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Fe, 26p+, 26e, 30n Ni, 28p+, 28e, 31n Cu, 29p+, 29e, 35n Au, 79p+, 79e, 118n
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Fe, 26p+, 26e, 30n Ni, 28p+, 28e, 31n Cu, 29p+, 29e, 35n Au, 79p+, 79e, 118n
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6 The atomic number 7 Various answers, e.g. gold contains only gold atoms. 8 a Daltons atomic theory: all matter is composed of atoms, atoms cannot be broken down into smaller units, atoms of the same element are alike, atoms join together in different ratios. b The incorrect part is that atoms cannot be broken down. Atoms can be broken down into sub-atomic particles (protons, neutrons and electrons). 9 A molecule is a group of atoms bonded together, e.g. the atom for oxygen is O (single atom), whereas the molecule of oxygen is O2 (two oxygen atoms bonded together). 10 Diagrammatic answer required 11 Compounds are formed when two or more different types of elements are chemically joined. 12 a Various answers, e.g. water (H2O), sodium chloride (NaCl) b Various answers, e.g. water (H2O) found in oceans, lakes, ice etc, sodium chloride (NaCl) is common table salt found in salt water. 13 A mixture can be separated by physical means, e.g. water can be filtered from muddy water. 14 A glass of cordial is a mixture and can be dilute or strong: there are no definite proportions. 15 a True b False. The chemical symbol for iron is Fe.
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Chapter 1
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c True d True e False. A molecule is not the same as a lattice. a Lead, Pb: element, contains only one type of atom b Nitric acid, HNO3: compound, cant be separated by physical means c Sea water: mixture, can be separated by physical means d Ammonia, NH3: compound, cant be separated by physical means e Peanut butter: mixture, can be separated by physical means a Compound b Lattice c Atom d Molecule e Mixture a An element is made from many identical atoms; a compound is made from many identical molecules or units. b The element iron is made of many iron atoms; an atom of iron is only one. c The compound water contains many molecules of water; a molecule of water is only one. d A compound has many identical molecules or units; a mixture has a variety of them. e Different atoms make up a molecule. a SO2: 1 sulfur and 2 oxygens b H2S: 2 hydrogens and 1 sulfur c C12H22O11: 12 carbons, 22 hydrogens and 11 oxygens d H2SO4: 2 hydrogens, 1 sulfur and 4 oxygens e CH3COOH : 2 carbons, 4 hydrogens and 2 oxygens Atomic number 6 16 11 8 9 53 Mass number 12 32 23 16 19 127 Number of protons 6 16 11 8 9 53 Number of neutrons 6 16 12 8 10 74 Number of electrons 6 16 11 8 9 53 Symbol for the atom
12 6
20 Atom
C S
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Na O F I
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Pearson Education Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 2005. This page from the Science Focus 3 Teachers Resource may be photocopied for classroom use.
Chapter 1
1 a German chemist Johann Dobereiner, English chemist John Newlands, Russian chemist Mendeleev, German chemist Lother Meyer, English physicist Henry Moseley. b Various answers, e.g. Mendeleev arranged the elements in order of atomic number. 2 Mendeleev left gaps to keep the families of elements known at the time in vertical columns or groups. 3 a False. Horizontal rows in the periodic table are periods. b False. Vertical columns are called groups. c False. The most reactive metallic atom would be Francium, Fr. d True e True 4 Cl: chlorine (non-metal); Na: sodium (metal); Ar: argon (non-metal); Si: silicon (semi-metal); Cu: copper (metal); Ge: germanium (semi-metal) 5 Semi-metals: boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium, polonium, astatine 6 Non-metals: H, He, C, N, O, F, Ne, P, S, Cl, Ar, Se, Br, Kr, I, Xe, Rn 7 Common transition elements could be iron, gold, copper, silver, zinc. 8 Most metals are in Groups I, II, III and some in IV. One (Bi) is in Group V. Nonmetals are in Groups IV, V, VI, VII and VIII. 9 Five physical properties: hardness, colour, shine, boiling point, melting point 10 a Group VI: oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, polonium b Period 3: sodium, magnesium, aluminium, silicon, phosphorous, sulfur, chlorine, argon c Same family: any set of elements from the same column or group d Similar chemical properties: any set of elements from the same column or group e Noble gases: helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, radon 11 a Cuprum: Cu, copper b Aurum: Au, gold c Plumbum: Pb, lead d Wolfram: W, tungsten e Bromos: Br, bromine 12 The word ferrous gives iron its symbol, Fe. 13 Plumber and plumbing come from the Latin word plumbum for lead, Pb. 14 a V b IV c VII d II 15 a Hydrogen: mass number = atomic number + neutrons = 1 + 3 = 4 b Chlorine: 17 + 20 = 37 c Nickel: 28 + 30 = 58 16 Diagrammatic answer required.
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Chapter 1
1 Energy levels are shells in which the electrons spin. 2 First: 2 electrons; second: 8 electrons; third: 18 electrons but happy with 8; fourth: 32 electrons but happy with 8 3 The electronic configuration of an atom shows the arrangement of electrons in an atom. 4 Magnesium: 2,8,2 5 a Atoms in the same group have the same number of outer-shell electrons and similar properties. b Atoms in the same period have the same number of shells in use. 6 Noble gases (or inert gases, Group VIII, Group 0) 7 Atoms that react have an incomplete outer shell of electrons, whereas atoms that dont react have a full outer shell. 8 An atom is neutral, with equal numbers of protons and electrons. Thus a chlorine atom has 17 protons and 17 electrons. An ion is charged, with unequal numbers of protons and electrons. A chlorine ion has 17 protons and 18 electrons. 9 A sodium atom loses an electron to form a sodium ion. 10 Diagrammatic answer required. 11 Various answers. Positive ions: hydrogen +1, magnesium +2. Negative ions: chlorine 1, oxygen 2. 12 Noble gases do not form ions because they have a filled outer shell (eight electrons in it). 13 Sodium chloride has Na+ and Cl. These are in equal numbers so the overall charge is balanced. 14 a Period 2, Group IV b Period 3, Group VI c Period 2, Group V d Period 3, Group V e Period 4, Group II f Period 2, Group VIII 15 a 2,6 b 2,8,8 c 2 d 2,8,2 e 2,8,6 16 Neutrons are neutral, so they take no part in determining charge of an ion. 17 a, b Atomic number Element (name and symbol) Oxygen (O) Argon (Ar) Lithium (Li) Potassium (K) Number of: Protons 8 18 3 19 Electrons 8 18 3 19
i ii iii iv
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Chapter 1
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viii 13 Aluminium (Al) c i 2,6, most likely ionic charge 2 ii 2,8,8, will not form an ion iii 2,1, most likely ionic charge +1 iv 2,8,8,1, most likely ionic charge +1 v 2,7, most likely ionic charge 1 vi 2,8,2, most likely ionic charge +2 vii 2,8,5, most likely ionic charge 3 viii 2,8,3, most likely ionic charge +3 d Diagrammatic answer required. 18
Element Atomic number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Number of electrons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Electronic configuration 1 2 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,6 2,7 2,8 2,8,1 2,8,2 2,8,3 2,8,4 2,8,5 2,8,6 2,8,7 2,8,8 2,8,8,1 2,8,8,2 The atom could lose 1e 1e 2e 3e 4e 5e 6e 7e 1e 2e 3e 4e 5e 6e 7e 1e 2e Or it could gain 1e 7e 6e 5e 4e 3e 2e 1e 7e 6e 5e 4e 3e 2e 1e 7e 6e
H He Li Be B C N O F Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca
Most likely ion formed H+ or H Li+ Be2+ B3+ N3 O2 F Na+ Mg2+ Al3+ P3 S2 Cl K+ Ca2+
Unreactive
No ion formed
Uncertain Gain 3e Gain 3e Gain 3e Lose 1e Lose 2e Lose 3e Gain 3e Gain 2e Gain 1e Lose 1e Lose 2e
Unreactive
No ion formed
Uncertain
Unreactive
No ion formed
Pearson Education Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 2005. This page from the Science Focus 3 Teachers Resource may be photocopied for classroom use.
