Scientific Bulletin of the

Politehnica University of Timisoara

Transactions on Mechanics
Special issue
Workshop on
Vortex Dominated Flows
Achievements and Open Problems
Timisoara, Romania, June 10 - 11, 2005
DEVELOPMENTS IN THE DESIGN OF SHIP PROPELLER
Mihaela AMORRIEI, Lecturer,
Naval Hydrodynamic Department
Dunarea de Jos University of Galati
*Corresponding author: 47 Domnesca Street, Galati, Romania
Tel.: (+40) 236 495400, Email: mamor@ugal.ro
ABSTRACT
The paper presents aspects regard propeller design
procedure, which involves theories and underlying
assumptions, analytical tools, computational fluid
dynamics models and model tests, to predict the
hydrodynamics performances of marine propeller in
non-uniform wake field behind ship. A properly
design propeller is a compromise between structural
and hydrodynamic considerations. The complex
nature of the design and operation of marine propeller
requires knowledge of basic hydrodynamics, naval
architecture and typical experience.
KEYWORDS
Propeller, standard series, lifting line theory,
lifting surface theory, panel method, RANS
NOMENCLATURE
J [-] advance ratio
k
T,
k
Q
[-] thrust, torque coefficient
C
T,
C
P
[-] thrust/ power loading coefficient
Q [kN] propeller torque
T [kN] propeller thrust
1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years a drastic increase in power and
ship speed has been observed for all kind of vessels.
This new trend demands propulsion devices designed
to give maximum efficiency and to absorb minimum
power, with minimum cavitation, noise and vibrations.
The most common propulsion device is the screw
propeller, which convert power in thrust and play an
important role in the interaction between ship and
the main engine.
The design of a propeller operating in non-uniform
flow behind ship is an iterative process to optimise
the propeller efficiency with less restrictive constrains
concerning cavitation, noise, vibrations geometry
and strength. The propeller is an important source of
noise and vibration; for the performance of the ship,
cavitation is related to noise and pressure pulses and
bearing forces induced by propeller are related to
vibrations.
The design of screw propeller in non-uniform
flow behind ship can be carried out in three stages:
preliminary design, design and analysis. Once the
design point is chosen and the main parameters are
fixed, the problem is to design a propeller to give
specified performances in given conditions. In pre-
liminary design the traditional propeller diagrams
are used, and the parameters estimated (diameter,
number of blades) are a starting point for next stages.
The second step, design, known like indirect
problem, can be done using the lifting line theory
with correction factors on lifting surface theory and
the objective is to find the blade geometry for a
specified distribution of blade loading over the radius.
Once the design is completed, the propeller is analysis
in all operating conditions: this is the third stage,
known like direct problem, and the objectives are
to find the pressure distributions on propeller surfaces
and to evaluate the hydrodynamics performances of
propeller in off-design conditions. In the design stage,
the performances of the propeller are predicted at
the design point, which corresponds only to a mean
flow. The real flow in the propeller plane behind
hull is non-uniform, the velocity changes magnitude
and direction at each propeller revolution, which
causes continues and cyclic fluctuation in blade
loading and pressure distribution [1].
The designer must analyses the propellers behaviour
in unsteady flow taking into account aspects regard
cavitation and fluctuations of unsteady forces and
moments arising from operation in non-uniform hull
wakes induced by the propeller and transmitted to
the hull through the water by pressure effects and
thought the shaft bearing.
The analysis of a propeller operating in non-uniform
flow behind ship can be carried out experimentally
and theoretically. Taking into account that the experi-
mental tests in towing tanks and cavitation tunnel are
Proceedings of the Workshop on VORTEX DOMINATED FLOWS. ACHIEVEMENTS AND OPEN PROBLEMS, Timisoara, Romania, June 10-11, 2005
132
time consuming and expensive, more sophisticated
three-dimensional theories were been developed steady
and unsteady lifting-surface theory, quasy-steady
methods, Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS)
equations, boundary element methods/panel method.
The paper presents aspects regard propeller design
procedure, which involves various theories and under-
lying assumptions, analytical tools, computational fluid
dynamics models and model tests, to predict the
hydrodynamics performances of marine propeller in
non-uniform wake field behind ship.
2. HULL- PROPELLER INTERACTIONS
A propeller fitted at the stern of a ship operates in
water that has been disturbed by passage of the hulls
ship, which deform the original streamlines and
causes a retardation of the relative stream velocity due
to viscous actions[2]. This disturbance behind the
ship is called wake. The wake velocity is associated
with the flow around ships hull and it varies in
magnitude and directions. The ratio of the average
velocity over the propeller disc to the ship speed V
is named the wake coefficient: w = 1-v/V, and its
value depends largely of the shape of the hull and on
the propeller location. The rotation of the propeller
alters the pressure and velocity distribution around
the hull and increase the resistance of the ship. This
means that the thrust force T on the propeller has to
overcome both the ships resistance R and this increase
named augment of resistance R
T.
This loss of thrust
is expressed by mean of t = 1-R/T, named thrust
deduction factor. The efficiency of the propeller
operating behind ship is different from its efficiency in
open water. Compared to open water conditions, the
propellers efficiency behind ships hull is affected
by relative rotative efficiency
R
.
The flow behind ship is not uniform over the pro-
eller disc and the inflow velocity to the propeller has
three radially and circumferentially varying compo-
nents: an axial component along the axis of the pro-
peller, and a tangential and a radial component in
the plane of the propeller disc. As a propeller blade
rotates, a section at any given radius passes through
regions of very different wake concentrations. These
variations are the cause of unsteady cavitation and
cyclic fluctuations in blade loading and pressure dis-
tributions. The tangential velocity components are
very important when considering unsteady propeller
forces, while the radial components are generally small.
The axial velocity v varies from point to point
over the propeller disc, function of radius r and angular
position . The average velocity at a radius r is:
( )
2
r
0
1
v = v r, d
2

