thenbemorallyobligatedtodoso? YES: Iwillarguethatevenifthefetusisapersonwitharighttolife,abortionis, nevertheless,morallypermissibleinthecaseofrape,forthefetushasnorightto usethewomansbodywithout,atleast,hertacitconsent,andthisisclearly absentwherethewomanispregnantasaresultofbeingraped. NOTE:Thepositionyoutakedoesnthavetoexhaustthetopic.Forinstance, theresnothingwrongwithtakingastandonthemoralityofabortioninthecase ofrapewhileremainingneutralaboutothercases. IwillarguethatThomsonsargumentisntcogent.Iwilldemonstratethatthere areimportantdifferencesbetweenkillingtheviolinist(inherFamousViolinist Example)andkillingafetusthathasbeenconceivedasresultofrape.These differencesundermineherargumentbyanalogyforthepermissibilityof abortioninthecaseofrape. NOTE:Youdonthavetomakeanypositiveassertion.Athesisthatassertsthat somephilosophicalpositionisfalseorthatsomephilosophersargumentis unsoundisaninterestingandimportantthesis. IwillarguethatArthurscriticismsfailtoundermineSingerscentralthesis:that wearemorallyobligatedtodonateoursurplusincometohungerrelief organizations.IwillshowthatSingercanrebutArthursobjectionsby.

NOTE:Evenifyouagreeentirelywithoneofthephilosophersthatyouveread, youcanstillhavesomethingoriginalandimportanttosay.Forinstance,you couldshowhowthatphilosophermightrebutcriticismsfromanother. IwillarguethatSingersthesisneedstoberevisedinlightofArthurscriticisms, butonlyslightly.IwillproposethefollowingrevisedversionofSingers thesis.AndIwillarguethatthisrevisedversionofSingersthesisavoids Arthursobjections.Lastly,Iwilldefendthisrevisedthesisagainstother potentialobjections. NOTE:Ifyoucantseeanywaytodefendathesisinitscurrentform,youmight suggesthowthatthesiscouldberevisedsoastoavoidtheobjectionsleveledby another. Iwillarguethatmanyoftheobjectionsthathavebeenleveledagainstact utilitarianismcanbemetandthat,onthewhole,actutilitarianismisarather plausibletheory.Nevertheless,Iwilladmitthatoneseriousobjectionremains, forwhichIcanseenoadequateresponsenamely,.However,thisdoesnot meanweshouldrejectthetheory,for,asIwillshow,nonutilitariantheoriesface thefollowingmoreseriousobjection... NOTE:Oftentimes,youllfindthatallthealternativepositionsfacesome problemoranother.Inthiscase,youcanstilldefendonepositionoveritsrivals byarguingthatitfacesfewerorlessseriousproblemsthantheothersdo.Of course,youstillneedbeupfrontabouttheproblemsthatyourownfavored positionfaces,and,inlightofthosepotentialproblems,youmaywanttomake yourthesissomewhattentative:utilitarianismseemstobethemostpromising positionratherthanutilitarianismiscorrect. 2.TheIntroduction Getrightdowntobusiness!Avoidinflated,rhetoricalintroductoryremarks(commonly knownasfluff).If,forinstance,yourpaperisonabortion,youshouldntwastelimited spacewithsomeirrelevantandlongwindedspielaboutwhatanimportantand controversialissueabortionis.Norshouldyoustartyourpaperoffwithasentencelike, Downthroughtheages,mankindhasponderedtheproblemof....Nevertheless,you shouldmotivateyourpaper,explainingwhatissueorproblemthatyouwillbe addressingandwhyitsimportantjustkeepitbrief. Anintroductionisbestthoughtofasareadersguidetoyourpaper.Itshouldhelp makeiteasierforthereadertofollowandunderstandyourpaper.Itshouldincludean explicitstatementofwhatitisthatyouwillbearguingfor(thatis,yourthesis),and defineforthereaderanyterminologythatsneededtounderstandyourthesis.The introductionshouldalsomapoutthestructureofyourpaper,explainingtheorderin whichyouwillargueforvariouspointsandexplaininghowallthosepointscome

togetherinsupportofyourthesis.Tosumup,agoodintroductionshould:(1)be concise,(2)containaclearstatementofyourthesis,(3)introduce,verysuccinctly,your topicandexplainwhyitisimportant,(4)indicate,verybriefly,whatthemainlineof argumentwillbe,and(5)mapouttheoverallstructureofyourpaper. Illustrations: ThefollowingaretwoexamplesofthetypeofintroductionthatIamlookingfor.The firstisMaryAnneWarrensintroductiontoherpaperOntheMoralandLegalStatusof Abortion,TheMonist57(January1973)reprintedinTomL.BeauchampandLeRoy Walters,eds.,ContemporaryIssuesinBioethics,3rded.(Belmont,CA:Wadsworth,1989), p.211:
Wewillbeconcernedwithboththemoralstatusofabortion,whichforourpurposeswemay defineastheactwhichawomanperformsinvoluntarilyterminating,orallowinganotherperson toterminate,herpregnancy,andthelegalstatuswhichisappropriateforthisact.Iwillargue that,whileitisnotpossibletoproduceasatisfactorydefenseofawomansrighttoobtainan abortionwithoutshowingthatafetusisnotahumanbeing,inthemorallyrelevantsenseofthat term,weoughtnottoconcludethatthedifficultiesinvolvedindeterminingwhetherornota fetusishumanmakeitimpossibletoproduceanysatisfactorysolutiontotheproblemofthe moralstatusofabortion.Foritispossibletoshowthat,onthebasisofintuitionswhichwemay expecteventheopponentsofabortiontoshare,afetusisnotaperson,andhencenotthesortof entitytowhichitispropertoascribefullmoralrights.

