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3G Technology
1. Introduction

What is 3G?
3G is a wireless data standard that has been developed and agreed upon by
wireless infrastructure and equipment manufacturers. Developing a standard
like 3G is no easy task. There are many wireless data technologies out there
and there are big dollars chasing these technologies around not making the
task any easier. The 3G specs have also been modified over the years and
currently we are looking at 3G release 6.

3G encompasses a group of technologies that are

all aimed at bringing high speed data transfers to mobile electronic devices.
Many of the original 3G technologies have been built on W-CDMA
(Wideband Code Division Multiple Access) and TD-CDMA (Time Division
Code Division Multiple Access) radio technologies. But, there has been
great success using the European Telecommunications Standards Institute
(ETSI) standardized, GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication).
GSM is used by companies like Cingular and AT&T Wireless. Today,
HSDPA is promising to bring broadband speeds to GSM wireless networks
with downstream speeds of up to 3.6Mbps and upstream of 384Kbps.

2. Generations and history

3G refers to the third generation of developments in wireless technology,
especially mobile communications. The third generation, as its name
suggests, follows the first generation (1G) and second generation (2G) in
wireless communications.

2.1 1G
The 1G period began in the late 1970s and lasted through the 1980s. These
systems featured the first true mobile phone systems, known at first as
"cellular mobile radio telephone." These networks used analog voice
signaling, and were little more sophisticated than the repeater networks used
by amateur radio operators.

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2.2 2G

The 2G phase began in the 1990s and much of this technology is still in use.
The 2G cell phone features digital voice encoding. Examples include CDMA
and GSM. Since its inception, 2G technology has steadily improved, with
increased bandwidth, packet routing, and the introduction of multimedia.

3.3G includes capabilities and features

such as:
• Enhanced multimedia (voice, data, video, and remote control).
• Usability on all popular modes (cellular telephone, e-mail, paging,
fax, videoconferencing, and Web browsing).
• Broad bandwidth and high speed (upwards of 2 Mbps).
• Roaming capability throughout Europe, Japan, and North America.

While 3G is generally considered applicable mainly to mobile wireless, it is

also relevant to fixed wireless and portable wireless. A 3G system should be
operational from any location on, or over, the earth's surface, including use
in homes, businesses, government offices, medical establishments, the
military, personal and commercial land vehicles, private and commercial
watercraft and marine craft, private and commercial aircraft (except where
passenger use restrictions apply), portable (pedestrians, hikers, cyclists,
campers), and space stations and spacecraft.

3G offers the potential to keep people connected at all times and in all
places. Researchers, engineers, and marketers are faced with the challenge of
accurately predicting how much technology consumers will actually be
willing to pay for. Another challenge faced by 3G services is competition
from other high-speed wireless technologies, especially mobile WiMAX,
and ability to roam between different kinds of wireless networks.

The current status of mobile wireless communications, as of July 2007, is a

mix of 2nd and 3rd generation technologies.

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4. 4G

Although the new, third generation (3G) wireless technology has not yet
been implemented, leading companies in the industry are already laying the
groundwork for what some are calling fourth generation (4G) technology.
For the purposes of this article, 4G will be considered those technologies
that are still in the planning stages and will not be deployed within the next
five years.

Researchers are continuing their ideas in the

development of an undefined wireless world, which could become
operational by 2010.

The first generation (1G) and second generation (2G) of mobile telephony
were intended primarily for voice transmission.

The third generation of mobile telephony (3G) will serve both voice and
data applications.

There really is no clear definition of what 4G will be. It

is generally accepted that 4G will be a super-enhanced version of 3G – i.e.,
an entirely packet switched network with all digital network elements and
extremely high available bandwidth.

For the most part, it is believed that 4G will bring

true multimedia capabilities such as high-speed data access and video
conferencing to the handset. It is also envisioned that 4G systems will be
deployed with software defined radios, allowing the equipment to be
upgraded to new protocols and services via software upgrades.

4G also holds the promise of worldwide roaming using a

single handheld device.

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5. Wireless Broadband
Right now, wireless broadband is just becoming a reality here in the United
States. Verizon Wireless was the first to roll out their wireless broadband
service using the EV-DO (Evolution Data Only) technology. Sprint Nextel
also offers an EV-DO system of broadband wireless. Finally, Cingular has
announced that they will be hurrying to upgrade their network via HSDPA
to provide broadband data speeds to their wireless customers.

