WILLIAM JAMES 1

William James: Talks to Teachers

Shelina Hassanali and Taylor-Rae Leslie
Uniersity o! "al#ary
"om$leted as $artial !%l!illment o! E&'S ()*
Learnin# Task +,
S%mmer +-1)
WILLIAM JAMES +
William James: Talks to Teachers
A #reat deal o! societal chan#e .as occ%rrin# d%rin# the time o! William James/ 011223
talks in re#ards to ed%cation4 Em$loyment o$$ort%nities .ere a$$earin# in the %r,an sector5
creatin# a need !or indiid%als to ,e !ormally ed%cated4 Ideas re#ardin# ho. children .o%ld ,e
,est ed%cated and s%##estions !or ,est $ractices in teachin# .ere emer#in#5 and James shared some
insi#ht!%l ideas in his Talks to Teachers 0112234 This $a$er .ill disc%ss the c%rrent releance o!
James/ ideas and insi#hts as .ell as the im$act o! these ideas in ed%cation today4
Psychology and the Art of Teaching
6ne h%ndred years hae $assed since William James .as asked to $resent to teachers .hat
the !ield o! $sycholo#y kne. in re#ards to ed%cation4 James .as 7%ick to $oint o%t that 8merely
kno.in# $sycholo#y9 .ill not #%arantee an indiid%al to ,e a s%ccess!%l teacher4 In his o$inion5
there .as not one s$eci!ic ty$e o! teachin# .hich $sycholo#y a#reed .ith5 ,%t rather many ty$es
.hich co%ld satis!y the la.s o! $sycholo#y4 Lookin# at ed%cation today5 this is somethin# that
contin%es to hold tr%e5 as di!!erent instr%ctional styles o!ten still yield $ositie res%lts !or st%dents4
Altho%#h a s$eci!ic instr%ctional method .as not s%##ested ,y James5 he does $ose that all teachers
instr%ct their st%dents in a .ay that is interestin# eno%#h to eoke their c%riosity and retain their
attention5 as .ell as in a .ay that they .ill remem,er the in!ormation4 To James these are key
com$onents o! learnin#4
The Necessity of Reactions
James ar#%es stron#ly that in order !or learnin# to take $lace5 there m%st ,e some ty$e o!
reaction !rom the child a!ter they are #ien an im$ression - no im$ression .itho%t e:$ression4 That
is5 in order !or a child/s li!e to ,e 8modi!ied95 and in order !or the child to learn5 he or she m%st ,e
a,le to e:$ress themseles thro%#h a reaction to .hat they hae ,een sho.n4 Eidently5 James
WILLIAM JAMES )
reeals himsel! as a $ro$onent !or hain# children learnin# ,y doin#4 James !elt that children
sho%ld e:$ress themseles ,oth $hysically and er,ally5 statin# that the more o,;ects a child is a,le
to mani$%late5 the more com!orta,le they .ill ,e in their enironment4 6n the contrary5 a st%dent
.ho only learns thro%#h ,ooks .ill ,e less connected .ith reality4 What .as re!erred to as 8man%al
trainin#9 in the time o! James contin%es to ,e $art o! many classrooms today5 ,y the %se o! hands on
trainin#4 As research has sho.n5 it may ,e that there is a decreased leel o! st%dent en#a#ement
.hen a child is e:$ected to memori<e in!ormation5 com$lete .orksheets and do $a$er-$encil tests
0'aris5 =am,or > Wai-Lin# 'ackard5 122135 ho.eer learnin# can still take $lace4 Lessons .hich
take a hands-on a$$roach hae5 ho.eer5 ,een !o%nd to hel$ st%dents !eel like they hae
$artici$ated in somethin# rather than ;%st memori<ed in!ormation 0Harty5 ?losterman > Matklin5
121234 An interactie c%rric%l%m can hel$ to 8stim%late the nat%ral c%riosity o! children95 red%cin#
,oredom and !r%stration !rom traditional teachin# a$$roaches 0'aris et al45 12215 $#4 +@134 Aor
e:am$le5 instead o! hain# st%dents read a ,ook a,o%t seeds5 a more hands on a$$roach .o%ld ,e to
hae them also $lant seeds and .atch them #ro. .hile recordin# their !indin#s 0'aris et al5 122134
James also states that it is nat%ral that a child .ishes to ,e #ien !eed,ack a!ter they res$ond
to an im$ression4 He ,eliees that st%dents may !eel !r%stration i! they are %ns%re o! ho. their
e:$ression .as receied4 James s%##ests that to aoid this $otential !r%stration5 teachers sho%ld #ie
#rades to st%dents as an indicator o! their $er!ormance4 Recent research a#rees .ith James that many
st%dents do ,ene!it !rom e:trinsic motiation and tan#i,le !eed,ack or re.ards4 Today #rades are
considered a !orm o! e:trinsic motiation5 de!ined as 8motiation ind%ced ,y re.ards or $%nishments
de$endent %$on s%ccess or !ail%re in the task9 0Lin5 Mc?eachie > ?im5 +--+5 $#4+*+34 A recent
st%dy !o%nd that !or the ma;ority o! st%dents5 $artic%larly at the colle#e leel5 #rades .ere their
WILLIAM JAMES B
motiation !or the co%rses they .ere in 0Lin et al45 +--+35 con!irmin# James/ idea that st%dents
res$ond .ell to !eed,ack in schools4
Native Reactions and Required Reactions
James is direct .ith his teacher a%dience that5 as ed%cators5 they cannot make st%dents learn