ThesecondexampleistheintroductiontomypaperWelfare,Achievement,andSelf Sacrifice:
RECENTLY, SOME PHILOSOPHERS have arguedthatbyholding thatitis the achievementof our goals as opposed to the fulfillment of our desires that contributes to our welfare, we can accommodate whats attractive about the desire theory of welfare while avoiding its implausible implications. The view that the achievement of ones goals in itself contributes to ones welfare is what I call the Achievement View. A different view holds that the meaningfulness of ones selfsacrifices initselfcontributestooneswelfare,whereonesselfsacrificescountasmeaningfulifandonlyif they were not for naught. I call this view the NotforNaught View, or the NFN View for short.Inthispaper,IarguethattheNFNViewhasalltheadvantagesthattheAchievementView has plus some others, that it has none of the disadvantages that the Achievement View has, and that, therefore, those sympathetic to the Achievement View should accept the NFN View instead. Of course, it is possible to accept both views since they are not contraries, but if the NFN View has all the advantages and none of the disadvantages of the Achievement View, then the former should supplant the latter. I wont be arguing that the NFN View is superior to all other views aboutwelfare,onlythatitissuperiortotheAchievementView.Nevertheless,thepaperwillbeof interest even to those who oppose the Achievement View, because, as I will show, a much stronger case can be made in favor of the NFN View, and so the opponents of the Achievement ViewshouldfindtheNFNViewtobeamoreworthycontender. Thepaperhasthefollowingstructure.Insection1,Iexplicatethetwoviews.Insection2,I arguethattheNFNViewhasalltheadvantagesthatphilosopherssuchasThomasScanlonand SimonKellerhaveclaimedfortheAchievementView.Insection3,Iarguethat,unliketheNFN View,theAchievementViewhasanumberofcounterintuitiveimplications,includingthatwe should,otherthingsbeingequal,adoptgoalsthatwillplayamorecomprehensiveroleinour

livesand/orthatwillrequiremoreproductiveefforttoachieve.Insection4,IarguethattheNFN Viewhasgreaterexplanatorypower,accountingforabroaderandmorediverserangeof intuitionsaboutwelfare.Lastly,insection5,Iarguethat,unliketheAchievementView,theNFN Viewiscompatiblebothwiththeideathatwecanprovideaunifiedtheoryofwelfareandwith theideathatonlybeingswithsomesortofaffectcanhaveawelfare.

3.TheBody Thebodyofyourpapershouldinclude:(1)anexpositionoftheviews,concepts,and argumentstobediscussed,(2)yourownargumentsinsupportofyourthesisand claims,and(3)aconsiderationofobjectionsandcounterargumentsalongwithyour responsestothem. Eachbodyparagraphshouldpresentonlyasingleideaorsetofrelatedideas,and eachshouldbringyourreaderonestepclosertoacceptingyourthesisandthecogency ofyourarguments.Becauseeachbodyparagraphshouldbeastepinyourargument, youshouldbemindfuloftheoverallorganizationofyourbodyparagraphs.Agood waytotestthestrengthofbothyourtopicsentencesandyourargumentasawholeisto constructanoutlineofyourpaperusingonlyyourpapersthesisstatementandthetopic sentencescontainedinthebodyofyouressay.Thisoutlineshouldcontainthelogical coreofyourpapersargument,anditshouldfollowaclearlogicalpattern. Thefirststepinwritinganeffectivebodyparagraphistheconstructionofitstopic sentence.Justasyourthesisstatementactsasthecontrollingideabehindyourentire paper,atopicsentenceactsasthecontrollingideathatbindstogetherthesentences withinaparagraph.Thesentenceswithinaparagraphshouldexplain,develop,or supporttheidea/claimthatwasintroducedinthetopicsentence.(Althoughmost paragraphsshouldhaveatopicsentence,noteveryparagraphneedsone.Forinstance,a topicsentencewontbeneededinaparagraphthatcontinuestodevelopanideathat wasintroducedbythetopicsentenceofthepreviousparagraph.Andalthoughatopic sentenceneedntalwaysappearasthefirstsentenceinaparagraph,itisoftenmost effectivewhenitdoes.) 4.TheConclusion Thebasicpurposeofyourconclusionistorestateyourthesisandsummarizeyour argument,butitshouldnotjustbeacopyofyourintroduction.Inyourconclusion,you shouldmakeafinalefforttoconvincethereaderthatyouhavebothestablishedyour thesisandofferedacogentargumentinitsdefense.Theconclusionisalsotheplaceto discusstheimplicationsand/orlimitationsofyourargument.Forinstance,youmight explainwhatthepracticaland/ortheoreticalimplicationsofyourargumentare.You mightalsopointtosomequestionsthatyourargumentraisesortosomeoftheissues thatyourpaperleavesunresolved. 5.MakingtheStructureofYourPaperPerspicuous 5.1Thestructureoftheparagraphswithinyourpaper:Agoodpaperwillhavealogicaland perspicuousstructure.Youneedtoorganizeyourpointsandargumentsinalogical