5.1 Wireless Generations At-a-Glance

As with all technology progressions, the “next” upgrades must be in
planning and development phases while its predecessors are being deployed.
This statement holds true with all mobile telecommunications to date. It
seems that it will also hold true for
the next generations of wireless networks.
]
The original analog
cellular systems are considered the first generation of mobile telephony
(1G).
In the early 1980s, 1G systems were deployed. At the same time,
the cellular industry began developing the second generation of mobile
telephony (2G).

The difference between 1G and 2G is in the signaling

techniques used:

1G used analog signaling, 2G used digital signaling.

As experience shows, the lead-time for mobile phone

systems development is about 10 years. It was not until the early to mid
1990s that 2G was deployed.

Primary thinking and concept development on 3G

generally began around 1991 as 2G systems just started to roll out. Since the
general model of 10 years to develop a new mobile system is being
followed, that timeline would suggest 4G should be operational some time
around 2011.

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 4G would build on the second phase of 3G,
when all networks are expected to embrace Internet protocol (IP)
technology.

During the last year, companies such as

Ericsson, Motorola, Lucent, Nortel and Qualcomm came up with "3G-plus"
concepts that would push performance of approved, though still emerging,
standards beyond current ones.

6. Interoperability and the Evolution of

Network Architectures
One of the most challenging issues facing deployment of 4G technologies is
how to make the network architectures compatible with each other. New
signaling techniques are being designed specifically to enhance today's
second generation (2G) networks, deliver unprecedented functionality for
3G, and successfully drive the Fourth Generation (4G) of wireless, thus
delivering immediate and long-term benefits to carriers.

With the architecture of each generation of wireless devices addressed in

the development of advanced technologies, carriers can easily evolve their
systems without additional network modifications, significantly reducing
costs and implementation time.
Currently, different wireless technologies (e.g., GSM, CDMA,
and TDMA1) are used throughout the world for the 2G, 2.5G, and
eventually 3G networks.
There are two approaches being used to develop
4G access techniques: 3xRTT (currently 1xRTT for 2.5 and 3G) and
Wideband CDMA (W-CDMA).
These disparate access techniques currently do not interoperate.
This issue may be solved with software defined radios.

Link Air Communications is developing a new access

technology called large-area-synchronized code-division multiple access
(LAS-CDMA). LASCDMA will be compatible with all current and future
standards, and there is a relatively easy transition from existing systems to

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LAS-CDMA (using software defined radios).
Link Air emphasizes that LASCDMA will accommodate all the advanced
technologies planned for 4G and that LASCDMA will further enhance either
3xRTT or W-CDMA system’s performance or capacity.

7. Internet Speeds
2.5G is the interim solution for current 2G networks to
have 3Gfunctionality. 2.5G networks are being designed such that a smooth
transition (software upgrade) to 3G can be realized.
2.5G networks currently offer true data speeds up to 28kbps. In comparison,
the theoretical speed of 3G can be up to 2 Mbps,
i.e., approximately 200 times faster than previous 2G networks. This added
speed and throughput will make it possible to run applications such as
streaming video clips.
It is anticipated that 4G speeds could
be as high as 100 Mbps. Thus, 4G will represent another quantum leap in
mobile Internet speeds and picture quality. Ericsson confirms that 4G could
bring connection speeds of up to 50 times faster than 3G networks and could
offer three-dimensional visual experiences for the first time. The following
graph represents what has been
the typical progression of wireless

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1 GSM – Global System for Mobile Communications
CDMA – Code Division Multiple Access
TDMA – Time Division Multiple Access

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8. Quality of Service Challenges

In wireless networks, Quality of Service (QOS) refers to the measure of the

performance for a system reflecting its transmission quality and service
availability (e.g., 4G is expected to have at least are liability of 99.99%).

Supporting QOS in 4G networks will be a major challenge.

When considering QOS, the major hurdles to overcome in 4G include:
varying rate channel characteristics, bandwidth allocations, fault tolerance
levels, and handoff support among heterogeneous
Wireless networks.

Fortunately, QOS support can occur at the packet, transaction,

circuit, and network levels. QOS will be able to be tweaked at these different
operating levels, making the network more flexible and possibly more
tolerant to QOS issues.