(1)
The average wake velocity over the propeller disc is:
R R
v = 2 r v dr / 2 rdr
r
r r
b b

(2)
A velocity fields as function of radius and angular
position is presented in Figure 1 and 2.
Figure 1. Curve of constant axial wake fraction.
Transversal velocity in propeller disc
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Unghi
Va/V
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
Figure 2. Axial velocity distribution
A useful presentation of the wake data field exploit
the cyclic variation of this patterns and writes for the
tree components of velocity:
( )
m
v v
a r
, = A + A cos m -
m m
0
V V 1

( )
m v
t
= A cos m -
m m
V 1

(3)
The wake harmonic functions of interest are those
of multiple of blade number qz for thrust and torque
on the shaft and those at qz 1 for transverse and
vertical forces and moments [3].
A distinction must be made between nominal wake
and effective wake. The nominal wake is the wake
behind ships hull in absence of the propeller. The
wake velocities with the propeller operating behind
ship and developing thrust is named effective wake.
Presently, the knowledge of the distribution flow in
Proceedings of the Workshop on VORTEX DOMINATED FLOWS. ACHIEVEMENTS AND OPEN PROBLEMS, Timisoara, Romania, June 10-11, 2005
133
propeller plane is based on experimentally measure-
ments. The nominal wake velocities are measured at
model scale using Pitot tubes. The concept of effective
wake implies that the influence of the propeller action
on the stern flow is incorporated and the effective wake
cant be measured. Some total wake distributions
have been measured at full scale using LDV (Laser
Doppler Velocimeter). The radial distribution of
axial velocity components is transformed from the
nominal (without propeller) value for the model to an
effective (with propeller) value for the full-scale ship
by an indirect method based upon thrust (or torque)
identity: making the thrust coefficient K
T
(or torque
coefficient K
Q
) in open water and behind ship equal,
at same axial speed and rotation rate.
Theoretically, the effective full-scale wake distribu-
tion velocity field can be obtained in two steps: first
the nominal wake measured behind the ship model
is corrected for scale effect using the tree-dimensional
contraction method proposed by Hoekstra [4]. To derive
the effective wake distribution from the scaled nominal
wake field, Huangs method can be used [5]. The ef-
fective velocity field can be obtained by subtraction
of the propeller-induced velocities from the total
velocities fields behind a ship with running propeller.
The most reliable values of the hull-propeller inter-
action coefficients: wake coefficient, thrust factor
and relative rotative efficiency will be found from
preliminary self-propulsion model tests, in which a
model of new ship is propelled by a stock propeller
with principal characteristic as near as probable final
design.
3. PRELIMINARY DESIGN
At this stage of the design, the problem is to deter-
mine propulsive performances of screw propeller and
the main characteristics of the propeller to achieve
the expected performance: diameter D, number of
blade z, mean pitch P/D, blade area ratio A
e
/A
o
. The
preliminary design requires dates from the hull of the
ship, the main engine and systematically screw series.
The main engine influences the propeller design
through the propeller rpm and delivered power. The
values of total resistance of the ship play a significant
role in the selection of the propeller, which must
overcome ships resistance. Dates regard hull-propeller
interaction: the effective wake coefficient, the thrust
coefficient, the relative rotative efficiency and any
restrictions such as a limit of the maximum diameter
of propeller may be helpful.
Prior to the preliminary design of a propeller is the
choosing of the propeller design point (Figure 3): com-
bination of engine speed and power, which depends
upon so called mission profile of the ship: cruising
on long distances at middle speed, running shortly at
high speed, etc.
Figure 3. Ship propulsion running point [6]
The notations in Figure 3 are: 2 - heavy propeller
curve (fouled hull and heavy weather); 6 - light pro-
peller curve (clean hull and calm water); MP - specified
propulsion MCR point; SP - service propulsion MCR
point; PD - propeller design point; PD - alternative
propeller design point
The main particulars characteristics of the propeller
are usually determined by means of systematic pro-
peller series based on the results of open-water tests
carried out on model propellers: Wageningen B-series,
Gawn, etc. These screw series comprise models whose
geometrical characteristics such: pitch ratio, number
of blade, blade area ratio, shape of blade sections and
blade thickness are systematically varied. The hydro-
dynamic characteristics of standard series are pre-
sented in the form k
T
,k
Q
- J charts. Using the method
of the multiple linear regression analysis for each of
series, polynomial equations for the series hydrody-
namic characteristics are obtained:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
z
Q x y
k
k k k
K , K = A z J P/D A /A
e o
T Q k
k