fashionandatthesametimemakethatorganizationapparenttoyourreader.Each paragraphshouldhaveaclearplaceintheoverallargument.Forinstance,heresone commonstructure:introduction,explicationofsomephilosophicalpositionorproblem (i.e.,explicationofthepositionthatyoullbecriticizingorexplicationthephilosophical problemthatyouhopetosolve),themainargument(youllprobablyneedmorethan oneparagraph),clarificationofandsupportforthecontroversialpremisesinyourmain argument(oneparagraphpercontroversialpremise),considerationofpotential objectionsandyourresponsestothem(again,oneparagraphperobjection),conclusion. Thekeytohavingyouressayfollowalogicalstructureistomakeanoutlinebefore sittingdowntowrite.Itsdifficulttogiveanymorespecificadvicesincethebestlogical structureforyouressaywilldependontheparticularitiesofyourargument.Butthere aretwoobviouspointsthatyoushouldbeawareof:(1)makesureyouexplicateaview orargument,clearlyandcharitably,beforecriticizingitand(2)explainkeyterms, concepts,andexamplesbeforeemployingthem. Icannotoveremphasizehowimportantitistomakethestructureofyouressay perspicuoustoyourreader;yourreadershouldnthavetoworktofigureitout.Sostart withagoodintroduction,onethatmapsoutthegeneralstructureoftheessay,andthen, inthebodyofyourpaper,employtransitionalwordsandsentencestokeepyourreader ontrack. Usetransitionalphrases,suchas: Iwillbeginby... BeforeIsaywhatiswrongwithXsargument,Iwillfirst... Atthispoint,weneedtoconsiderthefollowingobjection... Inthissection,Iwill... Inthenextsection,Iwill... Havingarguedfortheviewthat...,Inowwishtoconsiderrivalviews. AlthoughIhaveshown...,Istillneedtoprove... Next,Iwilloffersupportforwhatisperhapsmymostcontroversialassumption,that... Ihavearguedthat...,butsomeonemightobject... Furthersupportforthisclaimcomesfrom... Thesetransitionalphrasesgoalongwaytowardsmakingthestructureofyourpaper perspicuous.Toillustrate,considerthefollowingtwopaperfragments: 1 ...WevejustseenhowXsaysthatP.Iwillnowpresenttwoarguments thatnotP. Myfirstargumentis... Mysecondargumentis... Xmightrespondtomyargumentsinseveralways.Forinstance,he
1

IborrowthisfromJamesPryorsGuidelinesonWritingaPhilosophyPaper.

mightsaythat... However,thisresponsefails,because... AnotherwaythatXmightrespondtomyargumentsistoclaimthat... Thisresponsealsofails,because... SowehaveseenthatnoneoftheresponsesopentoXsucceedin rebuttingmyargument.Hence,weshouldrejectXsclaimthatP. IwillarguefortheviewthatQ. TherearethreereasonstoacceptQ. First... Second... Third... ThestrongestobjectiontoQis... However,thisobjectiondoesnotsucceed,forthefollowingreasons... Noticehoweasyitistoidentifyandfollowthestructureofeachpaper.Youwantyour papertobejustaseasytofollow. Youmightalsoconsiderdividingyourpaperintosections(andpossiblyeven subsections),usinginformativeheadingstohelpguideyourreader.Thistoocanhelp makethestructureofyouressayperspicuous. Illustration: I.Introduction II.SingersArgumentforanObligationtoAssist III.WhyWeShouldRejectHisInitialAssumption IV.HowSingerMightRespond V.Conclusion 5.2Thestructureofthesentenceswithinyourparagraphs:Notonlyshouldtheparagraphs withinanessaycohere,butsoshouldthesentenceswithineachparagraph.Theyshould flowsmoothlyfromonetothenext.Thereareanumberofwaystoachievethis:(1) Repeatkeywordsandphrases.Itisimportanttobeconsistentwhenreferringtokey conceptsandtheories.Thisconsistencyandrepetitionwillhelpbindtheparagraph together.(2)Usepronounstorefertowhatwasmentionedearlierintheparagraph.If yousayThisistruebecause...,thereaderisforcedtorecallwhatthisrefersto.The pronoun,thus,causesthereadertosumup,quicklyandsubconsciously,whatwassaid previously(whatthisis)beforegoingontothebecauseclause.Ofcourse,itismust alwaysbeperfectlyclearwhatthepronounrefersto.Ifthethisisambiguoussuchthat itcouldrefertoeitheroneofthetwothingsthatyoumentionedintheprevious sentence,thenthereaderwillhavetopausetofigureoutwhichitis,andthatsbad.(3) Createparallelstructures.Parallelstructuresarecreatedbyconstructingtwoormore phrasesorsentencesthathavethesamegrammaticalstructureorusethesamepartsof

speech.Parallelstructureshelpthereaderseethattheparagraphisgivinganumberof illustrationsofthesamegeneralidea.(4)Usetransitionalorbridgingwordstohelpthe readerfollowthelogicalstructureoftheparagraph. Herearesomeexamplesofsuchtransitionalwords: Toshowaddition:and,also,besides,forone,inthefirstcase,first,second,third, finally Tooffersupport:because,since,for,given Toconclude:so,thus,therefore,hence,consequently,accordingly,itfollowsthat,for thisreason,fromthis,asaresult,itwouldseemthen Toillustrate:e.g.,forexample,forinstance,toillustrate,acaseinpoint Tospecify:i.e.,thatis,viz.,namely,specifically Tointensify:moreover,furthermore,mainly,principally,aboveall,afterall,whats more,moreimportantly Toemphasize:certainly,indeed,infact,ofcourse Tocompare:likewise,similarly,bythesamereasoning Tocontrast:yet,but,rather,still,although,while,nevertheless,regardless,despite, evenso,inspiteof,however,whereas,eventhough,bycontrast,ontheone hand...ontheotherhand... Torefocus:inanycase,atanyrate,inaword,inshort,tosumup,toreturn Toindicatesupposition:assume,suppose,letsassume,letssuppose Toconcedeapoint:ofcourse,doubtless,itcannotbedenied,whilerecognizing,the factremains Illustration:Lookatthefollowingparagraph: 2
TheancientEgyptiansweremastersofpreservingdeadpeoplesbodiesby makingmummiesofthem.Mummiesseveralthousandyearsoldhavebeen discoverednearlyintact.Theskin,hair,teeth,fingernailsandtoenails,andfacial featuresofthemummieswereevident.Itispossibletodiagnosethediseasethey sufferedinlife,suchassmallpox,arthritis,andnutritionaldeficiencies.The processwasremarkablyeffective.Sometimesapparentwerethefatalafflictions ofthedeadpeople:amiddleagedkingdiedfromablowonthehead,andpolio killedachildking.Mummificationconsistedofremovingtheinternalorgans, applyingnaturalpreservativesinsideandout,andthenwrappingthebodyin layersofbandages. Thoughweak,thisparagraphisnotatotalwashout.Itstartswithatopicsentence,and thesentencesthatfollowareclearlyrelatedtothetopicsentence.Inthelanguageof writing,theparagraphisunified(i.e.,itcontainsnoirrelevantdetails).However,the paragraphisnotcoherent.Thesentencesaredisconnectedfromeachother,makingit difficultforthereadertofollowthewriterstrainofthought.