Chapter 1
Symbol
O Ne Na+ Cl P3 K+ Ca2+ O2
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Chapter 1
12 a Mercury (Hg) is the only metal that is liquid at normal room temperatures. b Sodium, magnesium, aluminium are metals in Period 3. c Tin and lead are metals in Group IV. d Beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium and radium are metals that would form +2 ions. 13 a Solids: four, ignoring metalloids (P, Si, Se, I) b Liquids: one (Br) c Gases: ten (H, N, O, F, He, Cl, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn) 14 Examples could be drawn from: a H, He, N, O, F, Ne, Cl, Ar, Kr b Br, Hg c N, P, As, Sb, Bi d Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, Ne e F, Br, I, At f S, Se, Te, Po 15 Group I: +1; Group II: +2; Group III: +3; Group V: 3; Group VI: 2; Group VII: 1; Group VIII: no charge, no ion formed 16 Metal or non-metal Metals Non-metals Properties Ductile, dense, malleable, lustrous, excellent conductors, normally solid Normally gas or liquid, brittle, dull, poor conductors
Chapter 1
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b Used as a meal: Ba c Found in plaster: Ca d Used to protect iron from rusting: Mg f Least reactive: Be a True b True c False d False a Diamond: gems, drill tips and saws, abrasives b Graphite: electrode in battery, electrical brushes in motors, grey-lead pencils, lubricant c Silicon: glass, gemstones, electronic components d Germanium: electronic components, lenses for optical instruments Only 20% of diamonds are valuable. Three transition elements that: a are in Period 5: Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd b are magnetic: Fe, Ni, Co c are used for jewellery: Au, Ag, Pt d are silver grey in colour: Ag, Fe, Pt, Zn, Hg, Cr, Ni e have Latin or Greek roots: Cu, Au, Fe, Ag, W, Hg Carbon is basically a non-metal but does conduct electricity as graphite. It could thus be classified as a semi-metal. Carbon was found much earlier than most of the other non-metals because amorphous carbon is left over from burning or combustion. It would have been on food, rocks and charcoal around cooking fires. a 20C, gas: F, Cl; liquid: Br; solid: I b 100C, gas: F, Cl, Br; solid: I c 199C, gas: F; solid: Cl, Br, I d 150C, gas: F, Cl, Br; liquid: I The most likely compound between hydrogen and a silicon is SiH4 b germanium is GeH4 c tin is SnH4 d lead is PbH4 As a metal, lead is soft and malleable. A lead container would hold a liquid like heating fuel as long as it retained these properties. Below 13C, however, lead begins to act more like a non-metal: although solid it could be expected to crumble into powder instead of retaining its shape. A container would soon have holes or splits which would leak the vital heating fuel.
Chapter 1 review
1 Diagrammatic answer required. 2 a Halogens: Group VII b Inert gases: Group VIII c Alkaline earths: Group II 3 First holds up to 2 electrons, second holds 8, third holds up to 18 but often only fills to 8, and fourth holds up to 32 but often only fills to 8.
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Chapter 1
4 Period number = number of shells used, group number = number of electrons in outer shell. 5 Metal High High Lustrous Malleable Relatively high Non-metal None or limited None Dull Crumbles Low
6 A chlorine atom is neutral, with equal numbers of protons and electrons. A chloride ion is a chlorine atom which has gained an electron and is now charged. 7 The most likely charge would be: a +3 b 1 c 2 d 0 e +2 f 3 8 a False b False c False d True e True f False g False h False i True j True k True l False m False n True 9 Elements in the same group have the same number of electrons in their outer shell, will form similar ions and can be expected to act in a similar way in chemical reactions. 10 Non-metals have a higher electronegativity than metals. 11 Atom Atomic number 16 Mass number 32 Number of protons 16 Number of neutrons 16 Number of electrons 16 Atomic symbol
32 16
Sulfur
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Chapter 1
1 1 9 4
H Be I
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Ni
12 Helium has outer shell electrons like group II elements, but has properties like the inert (noble) gases in group VIII. It can sometimes be placed in both positions on the periodic table. Hydrogen has one outer shell electron, similar to elements in group I, but has different properties as a very light atom and gas. 13 The size and weight of elements increase as we move down any group. 14 Various answers. 15 a 17p+, 17e and 18n b 1p+, 1e and 2n c 79p+, 79e and 118n 16 If a potassium atom meets a fluorine atom, the potassium atom will probably lose an electron to the fluorine atom, becoming the ions K+ and F. They form a lattice, KF. 17 The outer electrons are exposed to attack from other atoms and thus will control what the atom does in a chemical reaction. 18 Carbon forms a molecule, CCl4, so family resemblances suggest that the compounds SiCl4, GeCl4, SnCl4 and PbCl4 would form.
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Chapter 2
Unit 2.1 What are chemical reactions and why do they happen?
1 Precipitation, gas given off, permanent colour change, heat given out or taken in, one metal coating another 2 A solution is a solute dissolved in a solvent. 3 Clear means you can see through it. 4 Ions join together to form sparingly soluble compounds. 5 a Spontaneous reactions happen naturally, whereas non-spontaneous reactions require a continual energy input to keep them going. b Spontaneous reaction: rusting of iron. Non-spontaneous reaction: electrolysis of water. 6 a i Reactant: water ii Products: hydrogen, oxygen iii The reaction is endothermic. iv Reactants have more energy. b i Reactants: ethane, oxygen ii Products: carbon dioxide, water iii The reaction is exothermic. iv Products have more energy. 7 a Physical b Chemical c Chemical d Physical e Physical f Physical g Chemical 8 Various answers, e.g. cooking 9 a Chemicala precipitate is formed. b Physicalno new substance is formed. c Chemicalgas is given off. d Chemicalheat is produced. e Physicalno new substance is formed; there is simply a change of state. f Chemicala new compound is formed. 10 Some energy must be added to start it, but it is still a spontaneous reaction. 11 Various answers 12 Equations allow us to represent complex reactions quickly and simply. 13 a Copper + nitric acid copper nitrate + nitrogen monoxide + water b Sodium carbonate + sulfuric acid sodium sulfate + water + carbon dioxide c Magnesium + oxygen magnesium oxide d Carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen e Iron + oxygen + water hydrated iron oxide f Lead nitrate + sodium iodide lead iodide + sodium nitrate
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Chapter 2
1 An electron is either gained or lost. 2 Electrostatic attraction 3 As a positive ion, sodium has a noble gas electronic configuration, and thus is more stable than as a neutral atom with one valence electron. 4 a An ion made up of more than one atom b e.g. SO42 5 a Rubidium bromide b Potassium sulfide c Beryllium oxide d Sodium nitride e Ammonium chloride f Lithium hydroxide g Silver carbonate h Zinc sulfate 6 There is sharing of electrons between two or more different non-metals. 7 a Carbon dioxide b Dinitrogen pentoxide c Sulfur hexafluoride d Dihydrogen dioxide e Dihydrogen oxide (or water) 8 Ionic bonding involves the complete transfer of electrons. Covalent bonding is the sharing of electrons. 9 Metals always donate electrons, leaving more protons than electrons, resulting in a positively charged ion. 10 a NaBr b MgS c CaF2 d Li3N e Al4C3 11 a Na2SO4 b Mg(OH)2 c SrCO3 d LiNO3 e (NH4)2O 12 a FeCl3 ionic b PH3 covalent c FeCl2 ionic d CuNO3 ionic e OCl2 covalent f Cu(NO3)2 ionic 13 The attraction between magnesium and oxide ions is greater. 14 a +4 b +32 c 9
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Chapter 2
15 a 2 nitrogen, 8 hydrogen, 1 sulfur, 4 oxygen b 2 potassium, 2 chromium, 7 oxygen c 1 calcium, 2 oxygen, 2 hydrogen 16 The bonds between molecules of dinitrogen monoxide are weaker than those between ammonia molecules. 17 Various answers. It would be difficult to write and interpret formulas and would create confusion.
