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v
v
s
1
0.25
s
l
s 1 PD
=
PD
l
l
144 pd
= PD
-
( )
P
C
3 / Q
=
PD
v
2
st
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 35
35
Note: A minimum supply pressure to the terminal equipment is required for Equation 11. If
you do not specify a valve for this input field, the default value will be assumed.
Domestic Water Fixtures
Terminal equipment definitions for domestic hot and cold water use the data categories shown
in Fig. 1-42. The supply code for flush valve is VALVE and for flush tanks, TANK. If you use these
codes, then the quantity of fixture units for the valve or tank is converted into flow GPM
according to Fig. 1-43. For other fixture types, you can estimate the terminal flow GPM. Supply
pressure must account for the minimum pressure and pipe size connection for the fixture.
Descript.
Supply
Code
Mini
Press
PSIG
Trminl
Flow
GPM
Private Use
Fixture Units
Public Use
Fixture Units
Minimum
Connection
Cold Hot Tot Cold Hot Tot Cold Hot
Bathroom
Group
TANK 8 0 4.5 3 6 4.5 3 6
1/2 1/2
Bathroom
Group
VALVE 8 0 6 3 8 4.5 3 6
1
1/2
Water Closet TANK 8 0 3 0 3 5 0 5
3/8
0
Water Closet VALVE 15 0 6 0 6 10 0 10 1 0
Urinal TANK 8 0 3 0 3 3 0 3
3/8
0
Urinal VALVE 8 0 4 0 4 5 0 5 1 0
Shower Head TANK 8 3 2 2 3 4 4 5
1/2 1/2
Bathtub TANK 8 4 7.5 7.5 10 7.5 7.5 10
1/2 1/2
Lavatory TANK 8 2 1 1 1.5 2 2 3
3/8 3/8
Service Sink TANK 8 3 2 2 3 4 4 5
1/2 3/4
Kitchen Sink TANK 8 3 2 2 3 4 4 5
1/2 1/2
Restaurant
Sink
TANK 8 3 3 3 4 3 3 4
1/2 1/2
Drinking
Fountain
TANK 8 2 1 0 1 2 0 2
3/8
0
Dish Washer TANK 8 3 2 2 3 3 3 4
3/8 3/8
Clothes
Washer
TANK 8 4 2 2 3 3 3 4
1/2 1/2
Fig. 1-42: Fixture Data: Domestic Hot and Cold Water
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 36
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Flow
GPM
Fixture Units
Flow
GPM
Fixture Units
Flow
GPM
Fixture Units
Tank Valve Tank Valve Tank Valve
1 0 45 107 37 145 611 521
2 1 46 111 39 150 638 559
3 3 47 115 42 155 665 596
4 4 48 119 44 160 692 631
5 6 49 123 46 165 719 666
6 7 50 127 48 170 748 700
7 8 51 130 50 175 778 739
8 10 52 135 52 180 809 775
9 12 53 141 54 185 840 811
10 13 54 146 57 190 874 850
11 15 55 151 60 200 945 931
12 16 56 155 63 210 1018 1009
13 18 57 160 66 220 1091 1091
14 20 58 165 69 230 1173 1173
15 21 59 170 73 240 1254 1254
16 23 60 175 76 250 1335 1335
17 24 62 185 82 260 1418 1418
18 26 64 195 88 270 1500 1500
19 28 66 205 95 280 1583 1583
20 30 68 215 102 290 1668 1668
21 32 70 225 108 300 1755 1755
22 34 5 72 236 116 310 1845 1845
23 36 6 74 245 124 320 1926 1926
24 39 7 76 254 132 330 2018 2018
25 42 8 78 264 140 340 2110 2110
26 44 9 80 275 148 350 2204 2204
27 46 10 82 284 158 360 2298 2298
28 49 11 84 294 168 370 2388 2388
29 51 12 86 305 176 380 2480 2480
30 54 13 88 315 186 390 2575 2575
31 56 14 90 326 195 400 2670 2670
32 58 15 92 337 205 410 2765 2765
33 60 16 94 348 214 420 2862 2862
34 63 18 96 359 223 430 2960 2960
35 66 20 98 370 234 440 3060 3060
36 69 21 100 380 245 450 3150 3150
37 74 23 105 406 270 500 3620 3620
38 78 25 110 431 295 550 4070 4070
39 83 26 115 455 329 600 4480 4480
40 86 28 120 479 365 700 5380 5380
41 90 30 125 506 396 800 6280 6280
42 95 31 130 533 430 900 7280 7280
43 99 33 135 559 460 1000 8300 8300
44 103 35 140 585 490
Fig. 1-43: Conversions: Gallons per Minute to Fixture Units
(reproduced with permission from ASPE Data Book, Vol. 1, p. 3-8)
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 37
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Gas Appliances
Fig. 1-44 shows the approximate gas demand for common appliances. These default values were
obtained from the ASPE Data Book, Vol. 1, Fundamentals of Plumbing Design, 1983-1984, p. 6-8.
The heating value of the gas is used to convert the Btu/hr value into cu ft/hr flow of gas.
Appliance
Output
Btu/hr
Fig. 1-44: Common Appliances:
Approximate Gas Demand
(reproduced with permission from ASPE
Data Book, Vol. 1, p. 3-8.)
Commercial kitchen equipment:
Small broiler 30,000
Large broiler 60,000
Combination broiler and roaster 66,000
Coffee maker, 3-burner 18,000
Coffee maker, 4-burner 24,000
Deep fat fryer, 45 lbs of fat 50,000
Deep fat fryer, 75 lbs of fat 75,000
Doughnut fryer, 200 lbs of fat 72,000
2-deck baking and roasting oven 100,000
3-deck baking oven 96,000
Revolving oven, 4 or 5 trays 210,000
Range with hot top and oven 90,000
Range with hot top 45,000
Range with fry top and oven 100,000
Range with fry top 50,000
Coffee urn, single, 5 gallon 28,000
Coffee urn, twin, 10 gallon 56,000
Coffee urn, twin, 15 gallon 84,000
Residential equipment:
Clothes dryer 35,000
Range 65,000
Stove top burners 40,000
Oven 25,000
30-gallon water heater 30,000
40- to 50-gallon water heater 50,000
Log lighter 25,000
Barbecue 50,000
Miscellaneous equipment:
Commercial log lighter 50,000
Bunsen burner 3,000
Gas engine, per horsepower 10,000
Steam boiler, per horsepower 50,000
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
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Thermal Analysis
The heat gain/loss and temperature calculation options apply to liquids and steam only.
You can choose between two options for determining the fluid temperature in each pipe section.
In the first option, you can assume an average supply and return fluid temperature for all supply
and return sections. This data is used to calculate the fluid properties. An example of the use of
average temperatures is 200
o
F supply and 160
o
F return for a hot water heating system.
In the case of un-insulated pipes and high temperature steam and hot water, the supply
temperature at each terminal must be calculated. This is done by calculating the entering and
leaving temperature of each supply section, beginning with the initial temperature of the first
section. The first section must be identified. In the case of liquids, the first section is the section
downstream of the pump station.
The entering temperature of any supply section is the leaving temperature of the upstream
section. You can reset the leaving section temperature for sections that have primary
equipment.
The following equations are used to calculate liquid and steam heat gains and losses:
where Q
s
= rate of heat transfer per square foot of outer surface (Btu/hr sq ft)
T
avg
= average temperature of section (F)
T
amb
= temperature of ambient air (F)
R
i
= inside radius of pipe, (in.)
R
o
= outside radius of pipe, (in.)