FromCharlesDarling,GuidetoGrammarandWriting,athttp://webster.commnet.edu/grammar/index.htm.

Belowisthesameparagraphrevisedforcoherence.(Italicsindicatespronounsand repeatedkeywords,boldindicatestransitionalwords,andunderliningindicatesparallel structures.) TheancientEgyptiansweremastersofpreservingdeadpeoplesbodiesby makingmummiesofthem.Inshort,mummificationconsistedofremovingthe internalorgans,applyingnaturalpreservativesinsideandout,andthen wrappingthebodyinlayersofbandages.Andtheprocesswasremarkably effective.Indeed,mummiesseveralthousandyearsoldhavebeendiscovered nearlyintact.Theirskin,hair,teeth,fingernailsandtoenails,andfacialfeatures arestillevident.Theirdiseasesinlife,suchassmallpox,arthritis,andnutritional deficiencies,arestilldiagnosable.Eventheirfatalafflictionsarestillapparent:a middleagedkingdiedfromablowonthehead;achildkingdiedfrompolio.

Theparagraphisnowmuchmorecoherent.Theorganizationoftheinformationandthe linksbetweensentenceshelpreadersmoveeasilyfromonesentencetothenext.Notice howthiswriterusesavarietyofcoherencedevices,sometimesincombination,to achieveoverallparagraphcoherence. 6.DemonstratingMasteryofthePertinentPhilosophicalMaterial Agoodphilosophypaperwilldemonstratemasteryofthepertinentphilosophical views,concepts,andarguments.Todemonstratemastery,youmustdomorethanjust regurgitatewhatyouhavememorizedfromthelecturesandreadings.Regurgitation doesntevendemonstrateunderstandingletalonemastery.(ThisiswhyIsuggestthat youusequotesonlysparingly,andthatwhenyoudousethemyoualwaysexplainwhat thequotedpassagesaysinyourownwordsseethesectionentitledQuotingbelow.) Furthermore,theresadifferencebetweenmerelyunderstandingatopicandmastering it.Foryoucanunderstandsomematerialwithoutbeingabletoconveythat understandingtoothers.Tohavemasteryistohavetheabilitytoteachthatmaterialto others,tobeabletoexplainthematerialarticulatelyusingyourownwords, descriptions,andexamples,suchthatevensomeonewithnopriorknowledgeor understandingofthematerialcouldunderstand.Onceyouvemasteredatopic,you shouldunderstanditwellenoughtogobeyondwhatyouhavereadaboutit.You shouldbeabletopresentanddefendyourownviewsonthetopic.Thekey,then,to demonstratingmasteryistoshowthatyoucanexplainthingsinanilluminatingway, usingyourownwordsandusingyourownoriginalexamplesanddescriptions. 7.ArguingforYourPosition Writingaphilosophypaperinvolvesmorethansimplystatingyouropinions.Youmust supportyourviewsbypresentingargumentsinfavorofthem.Youshouldalsotryto defendyourviewsagainstpotentialcriticisms.Thatis,trytoanticipatewhatobjections mightberaisedagainstyourviewsanddemonstrateboththatyouareawareofthese possibleobjectionsandthatyoucanrespondtothemmoreonthislater. Aphilosophypapershouldberationallypersuasive.Forone,thismeansthatyou

shouldappealtoyourreadersintellectasopposedtohis/heremotions.Thusyoushould avoidtheuseofinflammatorylanguageandnamecalling.Forinstance,avoid statementssuchas,AnydoctorwhowouldgiveapatientalethalinjectionisaNazi. Second,ifyourargumentsaretobepersuasive,theymustnotrestuponunsupported, contentiousclaims.Insteadtheyshouldultimatelyrestuponassumptionsthatevena reasonablepersonoftheopposingviewwouldaccept.Soif,forinstance,youwantto arguethatabortionismorallywrong,youshouldntbeginbyassumingthatthefetus hasarighttolife.Realizethatsuchanargumentwouldunlikelypersuadeanyonewho isprochoice.Afterall,theviewthatthefetushasarighttolifefromthemomentof conceptionispreciselywhatmostprochoiceadvocateswouldcontest.Ofcourse,you canarguethatthefetushasarighttolife;youjustshouldntassumeit. Thepointistoavoidmakinganyassumptionswhichsomeoneoftheopposingview issuretoreject.Youshouldthinkofyourpaperasanattempttopersuadesomeoneof theopposingview,andifyouaretohaveanychanceofpersuadingsuchaperson,you mustfirstfindsomecommongroundfromwhichtobuildyourarguments.Agood exampleofwhatIhaveinmindhereisJudithJarvisThomsonsargumentsinA DefenseofAbortion.Inthispaper,Thomsonarguesthatabortionismorally permissiblewherethewomanispregnantastheresultofbeingraped.Nowwhatmakes Thomsonsargumentssocompellingisthattheyarebasedonassumptionsthateventhe mostextremeantiabortionist(i.e.,onewhoholdsthatabortionisalwayswrong)would likelyaccept. Thomsonasksyoutoimaginewakingupsomemorningtofindyourselfconnectedto anunconsciousviolinistsufferingfromapotentiallyfatalkidneyailment.Supposethat lastnighttheSocietyofMusicLoverskidnappedyouand,withoutyourconsent, surgicallyconnectedtheviolinisttoyourcirculatorysysteminadesperateattemptto savehislife.Younowfacethefollowingchoice.Youcanremainconnectedtothe violinistforninemonthsbywhichtimetheviolinistwillbeabletosurviveonhisown, oryoucanunplugyourselffromtheviolinistinwhichcasetheviolinistwill immediatelydieasaresult. Thomsonassumesthatinthissituationyouareundernoobligationtoremain connectedtotheviolinistfortheninemonths.Youmayunplugyourselffromthe violinistevenifthisentailskillinghim.Nowthisassumptionseemsrelatively uncontroversial;itisonethatevenaproliferwouldlikelyaccept.Butfromthis seeminglybenignassumption,Thomsonisabletoarguethatabortionissometimes permissibleevenifthefetushasarighttolife,fortheviolinistsurelyhasarighttolife andyetitispermissibleforyoutokillhim.Andabortingafetuswhoseexistenceisdue torapeis,inallmorallyrelevantrespects,analogoustounpluggingyourselffromthe violinist(orsoThomsonargues).ThusThomsonconcludesthatitispermissibletohave anabortionincertaincircumstances(i.e.,thecaseofrape)evenifthefetushasarightto lifefromthemomentofconception. 8.CriticizinganArgument