Chapter 2
An acid contains hydrogen in combination with other elements. Acid: sour, turn blue litmus red. Sulfuric acid dehydrates living tissue. Hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulfuric acid (H2SO4), nitric acid (HNO3) Acetic acid in vinegar is weak as it does not give up hydrogen easily. A base neutralises an acid. An alkali is a soluble base. Base: bitter, turn red litmus blue. A salt is an ionic compound. a Nitric acid + aluminium aluminium nitrate + nitrogen b Nitric acid + zinc zinc nitrate + hydrogen c Nitric acid + iron iron nitrate + hydrogen d Nitric acid + lithium lithium nitrate + hydrogen 11 Various answers, e.g. brushing teeth with toothpaste, containing base, neutralises acids in the mouth. 12 a Stinging creatures: worker bees, stinging ants, stinging nettles, wasps and some jellyfish b Stinging nettles (acid sting): add a dock leaf (contains base). Wasps and some jellyfish (base sting): wash wound with vinegar (weak acid). c Bluebottle sting contains base, so the vinegar (weak acid) will neutralise the sting. d Beestings are acidic, so adding more acid (vinegar) will not neutralise the sting. 13
Reaction type Acid + metal Example (word equation and chemical formulas) Hydrochloric acid + magnesium magnesium chloride + hydrogen 2HCl + Mg MgCl2 + H2 Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide sodium chloride + water 2HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O Acid + oxide Hydrochloric acid + calcium oxide calcium chloride + water 2HCl + CaO CaCl2 + H2O Acid + carbonate Hydrochloric acid + sodium carbonate sodium chloride + carbon dioxide + water 2HCl + Na2CO3 2NaCl + CO2 + H2O Hydrochloric acid + sodium carbonate HCl, Na2CO3 Sodium chloride + carbon dioxide + water NaCl, CO2, H2O Hydrochloric acid + calcium oxide HCl, CaO Calcium chloride + water CaCl2, H2O Reactant(s) Hydrochloric acid + magnesium HCl, Mg Product(s) Magnesium chloride + hydrogen MgCl2, H2
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Acid + hydroxide
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Chapter 2
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c Pure water: 7 d Weak base: 810 e Strong base: 1114 An indicator is a substance that changes colour depending on whether it is placed in an acid, base or neutral solution. An indicator is used to determine whether a particular substance is an acid or a base or to determine the pH of a substance. At pH 8: a Universal: green/blue b Red litmus: blue c Blue litmus: blue Oranges, lemons and grapefruit all contain citric acid. Dilute: contains few nitric acid particles. Concentrated: contains many nitric acid particles. Bases feel soapy because we have fats on the surface of our skin and these react with bases. a The pop testhydrogen gas will pop if a spark is added. b Lime water goes milky or a flame goes out. The oesophagus, throat and mouth are not protected by mucus as the stomach is. a An acid will lower the pH of the soil. b Acids have lower pH values. Acetic acid, because hydrochloric acid would be harmful to eat. a Strontium nitrate b Copper sulfate c Silver chloride d Magnesium nitrate a i Hydrochloric acid + iron(II) hydrogen carbonate iron(II) chloride + water + carbon dioxide ii Nitric acid + silver hydroxide silver nitrate + water iii Sulfuric acid + barium oxide barium sulfate + water b i HCL + FeHCO3 FeCl + H2O + CO2 ii HNO3 + AgOH AgNO3 + H2O iii H2SO4 + BaO BaSO4 + H2O a Barium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid b Calcium oxide and nitric acid c Iron(III) carbonate and sulfuric acid You have to dilute by a factor of 100, so you would have to add 900 mL of water. Various answers Various answers
Chapter 2 review
1 Chemical reaction: cloudiness, bubbles of gas, a metal depositing, gets hotter or colder, permanent colour change. 2 Rain is a physical change (vapour liquid). 3 Ice melting is an endothermic reaction.
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Chapter 2
4 In sea water, the solute is salt (NaCl) and the solvent is water. 5 Some metals give away electrons more easily. 6 a LiOH b BaSO4 c AlBr3 7 a Dihydrogen monosulfide b Phosphorus trifluoride c Silicon dioxide 8 The bonds between atoms in H2O are covalent (two non-metals). 9 a 1+ b 2+ c 3+ 10 a Hydrogen carbonate b Iodide c Sulfide d Ammonium 11 Diatomic: consists of two atoms, e.g. O2. 12 Various answersshould be a base. 13 Various answers, e.g. vinegar, baking soda 14 a Combination b Neutralisation 15 Displacement could be used. 16 Magnesium hydroxide is found in antacids. 17 a Base b Base c Acid d Base e Acid 18 a Carbon dioxide, water and sodium chloride b Water, calcium nitrate 19 a Red b Red c Pink/orange d Yellow 20 Various answers, e.g. add indicator to one and if it stays green it is water. Pour one of the others into this. If it turns red, the one poured in is the acid and therefore the remaining one is the base. 21 Various answers
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Chapter 3
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Chapter 3
15 a The first atoms formed a second or so after the big bang. b It did not happen earlier because the temperature was too high to allow particles to form stable atoms. 16 Radiation: heat, radio waves, microwaves 17 Galaxies may not have formed. 18 Diagrammatic answer required. 19 The steady state theory is less likely than the big bang theory, given the evidence for the expansion of the universe, and the discovery of background radiation (probable afterglow of the big bang). 20 Diagrammatic answer required.
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Chapter 3
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that women are not active and do not communicate. Because there are diagrams of naked humans. Many transmissions from television and radio stations have been (and are continuing to be) emitted into space from Earth anyway. Our galaxy could contain 1 billion Earth-like planets. Various answers Various answers
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Chapter 3 review
1 a A Formula One cars screaming engine changes pitch from higher to lower as it races past your position in the grandstand. b All waves, including sound and light, can undergo a Doppler effect. c Stars moving towards us may have a spectrum shifted towards the blue end. d True e The universe is expanding. 2 The big bang is the moment when the universe exploded into existence.
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Chapter 3
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Hydrogen and helium The early universe was incredibly hot compared to today. The positron and the electron would annihilate each other. The fog cleared after about 300 000 years. a 8.6 years b 160 000 years Nebulae are known as star nurseries. Add labels (clockwise from top): neutron star, black hole, supernova and red giant. Signs of a black hole: X-ray emission, behaviour of nearby stars a Astronomy using Hubble telescope, space probe exploration b Astronomy using telescopes, radio astronomy Various answers. Propulsion methods may include those involving collection of fuel from space, ion drive, nuclear bombs, antimatter, laser drive, warping space and time, wormholes, antigravity. Various answers. May include physicists Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, who detected background radiation left over from the beginning of the universe. Something must have helped (and be helping) to pull matter together under gravity to form galaxies. They help indicate our position compared to nearby pulsars. E = extra, meaning outside. T = terrestrial, meaning of the Earth. Because we dont know which frequency an extraterrestrial intelligence would use. Various answers, e.g. traffic noise Various answers
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Chapter 4
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Chapter 4
3 Diagrammatic answer required. 4 a Real images formed by convex lenses may be bigger or smaller than the original object. b True c Concave lenses can form real and virtual images. d True e Real images in a concave lens are always inverted. 5 Various answers, e.g. camera, telescope 6 The images would be upside down, and a longer tube would be needed to contain the lenses at the correct separation. 7 Concave and convex. Diagrammatic answer required. 8 A concave mirror 9 a Greater thickness = shorter focal length (focus closer to lens). b Greater thickness = smaller image. 10 a The image gets bigger. b The image gets bigger. 11 A convex lensthe hot spot would be an image of the Sun. 12 The slide must be placed upside down because the real image produced is inverted. 13 We can tell that they are real images because they are able to be projected onto a screen. 14 a At an intersection: convex mirror b By a dentist: a concave mirror 15 The Moon is too far away to be enlargedonly objects closer than two focal lengths are enlarged. 16 Use the thick lens for the eyepiece, and the thin lens for the objective lens. 17 a They both contain an eyepiece and an objective lens. b Objects viewed using a microscope are much closer to the eyepiece. 18 a To correct long-sightedness, a convex lens would need to be placed in front of the eye. b To correct short-sightedness, a concave lens would need to be placed in front of the eye. 19 Arrange a convex lens or a concave mirror to produce an image of the Sun on some light but flammable material (e.g. paper or dry grass). 20 Object height 2 cm 5 cm 25 mm 16 mm 8 cm Image height 6 cm 20 cm 5 mm 4 mm 160 mm 0.2 or 0.25 or Magnification 3 4
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Chapter 4
1 Newton used a triangular prism. 2 a ROYGBIV: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet b Various answers, e.g. Rip Out Your Guts Before I Vomit. 3 a Scattering is the spreading of light in the atmosphere. b Blue light does this most. 4 At sunrise and sunset, when sunlight travels further through the atmosphere, almost all of the blue rays are scattered and the light that reaches us is mainly red or orange. 5 Rays of sunlight totally internally reflect, breaking into colours (dispersing) as they do so. 6 A primary rainbow has a red band at the top. 7 a Primary: red, blue and green b Secondary: cyan, magenta and yellow 8 Complementary colours add to make white. 9 a Magenta b Red 10 Diagrammatic answer required. 11 a Blue b Green c Black (technically, black is the absence of colour, not a colour) 12 Colours important in printing are the secondary colours of light (cyan, magenta and yellow) and black. 13 Magenta and yellow would produce red on the printed page. 14 C 15 Various combinations of coloured spots called phosphors are made to glow by electron beams. Our eyes merge these to produce colour images. 16 Light energy is converted to heat in the filter. 17 B would be confused with blue, so the last letter of the word black is used instead. 18 Three colours (usually cyan, magenta and yellow) are required in various combinations to produce other colours. 19 Diagrammatic answer required.