(4)
where A
k
are regression coefficient and x
k
, y
k
and z
k
are the correspondent exponents of the independent
variable J, P/D, A
e
/A
0
. The propeller of optimum
efficiency can be automatically estimated using com-
puted codes based on standard series.
In general, higher propeller efficiency is associated
with a larger propeller diameter and a lower shaft rpm.
It is usually desirable to install the largest diameter
than can be accommodated to the hull lines. There are,
however, special conditions to be considered: the after-
body form of the hull depending of the type of the ship,
the necessary clearance between the tip of the pro-
peller, etc. When the propeller diameter corresponding
to optimum efficiency for propeller-ship system is
larger than can be accommodated, in these cases the
propeller diameter selected is a compromise.
In preliminary design, an important step is the choice
of number of propeller blades. Propellers may have
three, four, five or more blades. If the number of blade
increases, the optimum diameter and the open-water
efficiency decrease. From the point of view of effi-
Proceedings of the Workshop on VORTEX DOMINATED FLOWS. ACHIEVEMENTS AND OPEN PROBLEMS, Timisoara, Romania, June 10-11, 2005
134
ciency, is a preference for a small number of blades.
But the major criterion in the selection of the number
of blades is vibration considerations. The fluctuations
of unsteady forces induced by the propeller and
transmitted to the hull through the water by pressure
effects and thought the shaft bearing are lower for a
larger number of blades. Not only the vibration
excitation is to be considered, also attention is to be
paid to the resonance structure. The choosing of the
number of blades, which has a common factor with
the number of cylinders of the Diesel engine, could
lead to vibrations problems [7]. The expanded blade
area is a result of optimization and may be restricted
by cavitation criteria (for example Burill diagrams).
The performances of a propeller designed based
on the systematic series are insufficient for todays
expectation: the results give good agreement between
shaft power, propeller revolution and ship speed and
will be used as a starting point for the next stages.
4. DESIGN
When using systematic series charts, no account is
taken of the variation of the wake over the propeller
disc and the propeller is designed to suit average flow
conditions behind ship [8]. Once the main parameters
are fixed, the problem is to design a propeller to devel-
oping thrust or absorbing the specified power at given
rpm, under given conditions. The inflow to the pro-
peller is assumed to vary radially and the objective
is to find the blade geometry for a specified distribution
of blade loading over the radius. The pitch of the
sections can be chosen to suit the average wake at
each radius (wake adapted propeller) and the shape
of the blade is chosen to minimize cavitation. The
problem can be done using the circulation theory
(vortex theory) of propellers: lifting line theory with
correction factors on lifting surface theory.
In lifting line theory, each blade of propeller is re-
placed by a bound vortex or lifting line, the circulation
of which depends on the radial coordinate r. The
variation of necessitates a free vortex line being
shed from the lifting line. The free vortex line with a
circulation distribution (/dr)dr is not acted by forces.
The assembly of adjacent free vortex lines forms a
free vortex sheet (trailing vortex sheet) helicoidal in
shape.
The velocity induced by the vortex system of the
propeller can be determinate by the law of Biot Savart
or by Lapaces equation. Using the Biot Savart law,
the velocity vector induced by a vortex line of cir-
culation at a point in space is:

dl x R
V = a P
3
4
l R

(5)
where R is the vector distance between the point and
the vortex vector dl. The problem is reduced at an inte-
gral along the vortex line. The second way to establish
this velocity field uses the Laplaces differential
equation, which applies since the flow outside of
vortex space is a potential flow and the problem is
reduced to a boundary problem of a linear partial
differential equation [9].
A propeller that is rotates in the water induces three
velocity components: axial, tangential and radial.
Certain assumptions are required: one of them is
that there is no contraction or reduction in diameter
of the slipstream [10]. The radial component of the
induced velocity can be ignored and the other two com-
ponents, axial u
A
and tangential u
T
must be calculated.
From the circulation distribution, the induced velocities
can be computed based on the Lerbs induction factors:
R dr
u 1 dG
a 0
= i ;
a
V 2 dr r - r r
o
A 0 b
R dr u
1 dG
0 T
= i ;
T
V 2 dr r - r r
o
A 0 b

(6)
where V
A
is a average, nominal axial wake velocity
determined by means of measured axial wake ve-
locity components V
x
(r, ):
1 2
1
V = dr V (r, )
x
A
o
0

(7)
and i
a
and i
T
are the Lerbs induction factor which
are expressed in a Fourier series.
( )
( )
( ) ( )

a
i j, j = I j cos (nj )
a n
0 0
n=0

t
i j, j = I j cos (nj )
n
T 0 0
n=0

(8)
Propeller design using circulation theory is divided
in two parts. The first part named hydrodynamic stage
consists on determining the values of non-dimensional
circulation and the induced velocities u
A
and u
T
. The
second stage consists on determining the optimum
blade geometry from the point of view of cavitation
suppression at the shock-free angles of attack and
strength criteria. Lifting line calculation is always made
in steady conditions. The mean value of the wake
(average wake velocity over the propeller disc) and
the average velocity over one revolution at different
radius are known. The required thrust or delivery
power has to be specified.
The diagram of velocities around a blade section at
radius r is presented in Figure 4, where is the attack
angle, the advance angle,
I
the hydrodynamic pitch
angle, the final pitch angle.
From the velocity diagram, the relation between
induced velocities u
A
and u
T
is:
tg u u
A T i
+ tg = -1
i
V V tg
A A
(9)
Proceedings of the Workshop on VORTEX DOMINATED FLOWS. ACHIEVEMENTS AND OPEN PROBLEMS, Timisoara, Romania, June 10-11, 2005
135
Figure 4. Velocity diagram
For specified values of
I
at various radii the values
of dimensionless circulation G are calculated substi-
tuting relations (6) in (9). Each of the induction factors
and circulation are expresses in Fourier series and a
set of linear equations can be solved to calculate the
values of circulation at various radii.
After the problem of circulation and induced ve-
locities is solved, the ideal thrust loading coefficient
C
Ti
and ideal power coefficient C
Pi
are calculated by
relations:
( ) ( )
1 u
2 1
T
C = 4z G 1- w r - dr
T
tg V r
i
A b