Donttreatthephilosophersorviewsyourediscussingasiftheywerestupid.Ifthey werestupid,wewouldntbediscussingtheminthefirstplace.Soevenifyouare subsequentlygoingtocriticizeanargument,stateitfirstinafairandsympathetic manner,makingclearwhyareasonablepersonmightbeledtothinkinsuchaway.In somecases,itmayevenbenecessarytomakecharitablerevisionstoanargument.That is,sometimesanargumentisflawedinawaythatcanbeeasilyfixed.Inthiscase,you shouldexplainhowtheargumentcanberevisedandthenfocusyourcriticismsonthis stronger,revisedversionoftheargument.Forinstance,considerthefollowingobjection againstThomsonsviolinistexample.SomepeoplearguethatThomsonsviolinist exampleisntanalogoustopregnancybecausebeinghookeduptotheviolinistfornine monthsisagreaterburdenforthepersonkidnappedthanpregnancyisforanexpectant motheratleast,apregnantwomancanwalkaroundandgoplaces,whereastheperson hookeduptotheviolinistisconfinedtoahospitalbed.ButitseemsthatThomsoncould easilyreviseheranalogyandstilluseitforthesameeffect.Afterall,evenifwesuppose thattheviolinistisamidgetwhocouldbecarriedononesbackfortheninemonths,it stillseemspermissibletodisconnectyourselffromhim. Thepointisyoudontwanttotaketheweakestargumentforanopposingviewan attackthat.Ratheryouwanttothinkofthestrongestpossibleargumentforanopposing viewandshowthateventhatargumentfails.Onlythenwillyouhaveconvincedothers thattheopposingviewisindefensible. Itisimportanttokeepinmindthatitisneverthecasethattheonlyproblemwithan argumentisthatitsconclusionisfalse.Iftheconclusionisfalse,theneither(a)oneor moreofitspremisesarefalseor(b)itsreasoningisfaultysuchthattheconclusion doesntfollowfromthepremises.Thus,ifyoudisagreewiththeconclusionofan argument,youmustfindfaultwitheitheritslogicorwithoneofitspremises,andyou needtobeexplicitaboutwhichitisandwhy. Youshouldensurethatyourcriticismsfocusontherelevantphilosophicalissuesas opposedtoanyrelatedempiricalissues.Inotherwords,Iamnotinterestedinpapers thatcontesttheempiricalassertionsmadeinthelecturesandreadings.Thepointofthe assignmentistodemonstrateyourphilosophicalabilities,notyourknowledgeofany empiricalfacts.Soif,forinstance,yourpaperisaboutabortion,dontgettooinvolvedin empiricalissuessuchaswhetherornotthefetusissentientorselfawareby,say,the secondtrimester.Youshouldinsteadfocusontherelatedphilosophicalissuessuchas howsentienceandselfawarenesscanaffectthemoralstatusofafetus. 9.ConsideringPotentialObjections Afterofferingreasonsforacceptingyourthesis,youneedtoconsiderpotential objections.Theseobjectionscomeintwovarieties,andyoumustconsiderboth.First, thereareobjectionstoyourargument,whichcanbedirectedagainsteitheryour reasoningoryourassumptions.Secondthereareobjectionstoyourthesis.Thefirstsort ofobjectionisdirectedagainstthereasonsyougiveforyourthesis,whilethesecond sortisdirectedagainstthethesisitself. Todealwiththefirstsortofobjection,youwillprobablyneedtooffersubarguments