Chapter 4 review
1 When a light ray travelling in air strikes a glass boundary, it bends towards the normal. The speed of the ray in the glass is less than it is in air. 2 a False. Light doesnt bend; it hits head on when entering glass from air. b True c True (An example is when light enters warmer air from colder air.) d False. Light passing from water to air will bend away from the normal. e True 3 Optical fibres are used in communications and medical applications (e.g. endoscope). 4 Diagrammatic answer required. 5 a Light travelling in an optical fibre undergoes several total internal reflections. b Optical fibres are used in endoscopes. These flexible tubes contain optical fibres and can be passed via the mouth into the digestive system to provide doctors with
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Chapter 4
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images (magnified around four times) of the stomach and intestinal lining. Optical fibres are also being used instead of copper wire to transmit data and communications. c Endoscopes provide more accurate and powerful images. In communication more information may be carried and there is increased data security. a Cyan b Green a Virtual image b Virtual image Concave mirrors, such as those used in some shaving and make-up mirrors or by dentists, produce an enlarged or magnified virtual image or an object placed close to the mirror. Convex mirrors used at dangerous intersections, in shops and in rearvision mirrors in vehicles provide a wider view of what is behind. a b, d, e b a, b, c, d, f Diagrammatic answer required. a Real, inverted, same size b Real, inverted, diminished c Virtual, upright, enlarged d Virtual, upright, diminished Eyepiece and objective a The objective lens forms a real image and the eyepiece lens then magnifies this image to produce a final virtual image. b The convex mirror provides a view of the whole shop. c Binoculars consist of two telescopes (which consist of lenses) and use triangular prisms to redirect the light and ensure images are the right way up. d A concave mirror reflects the light from a bulb through condenser lenses, which concentrate the light to pass it through a slide and then through the projection lens, which produces a magnified real image on a screen. Various answers, e.g. a projector b microscope Diagrammatic answer required. a Orange b Blue c Violet a One b Two The red light that is left to be scattered is scattered more dramatically by the greater number of particles in the atmosphere. Diagrammatic answer required. a A green flag viewed in blue light appears black. b A blue flag viewed in red light appears black. c A cyan flag viewed in green light appears green. Green Red
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Chapter 5
Chapter 5
11 Diagrammatic answer required. 12 The mantle is kept hot because: the crust traps heat like a blanket patches are continually being heated by radioactive decay of uranium, thorium and potassium. 13 If the mantle cooled and became solid, the plates would stop moving. 14 Another reason that Australia doesnt have any glaciers now is climate change not related to plate tectonics.
Chapter 5
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d Mt Kilimanjaro: spreading e Lake Victoria: spreading f Dead Sea: spreading Diagrammatic answer required. Diagrammatic answer required. a Himalayas: Indo-Australian plate with Eurasian plate b Andes: South American plate with Nazca plate c Mid-Atlantic Ridge: African plate with South and North American plates d Caribbean islands: South American plate with Cocos plate e Japan: Pacific plate with Eurasian plate f Mariana Trench: Philippine plate with Pacific plate g San Andreas fault: Pacific plate with North American plate h Dead Sea: Indo-Australian plate with African plate The plate going under will wear off some of its own rock and will squash the upper plate. It thickens as a result. a Assuming an average lifetime of between 70 and 90 years, the Himalayas will grow between 70 and 90 cm. If you reach 100, they will have grown one metre. b i A further 10 m will take 1000 years. ii A further 100 m will take 10 000 years. iii A further 1 km (1000 m) will take 100 000 years. a Mediterranean Sea: the Red Sea needs to widen another 260 km (500 240 km). 260 km = 26 000 000 cm. So the time taken would be: 26 000 000/20 = 1 300 000 years = 1.3 million years. b Atlantic Ocean (6100 km): 29 300 000 years = 29.3 million years c Pacific Ocean (14 000 km): 68 800 000 years = 68.8 million years
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Chapter 5
9 The deepest is about 200 km below the surface. This is where the ocean plate has completely melted and returned to the mantle. There is no more friction between the plates here. 10 a R waves are rolling waves. L waves have a side-to-side motion. R waves are the slowest and often the most dangerous. b Diagrammatic answer required. 11 Quakes are often not felt because they are in areas of low population or are too small to be detected. 12 Any quake of 6 or more causes widespread damage. 13 An aftershock is a smaller quake after the original quake. Aftershocks are caused by slabs of rock and crust settling after the original quake. 14 Aftershocks are often more dangerous than the original because they can bring down already unstable buildings. 15 A tsunami can form when there is an earthquake with its epicentre under the ocean floor. The wave travels at high speeds and increases in height as it enters shallow water. 16 There are almost no videos or photographs of tsunamis because any photographers would have been killed and their equipment and film or video destroyed. 17 All of Australia sits on the Indo-Australian plate. There are no boundaries running through it. Papua New Guinea and New Zealand both straddle the Indo-Australian and Pacific plates and thus sit on a boundary, where earthquakes can be expected. 18 a Body waves travel through the body of the Earth. Surface waves travel across the surface of the Earth. b A longitudinal wave is a push-pull wave, and moves particles back and forth in the direction of the movement of the wave. A transverse wave is an up-down wave that moves particles at right angles, or sideways, to the direction of the movement. 19 a Most dangerous: L (and sometimes R) b Up-down waves: S and L c Compression waves: P d Pass through the Earth: P and S e Fastest: P f Last to arrive: L g Like surf: R h Travel like a snake: L i Cannot travel through liquid: S and L 20 a Aftershocks are quakes that happen after the original earthquake due to rocks settling. b A quake of strength 5 on the Richter scale is ten times the strength of a 4. c True d True e Tsunamis are small (often only 2 m) when in deep water. 21 A tremor would be 3 to 4 on the Richter scale and I to II on the Mercalli. 22 a Damage from superquakes: total destruction of buildings, valleys fill with mud from landslides, floods and dam breaks; deep cracks in the Earths surface b 0 to 10 per year 23 Various diagrams are possible. 24 Diagrammatic answer required.