R
s
= outside radius of insulation (in.) - R
o
+ insulation thickness
K
1
= thermal conductivity of pipe (Btu in./hr sq ft F)
K
2
= thermal conductivity of insulation (Btu in./hr sq ft F)
1/h = outside surface resistance (hr sq ft F/Btu in. = 0.6)
Equation 12 is based on heat flow Equations 11 and 12 in ASHRAE Handbook: 1981
Fundamentals, p. 23.8. The average temperature of the section is the mean value of the
temperatures entering and leaving the section. Since the leaving temperature is unknown, the
average temperature is calculated iteratively.
where Q
s
= total rate of heat transfer from pipe section (Btu/hr)
A
s
= outside surface area of pipe (sq ft)
h / 1 +
K
R
R
R
+
K
R
R
R
T
-
T
= Q
2
o
s
e
s
1
i
o
e
s
amb avg
s
log log
A
q = Q
s
s s
-
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
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The temperature of the liquid flowing through the pipe section is obtained from Equation 14.
The procedure for determining steam temperature changes is described in Steam Piping.
where dT
s
= change in liquid temperature in section (F)
F
s
= flow through section (GPM)
D
f
= density of liquid (lb/cu ft)
C
p
= specific heat of liquid (Btu/lb F)
where T
l
= temperature of fluid leaving section (F)
T
e
= temperature of fluid entering section (F)
The average temperature T
avg
in Equation 12 depends on the leaving section temperature in
Equation 16. The procedure consists of initializing the leaving temperature to the entering
section temperature and then iterating through Equations 12 through 16 until a steady state
value of T
avg
occurs.
Pipe Sizing
The general principles of pipe sizing are described in the ASHRAE Handbook: 1985 Fundamentals,
Chapter 34, p. 34.1. The Darcy-Weisbach and Colebrook-White equations are used to calculate
the pressure drop in a pipe section due to fluid friction. The Darcy-Weisbach equation is:
where h = head loss due to friction (ft)
f = friction factor, dimensionless
D = inside diameter of pipe (ft)
L = length of pipe section (ft)
V = average velocity (ft/sec)
g = acceleration of gravity (ft/sec
2
)
(
-
(
F lb
btu
C
x
ft cu
lb
D
x
hr
.
60 x
gal.
ft cu
0.13368
.
gal.
F
hr) / (Btu Q
=
dT
p f s
s
s
min
min
T
d -
T
=
T s e l
2
T
+
T
=
T
e l
avg
(
A
g 2
V
D
L
f = h
2
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 40
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The friction factor f is a function of the pipe roughness , inside diameter D and a dimensionless
parameter, the Reynolds number.
where = fluid density at given temperature (lb/cu ft)
= dynamic viscosity of fluid (lb/ft sec)
The ratio / is the kinematic viscosity in sq ft/sec
Laminar flow exists where Re < 2100. For this condition, the friction factor f is obtained from:
Where Re > 2100, the flow is assumed to be turbulent. The Moody diagram that relates the
friction factor f with Reynolds number and the relative roughness /D is shown in ASHRAE
Handbook: 1985 Fundamentals, p. 2.10, fig. 13. The Colebrook-White equation for turbulent
flow, shown in Equation 20, is used for the friction factor f.
where c = absolute roughness of inside pipe wall (ft)
For fully rough flow, the value of Reynolds number is high and the last term in Equation 20 can
be neglected. Equation 21 can be used in its place.
(
c
D
2 + 1.14 =
f
1
10
log
Equation 20 is used to calculate the friction factor f for turbulent flow. The Newton-Raphson
iterative method is used to solve for f since f appears on both sides of the equation. The initial
value of f for this iteration is obtained from Equation 21. As Reynolds number increases, the
values from Equation 20 approach those that would be obtained by applying Equation 21 directly
for fully rough flow.
Pipe sizing and the size of each pipe section depend on your criteria (See Sizing Criteria in this
engineering basis). The criteria can be based on the limits for pressure loss per 100 ft, maximum
velocity or maximum flow. The sizing iteration consists of comparing the pressure drop/100 ft,
velocity or flow against the limits you specify. This is done for each standard pipe size, beginning
v D
= e R
e R
4 6
= f
(
(
f ) D / ( e R
9.3
+ 1 2 - ) / (D 2 + 1.14 =
f
1
10 10
c
c log log
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 41
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with the smallest size and continuing until a size is found that meets the criteria. When the
maximum pipe size limit is reached, you must use your engineering judgement to decide whether
to:
- maintain the sizing criteria and increase the pipe size above the maximum limit or
- maintain the pipe size limit and calculate the new criteria for this size.
Steam Piping
Steam distribution network pipe sizing requires flow rates and sizing criteria for the pipe
sections. The flow rate for dry steam or steam with a small amount of water (condensate) is in
accordance with the laws of fluid flow. The flow is a function of these properties:
Steam
temperature
pressure
viscosity
density
Pipe
length
diameter
pressure drop
The Darcy-Weisbach and Colebrook-White equations (Equations 17 through 21) are used to size
steam pipes,. These equations are described in Pipe Sizing.
The flow of steam is automatically induced by the volume shrinkage that occurs when steam
gives up its latent heat and condenses. Therefore, steam flow involves the analysis of two-phase
flow. Condensate flows in the same direction as steam and must be trapped at intervals along
the pipe length. Typical pressure classifications of steam in HVAC applications include
Vacuum : less than 0 PSIG
Low pressure : 0 to 15 PSIG
Medium pressure 15 to 100 PSIG
High pressure 100 PSIG and above
The basis of pressure classification is the initial pressure. Default values are shown in Fig. 1-45.
Pressure Class
Initial PSI
Initial Steam
Pressure
(PSIG)
Pressure
Drop
(PSI/100 ft)
Maximum
System
P.D. (PSIG)
Maximum
Velocity
(ft/min)
Minimum
Velocity
(ft/min)
low 3.5 3.5 0.25 1 4000 0.0
low 12 12 0.70 3.4 4000 0.0
medium 30 30 2 7.5 6000 0.0
high 50 50 3 12.5 10000 0.0
high 100 100 4 20 10000 0.0
high 150 150 6 27.5 10000 0.0
Fig. 1-45: Steam Pipe Sizing Criteria
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 42
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In addition to selecting a pressure classification, you can specify additional sizing criteria and
constraints for the project including
Initial steam pressure (PSIG)
Maximum circuit pressure drop (psi)
Pressure drop per 100 ft (psi)
Maximum velocity (ft/min)
Minimum velocity (ft/min)
The maximum system pressure drop criterion is met by successively reducing the sizes of pipe
sections for circuits that exceed the limit. This procedure is described in Circuit Balancing in this
engineering basis.
Pipe sizing iteration consists of checking the pressure drop/100 ft and the maximum velocity of
each standard pipe size of a given pipe material against your sizing criteria. This sequence begins
with the smallest pipe size and continues until the required size is found or the maximum pipe
size limit for the given material is reached.
The general laws of gas flow can be used in sizing steam pipes. This assumes that the steam
temperature and pressure maintains the steam quality above its saturation level (gas) and the
small amount of condensate in the system flows in the same direction as the steam.
In the program, you can enter graphic and text input to a steam supply system and its
condensate return system simultaneously since they serve the same terminal equipment. The
two systems are analyzed separately. Flow quantities for the terminal equipment are not
automatically transferred from steam supply to condensate return since the quality of steam
downstream of the terminal equipment depends on the equipment type, heat losses, pressure
losses, steam traps, sub-cooling, and other design factors.
Return systems are described in Steam Condensate Return Piping in this engineering basis.
Changes in Steam Conditions
Fig. 1-46 shows steam flow and heat loss conditions for a pipe section.
Fig. 1-46: Changes in Steam Conditions
The changes in steam conditions for a section are due to heat loss and pressure loss. For a given
section,
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
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P
1
, P
2
= entering and leaving pressure (lbf/sq ft absolute)
V
1
, V
2
= entering and leaving specific volume (cu ft/lbm)
T
1
, T
2
= entering and leaving temperatures ( Kelvin)
dQ = heat loss in section (Btu/lbm)
dP = pressure loss in section due to friction and fittings (lbf/sq ft)
P
1
, V
1
and T
1
are set equal to the corresponding leaving conditions in the upstream section. The
pressure loss dP is calculated using your sizing criteria. The leaving pressure is calculated using
the equation:
The amount of steam condensed in the pipe depends on dQ (heat loss) and dP (pressure loss).