Varying rate channel characteristics refers to the fact that 4G

applications will have varying bandwidth and transition rate requirements. In
order to provide solid network access to support the anticipated 4G
applications, the 4G networks must be designed with both flexibility and
scalability. Varying rate channel characteristics must be considered to
effectively meet user demand and ensure efficient network management.

Spectrum is a finite resource. Incurrent wireless systems,

frequency licensing and efficient spectrum management are key issues. In
4G systems, bandwidth allocations may still be a concern.

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 Another concern is interoperability between the signaling
techniques that are planned to be used in 4G (e.g., 3xRTT, WCDMA).In
comparison with current 2G and 2.5G networks, 4G will have more fault
tolerance capabilities built-in to avoid unnecessary network failure, poor
coverage, and dropped calls.

4G technology promises to enhance QOS by the use of

better diagnostic techniques and alarms tools.

4G will have better support of roaming and handoffs

across heterogeneous networks. Users, even in today’s wireless market,
demand service transparency and roaming. 4G may support interoperability
between disparate network technologies by using techniques such as LAS-
CDMA signaling. Other solutions such as software defined radios could also
support roaming across disparate network technologies in 4G systems.

These major challenges to QOS in 4G networks are

currently being studied and solutions are being developed. Developers
believe that QOS in 4G will rival that of any current 2G or 2.5G network. It
is anticipated that the QOS in 4G networks will closely approximate the
QOS requirements in the wire line environment (99.999% reliability).


The emergence of next generation wireless technologies is going enhance the
effectiveness of the existing methods used by public safety...

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9. 3G Applications and Their Benefits to
Public Safety

One of the most notable advanced applications for 4G

systems is location based services. 4G location applications would be based
on visualized, virtual navigation schemes that would support a remote
database containing graphical representations of streets, buildings, and other
physical characteristics of a large metropolitan area.

This database could be accessed by a subscriber in a

moving vehicle equipped with the appropriate wireless device, which would
provide the platform on which would appear a virtual representation of the
environment ahead.

For example, one would be able to see the internal layout

of a building during an emergency rescue. This type of application
is sometimes referred to as "Telegeoprocessing", which is a combination of
Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and Global Positioning
Systems (GPS) working in concert over a high-capacity wireless mobile
system.

Telegeoprocessing over 4G networks will make it

possible for the public safety community to have wireless operational
functionality and specialized applications for everyday operations, as well as
for crisis management.

The emergence of next generation wireless technologies

will enhance the effectiveness of the existing methods used by public safety.

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3G technologies and beyond could possibly bring the following new
features to public safety:

9.1 Virtual navigation:

As described, a remote database contains the graphical
representation of streets, buildings, and physical characteristics of a large
Metropolis. Blocks of this database are transmitted in rapid sequence to a
vehicle, where a rendering program permits the occupants to visualize the
environment ahead.
They may also "virtually" see the internal layout of
buildings to plan an emergency rescue, or to plan to engage hostile elements
hidden in the building.

9.2 Tele-medicine:
A paramedic assisting a victim of a traffic accident in a remote
Location could access medical records (e.g.-rays) and establish a video
conference so that a remotely based surgeon could provide
“on-scene” assistance.

In such a circumstance, the paramedic could relay the victim's vital

information (recorded locally) back to the hospital in real time, for review
by the surgeon.

9.3 Crisis-management applications:

These arise, for example, as a result of natural disasters where the entire
communications infrastructure is in disarray. In such circumstances,
restoring communications quickly is essential.

With wideband wireless mobile communications, both limited and complete

communications capabilities, including Internet and video services, could be
set up in a matter of hours. In comparison, it may take days or even weeks to
re-establish communications capabilities when a wire line network is
rendered inoperable.

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10. WCDMA – Technology for 3G Cellular
Systems
What is 3G Mobile System?

•Broadband Service

•Packet Based Transmission

•Transmission of text, digitized voice, video at data rate higher

than 2 Mbps

•Consistent set of services to mobile computer and phone users

wherever they are located in the world

10.1 Universal Mobile Telecommunication System

One can directly dive straight into the mobile

multimedia wave

One can directly dive straight into the mobile multimedia wave

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10.1.1 UMTS Network

It consists of:

• UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN)

- WCDMA and FDD are used here

• Core Network

10.2 Spread Spectrum System

• A kind of modulation system in which the modulated (spread

spectrum) signal bandwidth is much greater than the message
signal bandwidth

• The spectral spreading is performed by a code that is independent

of the message signal. The same code is used at receiver to
dispread the received signal and to recover the message signal.