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Chapter 5
25 a 4.0 min: 2500 km b 2.2 min: 1300 km c 3.5 min: 2150 km d 8.1 min: 6350 km 26 If P and S waves arrive at the same time then you must be at the epicentre of the quake (actually, you must be at the focus itself!). 27 A single seismograph only gives the distance the quake is from the seismometer. This would give a circle anywhere along which the quake could have been. 28 a 6000 km: 7.8 min or 7 min 48 s b 1500 km: 2.6 min or 2 min 36 s c 3300 km: 5 min d 900 km: 1.6 min or 1 min 36 s 29 Diagrammatic answer required. 30 Arrival time of P waves (h:min:s) 10:24:00 04:48:20 Arrival time of S waves (h:min:s) 10:32:00 4:52:50 Time difference (min:s) 8:00 4:30 Time (min) Distance of epicentre (km) 6200 2900
8.0 30 60 = 0.5 so time is 4.5 min 6.0 5.5 3.2 4.8 5.0 6.5 4.0 7.6
2:55:21 p.m. 7:37:03 p.m. 14:08:34 20:21:02 05:45:10 11:34:30 08:12:56 15:21:04
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Chapter 5
8 a Volcanic ash clouds rise because the ash is hotter and thus less dense than the air around it. Hence it rises. b These clouds are dangerous because they can smother the surrounding areas and the people who live there. Rain can turn the ash into a river of mud, which can destroy anything in its path. The ash can also reach great heights and be a danger to aircraft. 9 a Lava consists of magma and the gases hydrogen sulfide and steam. b The magma chamber is a region under the surface where molten rock forms. c Lahar is a river of volcanic dust and water. d A fume consists of volcanic gases. e A jet stream is high-speed winds at a height of about 30 km. 10 Volcanic bombs are solid rock or pieces of the mountain that are blown out by gas explosions and vent blockages. They can also form when hot lava is thrown into the air. 11 a True b True c Volcanic dust moves faster than lava. d True e Ash clouds can travel as far as 500 km. 12 Hydrogen sulfide, H2S (rotten egg gas), causes the smell. 13 The Ring of Fire is a ring of active volcanoes around the edge of the Pacific Ocean. 14 Volcanoes are usually on or near plate edges, and this is where earthquakes usually occur also. 15 5000 km in 4 hours = 5000/4 = 1250 km/h
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Chapter 5
11 Intense heat and pressure are needed to convert kerogen into hydrocarbons. Weak spots could provide these conditions. The other idea is that oil and gas would be squeezed into the more porous rock that weak spots would provide. 12 Diagrammatic answers required. 13 a A plug is magma that has cooled in the vent of a volcano. The walls of the volcano have since eroded away, leaving the plug. A dyke is an intrusion of magma that cooled and never reached the surface. The surface may have eroded to expose it. b A shield volcano is shallow, with gentle slopes, made from the gradual buildingup of lava. Cinder cones are steeper, smaller and are made from volcanic rock and dust that has dropped back around the vent. c A horst is an upthrust block, with faults on both sides. A graben is a rift valley made from a sunken block, with faults on both sides. 14 Volcanoes form away from plate boundaries if they exist over a hot spot or midplate weakness. 15 Diagrammatic answer required. 16 The mountains and volcanoes of New Zealand are both caused by the collision of the Pacific plate with the Indo-Australian plate. Mountains have buckled up and volcanoes have formed from the subduction zone. 17 Diagrammatic answer required. 18 a Layer K was laid down first, followed by J, I, H, G, F, E and D on top. All were laid flat. Pressure folded the layers upwards, forming an upward fold or anticline. Erosion removed the top of the fold, until D and E were nearly worn away. The erosion left the surface flat once more. Sediment laid new layers: C first, then B and A on top. b Layer D was laid down first, followed by C, B, A. A reverse fault then occurred, followed by erosion to present profile.
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Chapter 5
12 a Carboniferous b Cretaceous c Silurian d Precambrian (Archaeozoic era) e Jurassic f Jurassic g Ordovician h Precambrian (Proterozoic era) i Jurassic j Cretaceous 13 a Diagrammatic answer required. b Diagrammatic answer required. c The Precambrian era extends for almost five times the length of time of the first three eras combined, so it would be difficult to fit on the same page and leave room for clear labels. 14 A fold in layers of the Earths crust may move an older layer above a younger one. 15 Movement of tectonic plates may form a new mountain range and higher land. 16 Models could be produced by pouring plaster into the spaces before removing the rock. 17 A predator caught one of two smaller animals it was chasing.
Chapter 5 review
1 The Earth is like toast on soupboth have slabs of moving solid crust floating on a hot, thick liquid. 2 All the current continents were part of Pangaea. Hence it is literally all the lands. Its babies are Gondwanaland and Laurasia.
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Chapter 5
3 a The north poles of ancient rocks that are magnetic all point in different directions. When the continents are pieced together the north poles all point in the same direction, suggesting that the continents have shifted and twisted. b Magnetic stripes exist parallel to the mid-ocean ridges. The stripes closest to the ridges are the newest and the ones further out are older, suggesting that they are moving away from the ridges and towards the trenches. 4 Theory of plate tectonics: that the crust is a series of solid plates floating on convection currents in the mantle. These plates slip along and against each other. 5 The Theory of Continental Drift assumes that only the continents are shifting. The Theory of Plate Tectonics involves much larger slabs of rock (which also carry the shifting continents). 6 Convection currents push the rock of the mantle around. The bottoms of the plates are partially molten or soggy and will be carried with the mantle as it moves underneath them. 7 Plate boundaries are where plates separate, collide or scrape over each other. Friction will occur and will stop movement until the pressure is sufficient to overcome the friction. When it does, the plate slips and an earthquake results. 8 The subduction zone is completely molten 200 km below the surface. 9 Primary, secondary, Raleigh and Love waves are all detected by the seismometer. They are in the order P first, S next, and R and L basically together and last. 10 Diagrammatic answer required. 11 a Side-to-side: S and L b Up-down: P c Rolling: R 12 Mountain ranges can form by: continent/continent collision, forming folded mountains volcanic action at plate boundaries or hot spots normal faults creating horst and graben, which can erode into mountain ranges and basins. 13 A fault is a weak spot or break in the crust along which the crust can move in an earthquake. There is no break in the crust when folded. The crust buckles instead of breaking and shifting. 14 a False b True c True d False e True f True g True 15 a Animals with a hard outer covering that die under water are more likely to form fossils. b They are better preserved and less likely to break down than soft-bodied animals. 16 The amount of uranium compared to lead 17 a Palaeozoic b Palaeozoic
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Chapter 5
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32 33 34
c Cenozoic d Mesozoic Various answers, e.g.: a Fish b Algae c Humans The mysteries of the ocean floor were discovered only in the twentieth century with the invention of sonar and the need for good ocean-floor maps in World War II. A map of the world in the future will be different to what it is now because all the plates and their continents are shifting. Some will join, others will part, some will slide along each other. a The mantle is solid but is still able to move due to the extreme pressures and temperatures there. b Other solid substances that can move are plasticine, clay or mud. The ocean floor is like a conveyer belt because it carries the newly created rock from the mid-ocean ridges across the ocean towards the trenches. The longest mountain ridge (about 65 000 km long) is down the middle of the Atlantic. The highest mountain ridge is the Himalayas. Dense materials sink and lighter materials float. The rock of the continental plates is less dense than the rock of the ocean plates. The continents thus will float on the ocean floor, and the ocean plate will sink under the continent. An easy way of remembering what P, S, R and L waves do is P = push/pull, S = shake, R = roll, L = leftovers! a Plates suddenly slip when the pressure builds and the plate cannot take any more. b Plate boundaries are weak spots in the Earths surface and often allow magma to rise from the mantle below. Magma is molten rock which is full of gas. It is lighter than the surrounding rock and thus rises. The temperature near the ceiling of a room is always hotter than at floor level because of convection currents. The warmer air rises and the cooler air drops: the temperature will increase as you go higher in the room. Magma is molten rock full of gas (mainly steam). Its density is less than the surrounding rock and so it will push upwards through the covering tectonic plate. Diagrammatic answer required. A cinder cone has steeper sides than a shield volcano because it is simply a pile of rock. The pile will build until the rock begins to tumble further down the slopes. A shield volcano is made from cooled lava. Being molten, it will spread further than solid rock. Diagrammatic answer required. Volcanic ash rises in the atmosphere because it is hotter and lighter than the surrounding air. Volcanic ash, fumes, steam and gases.
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Chapter 6
Chapter 6
26 Different environments influence the appearance of the trees, e.g. type of soil and amount of sunlight. 27 Various answers, e.g. religious beliefs. 28 a 4 b 64 c 4096 d 5 1086 (5 followed by 86 zeroes) 29 Producing a very large number of offspring increases the chances that at least one will survive. 30 If the insects die, they cannot pollinate the plants, so the plants cant produce seeds.
Chapter 6
4 Twins can be identical (produced by the splitting of the zygote) or fraternal (produced when two eggs are fertilised). 5 Various answers, e.g. condoms reduce risk of STDs but also reduce sensation. 6 Zygote: two gametes fused; morula: clump of 80 cells; blastocyst: fluid-filled ball 7 From implantation to about 8 weeks 8 The foetus is protected by the amniotic fluid. 9 The foetuss lungs dont work until after birth. 10 Sometimes the head is squeezed on the way out. If the bones of the skull arent fused, the head is more malleable. 11 This is when amniotic fluid rushes out. 12 Various answers, e.g. drugs, infections, stress, poor nutrition 13 Ultrasound, amniocentesis, blood tests and CVS 14 Folate helps prevent neural tube defects. 15 Poor circulation results in the foetus getting a poor supply of nutrients, which prevents it from developing well. 16 Crying means the babys lungs are clear of fluid. 17 Toxoplasmosis can cause damage to the eyes and nervous system. 18 Overly strenuous exercise could increase her blood pressure too much. 19 Diagrammatic answer required. 20 a Seminal duct b Because sometimes sperm still get through. 21 Various answers, e.g. home birth is more familiar and relaxing, hospital birth has the benefits of technology if things go wrong. 22 A miscarriage would occur. 23 Various answers 24 Various answers
Chapter 6
17 Egg production, stimulation, harvesting, fertilisation and implantation 18 Some types of contraception do not prevent STDs. There may be more education and information available about contraception than about STDs. 19 Contraception controls over-population and prevents unwanted pregnancies.