Each of these factors by itself produces condensate. Condensation results in an increase in the
specific volume (expansion).
To find the temperature and specific volume due to pressure losses, you should assume
polytropic expansion.
where P
1
and T
1
= the initial pressure and temperature
P
2
and T
2
= the final pressure and temperature
n = index of expansion or compression, = 1.31 (approx.) for steam
(
P
P
V
=
V
2
1
n
1
1 2
where V
1
and V
2
= initial and final specific volumes
If the specific volume V
2
is less than the specific volume V
s2
of saturated steam at pressure P
2
,
then the steam is wet and the dryness fraction q
2
, due to the pressure drop only, is the ratio
V
2
/V
s2
. The volume of liquid can be neglected.
Steam Condensate Quantity
The amount of steam condensing in the pipe is calculated from the General Energy Equation:
where dQ = heat gained (+ve) or lost (-ve) (Btu/hr/lbm)
dU = change in internal energy
dP -
P
=
P 1 2
(
P
P
T
=
T
1
2
n
1 - n
1 2
W d + U d = Q d
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 44
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dW = work done in moving from state 1 (entry) to state 2 (exit) dQ, dU and dW
in heat units
where dQ = heat gained (+ve) or lost (-ve) (Btu/hr/lbm)
H
1
, H
2
= enthalpies at entry and exit (Btu/lbm)
P
1
, P
2
= pressure at entry and exit (lb/sq ft absolute)
V
1
, V
2
= specific volume at entry and exit (cu ft/lbm)
n = index of expansion or compression, = 1.31 (approx.) for steam
J = Joules Mechanical Equivalent of Work (=778)
Equation 26 is based on the general expansion and compression law for gasses (PV
n
= Constant).
The only unknown quantity in the equation is the enthalpy change (H
2
- H
1
).
Equation 26 can be rearranged as
The dryness fraction of steam at the exit point 2 due to pressure loss and heat loss can be
calculated from
where x
2
= dryness fraction at exit
h
f2
= enthalpy of saturated liquid at exit (Btu/lbm)
h
fg2
= enthalpy of evaporation at exit (Btu/lbm)
The steam that condenses when it moves from entry point 1 to exit point 2 is calculated from
where C
2
= condensate (lbm/hr)
M
1
= mass flow of steam at entry (lbm/hr)
The procedure assumes that the condensate at the exit point 2 of the pipe section is trapped and
removed from the system. The quantity of steam remaining at point 2 is now the quantity
entering the next section or sections (junction).
( )
( )
1) - (n J
V P
-
V P
n
+
H
-
H
= Q d
2 2 1 1
1 2
( )
1) - (n J
V P
-
V P
n
- Q d +
H
=
H
2 2 1 1
1 2
h x
+
h
=
H 2 g f 2 2 f 2
h
h
-
H
=
x
2 g f
2 f 2
2
( )
M x
- 1 =
C 1 2 2
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
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If point 2 is a junction, then the remaining quantity of steam is divided between the downstream
sections in proportion to the original required flow of steam through those sections.
Steam Condensate Return Piping
The basis for sizing steam condensate return systems is found in the ASHRAE Handbook: 1985
Fundamentals, Chapter 34, p. 34.15. Steam condensate return piping systems are analyzed as a
separate stand-alone system that is independent of the steam supply systems.
Definitions
Wet Return Systems: The return pipe contains only the liquid. There is no flash vapor. This can
occur when the condensate entering the trap is sufficiently subcooled. It can also occur when
the liquid and vapor are separated and the wet return line is kept below the boiler water so that
only liquid can flow through the line.
Dry Return Systems: The condensate piping contains both saturated liquid and saturated vapor.
This is typical of most condensate return systems.
Open Return Systems: The system can be wet or dry. It is vented to the atmosphere and the
condensate line is essentially at atmospheric pressure. The driving force for returning
condensate is gravitational acceleration and the return line is sloped.
Closed Return Systems: The pressure in the condensate return line is above or below
atmospheric pressure and is not vented to the atmosphere. The driving force for returning the
condensate is pressure loss along the return line.
Condensate Return Systems
Condensate return types can be wet or dry and the system type can be open or closed. Wet
types refer to liquid only and dry types are for vapor only. Given the flow rate and sizing criteria,
the pipe sizes can be determined using the methods described below.
Sizing Methods
Wet Closed Return: The Darcy-Weisbach and Colebrook-White equations are used to size the
pipe. The sizing criterion is pressure drop per 100 ft. or maximum velocity. Equation 31 is the
Darcy-Weisbach equation modified for steam condensate return.
2
V
x
g
x
D
L
x
144
f
= P
2
c
A
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
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where P = pressure drop (lb/in
2
)
f = friction factor (dimensionless)
L = length of pipe section (ft)
D = inside diameter of pipe (ft)
= density of saturated liquid or saturated vapor
V = average velocity (ft/sec)
g
c
= units conversion factor = 32.2
Typical design pressure losses per unit length (P/L) are in the range of 1/16 psi to 1 psi per 100
ft. The velocity for liquid condensate systems should not exceed 150 ft/min. For vapor systems,
the velocity should not exceed 7000 ft/min. The friction factor f is calculated from the
Colebrook-White equation as described in Pipe Sizing in this engineering basis.
Wet Open Return: The pipe is assumed to be filled with liquid. Sizing is based on an equivalency
between horizontal pipe flows and sloped pipe flow as shown in Fig. 1-47. The system is vented
and flow is gravitational.
Pipe Slope
in. / 10 ft
0.5 1.0 1.5 2 3 4
5
Pressure Drop
psi / 100 ft
0.18 0.361 0.540 0.722 1.084 1.44
1.805
Fig. 1-47: Equivalency Between Sloped and Horizontal Flows
(reproduced with permission from ASHRAE Handbook: 1985 Fundamentals, Table 18, p. 34.16)
Fig. 1-47 illustrates that for increasing pipe slopes, the pressure drop/100 ft criterion also
increases and you end up with a successively smaller pipe.
Dry Open Return: This method is the same as wet open return. The fluid is assumed to be vapor.
The pipe slope is assumed to be 1 in. per 10 ft and the pressure drop/ 100 ft criterion is set at
0.361 psi. The system is vented and the flow is gravitational.
Fig. 1-48, Fig. 1-49 and Fig. 1-50 are reproduced with permission from ASHRAE Handbook: 1985
Fundamentals, Table 19, p. 34.16. For sizes and pressure losses marked a, the velocity is above
7000 ft/min.
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
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47
Dry Closed Return: The condensate is assumed to be vapor. Typically, the volume fraction of
vapor in the condensate is between 0.96 and 0.99. The pipe is sized from Fig. 1-48, Fig. 1-49, and
Fig. 1-50, knowing the pressure drop criteria (psi/100 ft), initial supply pressure (PSIG), design
return pressure (PSIG), and amount of condensate flow in the pipe section.
Supply Pressure 5 PSIG
Return Pressure 0 PSIG
Supply Pressure 15 PSIG
Return Pressure 0 PSIG
Supply Pressure 30 PSIG
Return Pressure = 0 PSIG
psi/100
L x S
h
K x 3550 = Q
0.5
(
L x S
a x P
K x 4830 = Q
0.5
(
(
(
D x 0.03 +
D
3.6
+ 1
D
= K
5
0.5
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
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L = total equivalent length of pipe circuit (ft)
P = pressure drop in circuit (psi)
a = average pressure in pipe (psi)
Equations 32, 33 and 34 can be applied to all types of fuel gases provided by the gas utility
industry. This includes both natural and manufactured gas. To size pipes for a particular type of
fuel gas, use the specific gravity of that gas. Specific gravities for typical fuel gases include 0.67
for natural gas, 0.42 for coal gas, 0.86 for producer gas from bituminous coal, 0.47 for oil gas, and
0.55 for methane. Refer to Flow of Fluids, Crane, p. A-8 for specific gravities of other gases.