(i.e.,argumentsthatdefendcertainstepsorassumptionsmadeinyourmainargument). Butfirstyoullneedtoaskyourself,towhichofmyassumptionsandtowhichofthe stepsinmyargumentissomeoneoftheopposingviewlikelytoobject.Youllneedto offercounterargumentsagainstsuchobjections.Ultimately,theargumentativesteps andassumptionsyourelyonshouldbeacceptabletoyouropponent.Thispartofyour essayisabsolutelyessential.Forifyoufailtoconsiderandrebutsuchobjections,then youwillhavefailedtomakeasatisfactorypositivecaseforyourthesis. Theothertypeofobjectionisdirectedagainstyourthesis/conclusion.Youshouldask yourselfthefollowingquestions:Doesmyconclusionhaveanycontroversial implications?CanIthinkofanycounterexamplestomyconclusion?And,most importantly,DONTIGNOREYOUROPPONENTSCOUNTERARGUMENTS.Ifyou makeaclaimthatoneofthephilosopherswevediscussedhasarguedagainst,you absolutelymustaddressthatargumentseethesectionentitledCriticizingan Argument.Inotherwords,ifyourthesisisPandoneofthephilosophersweve discussedhasarguednotP,thenyoumustshowwherethatphilosophersargumentfor notPgoeswrong.Ifyoudont,youwillreceiveapoorgrade.Ofcourse,ifyoudont thinkthatyoucanadequatelyrebuttheargument,thenyouneedtochangeyourthesis tosomethingyoucandefend. 10.YourAudience Inyourpaper,youmustdemonstratethatyouhavemasteryofthephilosophicalissues andargumentsthatyouarediscussing.Thebestwaytogoaboutdoingthisisby pretendingthatyouarewriting,notforyourinstructor,butforsomeonewhoknows absolutelynothingaboutphilosophyorthecoursethatyouretaking.So,asJamesPryor putsit,
Pretendthatyourreaderhasnotreadthematerialyourediscussing,andhasnotgiventhetopic muchthoughtinadvance.Thiswillofcoursenotbetrue.Butifyouwriteasifitweretrue,itwill forceyoutoexplainanytechnicalterms,toillustratestrangeorobscuredistinctions,andtobeas explicitaspossiblewhenyousummarizewhatsomeotherphilosophersaid. Infact,youcanprofitablytakethisonestepfurtherandpretendthatyourreaderislazy, stupid,andmean.Heslazyinthathedoesntwanttofigureoutwhatyourconvolutedsentences aresupposedtomean,andhedoesntwanttofigureoutwhatyourargumentis,ifitsnotalready obvious.Hesstupid,soyouhavetoexplaineverythingyousaytohiminsimple,bitesizedpieces [whilealsoillustratingyourpointswithhelpfulexamples].Andhesmean,sohesnotgoingto readyourpapercharitably.(Forexample,ifsomethingyousayadmitsofmorethanone interpretation,hesgoingtoassumeyoumeantthelessplausiblething.) 3

11.WritingClearlyandPrecisely Refrainfromusingstuffywordsandlongwindedsentences.Avoidpretentiousprose suchas,alas,deem,quest,ponder,propound,etc.Beingclearisfarmore importantthanappearingtohaveasophisticatedwritingstyle.Avoidusingvocabulary

SeehisGuidelinesonWritingaPhilosophyPaper.

thatyouareunaccustomedtousinginordinaryconversation.Toomanystudentsthink thatbeingphilosophicalinvolvesbeingcomplexandobscure.Quitetheopposite, simplicityandclarityaretheidealsofphilosophy. Youshouldchooseyourwordsverycarefully.Askyourself:DoeswhatIvewritten preciselyexpressthethoughtsthatImeantoconvey?Donotleavesomethingunclear andjustassumethatyourreaderwillbeabletofigureoutwhatyoumean.Forinstance, dontwritesomethinglikeAbortionisthesamethingasmurder.Abortionandmurder arenotthesamething.Ifabortionandmurderwerethesamething,thenonecouldsay thatJacktheRipperabortedmanywomen.But,ofcourse,thisisabsurd.JacktheRipper murderedmanywomenbutabortednone.Ofcourse,mostpeoplewouldunderstand thatwhatyoumeantwasthatabortionisaformofmurder.Butwhetherornotyour readerisabletofigureoutwhatyoumeantisirrelevant,becauseeitherwayitisbad writing. Youwillfindthatphilosopherswritewithadegreeofprecisionthatgoeswell beyondthatwhichiscustomaryinordinaryconversation,andIwillexpectthesame degreeofprecisioninyouressay.Thebestwaytoensurethatyouwriteclearlyisto keepyourprosesimpleanddirect.Donttrytomakeyourwritingcolorful.For instance,dontusemetaphorsjustplainlysaywhatitisyouhavetosay.Andavoid overstatingwhatyouhavetosay.Overstatementiscommonineverydayconversation butunacceptableinaphilosophypaper.Forinstance,inconversationsomeonemight say,Everyoneinthetropicsissorelaxed.But,ofcourse,noteveryonelivinginthe tropicsisrelaxed.Sobecarefulwhenusingwordslikeeveryandall. Andavoidthefollowingpitfalls: BadDiction:Thisiswhereawordisusedinappropriately. Example:Rachelssargumentisfalse.(Statements,claims,beliefs,etc.canallbe trueorfalse,butnotarguments.Argumentsarevalidorinvalid,soundor unsound,cogentornotcogent.) Example:ThestatementAllhumanlivesarevaluableinfersthatthelivesof permanentlyunconscioushumansarevaluable.(Toinferistodrawsome conclusionfromasetofstatementsorfacts.Buttodrawaconclusionisamental actthatonlyrationalbeingscanperform.ThestatementAllhumanlivesare valuablehasnomindandsocannotperformanymentalact,letalonethatof inferring.Inthisexample,properdictiondemandsthatthewordinfersbe replacedwiththewordimplies.) Example:Utilitarianismbelievesthattherightactistheonethatproducesthe greatesthappinessforthegreatestnumber.(Utilitarianismisaview,nota consciousentity.Thusutilitarianismisincapableofthementalactofbelieving.So youmustrevisethissentence.Initsplace,youcouldsay,Utilitariansbelieve... orUtilitarianismistheviewaccordingtowhich...) Vagueness:Thisiswhereonefailstoexpresswhats/hemeansprecisely. Example:Abortionisnotthebestsolutiontoanunwantedpregnancy.(Does thismeanthatalthoughyouthinkthatabortionismorallypermissible,you