Chapter 6 review
1 Fission, e.g. bacteria. Budding, e.g. yeast. Spores, e.g. fungi. Fragmentation and regeneration, e.g. starfish 2 Gametes, fertilisation, zygote, implantation, embryo, foetus 3 a Amniotic membrane b Amniotic fluid c Placenta d Umbilical cord e Foetus 4 Asexual 5 280 days, approximately 9 months 6 In the oviduct 7 About 5 below normal body temperature. 8 E.g. little variation, so the species has great success in a constant environment. 9 The foetus is protected. 10 a Cervix c Testes d Sperm e Epididymis f Semen g Ovulation h Uterus i Ovum j Seminal fluid k Vagina l Oviduct m Urethra n Scrotum o Ovary 11 Various, e.g. deepens voice 12 In fission, the parent cell divides into two halves. In budding, the parent cell divides but the new cell is much smaller than the parent cell. Spores are reproductive cells that are released and grow into new organisms. Fragmentation occurs when a piece that breaks off the parent grows into a new individual. 13 Various, e.g. condoms prevent semen entering the vagina. 14 Various, e.g. drinking alcohol in pregnancy, smoking, poor nutrition. 15 Avoid contact with any open sore on another person. 16 Implant fewer embryos.
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Chapter 6
c Pollination: when pollen (male sex cells) is deposited into the stigma (female sex cells) 18 Various answers 19 Various answers 20 A mutation that improves an organism may make that organism (and those like it) more likely to survive to pass on the improvement to future generations. 21 Flower part Anther Ovary Pollen Ovule Stigma Human part Testes Ovary Sperm Ovum Vagina Comparable function Production of male sex cells Production of female sex cells Male sex cell Female sex cell Male sex cells deposited here
22 Asexual reproduction requires one parent only and results in genetically identical offspring. Sexual reproduction requires two parents and results in genetically different offspring. 23 a Growth: increases the number of cells. b Repair: replaces dead or damaged cells. c Reproduction: produces specialised sex cells (sperm, ova).
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Chapter 7
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Chapter 7
22 Line A is the endothermic animal (kookaburra); Line B is the ectothermic animal (snake). 23 If one food source becomes depleted, the kookaburra has another. 24 Algae receive energy from the Sun, so the chain would begin with nuclear energy. This energy is converted into chemical energy inside the producers (algae), and then in each subsequent consumer. In both food chains, the kookaburra is the only endotherm, so the energy flow in each is relatively similar.
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Chapter 7
18 If all the decomposers on Earth were to disappear, the recycling of matter would cease. It is these organisms that return living matter to the non-living world.
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Chapter 7
13 Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a region of high concentration (low salinity) to a region of low concentration (high salinity) through a semipermeable membrane. 14 Biomass is organic material that has recently died and can be used to generate energy. It includes everything from wood from fallen trees or industrial processes to the faeces from humans and animals. 15 Biomass can be burned directly, or it can be converted into a suitable fuel that is then used as an energy source. This most commonly occurs with agricultural crops such as sugar cane, corn, rice and wheat, and oil-bearing crops such as sunflowers. Waste products from their harvesting are processed into fuels such as ethanol and biodiesel. 16 If each of us makes an effort to use less energy, then the energy requirements of our cities will be reduced, resulting in less pollution and our resources lasting longer. 17 Fossil fuels are produced by the deposition of organic matter in anaerobic situations such as bogs. Time, heat and pressure convert them into coal, oil and gas. 18 a Splitting atoms to generate energy is called nuclear fission. b Geothermal power is a source of energy that cannot be used worldwide. c True d Global winds arise from hot air rising from the equatorial regions. 19 They are dark so that they can absorb more heat from the surrounding environment. 20 Fossil fuels have their origin in the living forms of the past. Pressure, heat and time are required to convert these life forms into first coal and then, after more time has passed, into oil and finally gas. 21 Those areas that were the most heavily vegetated, where plant and animal life was abundant, are naturally the places where most of the fossil fuels would be found. Thus the warm, abundantly watered area would have the most fuel reserves. 22 Various answers 23 Various answers 24 In photosynthesis, energy from the Sun is converted into chemical energy in plants. After the plants die, the energy stored within them is released back into the environment as heat energy. Carbon dioxide, taken in through the leaves during the plants growth and used to build plant tissues, returns to the environment as carbon dioxide. 25 a Various answers b Various answers
Chapter 7 review
1 a Nuclear energy: splitting the uranium atom b Heat energy: sunlight c Chemical energy: the breaking of chemical bonds (as in the process of digestion) d Light energy: sunlight 2 Every organism has specific needs that are usually met in only a small, localised area. 3 The arrows in the food chain illustrate in which direction the food is moving. 4 Only a small percentage (approximately 520%) of energy is passed on. 5 The Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy is neither created nor destroyed, but is changed from one form to another.
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Chapter 7
6 a True b Energy that is derived from molten rocks beneath the surface of the Earth is called geothermal energy. c True d True 7 A semipermeable membrane is one that allows molecules of one size to pass through, but not others. 8 Coal, oil and gas have their origins in prehistoric life forms, and so are called fossil fuels. 9 a Hydroelectricity is electricity generated from falling water. b The Snowy Mountains Scheme is an Australian example. 10 Various answers 11 Various answers 12 a Carbon dioxide + waterglucose + oxygen (in the presence of sunlight) b Glucose + oxygencarbon dioxide + water + energy These two processes are, in effect, the reverse of each other. The major difference is that photosynthesis is driven by the Suns energy, which is converted into chemical energy. In respiration, the breaking down of glucose provides energy for the organism. 13 Various answers 14 Various answers 15 Various answers, e.g. the nuclear energy from the Sun could be considered the most important, as it is the basis for all life on Earth. 16 Energy flows in a straight line, matter is recycled. 17 The first order consumer eats the plant and, using the process of digestion, breaks down the large plant molecules into smaller ones. This releases energy (which was holding the plant molecules together), and the now smaller molecules are used to build up the consumers tissue. 18 Lightning is a major contributor to converting atmospheric nitrogen into a form that can be used by the plants in the ecosystem. 19 Trees absorb much of the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and, during the process of photosynthesis, use it for growth, producing oxygen as a by-product. Without the trees, the percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases, and the percentage of oxygen decreases. Trees must also be replaced if, in future, we wish to use them for fuel. 20 Bacteria and other decomposers are responsible for returning matter to the abiotic environment. 21 Coppicing allows the regular re-harvesting of shoots that can be used for a variety of timber products. Because the roots and trunk of the trees are left intact, erosion is greatly reduced, and those organisms that rely on these parts of the tree for survival are not compromised. Also, a reasonable canopy can regrow in one season, providing shade, food and shelter for some animals. 22 Implications may include: less pollution, expense may increase or decrease depending on source of renewable energy, some energy production takes space and is unattractive (e.g. wind turbines), people may become more responsible for energy use etc. Students should evaluate whether these and other implications are good or bad. 23 Various answers, depending on student opinion
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Chapter 7
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Chapter 8
3 The eye is set back in orbits in the skull. Eyebrows and eyelashes stop particles getting in. Tears lubricate the surface of the eye and wash dust out of the eye. 4 a Rods detect light and dark. b Cones detect colour. 5 When one or more types of cone cells are lacking in the retina. 6 Various answers, e.g. fish focus images by moving each lens backwards and forwards; an eagle can detect a rabbit 3 kilometres away. 7 The tapetum is a mirrored lining at the back of a cats eye. 8 Hyperopia is long-sightedness; myopia is short-sightedness. 9 Presbyopia is a condition in which a person loses the ability to focus at short distances due to ageing. 10 See Figure 8.1.13 11 Possibly by glasses, contact lenses or laser surgery
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Chapter 8
16 17 18 19
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
Most bending of light occurs in the front of the eye in the aqueous humour. Being black reduces reflected light, which would otherwise interfere with the image. The blind spot is occupied by vessels and nerves. Your pupil has contracted in bright light and hence initially lets in only a small amount of light when you have just gone indoors. After a while your pupil dilates to let in more light. To restrict the amount of light entering the eye (to give the pupil time to contract). We would not be able to judge distances well. So they can recognise particular plants and flowers and colours in other animals that signal danger, or sex type. Poor. An owl is active at night, so it is more important for it to detect objects in low light than to see colour. Rod cells are better at doing this than cones, which detect colour. The blinkers reduce distractions and concentrate the horses vision on the view ahead. The ciliary muscles, suspensory ligaments and lens are involved in focusing. PRK removes a layer of cells from the surface of the cornea. Lasik lifts a flap of cells but does not remove it. Blinking helps lubricate the eye regularly. a Robert is long-sighted (hyperopic). b He can see things at a distance, but not things that are close up. Each of the lenses in an insects eye is tiny, so not enough light focuses on one spot to do damage. An insect may not have lenses always aimed at the Sun. There is often less light outside at night, so only the more sensitive rod cells (which dont detect colour) are activated and send messages to the brain. No, others may see colours differentlyat present there is no way to tell for sure. Two eyes allow distances to be judged more easily and allow us to view things in 3D.