For gas pressures exceeding 1 PSIG and pipe sizes equal to or larger than 6 in.
where E = efficiency factor
= 0.92 for average operating conditions
P
1
= pressure entering pipe network (psi)
P
2
= pressure leaving pipe network (psi)
L
m
= length of pipe circuit (miles)
Sizing procedures consist of generating a table of flow rates Q for each inside pipe diameter D for
a given maximum circuit pressure drop h. The initial trial length L is the measured length of the
longest circuit. The size of each pipe section is selected from the table of flows in the section.
Dynamic Head
Dynamic circuit pressure analysis consists of these steps:
- add the pressure losses in each section of the circuit to obtain the circuit pressure loss
- determine the highest circuit pressure loss
- set the entering pressure of the first section in the circuit as the highest circuit loss
- analyze each section in the circuit starting with the first section and moving through
each section in the fluid flow sequence
- the entering section pressure is the leaving section pressure of the upstream
section
- the leaving section pressure is the entering section pressure less the section loss
- calculate the balancing required in each circuit. This is equal to the highest circuit
pressure loss minus the given circuit pressure loss.
In the case of primary-secondary systems, the primary circuit ends at the booster pump on the
terminal equipment if there is no booster pump in the circuit.
Secondary systems are analyzed independently as separate systems. The entering pressure of
the first section in the secondary system is the pressure loss of the secondary circuit with the
highest pressure loss.
(
L
P
-
P
D
x E x 36.8 = Q
m
2
2
2
1
0.5394
2.6182
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
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51
Static Head
Static head calculations apply to liquids only. The static head at any point in the piping system is
due to the weight of the column of liquid above that point.
The static heads at the start and end nodes of each pipe section in the piping system is
estimated. The static head at any node is the difference between the highest z coordinate of all
the nodes in the system and the z coordinate of the given node.
Circuit Balancing
There are two circuit balancing options:
1. Balancing to maintain a maximum limit for circuit pressure loss. This option applies to
steam systems only.
2. Balancing to minimize the amount of throttling in the circuit. This option applies to
liquid supply systems only.
Maintaining a Maximum Limit for Circuit Pressure Loss
The limiting criteria used in the balancing procedure is the minimum velocity limit for each
nominal pipe size. The iteration procedure is:
1. Calculate pressure loss through all circuits.
2. Sort the circuits in ascending order of pressure loss and find the circuit with the highest
pressure loss.
3. If the highest circuit pressure loss is less than the maximum allowed, exit the iteration
routine.
4. Calculate the pressure loss reduction required in the circuit with the highest pressure
loss (circuit pressure loss maximum allowed).
5. Move through the circuit in sequence from the last section with terminal equipment to
the first supply section.
a. If the given section has an override size, proceed to the next upstream section.
b. Increase pipe size by one nominal size.
c. Calculate new pressure loss in this section and the pressure reduction in the circuit.
d. If required circuit pressure reduction is not satisfied, repeat steps 5b and 5c until
upstream section size or minimum velocity is reached.
e. When upstream section size is reached, repeat steps 5a through 5d for the next
upstream section until the first section is reached.
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
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52
f. For the first section, repeat steps 5a through 5c until the required circuit reduction
is satisfied or the minimum velocity is reached.
6. Check if all the sections have reached minimum velocity (ignore override sizes). If so,
exit the iteration routine.
7. If maximum allowable circuit pressure loss is still not satisfied, start again with step 1.
Minimize the Throttling Required in Circuits
The limiting criteria used in this procedure are your design criteria for maximum velocity in the
piping system. The iteration procedure is:
1. Calculate pressure loss through all circuits.
2. Sort the circuits in ascending order of pressure loss and find the circuits with the highest
and lowest pressure loss.
3. If the circuit flag of the circuit with the lowest pressure loss indicates that the current
loss cannot be further increased, exit the iteration routine.
4. Calculate the pressure loss increase required in the circuit with the lowest pressure loss
(highest circuit pressure loss lowest circuit pressure loss).
5. If the pressure loss increase from step 4 is less than or equal to 0, exit the iteration
routine.
6. Move through the circuit with the lowest pressure loss, in sequence, from the last
section with the terminal equipment to the first supply section.
a. If the given section has an override size, go to the next upstream section.
b. If the section flag indicates that the section has reached maximum velocity, then go
to the next upstream section.
c. If the next upstream section is common to other circuits, return to step 1.
d. Decrease the pipe size by one nominal size.
e. Calculate the new velocity and pressure loss in the section followed by the increase
in circuit pressure loss.
f. If the new velocity in the section is greater than the maximum velocity, then
i. Set flag indicating section size cannot be further reduced.
ii. Go to the next upstream section.
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
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53
iii. Go to step 6c.
g. If the required circuit pressure increase is not satisfied, then repeat steps 6d
through 6f until the first section is analyzed.
7. Set circuit flag indicating that the circuit has been analyzed and the circuit loss cannot
be increased any further.
Go to step 1.
Pressurization Tanks
Pressurization (expansion/compression) tank sizing is based on the methods described in the
1987 ASHRAE Handbook, pp. 13.11 - 13.15. Pressurization tanks include
- Open
- Closed
Such tanks are appropriate for system types that use condenser water, chilled water, hot water,
domestic hot and cold water, glycol and brine. High-temperature hot water systems can be
designed up to operating temperatures of 280 F as stated in Equation 40.
Closed pressurization tank construction can be:
- A regular tank where the pressurizing air or gas is in contact with the liquid.
- A diaphragm tank where the air charge and liquid are permanently separated by a
diaphragm to prevent corrosion
-
System Volume
Pressurization tank size is based on the volume capacity of the system. System volume is
estimated in three parts:
The volume of all the pipe sections in the system. The pipe volume is converted into gallons
of liquid using the density of the liquid. The liquid temperature for determining the
density is the lowest temperature in the system.
The liquid storage capacity of all the equipment in the system. The volume storage capacity
of the terminal equipment, primary equipment and miscellaneous equipment.
Additional contingency system volume estimated as a percentage of the system volume.
Open Tank Sizing
Open tank sizing assumes that the tank is:
vented to the atmosphere
at least three feet above the highest point in the piping system
connected to the suction side of the pump
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
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54
The tank volume size in gallons is estimated as a percentage of the total system volume The
minimum recommended volume is 6% in accordance with the 1987 ASHRAE Handbook.
As an alternative to sizing the tank based on the percentage of system volume, you can use the
system liquid expansion volume which is the difference in volumes at the maximum temperature
of the piping system and at the minimum temperature.
Closed Tank Sizing
Fill Pressure: The tank location with respect to the piping system affects the initial fill or
minimum pressure P
f
at the tank. The tank can be at three possible locations with respect to the
system.
Tank is above the piping system
where V = positive venting pressure; (assumes 12 ft of liquid if not known)
F = frictional piping losses from tank to pump that must be overcome to obtain
positive air venting pressure (ft of liquid as specified in input)
A = atmospheric pressure (ft of liquid)
Tank is on suction side of the pump
where H = system static head
= distance between tank and highest point of piping system
Tank is on discharge side of the pump
where PH = pump head (ft of liquid) that must be added to maintain the positive pressure
at the top of the system
In all three cases, the atmospheric pressure A is added to obtain absolute pressure You must
specify either the initial fill pressure P
f
or the system static head H.