j \
, (
, (
( ,
( ) ( )
3
1 u G 1- w r
A
C = 4z 1+ dr
P
tg V r
i
A b

j \
, (
, (
( ,
(10)
Iteratively, the hydrodynamic pitch angle
i
is ad-
justed to match the ideal thrust loading coefficient (or
the ideal power coefficient) to the required values:
8T
i
C =
T 2 2
i V D
,
P
i
C =
P 3 2
i V D
(11)
The relation between the dimensionless circulation
G and the lift coefficient C
L
is:
2 Gcos C c
L i
=
u
D 1
T
-
tg V
A i
(12)
where c is the chord length of blade section at r
radius and D-propeller diameter
When the final values of , u
A
, u
T
, hydrodynamic
pitch angle
I and C
L
c/D are determined, the geometri-
cal design can started. The lift coefficient depends
on upon the type of airfoil section, its chamber ratio,
thickness chord ratio and the angle of attack. The
problem is to select a combination of chord length,
chamber, blade contour and pitch to match the data
from hydrodynamic design. The pitch is chosen
according to the hydrodynamic pitch to attain shock
free entry, and the chord length c must satisfy cavitation
and strength criteria [2],[12].
The airfoil sections generally used in propeller
designed using the circulation theory are NACA 16,
NACA66. The thickness distribution must satisfy a
classification society class, a linear variation of blade
thickness is often adopted.
One of the major defects of the lifting line theory
is that the propeller blade is represented by a vortex
line or lifting line. The induced velocities are evaluated
only one point on the lifting line. Since the propeller
blades are like lifting surfaces, have a finite thickness
and operate in a viscous flow, it is necessary to correct
the value of angle of attack and chamber ratio to account
for lifting surface, thickness and viscous effects. Lifting
surface correction may be made using the factors
due to Morgan[13]. The factor correct ideal inflow
angle and chamber by:
( ) ( ) ( )
pl
r = k r +k r t

t i o/D
f
max
(r) = k
c
(r) f
pl
max
(13)
where k

, k
t
and k
c
are lifting surface correction factors
to the angle of attack, for thickness, respectively for
chamber ratio.
The pitch angle will be:
( ) ( ) ( ) r = r + r
i
(14)
A suitable distribution of skew to define the ex-
panded blade may be selected at this stage. Theoretical
and experimental data show the advantages of highly
skewed propellers compared with conventional pro-
pellers. The advantages, in general are reduction in
unsteady bearing forces and pressure forces and
increased cavitation inception speeds. The reason
for the decrease of unsteady bearing forces with
increasing skew can be found by examining the ship
wake. The purpose of skewing a blade is to allow
each radial section of the blade to enter the wake at
a different instant, thereby reducing the peak forces.
The effect of skew on unsteady forces and moments
depends on the wakes structure; an arbitrary skew
use without consideration of the wake structure could
lead to very disappointing results [11]
5. ANALYSIS
Once the design is completed, the propeller is analy-
sis in all operation conditions taking into account the
complete wake distribution. This is the third stage,
known like direct problem, and the objectives are to
find the pressure distributions on propeller surfaces,
to evaluate the hydrodynamics performances of
propeller in off-design conditions and to determine
how the ships wake influences the cavitation per-
formances and the unsteady forces induced by the
propeller and transmitted to the hull through the water
by pressure effects and thought the shaft bearing. Some-
times, the pressure distribution is taken as an indication
of the behaviour of the cavitation on the blades.
In the design stage, the hydrodynamic performances
of the propeller are predicted at the design point,
Proceedings of the Workshop on VORTEX DOMINATED FLOWS. ACHIEVEMENTS AND OPEN PROBLEMS, Timisoara, Romania, June 10-11, 2005
136
which correspond only to a mean flow. The real
flow is not uniform, the inflow velocity to the pro-
peller has radially and circumferentially varying
components, as a propeller blade rotates, a section at
any given radius passes through regions of very
different wake concentrations and may therefore
give rise of unsteady loading.
The analysis required a detailed geometrical descrip-
tion of the propeller, the effective wake distribution
and the operational conditions of the propeller. The
purpose of analysis is to study the propellers behavior
in steady and unsteady flow and the objectives are:
calculation of the open water characteristics;
calculations of pressure distribution on propeller
blades operating in uniform flow or in a radially
varied circumferential mean flow;
calculation of pressure distribution on propeller
blades in various blade positions and cavitation
prediction;
calculation of the unsteady forces and moment
acting on propeller shaft (bearing forces);
calculation of the hull pressures fluctuation.
It will be clear that unsatisfactory results from these
calculations could lead to a new iterative design cycle
(with a changed propeller geometry).
Circulation theory, RANS and Panel methods can
predict the open water performances of propeller very
accurately. The quasi-steady methods are still used
for calculations of unsteady hydrodynamic propeller
forces. The quasi-steady method propose by Sasajima
[14] seem to be a practical prediction method for
bearing forces.
An important step in propeller analysis is to find
the pressure distribution on propeller blade, problem,
which can be solved using steady and unsteady
lifting-surface theory in two ways. In one method:
mode function method the lifting surface model,
stationary or instationary, is solved analytically or
numerically by finding from the boundary conditions
the coefficients in the expressions in the integral equa-
tions. The vortex lattice method and the panel method
employ singularity distributions over the blades and
from the boundary conditions of no penetration, the
strength of the singularities is determined [7].
A development of the unsteady lifting-surface
theory and the numerical solution of the mathematical
model are presented by V. van Gent [2]. Some as-
sumptions concerning the schematic representation
of propeller are made. The thickness of the blade and
the presence of the hub are not taken into account.
The geometry and the positions of each lifting surface
are approximated by the projection of the blade contour
on a helicoidal surface with constant pitch. The
mathematical formulation of the mean line section
of the lifting surfaces is:
( ) ( ) ( ) F* = +t - - z / tg - f / sin = 0
R
(15)
where :
= x - fcos
= + f/rsin
= r
(16)
and (x,r,) are the coordinates of the helical line and
(,,) are the coordinates of the mean line, -
pitch angle and the pitch of the helicoidal surfaces is
P = 2r tg = 2/a.
The boundary condition at the lifting surface is that
the velocity component normal to this surface is zero:
( )
F*
+ U' grad F* = 0
t