4 The inner ear 5 Hammer, anvil and stirrup, as a group called ossicles
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Chapter 8
12 13 14 15
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
The cochlea At the oval window The sound came from the right. If a sound reaches both ears at the same time, our brain interprets this to tell us the source of the sound is directly in front of, behind or above us. There are three dimensions in which we exist. a Wax helps prevent entry of dust and bacteria. b Wax can cause blockages of the ear canal, resulting in ringing of the ears or a degree of deafness. Exposure to loud sounds or a blow to the head can cause damage. You might experience partial deafness and/or ringing in the ears. Mowing the lawn, using a circular saw, attending a rock concert a Train b Plane taking off c Whisper About 80 decibels or louder Various answers, e.g. listening to the radio Chewing helps open the eustachian tubes and prevent pressure differences that cause discomfort, i.e. chewing helps pop the ears. Large ears help to give the animals early warning of predators. Two ears help us to determine sound direction and thus would aid in survival, e.g. it helps animals to determine from which direction a predator is approaching. Infection can disturb the semicircular canals, which help us balance. The horizontal tube in children does not allow wax to drain out as readily as it does from the vertical tube in adults. Caleb possibly has an ear infection where there is a partial blockage with wax. Sarah possibly has more serious, permanent damage to part(s) of the ear that allow hearing. a motor mower75dB; could be dangerous b large truck passing75 to 80 dB; could be dangerous c helicopter up close120 dB; could be harmful d person shouting at one metre70 dB; not harmful e racing car90 dB; possibly dangerous f music through headphones70 dB; but depends on the volume g classroom chatter60 dB; not harmful
Chapter 8
10 Australia has a high proportion of sunny days. 11 Wear sunscreen, hat and appropriate clothing. Avoid exposure to the sun in the hottest part of the day. 12 Sense Sight Hearing Smell Taste 13 14 15 16 Sense organ The eye The ear Nose The tongue
The smell makes it easier to detect a gas leak. Chef, perfume salesperson Chewing, swallowing, talking Sweat produced by sweat glands is channelled to the surface of the skin, where it evaporates. 17 Various answers, e.g. burned: toast; foul: rotten egg; fragrant: flower; fruity: an orange; resinous: paint; spicy: a hot curry 18 Always wear a hat outdoors, even on cloudy days. Use sunscreen on exposed areas of skin and cover up with clothing as much as comfortably possible. Stay in the shade, and avoid exposure to direct sunlight in the middle of the day.
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Chapter 8
6 a The stimulusresponse model involves some kind of feedback. Feedback is when the response affects the original stimulus, so the organism can adjust its response. b Coordination of several parts of the body responding to stimulus is required for the total response of an organism to a stimulus. 7 a In the large arteries b The brain c Diaphragm and chest muscles d Increased breathing rate 8 a body temperature: 37C b pH of blood: 7.38 9 To move away from the stimulus 10 i Stimulus, ii receptor, iii relay, iv coordinating centre, v relay, vi effectors, vii response, viii feedback 11 Diagrammatic answer required. 12 Various answers, e.g. quick movement of feet to avoid touching the hot sand.
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Chapter 8
12 a Pupils narrow b Coughing c Saliva production d Sweating 13 a Light to electrical b Sound to electrical c Chemical to electrical d Heat to electrical 14 a Motor neuron b i Cytoplasm ii nucleus iii dendrite iv myelin v axon 15 A bright light is shone in the eye Receptors detect a change in light intensity An impulse is sent along a sensory neuron to the brain An impulse is sent along a motor neuron to iris muscles Iris muscles contract, causing the pupil to narrow. 16 The left side is most active (controls logical thought). 17 Eating, driving a car or operating a piece of machinery 18 Various answers, e.g. continual research into brain and nervous system disorders are needed to develop controls or cures.
4 Increased heart rateenables faster delivery of glucose and oxygen to muscles. Dilation of bronchiolesallows more air into lungs for greater oxygen uptake. Glucose releasemakes more glucose available for respiration. Increased breathing rateresults in faster exchange of gases. 5 In frightening situations both the nervous system and the endocrine system (via adrenalin release) work to prepare the body for fight or flight. 6 The pituitary gland. It not only releases hormones which directly affect other organs, but also releases hormones which instruct other glands to release hormones.
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Chapter 8
7 Thyroxin controls the speed of cell reactions and thus influences growth. Human growth hormone influences total body growth. 8 Decrease in blood glucose levels Pancreas detects the decrease Release of glucagon Glucagon causes the liver to release glucose Blood glucose levels rise. 9 Diabetes is caused by a defective pancreas which does not produce enough insulin (Type I diabetes), or having cells which do not respond correctly to insulin (Type II). 10 Hormones are produced in the body and are targeted at specific cells for a specific function. Pheromones are released into the environment and affect the behaviour of other animals. 11 Many insects use pheromones to attract mates. For example, termite queens use pheromones to stop larvae developing into new queens, female moths use pheromones to attract males. 12 a Light is needed for photosynthesis. b Plant roots must grow down to anchor the plant and to obtain water and minerals. 13 Auxin produced by the tips of growing shoots passes backwards from the tip, stimulating cells to elongate. When the shoot is exposed to light from one side, on the exposed side auxin is destroyed by the light. The auxin concentration on the shady side is therefore greater, so those cells elongate more rapidly, causing bending towards the light. 14 Hormones are broken down when they pass through the liver. 15 a M b O c L d K e N f P 16 Hormones provide a more widespread and longer-term response than electrical impulses. 17 Nervous system Electrical impulse Along nerve fibres Very fast Very short (unless continually stimulated) Endocrine system Chemical Via blood Slow Longer
18 a b
helios = Sun, hence to follow the Sun hydro = water, hence to respond to water.
Chapter 8 review
1 See Figure 8.1.3
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Chapter 8
2 Iriscontrols the amount of light that enters the eye Lenshelps focus images Retinacontains light-sensitive cells that transmit messages to the brain. Choroidblack layer that stops reflection within the eye. 3 a Outer ear, middle ear and inner ear b Outer ear (air), middle ear (air), inner ear (fluid) 4 Eardrumvibrates in response to sounds. Ossiclesamplify sound and pass it to the cochlea via the oval window. Semicircular canalshelp us balance. 5 Eye, ear, nose, skin, tongue 6 See Figure 8.3.3 7 Possibly the sides of the tongue may detect sour tastes. 8 A few particles of the substance dissolve in our nasal membranes and trigger sensory cells to send a message to the brain. 9 See Figure 8.2.1 10 a Organisms need to obtain food and avoid predators. b A response to a stimulus may be complex and require actions from several parts of the body. These need to be coordinated. c The nervous and endocrine systems are the coordination systems in humans. 11 a Stimulus: something like heat or light which acts to bring about a change in the activity of an organism. b Effector: an organ such as a gland or a muscle which carries out a response to a stimulus. c Receptor: a part of the body which detects a stimulus. Eyes (retina cells) detect light. Ears (cochlear cells) detect sound. d Response: a change in the activity of an organism as a result of a stimulus. Pupils in the eye dilate as a response to bright light. 12 a Various answers, e.g. light, heat, sound, gravity b Retina cells in the eye, thermoreceptors in the skin, cochlear cells in the ears, semicircular canals in the ears. 13 Diagrammatic answer required. 14 Part Cerebellum Medulla Meninges Cerebrum Function Controls muscle movements while you are cycling Controls involuntary actions such as breathing Protect the brain from injury Centre for sight, hearing and speech
15 a Synapses b Chemicals called neurotransmitters carry the message across. 16 a A reflex action is an action performed without thinking. b Coughing, sneezing, blinking c They involve very few neurons. They need to be fast because the organisms survival might depend on it getting away from danger as quickly as possible.