Tank Sizing Equations
The following equations are used to size closed tanks:
Regular tank with operating temperatures below 160 F
A + F + V =
Pf
A + H + V =
Pf
A + PH + V =
Pf
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
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55
where V
t
= minimum volume of pressurization tank (gal)
E = net pressurization of water in the system when heated from minimum to
maximum temperature (gal)
P
a
= pressure in pressurization tank when water first enters tank (ft of water
absolute); this can be assumed to be atmospheric pressure
P
f
= initial fill or minimum pressure of tank (ft of water absolute)
P
o
= maximum operating pressure of tank (ft of water absolute); you can specify
this relief valve setting
Regular tank with operating temperatures between 160 F and 280 F
where T = maximum average operating temperature (F)
V
s
= system volume calculated from the piping system dimensions (gal)
Diaphragm tank
Cold Water Tanks
Tank sizing for chilled water systems using Equation 39 will result in tanks of very small size
because of the low pressurization coefficients (40 to 90F temperature range). For that reason,
closed compression tanks applied to chilled water systems are sized as follows:
Regular tank size is half the equivalent hot water size. The piping system is considered to be
operating from 70 F to 200 F. Diaphragm tank size is calculated from
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
P
P
-
P
P
E
=
V
o
a
f
a
t
( )
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
P
P
P
P
V
x 0.0466 - T x 0.041
=
V
o
a
f
a
s
t
( )
(
|
.
|
\
|
P
P
1
V
x 0.0466 - T x 0.041
=
V
o
f
s
t
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 55
where e = net pressurization factor for water
The lowest temperature of chilled water equals the minimum design temperature. This can be
assumed to be 35
o
F. The highest temperature is the highest anticipated ambient temperature
The net pressurization factor e is obtained from Fig. 1-51.
Highest
Temp. F
Pressurization
Factor
1-51: Net Expansion Factor:
Water in Chilled Water Systems
(reproduced with permission from 1987 ASHRAE
Handbook, Table 2, p. 13.15)
90
0.0041
100
0.0058
110
0.0077
120
0.0100
130
0.0124
140
0.0150
150
0.0179
160 0.0209
(
|
.
|
\
|
P
P
- 1
V
e
=
V
o
f
s
t
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 56
Pump Performance Based on System Requirements
Analyses
The pump must be analyzed for the following
Total static head for open systems
Net positive suction head available (NPSHA)
Atmospheric pressure at a given altitude
Vapor pressure for liquid at a given temperature
Circuit loss on the suction side of the pump
System data
Flow and head
Domestic water flow based on total fixture units
Primary system curve of flow vs. head in tabular form
Performance required of each pump in primary pumping station
Flow and head
Brake horsepower, motor horsepower and standard motor size
Performance required of each booster pump
Flow and head
Brake horsepower, motor horsepower and standard motor size
Total Static Head for Open Systems
The total static head is based:
Static suction lift (SSL) (ft of liquid)
Static suction head (SSH) (ft of liquid)
Static discharge head (SDH) (ft of liquid)
The total static head (TSH) is calculated given the discharge head and suction lift or suction head.
SSH > SDH if SSH - SDH = TSH
SDH > SSH if SDH - SSH = TSH
SDH + SSL = TSH
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 57
Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA)
NPSHA is calculated for open systems such as condenser/cooling tower systems where the water
is in contact with the atmosphere, and for high temperature hot water (HTHW) systems.
In the case of open systems NPSHA is affected by the total static head. For HTHW, NPSHA is
affected by high values of vapor pressure.
NPSHA has limited usage in closed piping systems, which include water, glycol and brine. For a
detailed explanation, refer to Pump & System Curve Data, Bell & Gossett, p. 11.
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) can be defined as the head that causes liquid to flow
through the suction piping and into the eye of the impeller. This head is due to either
the pressure of the atmosphere or static head plus atmospheric pressure.
Required NPSH (NPSHR) is a function of the pump design. It varies among different pump
manufacturers, between different pumps from the same manufacturer and with the
capacity and speed of any one pump. The manufacturer supplies this quantity for the
pump.
Available NPSH (NPSHA) is a function of the piping system which includes the pump. This is
calculated based on the z-elevations of the liquid and piping system. The available
NPSH must be equal to or greater than the required NPSH of the pump.
The pumping arrangement can be as follows:
The source of liquid is above the pump:
NPSHA = atmospheric pressure (ft) + static head on suction (ft)
- friction losses in suction piping (ft) - vapor pressure of liquid (ft)
The source of liquid is below the pump:
NPSHA = atmospheric pressure (ft) - static suction lift (ft)
- friction losses in suction piping (ft) - vapor pressure of liquid (ft)
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 58
Altitude Atmospheric Pressure
ft in. Hg
psia
0 29.921 14.679
500 29.38 14.414
1000 28.86 14.159
2000 27.82 13.648
3000 26.82 13.158
4000 25.84 12.677
5000 24.90 12.216
6000 23.98 11.765
7000 23.09 11.328
8000 22.22 10.901
9000 21.39 10.494
10000 20.58 10.097
Fig. 1-52: Standard Atmospheric Pressure for Altitudes
(In. Hg data reproduced with permission from ASHRAE Handbook: 1985
Fundamentals, Table 3, p. 6.12)
Vapor pressure data for the given liquid and given temperature is obtained from Fig. 1-53.
Default values for water from 60
o
F to 450
o
F and for diesel oil and gasoline from 0
o
F to 150
o
F
are shown. The frictional losses on the suction side of the pump must be calculated as required
for the NPSHA equation.
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 59
Temp.
o
F WATER DIESEL GASOLINE
-30
0 1.00 1.80
30 3.00 3.80
60 0.26 5.00 6.80
100 0.95 7.00 10.80
150 3.72 20.00 30.00
212 14.12
220 17.19
240 24.97
260 35.44
280 49.22
300 67.00
350 134.60
400 247.30
450 424.25
Fig. 1-53: Vapor Pressure of Liquids, psia
(water data reproduced permission from Hydraulic Handbook, pp. 84-85)
System Data
System head includes the highest circuit pressure drop in the system. It is the sum of all the
pressure losses of all the sections in the circuit. Section-by-section pressure losses are calculated
in both psi and feet of liquid at the entering section temperature and density of the liquid.
Circuit pressure losses are obtained by summing the section losses in psi and then expressed in
feet of liquid if required. This is because losses measured in feet of liquid are dependent on the
density of the liquid at different temperatures.
where H
c
= pressure head for closed systems (psi)
HCPD = highest circuit pressure drop (psi)
PSL = pumping station losses not calculated in sectional analysis (psi)
CF = contingency factor (%)
Equation 43 applies to closed systems. For open systems, the total static head in psi is
added to the pressure head
TSH +
H
=
H c o
( ) ( ) 100 / CF + 1 PSL + HCPD =
Hc
-
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 60
where H
o
= pressure head for open systems (psi)
TSH = total static head as calculated
Calculations for TSH are shown in Total Static Head for Open Systems. The system head in psi is
converted to feet of liquid at the temperature of the liquid in the pump discharge pipe section.
where H1 = system head (ft of liquid)
H = H
c
for closed systems, or H
o
for open systems
D = density of liquid at pump discharge section temperature (lb/cu ft)
The static heads are the z axis distances from the lowest and highest point of the piping system
to the primary pumping station. System flow Q1 is calculated as the flow in the discharge section
of the pump station. In the case of domestic water, the flow at the pump or first section, is
calculated on the basis of total fixture units, if fixture type data is entered as terminal flow.
System Curve
The primary system curve showing flow versus head is calculated from this equation:
H2 and Q2 are points on the system curve generated by varying the value of Q2. The flow vs.
head table calculates 30 points. The intervals for Q2 are obtained by dividing the system flow Q1
by 20. The table, therefore, includes 10 points above the required system operating point of Q1,
H1.Fig. 1-54 shows system curve construction using a table generated by Equation 46.
D / 144 H = 1 H -
|
|
.
|
\
|
-
2 Q
1 Q
1 H = 2 H
2
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 61
Fig. 1-54:
reproduced courtesy of ITT
Fluid Technology Corporation from
Pump & System Curve Data, Bell &
Gossett, p. 15)
Primary Pump Performance Data
The primary pumping station can be any configuration of pumps in series and parallel. All pumps
in a pumping station are assumed to be identical.
The flow through each pump is the system flow divided by the number of parallel pump flow
paths at the station.