(17)
where U' is the deviations of the main flow and it
has three components: an axial component: - U + u
o
+u
p
, a radial component: - v
o
+v
p
and a tangential
component - w
o
+w
p
. Subscript o indicate disturbances
present in main flow and subscript p indicate disturbances
due to the hydrodynamic action of the lifting surfaces.
Equation (17) can be written:
( ) ( )
( )
F* F* F*
+ U+ u + u + v + v
o p o p
t x r
1 F*
+ w + w = 0
o p
r

(18)
Starting from this equation, a relation between the
geometry of the lifting surface, the kinematic distur-
bance of the fluid motion and the pressure jump distri-
bution over the lifting surface can be established. The
problem is to find the pressure distribution when the
propeller geometry is given. The integral equation is
transformed in a set of linear algebraic equations easy
to solve.
New orientations in analysis of propeller in un-
steady flow are CFD methods: panel methods, RANS
methods. The flow around propeller can be derived
from the equations of motions using boundary condi-
tions. In a viscous flow the equations of motions are
called Navier Stokes equations and the boundary
conditions at the wall is the no slip conditions. In an
inviscid flow the effect of viscosity can be neglected
and when rotation is also neglected the equations of
motions become simpler: the Laplaces equation. In
that case the boundary condition is that the flow is
tangential to the wall.
The circulation theory neglects the effects of blade
thickness and the prediction of the pressure distribu-
tion of the leading edge is not valid. This problem is
overcome in surface panel methods. The common
description of equation of motion is Laplaces equation
that assumes that the flow is a potential flow. A dis-
tribution of singularities is placed on panels on the sur-
face of hub and blades. The boundary condition of
tangential flow is satisfied on the panels. With the as-
sumption of incompressible, inviscid and irrotational
Proceedings of the Workshop on VORTEX DOMINATED FLOWS. ACHIEVEMENTS AND OPEN PROBLEMS, Timisoara, Romania, June 10-11, 2005
137
fluid, the flow field around a propeller is characterized
by a perturbation velocity potential , which satisfies
( )
2
x, y, z, t = 0 (19)
Considering a surface S composed of the propeller
blade surface S
B
, hub surface S
H
and wake surface
S
W
, a constant source and doublet distributions are
used to write the perturbation potential ( ) t P, at any
point P(x,y,z,t) on the boundary surface:
( ) ( )
( )
1
2 P = Q, t dS-
n R P, Q
S
Q

, ]
, ]
]

( )
( )
Q, t 1
- dS
n R P, Q
S
Q

(20)
where Q(x,y,z,t) is the source point where singu-
larity is located and R(P,Q) distance between point
P and Q. The flow around propeller has to be derived
from the motion equations using boundary conditions
as follows:
the kinematic boundary conditions on S
B
and S
H
is that no flow across blade and hub surface :
( )
( )
Q, t
= - V x', r', ' - t) + r n
W Q
n
Q

, ]
]
(21)
the wake surface is assumed to have zero thickness.
The normal velocity jump and the pressure jump
across S
W
is zero, while a jump in potential is
allowed.
( ) ( )
+ -
Q, t Q, t
= ,
n n
Q Q