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 Advantages of Spread Spectrum
10.2.1
System
• It is Secure, difficult to intercept.

• A large number of codes can support a Large number of users.

• As a large bandwidth is used the system is less prone to

distortion.

• Resistant to jamming.

• Asynchronous multiple access technology.

10.2.2Different Spread Spectrum System

• Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

• Frequency Hoping

• Hybrid System

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10.3 Code division multiple access

• A multiple access technology using DS/SS

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10.4 Why WCDMA?

• WCDMA is a step further in the CDMA technology. It uses a 5 MHz wide

radio signal and a chip rate of 3.84 Mcps, which is about three times higher
than the chip rate of CDMA2000 (1.22 Mcps)

• Higher spectrum efficiency thanks to improved trunking efficiency (i.e. a

better statistical averaging)

• Higher QoS

WCDMA Protocol Architecture

Three separate channels concepts in the UTRA: logical, transport, and

physical channels.

•Logical channels define what type of data is transferred.

•Transport channels define how and with which type of characteristics the
data is transferred by the physical layer.

•Physical data define the exact physical characteristics of the radio channel.

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10.4.1 WCDMA Protocol Architecture view

Simplified View

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 Detailed View
10.5 Physical Layer
Main 3G Requirements

1) High Bit Rates for better transmission.

2) Flexible Variable bit rate both in Uplink and Downlink.

3) Different services have been multiplexed on a single physical

connection

4) Support for All-IP RAN

5) High Spectral Efficiency

Main Functions of Physical Layer

1) Error Detection

2) Multiplexing Demultiplexing

3) Modulation Demodulation

4) Spreading Despreading

5) Synchronization

6) Measurement of Bit Error Rate, TX Power, Signal to

Interference ratio

7) Handover

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At physical layer
• W= 3.84 Mcps, one time slot 2560 chips

•Physical channel is characterize with frequency, code,

duration, and in uplink with phase shift

•1 radio frame (10 ms) includes 15 time slots (one slot equal
to power control period, 1/ (10 ms/15) =1500 Hz). Slot
structure is just for controlling the physical
Channel and radio performance

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Physical Layer to Transport Layer
•Several transport channels can be multiplexed together by physical layer to
form a single Coded Composite Transport Channel (CCTrCh)

•The physical layer combines several TFI information into the Transport
Format Combination Indicator (TFCI), which indicate which transport
Channels are active for the current frame.

•Two types of transport channels: dedicated channels and common

Channels.

Dedicated channel –reserved for a single user only.

Support fast power control and soft handover.
Common channel – can be used by any user at any time.
Don’t support soft handover but some support
Fast power control.

•In addition to the physical channels mapped from the transport

Channels, there exist physical channels for signaling purposes to carry only
Information between network and the terminals.

10.5.1 Transport Channel

•Transport channels contain the data generated at the higher layers,
which is carried over the air and are mapped in the physical layer
to different physical channels.

• The data is sent by transport block from MAC layer to physical

layer and generated by MAC layer every 10 ms.

• The transport format of each transport channel is identified by the

Transport Format Indicator (TFI), which is used in the interlayer
• Communication between the MAC layer and physical layer .
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Different Transport Channels and Corresponding
Physical

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RLC Layer
•The Radio Link Control (RLC) protocol (Layer2) operates in one
of three modes: transparent, unacknowledged or acknowledged
mode

• It performs segmentation/re-assembly functions and, in

acknowledged mode, provides an assured mode delivery ser-vice
by use of retransmission

• RLC provides a service both for the RRC signaling (the

Signaling Radio Bearer) and for the user data transfer (the Radio
Access Bearer).

RRC Layer :

• The Radio Resource Control (RRC) protocol (Layer 3)

provides control of the handset from the RNC

• It includes functions to control radio bearers, physical channels,

mapping of the different channel types, handover, measurement
and other mobility procedures. Because of the flexibility of the
WCDMA radio interface, this is a fairly complex protocol

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10.6 WCDMA System Overview

RAN Architecture

• The main purpose of the WCDMA Radio Access Network is to

provide a connection between the hand-set and the core
network and to isolate all the radio issues from the core network.