The head for each pump is the system head divided by the number of pumps in series in any
parallel path. All parallel paths should have the same number of pumps in series.
Brake horsepower and motor horsepower are calculated from the following equations.
where BHP = brake horsepower
GPM = flow through each pump
H = pump head (ft of liquid)
|
.
|
\
|
-
- -
100
PE
+ 1 3960
SPGR H GPM
= BHP
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 62
SPGR = specific gravity of liquid at temperature in pump discharge section
PE = pump efficiency (%)
where MHP = motor horsepower
ME = motor efficiency (%)
Standard motor horsepower is obtained from Fig. 1-55. It is the nearest size above MHP.
MHP MHP MHP
Fig. 1-55: Standard Motor Sizes
(reproduced with permission from ASHRAE
Handbook: 1985 Fundamentals, Table 24,
p. 26.25)
0.16 5 50
0.25 7.5 60
0.33 10 75
0.50 15 100
1 25 150
2 30 200
3 40 250
Secondary (Booster) Pumps
The flow through the booster pump is the flow through the section with the booster pump.
The booster pump head is the highest circuit pressure drop in the secondary system of circuits
downstream of the given booster pump.
Brake horsepower, motor horsepower and standard motor size are calculated in the same way as
primary pumps.
Pump Performance Based on Test Data
This section is based upon information and procedures described in the following technical
bulletins:
|
.
|
\
|
100
ME
+ 1
BHP
= MHP
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 63
1. Parallel and Series Pump Application, Bell & Gossett Bulletin No. TEH-1065,
International Telephone and Telegraph Corporation, Morton Grove, 1965.
2. Pump & System Curve Data for Centrifugal Pump Selection and Application, Bell &
Gossett Bulletin No. TEH-375, International Telephone and Telegraph Corporation,
Morton Grove, 1967.
The Pump Curve
The results of pump performance tests are shown by means of a plotted curve that relates the
flow (gpm) to the pressure head produced (ft of liquid). The manufacturer establishes the pump
curve. A typical head capacity curve is shown in Fig. 1-56.
Fig. 1-56: Pump Curve
(reproduced courtesy of ITT Fluid
Technology Corporation Pump &
System Curve Data, Bell &
Gossett, p. 3)
Point
Flow
GPM
Head (ft) Effic. (%)
Fig. 1-57:
Pump Test Performance Data:
Pump Curve
1 800.00 234.00 58.00
2 1000.00 203.00 60.00
3 1500.00 192.00 77.00
4 2000.00 180.00 87.00
5 2500.00 167.00 89.00
6 3000.00 152.00 84.00
Pump curve (plotted test data) is based on the impeller diameter and pump rpm. From this test
data, the pump equations, piping methods and fluid dynamics can be used to estimate pump
performance for other pump speeds (rpm) and impeller diameters (in.). This includes:
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 64
Pump affinity laws
Parallel pumping
Series pumping
Combination parallel and series pumping
Pump Affinity Laws
Pump affinity laws, as published in Pump & System Curve Data, p. 6, is used to calculate the
effects of changes in impeller diameters and rotational speeds on the pump curve. These laws
state that
1. Pump gpm capacity varies directly as the speed (rpm) or impeller diameter ratio.
2. Pump head varies directly as the square of the speed (rpm) or impeller ratio.
Change GPM Capacity (Q) Ft Head (H)
Impeller Diameter Change
D
1
to D
2
Q
D
D
= Q
1
1
2
2
Q
D
D
=
H
1
1
2
2
2
|
.
|
\
|
Speed (RPM) Change
R
1
to R
2
Q
R
R
= Q
1
1
2
2
Q
R
R
=
H
1
1
2
2
2
|
.
|
\
|
Where Q = gpm H = headD = impeller diameter R = rpm
Fig. 1-58: Pump Affinity Laws
(reproduced courtesy of ITT Fluid Technology Corporation from Pump & System Curve Data, Bell
& Gossett, p. 3)
You can use the pump station and booster pump master or override forms to request a specific
pump performance curve from the library. These curves are based on test impeller diameter and
rpm speed. The actual pump performance curve data is calculated from the pump test curve
data that you specify, and your input for impeller diameter (in.) and speed (rpm), using the pump
affinity laws.
In Fig. 1-58, the terms Q
1
H
1
and R
1
refer to the test data values in the library. The terms Q
2
H
2
and R
2
refer to your input on the pump station or booster pump master or override form. The
new curve results are presented in tabular form.
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 65
Parallel Pumping
All pumps in the primary pumping station should be identical in size and type. The effect of
pumps in parallel is to divide the total system flow equally among the number of parallel pump
paths.
Fig. 1-59 is a schematic layout of pumps in parallel. The check valves at the pump discharge are
essential to prevent any short-circuit flow or pump damage when a single pump is running. Fig.
1-60 is a graphic representation of parallel pump curve construction.
Fig. 1-59: Parallel Pumping
(reproduced courtesy of ITT Fluid
Technology Corporation
Parallel and Series Pump
Application, Bell & Gossett, p. 2)
Fig. 1-60: Parallel Pumping Curve
Construction
(reproduced courtesy of ITT
Fluid Technology Corporation
Parallel and Series Pump
Application, Bell & Gossett, p. 3)
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 66
Series Pumping
All pumps in the primary pumping station are assumed to be identical. The effect of pumps in
series is to divide the total system head equally among the number of pumps in series in any one
of the parallel pump paths. Pump curve points for pumps in series are calculated by multiplying
the head at each point by the number of pumps in series in any one of the parallel paths. The
flow remains the same through each pump in series. Fig. 1-61 is a schematic layout of pumps in
series. Fig. 1-62 is a practical installation of pumps in series where the pumps can be run singly
or simultaneously. Fig. 1-63 is a graphic representation of series pump curve construction.
Fig. 1-61: Series Pumping
(reproduced courtesy of ITT Fluid Technology Corporation
Parallel and Series Pump Application, Bell & Gossett, p. 16)
Fig. 1-62: Series Pumping
reproduced courtesy of ITT Fluid
Technology Corporation from
Parallel and Series Pump Application,
Bell & Gossett, p. 16)
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 67
Fig. 1-62: Series Pumping
Curve Construction
(reproduced courtesy of ITT Fluid
Technology Corporation from
Parallel and Series Pump
Application, Bell & Gossett, p. 16)
Combination Parallel and Series Pumping
Fig. 1-64 shows a primary pumping station consisting of a combination of pumps in parallel and
series. The pumps are assumed to be identical. The flow through each pump is the total system
flow divided by the number of parallel paths in the station. The head for each pump is the total
system head divided by the number of pumps in series in any one parallel path. Pump curve
points for the combination are calculated using the test data for a single pump.
Fig. 1-64: Combination Parallel
and Series Pumping
(reproduced courtes of ITT Fluid
Technology Corporation from
Parallel and Series Pump
Application, Bell & Gossett, p. 24)
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 68
Point of Operation
The point of operation of the pump on the combination of parallel and series pumps is the
intersection of the system curve described in Fig. 1-54 and the pump curve on the combined
pumping station curve. This is shown in Fig. 1-65.
Fig. 1-65: Point of Operation
(reproduced courtesy of ITT Fluid
Technology Corporation from
Parallel and Series Pump Application, Bell &
Gossett, p. 15)
Domestic Hot and Cold Water
Domestic hot and cold water distribution systems are analyzed as open network, liquid supply
systems. Use the system code DHW or DCW. The reference libraries used by domestic water
systems include:
Properties of water in the liquid properties library, as shown in Fig. 1-19.
Pipe material properties. The library includes steel, cast iron, copper, and plastic pipe
materials, as shown in Fig. 1-23 through Fig. 1-28.
Frictional loss correction factors due to pipe age, as shown in Fig. 1-29.
Properties of insulation, as shown in Fig. 1-30 and Fig. 1-31.
System cross-checking tables for pipe materials and insulation, as shown in Fig. 1-32 and
Fig. 1-33.