believethatitwouldbepreferableforwomenwithunwantedpregnanciesto carrythemtotermandputtheirunwantedchildrenupforadoption?Or,does thismeanthatyousimplythinkthatabortionismorallywrong?) Ambiguity:Thisiswhereoneusesawordthatcanhavemorethanonemeaningbut failstospecifywhichmeaningisintended. Example:Afetusisaninnocenthumanbeing.(Byclaimingthatafetusis human,areyoumerelyclaimingthatitisamemberofthespeciesHomosapiens? Or,areyouclaimingthatitishumaninthemorallyrelevantsenseofthatterm, thesenseinwhichwethinkyouandIarehumanbutsomeoneinapersistent vegetativestateisnot?) Example:Affirmativeactionisdiscrimination,plainandsimple.(Becareful here.Theworddiscriminationissometimesusedinanevaluativelyloaded sensetorefertoprejudicedaction,butitisalsousedinanevaluativelyneutral sensetorefertotheactofrespondingtodifferences.Andwhileitisclearthat affirmativeactioninvolvestheactofrespondingtodifferencesinrace,itisnotat allclearthatitinvolvesprejudice.Considerthecasewhereacastingdirector refusestoauditionawhiteactorfortheroleofMalcolmX.Isthisdiscrimination? Well,itisclearlydiscriminationintheevaluativelyneutralsenseoftheterm,but itdoesntseemtobebasedonprejudice.Bottomline,theresnothingplainand simpleaboutclaimingthataffirmativeactionisdiscrimination.)

12.ArguingAgainstaClaim Thefollowingaretwoofthemostcommonstrategiesforarguingagainstaclaim(You mayfinditusefultoemploythesestrategiesinyourownpaperortoconsiderwhether youropponentmightbeabletousethemagainstyou.): ReductioadAbsurdum:Thisstrategyinvolvesarguingagainstaclaimbyshowingthatit impliessomeabsurdity.Toillustrate,considerthatsomepeopleclaimthatthereason humansufferingismoreimportant(morallyspeaking)thananimalsufferingisthat humanshaveakindanddegreeofintelligencethatotheranimalslack.Here,onecould arguethatweshouldrejectsuchaclaimgiventhatitimpliesthatthesufferingof severelyretardedinfants(whoalsolackthekindanddegreeofintelligencethatnormal adultshumanbeingspossess)islessimportantthanthesufferingofnormaladult humanbeings,whichjustseemspatentlyabsurd. PresentingaCounterexample:Thisstrategyinvolvesgivinganexamplethatproves somegeneralpropositionfalse.Toillustrate,considerthatsomepeoplemaintainthatwe onlyhavedutiestohelpthosepeoplethatstandinsomespecialrelationshipto ourselves.Forinstance,theysayIhaveadutytohelpmyfamilybecauseofthenatureof familialrelationships.AndtheysaythatIhaveadutytohelpmyemployerbecauseof thenatureoftheemployer/employeerelationship.However,theywoulddenythatI haveadutytohelpmyfriendsemployersinceIdonotstandinanyspecialrelationship tothatemployer;sheisnotmyemployer.

Onewaytoargueagainstthisviewistopresentacounterexample.Onefamous example,whichcomesfromthephilosophicalliterature,iscalledTheShallowPond. Imaginethatwhilewalkingtoclassoneday,youseeasmallchilddrowningina shallowpond.Inordertosavethechild,youneedonlywadeintotheshallowpondand grabthechild.Nowmostofusareinclinedtojudgethatyouhaveadutytosavethe child.Weareeveninclinedtothinkthatitwouldbeseriouslymorallywrongtojust walkawayandletthechilddrown.Butnotethatyoudonotstandinanyspecial relationshiptothechild,forwearetosupposethatthechildisacompletestrangerwho belongstoadifferentcultureandsociety.TheShallowPond,then,constitutesacounter exampletotheclaimthatweonlyhaveadutytoaidthosewithwhomwehavesome specialrelationship. 13.DefiningYourTerms Avoiddictionarydefinitionsofphilosophicalterms.Dictionariesarenotauthoritative whenitcomestophilosophicalmeanings.Dictionariesaregoodauthoritiesonthe commonandordinaryusageofwords,buttheproblemisthatthephilosophicaluseofa wordrarelycoincideswithordinaryusage.Philosophicaltermsoftenhavevery specializedmeanings.Considerthewordsvalidandtrue.Inordinaryconversation, thewordscanoftenbeusedinterchangeably,aswhensomeonemightsubstituteThats avalidclaimforThatsatrueclaim.Butdontbemisledbythis.Youcannotusethe wordtruetodescribeanargument.Asphilosophersusetheseterms,validisusedto describethoseargumentswheretheconclusionnecessarilyfollowsfromthepremises, andtrueisusedtodescribethosestatements(notarguments!)thataccurately representthewaytheworldis. Althoughyoushouldnotuseadictionarytodoso,itisimportanttodefine philosophicalterms,aswellasotherkeyterms.Awordmustbedefinedifanyof followingapply:(1)itisatechnicaltermthatalaypersonisnotlikelytoknowthe meaningof,(2)itisanordinarywordwhosemeaningisnotsufficientlyclearorprecise, or(3)itisanordinarywordthatisgoingtobeusedtomeansomethingotherthanwhat itordinarilymeans.Sodefinetechnicaltermslikedeterminism,aprioriknowledge, andprimafaciewrong.Anddefinewordslikeeuthanasiaandabortion.Although thesearefairlyordinarywords,theirprecisedefinitionsareopenfordebate.For instance,inregardstoabortion,itisnotclearwhetherabortionnecessarilyinvolves killingthefetus.Cantherebelivebirthabortions?Ifafetusisforciblyextractedbya physicianandlives,wasitanabortion?Ourordinarynotionofabortionisntprecise enoughtosettletheissue. Lastly,ifyouaregoingtouseanordinarywordtomeansomethingotherthanwhat itordinarilymeans,youmustmakethatcleartoyourreader.Forinstance,PeterSinger usesthewordpersontorefertoanyrational,selfconsciousbeing.Thus,asSinger definesperson,nonhumanscanbepersons.Ofcourse,itmayseemoddtocall anythingbutahumanbeingaperson,butthisisonlybecauseSingerdoesntuse persontomeanwhatitordinarilymeans.Nevertheless,thereisnothingwrongwith