•The advantage is one core network supporting multiple

access technologies.

The WCDMA Radio Access Network consists of two

types of nodes:

Radio Base Station (Node B)

• The Radio Base Station handles the radio transmission and

reception to/from the handset over the radio
Interface (Uu). It is controlled from the Radio Network
Controller via the Hub interface. One Radio Base Station
Can handle one or more cells.

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Radio Network Controller (RNC)

• The Radio Network Controller is the node that controls

all WCDMA Radio Access Network functions. It connects
the WCDMA Radio Access Network to the core network via the
Iu Interface.

Pictorial representation of RAN architecture:

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11.Overview of the 3GPP Long Term
Evolution Physical Layer

Introduction
Long Term Evolution (LTE) is the next step forward in cellular 3G
services. Expected in the 2008 time frame, LTE is a 3GPP standard
that provides for an uplink speed of up to 50 megabits per second
(Mbps) and a downlink speed of up to 100 Mbps. LTE will bring
many technical benefits to cellular networks.

Bandwidth will be scalable from 1.25 MHz to 20

MHz. This will suit the needs of different network operators that
have different bandwidth allocations, and also allow operators to
provide different services based on spectrum. LTE is also expected
to improve spectral efficiency in 3G networks, allowing carriers to
provide more data and voice services over a given bandwidth.

This technical white paper provides an overview

of the LTE physical layer (PHY), including technologies that are
new to cellular such as Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM) and Multiple Input Multiple Output
(MIMO) data transmission.

It encompasses high-speed data, multimedia

unicast and multimedia broadcast services. Although technical
specifications are not yet finalized, significant details are
emerging. This paper focuses on the LTE physical layer(PHY).

The LTE PHY is a highly efficient means of conveying

both data and control information between an enhanced base
station (eNodeB) and mobile user equipment (UE). The LTE PHY
employs some advanced technologies that are new

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to cellular applications. These include Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiplexing (OFDM) and Multiple Input Multiple
Output (MIMO) data transmission. In addition, the LTE PHY uses
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access

11.1 LTE Design Goals

The LTE PHY is designed to meet the following goals [1]:

1. Support scalable bandwidths of 1.25, 2.5, 5.0, 10.0 and 20.0
MHz

2. Peak data rate that scales with system bandwidth

a. Downlink (2 Ch MIMO) peak rate of 100 Mbps in 20 MHz
channel
b. Uplink (single Ch Tx) peak rate of 50 Mbps in 20 MHz channel

3. Supported antenna configurations

a. Downlink: 4x2, 2x2, 1x2, 1x1
b. Uplink: 1x2, 1x1

4. Spectrum efficiency
a. Downlink: 3 to 4 x HSDPA Rel. 6
b. Uplink: 2 to 3 x HSUPA Rel. 6

5. Latency
a. C-plane: <50 – 100 msec to establish U-plane
b. U-plane: <10 msec from UE to server

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6. Mobility
A. Optimized for low speeds (<15 km/hr)
B. High performance at speeds up to 120 km/hr
C. Maintain link at speeds up to 350 km/hr

7. Coverage
a. Full performance up to 5 km
b. Slight degradation 5 km – 30 km
c. Operation up to 100 km should not be precluded by standard

11.2 LTE Basic Concepts

Many methods employed in LTE are relatively new in
cellular applications. These include OFDM, OFDMA, MIMO and
Single Carrier Frequency Div LTE employs OFDM for downlink
data transmission and SC-FDMA for uplink transmission. OFDM
is a well-known modulation technique, but is rather novel in
cellular applications.

A brief discussion of the basic properties and

advantages of this method is therefore warranted. When
information is transmitted over a wireless channel, the signal can
be distorted due to multipath. Typically (but not always) there is a
line-of-sight path between the transmitter and receiver.

In addition, there are many other paths

created by signal reflection off buildings, vehicles and other
obstructions as shown in Figure 2.0-1. Signals traveling
along these paths all reach the receiver, but are shifted in time by
an amount corresponding to the differences in the
distance traveled traveled along each path.