Sizing criteria based on pressure drop per unit length, velocity or flow for each nominal pipe
size, as shown in Fig. 1-34.
Losses through fittings, as shown in Fig. 1-35 and Fig. 1-37.
Losses through valves, as shown in Fig. 1-36 and Fig. 1-38.
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 69
Domestic water fixture data, as shown in Fig. 1-42.
Analysis and Design Procedure
Flow rate for each fixture is entered using the deftermequip form or ovrtermequip form. The
flow at the fixture can be specified as a flow rate in gpm or as a fixture type. A fixture type refers
to a corresponding set of design data in the reference library, as shown in Fig. 1-42. The design
data consists of:
Supply Control Code:
Control code options include flush valve, flush tank, faucet, mixing valve, or other codes
you can define yourself. Faucets, mixing valves and other fixture types use the same
conversion data as flush tanks, as shown in Fig. 1-43.
Minimum Pressure:
The minimum pressure required at the fixture. The primary pump static head is
calculated to maintain this pressure. If a pump is not specified and the water main
pressure is used, you must choose the circuit balancing analysis option to maintain the
minimum pressure at the fixture and not exceed the water main pressure.
Required Flow Rate:
The required flow rate at the fixture or terminal. This value will override the supply
control code and fixture units data in the reference library.
Fixture Unit Data:
Fixture unit information can be entered in the next six fields of the library form. Fixture
units can be specified separately for private or public use. Fixture unit information can
be further subdivided and entered separately for cold and hot water systems
The total fixture unit data is used to calculate the flow rate in the main section. If a
diversity factor applies to the main section, then first calculate the flow based on the
sum of all total fixture units in the system, then multiply this flow by that diversity
factor.
Minimum Hot and Cold Water Connections:
The calculated pipe size if it is greater than the minimum connections in the reference
library.
The remaining system analysis and design procedures are described in earlier sections of this
engineering basis and are summarized below.
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 70
A flow rate is assigned to all sections in the network based on the required flow rate at the
fixtures. See Network Analysis.
Pipe sizing options can be based on pressure drop per unit length, velocity or maximum
flow. See Sizing Criteria.
The Colebrook-White and Darcy-Weisbach equations are used to calculate the pressure
losses through pipe sections. See Pipe Sizing.
Fitting and valve loss calculations can be based on velocity pressure factors, K, or equivalent
lengths, L/D. See Fittings and Valves.
Heat gains and losses and temperature changes in the system are based on the thermal
data that you can specify in the input forms. See Thermal Analysis.
Static and dynamic heads are calculated for all nodes in the pipe network. See Circuit
Pressure Analysis.
The system can be designed to provide the minimum pressure required at fixtures and
maintain the maximum pressure limit at the water main. See Circuit Balancing.
The primary pump station is analyzed if a primary pump is used to develop the pressure in
the main pipe section. See Pump Performance Based on System Requirements.
Booster pumps can be located in any supply pipe circuit to increase the pressure in the
circuit. See Network Analysis.
Pressurization tanks can be located on the discharge side of the pump, on the suction side
of the pump, or at the high point of the pipe system. See Pressurization Tanks.
Sanitary Drainage and Venting
The design of the sanitary drainage system is based on the fixture unit method. The reference
library includes a series of look-up tables and corresponding data forms you can use to specify
the data in accordance with a specific geographic location or municipal code you may need to
follow. The table format was designed to accommodate various city codes throughout the
United States. It should be flexible enough to allow any adjustments you make.
The sanitary drainage library tables, shown in Fig. 1-66 through Fig. 1-69, are:
- building drains and sewers
- horizontal fixture branches and stacks
- horizontal vent sizing
- vertical vent sizing
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 71
Sanitary Drainage Pipe Sizing
The following procedure is used to size sanitary drainage pipes:
The horizontal pipes, or branches, on each floor connected to a vertical stack are sized first.
The fixture types associated with each horizontal branch are converted into fixture units.
Fixture units handled by each pipe segment in the horizontal branch are calculated
sequentially, starting with the last fixture and working toward the vertical stack.
The pipe size for the number of fixtures is chosen using the reference library data, as shown
in Fig. 1-67.
The number of fixture units in each pipe segment in the vertical stack are calculated
sequentially, starting at the highest horizontal branch.
The pipe size is determined using the values indicated in Fig. 1-67 for stacks with three or
fewer branches, or for stacks with more than three branch intervals, as appropriate.
If the resulting pipe size for a vertical segment is smaller than that of the horizontal branch
above it, the pipe size for the vertical segment is adjusted to match that of the
horizontal branch.
The pipe size for the horizontal building drains connecting the vertical stacks is based on the
slope, the fixture units handled by each pipe segment between vertical stacks, and by
the corresponding column shown in Fig. 1-66.
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 72
Building Drains and Sewers
Diameter
of Pipe (in.)
Maximum number of fixture units that may be connected
to any portion of the building drain or the building sewer
Slope Per Foot
1/16 inch 1/8 inch inch inch
2 21 26
2-1/2 24 31
3 42 50
4 180 216 250
5 390 480 575
6 700 840 1000
8 1400 1600 1920 2300
10 2500 2900 3500 4200
12 2900 4600 5600 6700
15 7000 8300 10000 12000
Fig. 1-66: Building Drains and Sewers
(reproduced with permission from ASPE Data Book, Vol. 1, Table 1-5, p. 1-6)
Horizontal Fixture Branches and Stacks
Diameter
Pipe (in.)
Any Horizontal
Fixture Branch
One Stack of
Three Branch
Intervals or
Less
Stacks with more than
three Branch Intervals
Total for stack
Total at one
branch interval
1-1/2 3 4 8 2
2 6 10 24 6
2-1/2 12 20 42 9
3 20 48 72 20
4 160 240 500 90
5 360 540 1100 200
6 620 960 1900 350
8 1400 2200 3600 600
10 2500 3800 5600 1000
12 3900 6000 8400 1500
15 7000
Fig. 1-67: Horizontal Fixture Branches and Stacks
(reproduced with permission from ASPE Data Book, Vol. 1, Table 1-2, p. 1-4)
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 73
Horizontal Vent Sizing
Diameter
Horizontal
Branch
(in.)
Slope of
Horizontl
Branch
(in./ft)
Diameter of Vent (in.)
Maximum development length of vent (ft)
NL= No Limit
1-1/4 1-1/2 2 2-1/2 3 4 5 6 8 10
Maximum Developed Length of Vent (feet)
1-1/4
1/8
1/4
1/2
NL
NL
NL
1-1/2
1/8
1/4
1/2
NL
NL
NL
NL
NL
NL
2
1/8
1/4
1/2
NL
290
150
NL
NL
380
NL
NL
NL
2-1/2
1/8
1/4
1/2
180
96
49
450
240
130
NL
NL
NL
NL
NL
NL
3
1/8
1/4
1/2
190
97
50
NL
420
220
NL
NL
NL
NL
NL
NL
4
1/8
1/4
1/2
190
98
48
NL
310
160
NL
NL
410
NL
NL
NL
5
1/8
1/4
1/2
190
97
46
490
250
130
NL
NL
NL
NL
NL
NL
6
1/8
1/4
1/2
190
97
46
NL
250
130
NL
NL
NL
NL
NL
NL
8
1/8
1/4
1/2
190
91
38
NL
310
150
NL
NL
410
NL
NL
NL
10
1/8
1/4
1/2
190
85
32
500
240
110
NL
NL
NL
NL
NL
NL
12
1/8
1/4
1/2
180
79
26
NL
420
200
NL
NL
NL
Fig. 1-68: Horizontal Vent Sizing
(reproduced with permission from BOCA National Plumbing Code, Table P-902.2, p. 61)
The maximum developed length of the vent is measured from the vent connection to the open
air. Where Fig. 1-68 shows NL or no limit, the default limit is 500.
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 74
Vertical Vent Sizing
Stack
Diam.