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Chapter 8
17 a Reproduction, metabolism and growth b Flowering, seed germination and growth 18 When less light is available, the pupil dilates to allow more light to enter the eye. 19 Various answers, e.g. myopia (short-sightedness) may be corrected using concave lenses in the form of glasses or contact lenses. Laser surgery may be used to reshape the cornea. 20 Pinch your nose to avoid smelling the medicine. 21 a Homeostasis b It is important because cells need a continuous supply of glucose for respiration. c The endocrine system controls glucose levels. d Diabetes 22 a True b False c True d False e False 23 Function Blood glucose levels Female reproductive functions The rate of chemical reactions in cells Water levels within the body The readiness of the body for action The deepening of the male voice at puberty Hormone Insulin Oestrogen Thyroxin ADH Adrenalin Testosterone
24 a Sensory neuron b The axon carries messages to the cell from a receptor. 25 a Decision-making: A b Heartbeat: C c Messages from PNS to brain: D d Messages from eyes and ears: A 26 i stimulus, ii receptor, iii sensory nerve, iv motor nerve, v effector, vi response 27 a Pancreas b Insulin c Bloodstream d Liver e Response f Feedback 28 a A tropism is a response where a plant grows towards or away from a stimulus. b Examples: phototropism (response to light), geotropism (response to gravity). 29 Various answers, e.g. life is more difficult when one or more senses are impaired. 30 a Various answers, e.g. collecting data about the Earths climate, measuring background radiation, collecting data in space, scanning the body, navigation b Because our senses are limited in the range of stimuli they can detect. Also, some situations are too dangerous for us to go to in order to collect information with
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Chapter 8
our own senses, or might be inaccessible to use.g. outer space, the bottom of the ocean. c Various answers d Various answers e Various answers
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Chapter 9
16 The load was its weight, 24 N. 17 Work (J) 24 24 24 24 24 Ramp length (m) 1 2 3 4 6 Effort needed (N) 24 12 8 6 4 Proof that this will do the job 1 24 = 24 2 12 = 24 3 8 = 24 4 6 = 24 6 4 = 24 Mechanical advantage 24/24 = 1 24/12 = 2 24/8 = 3 24/6 = 4 24/4 = 6
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Chapter 9
24/3 = 8 24/2 = 12 24/1 = 24
18 The ramp that was 24 m long would make the job the easiest, only needing an effort force of 1 N. Its mechanical advantage was 24.
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Chapter 9
c 16
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Chapter 9
1 Pulling an object down is easier for humans, because our body weight is already acting in that direction and can be used for the job. In lifting an object up, we need to oppose our own body weight. 2 A pulley changes a lifting motion into a pulling-down motion, which humans find easier. 3 The mechanical advantage of a single pulley should be 1. 4 A block and tackle is another name for a multiple pulley system. 5 A pulley reduces effort by increasing the distance that the effort must be moved. If the rope is pulled twice the distance, then the effort will be halved. 6 The distance the rope is pulled is increased but the effort decreases. 7 A pulley is a grooved wheel turned by a string, rope or chain. A gear is a wheel with teeth that mesh with the teeth of other gears. Gears are used to change the direction or speed of spin, or torque. Pulleys are used to multiply lifting force. 8 The effort put into lifting loads with pulleys may be more than expected because of friction between the pulley and the rope, and the pulley and its axle. 9 A clamp can hold the load in place, perhaps while it is swung to a new position, as happens in a crane. 10 A hoist uses a chain. 11 Pulleys are force multipliers, because they reduce the effort force needed to lift a load. 12 Multiple pulleys mean less effort is needed to lift a load, or higher loads can be lifted with the same effort. Their disadvantage is that the rope needs to be pulled greater distances. 13 a Three b Eleven 14 Force multiplication a 4 b 10
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Chapter 9
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d True e True The important forces acting on an aircraft are its weight, lift, drag and thrust. The top is curved so that it is longer than the bottom. The air flowing across the top has further to travel than the air along the bottom, and therefore must go faster. Fast-moving air has less pressure than slow-moving air. Hence the pressure above the wing is less than that below. The wing is thus sucked upwards. Lift depends on airflow over the wings. The faster the airflow, the greater the lift. An aircraft needs to pick up speed to build up lift. a Lift depends on the speed of air flowing over the wing. If the wind is head-on, it is already providing lift, even if the aircraft is not moving. By heading into the wind, the aircraft can gain the lift required for take-off at slower speeds than if there is no wind, or if it travels in the same direction as the wind. Run-ups will be shorter and less fuel will be used. b Heavy aircraft need more lift in order to balance, then overcome, their heavier weight. c Lift depends on airflow over the wings. Drag is a form of friction caused by airflow across the surface of the aircraft. If there is no movement then there is no airflowhence no lift, friction or drag. d Air is less dense on hotter days, and so lift is less. More air speed is required to gain the same lift as on colder days. Diagrammatic answer required. A helicopter blade must be the same shape as an air foil. Diagrammatic answer required. If a helicopter is stationary, the lift on each rotor blade will be the same regardless of where in the circle the rotor is. If the helicopter is moving, however, the airflow over the blades that are heading forwards in their circle will be faster than the airflow on the blades that are moving backwards. The lift then will be greater on the side where the rotor is moving forwards and less on the side where the rotor is moving backwards. To counter this the angles of the blades are altered so that the lift is the same on both sides.
Chapter 9 review
1 a False: Machines reduce effort but the work (energy) is the same. b True (class 3 levers can be seen as an exception here, however) c True d False: Drag is the force that slows an aircraft as it moves through the air; thrust is the force that pushes an aircraft forward through the air. e True f True g False: Ramps make effort less because the distance travelled is more. h True i True j False: A pivot and a fulcrum are the same. k False: Ramps and levers use up/down motion. l False: Wheels can act as speed multipliers. m True
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Chapter 9
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n True o False: Single pulleys do not reduce the effort needed to lift something. A simple machine reduces the effort force required to do a job. Ramps, wedges, screws, levers, wheels and their axles, and pulleys A complex machine is made from a number of simple machines, e.g. lawnmower, stapler. Work = effort force distance moved. Effort is the force that you put into a machine. Load is the weight that is being lifted. See Figure 9.5.1 a Mechanical advantage is a measure of how effective a machine is. Mechanical advantage = load/effort. b It should be as high as possible. Aircraft wings often seem to flex upwards on take-off due to the upward lift force on them. Ramps reduce effort by increasing the distance that the load must move up the ramp. Diagrammatic answer required. Idler, worm and bevel are examples of gears. Parallel gears are the same size and speed but rotate in different directions. Advantages of a single pulley: weight is acting in same direction as the effort, so it will be easier to do the job. Disadvantage: effort will be the same as or more than the load. A double pulley can lift twice the load but the rope must be pulled twice the distance. The more pulleys in a system, the less effort is needed. Diagrammatic answer required. Mechanical advantage = distance of effort from fulcrum/distance of load from fulcrum. a Mechanical advantage = 5/10 = 0.5 b Mechanical advantage = 10/2 = 5 Diagrammatic answer required. a Force multiplier: steering wheel, doorknob b Speed multiplier: fan, blender Diagrammatic answer required. a pizza cutterwheel, reduces effort b wheelincreases speed c waffle ironlever, reduces effort d BBQ tongslever, reduce effort e garlic crusherlever, reduces effort f corkscrewramp, reduces effort
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