OFDM
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 Unlike single carrier systems described
above, OFDM communication systems do not rely on increased
symbol rates in order to achieve higher data rates. This makes the
task of managing ISI much simpler.

OFDM systems break the available

bandwidth into many narrower sub-carriers and transmit the data in
parallel streams. Each subcarrier is modulated using varying levels
of QAM modulation, e.g. QPSK, QAM, 64QAM or possibly
higher orders depending on signal quality. Each OFDM symbol is
therefore a linear combination of the instantaneous signals on each
of the sub4 carriers in the channel. Because data is transmitted in
parallel rather than serially, OFDM symbols are generally MUCH
longer than symbols on single carrier systems of equivalent data
rate.

OFDMA
OFDMA is employed as the multiplexing scheme in
the LTE downlink. Perhaps the best way to describe OFDMA is by
contrasting it with a packet-oriented networking scheme such as
802.11a. In 802.11a, Carrier-Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) is the
multiplexing method.

Downlink and uplink traffic from the fixed access point

(AP) to mobile user stations (STAs) is by means of PHY layer
packets. As explained below, OFDMA makes much more efficient
use of network resources.

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SC-FDMA

LTE uplink requirements differ from downlink

requirements in several ways. Not surprisingly, power
consumption is a key consideration for UE terminals. The high
PAPR and related loss of efficiency associated with OFDM
signaling are major concerns. As a result, an alternative to OFDM
was sought for use in the LTE uplink. Single Carrier – Frequency
Domain Multiple Access (SC-FDMA) is well suited to the LTE
uplink requirements.

The basic transmitter and receiver architecture is very similar

(nearly identical) to OFDMA, and it offers the same degree of
multipath protection. Importantly, because the underlying
waveform is essentially single-carrier, the PAPR is lower.

SC-FDMA Subcarriers Can be Mapped in

Either Localized or Distributed Mode

As SC-FDMA subcarriers can be mapped

in one of two ways: localized or distributed. However,
the current working assumption is that LTE will use
localized Subcarriers mapping. This decision was
motivated by the fact that with localized mapping, it
is possible to exploit frequency selective gain via
channel dependent scheduling (assigning uplink
frequencies to UE based on favorable propagation
conditions.

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11.3 LTE Physical Layer

Physical Channels

Three different types of physical channels are

defined for the LTE downlink. One common characteristic of
physical channels is that they all convey information from higher
layers in the LTE stack. This is in contrast to physical signals,
Which convey information that is used exclusively within the PHY
layer.

LTE DL physical channels are:

• Physical Downlink Shared Channel (PDSCH)

• Physical Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH)

• Common Control Physical Channel (CCPCH)

Physical channels are mapped to specific transport channels below.

Transport channels are SAPs for higher layers.

Each physical channel has defined algorithms for:

• Bit scrambling
• Modulation
• Layer mapping
• CDD precoding
• Resource element assignment

Layer mapping and pre-coding are related to MIMO applications.

Basically, a layer corresponds to a spatial multiplexing

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 Layer mapping and pre-coding are related to
MIMO applications. Basically, a layer corresponds to a spatial
multiplexing channel. MIMO systems are defined in terms of
Ntransmitters x Nreceivers. For LTE, defined configurations are
1x 1, 2 x 2,3 x 2 and 4 x 2.

Note that while there are as many as four

transmitting antennas, there are only a maximum of two receivers
and thus a maximum of only two spatial multiplexing data streams.

For a 1 x 1 or a 2 x 2 system, there is a simple 1:1

relationship between layers and transmitting antenna ports.
However, for a 3 x 2 and 4 x 2 system, there are still only two
spatial multiplexing channels. Therefore, there is redundancy on
one or both data streams. Layer mapping specifies exactly how the
extra transmitter antennas are employed.

Precoding is also used in conjunction with spatial

multiplexing. Recall that MIMO exploits multipath to resolve
independent spatial data streams. In other words, MIMO systems
require a certain degree of multipath for reliable
operation. In a noise-limited environment with low multipath
distortion, MIMO systems can actually become impaired.

Physical Downlink Shared Channel:

The PDSCH is utilized basically for data and multimedia

transport. It therefore is designed for very high data rates.
Modulation options therefore include QPSK, 16QAM and
64QAM. Spatial multiplexing is also used in the PDSCH. In
fact, spatial multiplexing is exclusive to the PDSCH. It is not used
on either the PDCCH or the CCPCH.