(in.)
Total
FUs
conn to
stack
Diameter of Vent (in.)
1-1/4 1-1/2 2 2-1/2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12
Maximum Developed Length of Vent (feet)
1-1/4 2 30
1-1/2
8
10
50
30
150
100
2
12
20
30
26
75
50
200
150
2-1/2 42 30 100 300
3
10
21
53
102
42
32
27
25
150
110
94
86
360
270
230
210
1040
810
680
620
4
43
140
320
540
35
27
23
21
85
65
55
50
250
200
170
150
980
750
640
580
5
190
490
940
1400
28
21
18
16
82
63
53
49
320
250
210
190
990
760
670
590
6
500
1100
2000
2900
33
26
22
20
130
100
84
77
400
310
260
240
1000
780
660
600
8
1800
3400
5600
7600
31
24
20
18
95
73
62
56
240
190
160
140
940
720
610
560
10
4000
7200
11000
15000
31
24
20
18
78
60
51
46
310
240
200
180
960
740
630
570
12
7300
13000
20000
26000
31
24
20
18
120
94
79
72
380
300
250
230
940
720
610
500
15
15000
25000
38000
50000
40
31
26
24
130
96
81
74
310
240
200
180
Fig. 1-69: Vertical Vent Sizing
(reproduced with permission from BOCA National Plumbing Code, Table P-902.1, p. 60)
The developed length is measured from the vent connection to the open air.
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 75
Sizing Procedure
Sanitary vent systems must be developed within the same graphic model as the associated
sanitary drainage system, toggling back and forth between the two system types as necessary.
First analyze the drainage system to obtain the drainage pipe sizes, then size the associated vent
system.
Sanitary vent sizing uses the reference library look-up tables as shown in Fig. 1-68 and Fig. 1-69
Determine the length of the vent pipe from its point of connection to the drainage system to the
point of vent exit. In order to use the library look-up tables, obtain the pipe size and number of
fixture units at the point of connection, which is typically at the low point of the sanitary
drainage vertical stack.
To size vent pipes connected to a drainage stack, read from the table in Fig. 1-69, the vertical
vent stack size that corresponds to the vent pipe length, and the drainage stack diameter and
fixture units that was determined from drainage pipe sizing.
To size vent pipes connected to a horizontal drainage branch, the slope for that horizontal drain
is required. The size can be read from the table shown in Fig. 1-68. Vent piping section types
include:
- extensions
- terminal
- header
- individual
- branch
- circuit
- relief
The same sizing procedure can be used for all vent types, with the exception of the relief vent.
Relief vents use the same sizing table as horizontal vent pipes, with the drainage pipe slope as
specified in the master or override form. The vent length, however, is calculated from the point
of connection to the sanitary drainage stack to the point of connection to the vertical vent stack.
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 76
Storm Drainage
The design of the storm drainage system is based on the look-up table method. The reference
library includes a series of look-up tables and corresponding data forms you can use to specify
the data in accordance with a specific geographic location or municipal code that you may need
to follow. The table format was designed to accommodate various city codes throughout the
United States. It should be flexible enough to allow any adjustments you make.
The tables can be used to design continuous flow storm drainage systems. To design controlled
flow systems, you will need to enter the equivalent total area per drain and rainfall rate for
continuous flow.
The drain in the storm system sizing corresponds to the terminal equipment in other system
types. Gutter sizing is not included in the program and storm systems that include gutters must
be modified to convert the system into an equivalent system of roof drains, leaders and
horizontal rainwater pipes.
The storm drainage library tables, shown in Fig. 1-70 and Fig. 1-71, are:
roof drain and leader sizing
horizontal rainwater pipe sizing
Roof Drain and Leader Sizing
Rainfall
(in./hr.)
Size of Drain or Leader Diameter (in.)
2 3 4 5 6
8
1 2880 8800 18400 34600 54000 111600
2 1440 4400 9200 17300 27000 58000
3 960 2930 6130 11530 17995 38660
4 720 2200 4600 8650 13500 29000
5 575 1760 3680 6920 10800 23200
6 480 1470 3070 5765 9000 19315
7 410 1260 2630 4945 7715 16570
8 360 1100 2300 4325 6750 14500
9 320 980 2045 3845 6000 12890
10 290 880 1840 3460 5400 11600
11 260 800 1675 3145 4910 10545
12 240 730 1530 2880 4500 9660
Fig. 1-70: Roof Drain and Leader Sizing
(reproduced with permission from ASPE Data Book, Vol. 1, Table 2-1, p. 2-3)
For each rainfall rate and valid nominal drain or leader diameter, you can define the area that
can be drained. The area is in square feet.
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 77
Horizontal Rainwater Pipe Sizing
Pipe Size (in.) Maximum Rainfall (in./hr)
1/8 Slope 2 3 4 5 6
3 1644 1096 822 657 548
4 3760 2506 1880 1504 1253
5 6680 4453 3340 2672 2227
6 10700 7133 5350 4280 3566
8 23000 15330 11500 9200 7600
10 41400 27600 20700 16580 13800
12 66600 44400 33300 26650 22200
15 109000 72800 59500 47600 39650
1/4 Slope 2 3 4 5 6
3 2320 1546 1160 928 773
4 5300 3533 2650 2120 1766
5 9440 6293 4720 3776 3146
6 15100 10066 7550 6040 5033
8 32600 21733 16300 13040 10866
10 58400 38950 29200 23350 19450
12 94000 62600 47000 37600 31350
15 168000 112000 84000 67250 56000
1/2 Slope 2 3 4 5 6
3 3288 2295 1644 1310 1096
4 7520 5010 3760 3010 2500
5 13360 8900 6680 5320 4450
6 21400 13700 10700 8580 7140
8 46000 30650 23000 18400 15320
10 82800 55200 41400 33150 27600
12 133200 88800 66600 53200 44400
15 238000 158800 119000 95300 79250
Fig. 1-71: Horizontal Rainwater Pipe Sizing
(reproduced with permission from ASPE Data Book, Vol. 1, Table 2-4, p. 2-6)
For each valid slope and rainfall rate, you can define the nominal pipe size and the area that can
be drained. The area is in square feet.
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 75
Sizing Procedure
For storm drainage, use the input forms and place the appropriate engineering elements to
specify:
The rainfall rate for the building type and location, as determined by code requirements or
other design considerations.
The locations of roof drains, and their associated roof and washdown areas if those areas
are different from the master values.
The slope of horizontal rainwater pipes.
The following steps are used to size storm drainage pipes:
Orientations for vertical leader pipes and horizontal pipes are determined from the graphic
data.
Vertical leaders are sized using the reference library as shown in Fig. 1-70.
Horizontal pipe sizes are based on your input slope, and the maximum rainfall rate and
drainage area of the drains connected to that pipe. The reference library, as shown in
Fig. 1-71, is used.
If the rainfall rate is greater than the maximum in that library, an error message is
generated and the maximum rate is used. For any other case, actual rates are rounded
up to the nearest rate in the library if necessary.
The vertical leader size from the library is checked against the size of the horizontal pipes, if
any, connected above it. If the leader is smaller, the size is adjusted to match that of
the horizontal pipe.
Similarly, the horizontal pipe size from the library is checked against the size of the vertical
leader, if any, connected above it. If the horizontal pipe is smaller, the size is adjusted
to match that of the vertical leader.
Piping Design Program - Engineering Basis SOM-IBM Architecture & Engineering Series (AES) - 1988
Varkie C. Thomas, Ph.D., P.E. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, LLP 76
Material Estimating
Piping system material estimation include:
Pipe material, insulation, fittings, valves and equipment quantities for each pipe section in
the system
Total pipe lengths for each pipe material and pipe size used in the system
Total insulation surface areas for each insulation type and thickness used in the system
Fitting quantities for each fitting type and size used in the system
Valve quantities for each valve type and size used in the system
Turn to Appendix Two: Reports for more information on material estimation reports.