usinganordinarywordinsuchanonordinarysensesolongasyoumakeitclearthat youaredoingsoandSingerdoes. 14.Quoting Donotrelyonquotationsasameansofmakingyourpoints.Youshould,rather,explain thingsusingyourownwords.Theabilitytoexplainsomeoneelsespositionusingyour ownwordsdemonstratestothereaderthatyouhaveaclearunderstandingofthat personsviewpoint.Youshouldalsoavoidcloseparaphrasingforthesamereason. Usequotationsonlyinordertosupportaparticularinterpretationofatext.Sodont quoteunlessyouintendtodiscussthequotedpassageandhowitsupportsyour interpretationofthetext.Perhapstheonlyotherexceptioniswhereyouwanttoquote theprecisedefinitionofaword,asitisgivenbyoneofthephilosophersthatyoure discussing. 15.Plagiarism Plagiarismistheactofusinganotherpersonsideasorexpressionsinyourwriting withoutacknowledgingthesource...toplagiarizeistogivetheimpressionthatyouhave writtenorthoughtsomethingthatyouhaveinfactborrowedfromsomeoneelse.... Otherformsofplagiarismincluderepeatingsomeoneelsesparticularlyaptphrase withoutappropriateacknowledgment,paraphrasinganotherpersonsargumentasyour own,andpresentinganotherslineofthinkingasthoughitwereyourown. 4 Ifyouareatallunclearaboutwhatcountsasplagiarism,thenyoushouldseeyour instructorbecauseplagiarismoftencarriesseverepenalties,rangingfromanFonthe assignmenttoexpulsionfromtheuniversity. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Icannotclaimcreditformanyoftheideascontainedwithinthisguide.Manyofthem havecomefromtheotherguidesthatIvelookedatIvelistedthembelow.Ihavealso borrowedfromhandoutsusedbycolleaguesatboththeUniversityofCalifornia,Santa BarbaraandtheCollegeofCharleston.Ihavetriedtogivecreditwherecreditisdue,but Imayhaveleftsomepeopleout.Mysincereapologiestothoseindividualsandmy thankstotheauthorsofallthoseguides. OTHERGUIDESTOWRITINGPHILOSOPHY A.P.Martinich,PhilosophicalWriting,2nded.(Cambridge,MA:Blackwell,1996). JoelFeinbergandRussShaferLandau,DoingPhilosophy(Belmont,CA:Wadsworth, 2001). StephenM.Garrison,AnthonyJ.Graybosch,andGregoryM.Scott,ThePhilosophy StudentWritersManual(EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall,1997). P.Martinich,PhilosophicalWriting,2nded.(Cambridge,MA:Blackwell,1996).
JosephGibaldiandWalterS.Achert,MLAHandbookforWritersofResearchPapers,3rded.(NewYork,NY: TheModernLanguageAssociation,1988),2125.
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JayF.Rosenberg,ThePracticeofPhilosophy:AHandbookforBeginners,3rded. (EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall,1995). ZacherySeech,WritingPhilosophyPapers,3rded.(Belmont,CA:Wadsworth,1997). ColinAllen,AGuidetoWritingPhilosophyEssays. http://snaefell.tamu.edu/~colin/Phil416/writing.html. IstvanBerkeley,HowtoWriteaPhilosophyPaper. http://www.cariboo.bc.ca/ae/php/phil/mclaughl/courses/howrit.htm. BarryBrown,HowtoWriteanEssayinBioethics. http://www.chass.utoronto.ca:8080/philosophy/phlwrite/brown1.html. RichCameron,TheStructureofaTypicalPhilosophyPaper. http://www.colorado.edu/philosophy/fac/cameron/ethics1100/ho.rfww.html. R.L.Franklin,OnWritingPhilosophyAssignments. http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/emd/staff/godlovs/tips/rlfessay.htm. JamesHarold,OnWritingPhilosophyPapers. http://www.tc.umn.edu/~harol006/paper.html. R.W.Hepburn,Goodandbadinphilosophyessays. http://www.arts.ed.ac.uk/philosophy/study_html/vademecum/sections/section4/4 1.htm. PeterLipton,WritingPhilosophy. http://www.pitt.edu/~rclifton/WritingPhilosophy.html. GeoffreyPayzant,Whatdoeshewant? http://www.chass.utoronto.ca:8080/philosophy/phlwrite/payzant.html. JamesPryor,GuidelinesonWritingaPhilosophyPaper. http://www.princeton.edu/~jimpryor/general/writing.html. EvanThompsonandDuffWaring,EssayWritingHandbookforPhilosophy Students. http://www.yorku.ca/hjackman/Teaching/handbook.pdf. MichaelTooley,WritingaGoodEthicsEssay. http://spot.colorado.edu/~tooley/WritingEssays.html. EllenWatson,AGuideforWritingPapersinPhilosophy. http://www.uq.oz.au/~pdgdunn/watessay.htm. MartinYoung,UndergraduatePhilosophicalWriting. http://eee.uci.edu/programs/philoswr/. RichCameron,TheStructureofaTypicalPhilosophyPaper,at http://www.colorado.edu/philosophy/fac/cameron/ethics1100/ho.rfww.html. AdamPolak,EssentialsofEffectivePersuasiveEssays,at http://spot.colorado.edu/~tooley/WritingEssays.html. CharlesDarling,GuidetoGrammarandWriting,at http://webster.commnet.edu/grammar/index.htm. MartinYoung,UndergraduatePhilosophicalWriting,at http://eee.uci.edu/programs/philoswr/.