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Physical Downlink Control Channel:

The PDCCH conveys UE-specific control

information. Robustness rather than maximum data rate is
therefore the chief consideration. QPSK is the only available
modulation format. The PDCCH is mapped onto resource elements
in up to the first three OFDM symbols in the first slot of a
subframe.

Common Control Physical Channel

The CCPCH carries cell-wide control

information. Like the PDCCH, robustness rather than
maximum data rate is the chief consideration. QPSK
is therefore the only available modulation format. In
addition, the CCPCH is transmitted as close to the
center frequency as possible. CCPCH is transmitted
exclusively on the 72 active subcarriers centered on
the DC subcarrier.

Control information is mapped to

resource elements (k, l) where k refers to the OFDM
symbol within
the slot and l refers to the subcarrier. CCPCH
symbols are mapped to resource elements in
increasing order of index k
first, then l.

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11.4 Physical Signals
Physical signals use assigned resource elements.
However, unlike physical channels, physical signals do not convey
information to/from higher layers.

There are two types of physical signals:

• Reference signals used to determine the channel impulse

response (CIR)
• Synchronization signals which convey network timing
information

Reference Signals

Reference signals are generated as the product of an

orthogonal sequence and a pseudo-random numerical (PRN)
Sequence. Overall, there are 510 unique reference signals possible.
A specified reference signal is assigned to each cell within a
network and acts as a cell-specific identifier.

When a reference signal is transmitted

from one antenna port, the other antenna ports in the cell are idle.
Reference signals are sent on every sixth Subcarriers. CIR
estimates for Subcarriers that do not bear reference signals are

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computed via interpolation. Changing the Subcarriers that bear
reference signals by pseudo-random frequency hopping is also
under consideration.
Synchronization Signals

Synchronization signals use the same type of pseudo-

random orthogonal sequences as reference signals. These are
classified as primary and secondary synchronization signals,
depending how they are used by UE during the cell
search procedure.

Both primary and secondary synchronization signals are

transmitted on the 72 subcarriers centered around the DC
subcarrier during the 0th and 10th slots of a frame (recall there are
20 slots within each frame).

11.5 Transport Channels

Transport channels are included in the LTE PHY and act as service
access points (SAPs) for higher layers.

Downlink Transport channels are:

•Broadcast Channel (BCH)

•Downlink Shared Channel (DL-SCH)

•Paging Channel (PCH)

•Multicast Channel (MCH)

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12. Limitations of 3G
Although the concept of 3G communications shows much promise,
there are still limitations that must be addressed.

One major limitation is operating area. Although 2G networks are

becoming more ubiquitous, there are still many areas not
served. Rural areas and many buildings in metropolitan areas are
not being served well by existing wireless networks. This
limitation of today’s networks will carry over into future
generations of wireless systems.

The hype that is being created by 3G networks is giving the

general public unrealistic expectations of always on,
always available, anywhere, anytime communications. The public
must realize that although high-speed data communications will be
delivered, it will not be equivalent to the wired Internet – at least
not at first.
If measures are not taken now to correct perception issues, when
3G and later 4G services are deployed, there may be a
great deal of disappointment associated with the deployment of the
technology, and perceptions could become negative. If this
were to happen, neither 3G nor 4G may realize its full potential.

Another limitation is cost. The equipment required to implement a

next generation network is still very expensive. Carriers and
providers have to plan carefully to make sure that expenses are
kept realistic.

One technique currently being implemented in Asian networks is a

Pay-Per-Use model of services. This model will be difficult to

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implement in the United States, where the public is used to a
service-for-free model (e.g., Internet).

13. Conclusions

3G networks may eventually deliver on all the

promises. At times, it seems that technological advances are being
made on a daily basis. These advances will make high speed
data/voice-over-Internet-protocol (VoIP) networks a reality.

In the meantime, it is important for industry to

develop a strong 3G offering that is palatable for the general
public. Equally as important, industry must ensure that
expectations are realistic and that services meet and exceed those
expectations.

If all goes according to what the industry

envisions, it may be sooner, rather than later that we will see
wireless communications evolve. This evolution will give the
general public as well as the public safety community amazing
functionality from the convenience of a single handheld
device.

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