+ -
p = p pe S
W
(22)
where

p are the value of potential and the
pressure on the wake surface (on the upper and
lower side).
A Kutta condition must be imposed at the trailing
edge. This is a physical condition that the velocity at
the trailing edge of the blade should be finite. The
Kutta condition was developed: the pressure same at
the two control points of the upper and lower panel
adjacent to the trailing edge:
( ) ( ) ( )
+ -
p r, t = p r, t - p r, t = 0
TE TE TE
(23)
The solution of equation (20) is the perturbation
velocity potential. The perturbation velocities are
obtained by taking the derivatives of the velocity po-
tential over the surface ' V . Adding the tangential
component of the relative inflow V
I
(x,y,z,t) to the
perturbation velocity, the total velocity on the surface
S is obtained. Applying the Bernoullys equation in
unsteady flow, the pressure on propeller surface is:
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2 t 2 1
p t = p + V t - V t -
I 0
2 t

j \
, (
( ,
(24)
A numerical procedure to solve the boundary integral
equations (20) is presented in [16].
The panel methods are useful for calculation of
blade pressure distribution in steady and unsteady
flow and for prediction the cavitation characteristics
of propeller. This method allows the calculation of
minimum pressure at the leading edge and handles
the root and the tip better. A very dense grid with small
panels is necessary at the leading edge.
The effect of viscosity on the flow around propeller
blades can be taken into account using numerical solu-
tions of Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes (RANS)
equations. The solutions of Navier Stokes equations
make it possible to calculate the flow in those regions
which are dominated by viscous effects: the tip vortex,
the hub vortex and separation along the leading edge [19].
The Reynolds-Averaged Navier Stokes equations
are:
v
i
= 0
x
i

( )
v
v p i
i
+ v = F- + - v' v' j ij
i j
t x x x
j i j

(25)
These equations are formally identical with Navier
Stokes equations valid for laminar flow with the
exception of the additional term
ij
(Reynolds stress
tensor), which represents the transfer of momentum
due to turbulent fluctuations. Empirical models are
necessary to describe the effects of turbulent: the so-
called turbulence models. The K- turbulence model
is one of the most employed two equations and it is
based on the solution of equations for the turbulent
kinetic energy and the turbulent dissipations rate [21].
In some applications (turbo machines, propellers),
the control volume is rotating about some axis and the
equations are solved in a rotating frame of reference.
The relative velocity is introduced:
W = V - r (26)
and Coriolis and centripetal terms must be included
in source term..
To solve the Navier Stokes equations the boundary
condition at the wall is the not slip conditions. For
the homogeneous inflow around propeller blade the
rotational periodic boundary condition can be use.
The advantage of application of viscous flow method
is the possibility of taking into account the interaction
between the wake field of the ship and the propeller
inflow. The RANS codes are important to the investi-
gations of hull-propeller interactions problems. In
RANS calculations the notion of effective wake is also
no longer necessary, the flow can be calculated from
the far upstream, even including the flow around the
hull. RANS codes required computational grids in the
Proceedings of the Workshop on VORTEX DOMINATED FLOWS. ACHIEVEMENTS AND OPEN PROBLEMS, Timisoara, Romania, June 10-11, 2005
138
entire fluid region including the body surface and the
solution required a very large number of iterations [23].
The final evaluation of the designed propeller can
be done by model tests and tests on full scale. The
hull-propeller interaction coefficients and the hydro-
dynamic performances of a propeller behind ship are
usually determined through model experiments: open
water experiments, self-propulsion experiments,
cavitation experiments, unsteady hull pressure and
bearing forces measurements. The designed propeller
should be tested in model scale in towing tanks and
in cavitation tunnel. A dummy model (shorted ship
model) or grids are installed in the cavitation tunnel
upstream the propeller to generate a flow similar to
that of a full-scale ship wake.
The tests are time consuming, expensive and ad-
vanced experimental equipment are required. These
facts oblige to improve continuously the design tech-
nique and apply modern theoretical methods to predict
the hydrodynamic characteristics of propellers in
non-uniform wake. This is not to say that theoretical
methods replace the experimental investigation, but
rather the propeller design process can benefits by
the intelligent application of that. One of the CFD
advantages is that a greater number of design alter-
natives can be investigated in a less time.
6. CONCLUSIONS
The paper presents aspects regards propeller design
procedure and practical considerations. The paper
reflects the work of a great number of researchers as
well as the author experience in ship propeller design.
A successful propeller design means a compromise
between many conditions: high efficiency, strength,
no cavitation, low vibration and noise excitations.
These facts oblige to improve continuously the design
technique and apply modern methods to predict the
hydrodynamics performances of marine propeller in
non-uniform wake field behind ship.
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