anythin# more than those thin#s .hich natiely make them react in the !irst $lace4 To James5 each
child has a set o! natie reactions that can only ,e s%,stit%ted !or ac7%ired reactions thro%#h the
im$ression and trainin# o! a teacher4 James o!!ers the e:am$le o! a yo%n# child .ho has a natie
tendency to #ra, at o,;ects .ith their hands .hen c%rio%s4 A teacher may ta$ their hand5 hold %$ the
toy and say 8say $lease94 When the child imitates5 the trainin# is com$lete4 Ho.eer5 James adds
that i! a child has an %nderdeelo$ed memory5 it .ill not matter ho. many im$ressions are made to
the child5 as the child .ill not learn4 More recently5 research is sho.in# that this ar#%ment made ,y
James is es$ecially a$$lica,le .ith Aetal Alcohol S$ectr%m &isorder 0AAS&34 It has ,een !o%nd that
$renatal alcohol e:$os%re can ca%se ,rain dama#e5 incl%din# the area o! memory 0Creen5 +--@D
Healthy "hild Manito,a5 +--234 This co#nitie de!icit can ne#atiely im$act a child/s a,ility to learn
in the school enironment 0Creen5 +--@34 "hildren .ith AAS& hae ,een !o%nd to hae di!!ic%lty
learnin# !rom $rior learnin# e:$os%res and o!ten lack the a,ility to %nderstand ca%se and e!!ect
0Creen5 +--@34 Altho%#h a child may hae ,een 8trained9 on seeral occasions ,y a teacher5 they still
may not s%,stit%te the natie reaction !or an ac7%ired reaction4 6!ten this can ca%se a child to ,e
$erceied as la<y or de!iant in school enironments 0Weiner > Morse5 122B34
What the Native Reactions Are
James/ ne:t talk disc%sses .ith teachers the need to %nderstand and ,e a.are o! the natie
reactions ty$ical !or the a#es they teach4 Today5 this is considered deelo$mental $sycholo#y4 James
states that children deelo$ im$%lses and instincts in a certain order4 Aor e:am$le5 !irst they cree$5
WILLIAM JAMES *
then .alk5 then clim, E eerythin# ha$$ens in a se7%ence4 He !eels that a child/s ha,it and skill m%st
,e #ras$ed .hen the natie im$%lse is most $resent4 A%rther5 he says that there may only ,e a
s$eci!ic time $eriod !or certain o$$ort%nities .ith a child and once the time has $assed5 the child may
not #ras$ the conce$t 0James5 112234 Today this is kno.n as a critical $eriod5 and ery m%ch a !oc%s
o! $sycholo#ists today in learnin# e:actly .hen these occ%r in a child/s li!e4 A critical $eriod as
de!ined ,y Fe.$ort 0+--+3 is:
8A mat%rational time $eriod d%rin# .hich some cr%cial e:$erience .ill hae its $eak e!!ect on
deelo$ment or learnin#5 res%ltin# in normal ,ehaior444I! the or#anism is not e:$osed to this
e:$erience %ntil a!ter this time $eriod5 the same e:$erience .ill hae only a red%ced e!!ect5 or
in e:treme cases may hae no e!!ect at all9 0$#4@)@34
&eelo$mental $sycholo#y has !o%nd critical $eriods !or many di!!erent areas o! a child/s normal
!%nctionin#4 'artic%larly5 research has sho.n that there may ,e a critical $eriod !or lan#%a#e
ac7%isition 0Fe.$ort5 +--+34 In the $rimary #rades5 there ,ecomes an eident $oint .here a child
may !all ,ehind $eers in lan#%a#e5 .hich then has an im$act on readin# and .ritin#4 Aor e:am$le5 it
has ,een !o%nd that children .ho hae ,een isolated !rom lan#%a#e e:$os%re %ntil a!ter $%,erty hae
had #reat di!!ic%lty .ith $honolo#y5 mor$holo#y and synta: 0Fe.$ort5 +--+35 .hile indiid%als .ho
.ere e:$osed to lan#%a#e in in!ancy or ery early childhood hae ,een !o%nd to hae hi#h
$ro!iciency in their natie lan#%a#e 0Fe.$ort5 +--+34
Habit
In his ne:t cha$ter5 James s%##ests that teachers sho%ld talk to st%dents a,o%t the $hiloso$hy
o! ha,it5 and that they sho%ld s$end m%ch time in#rainin# those ha,its into st%dents .hich .ill ,e
most %se!%l to them in the !%t%re4 He indicates that the ,est .ay to create these $ositie ha,its is to
$roide o$$ort%nities !or st%dents to $ractice them rather than to sim$ly $reach them4 James/ ideas
WILLIAM JAMES (
are %se!%l in ed%cation today and are echoed in c%rrent research on the role o! teachers in deelo$in#
ha,its in their st%dents5 $artic%larly in enco%ra#in# children to deelo$ readin# ha,its 06;i > Ha,i,%5
+-1134 It has also ,een .ell acce$ted in ed%cation that readin# ha,its sho%ld ,e deelo$ed as early as
$ossi,le 0Simisaye > G%adri5 +-1-34 In Al,erta5 teachers are also ie.ed as role models !or healthy
ha,its5 s%ch as $ositie $hysical and mental health and healthy eatin# 0Coernment o! Al,erta5 +-1)34
While James disc%ssed the im$ortance o! teachin# st%dents $ositie ha,its5 today/s ed%cators also
s$end time .orkin# .ith st%dents to ,reak certain ne#atie ha,its5 s%ch as $oor ,ehaior or ne#atie
attention seekin# $atterns4 It can ,e s%##ested that $erha$s the most %se!%l method .o%ld ,e !or
teachers to attem$t to ,reak ne#atie ha,its and hel$ st%dents to re$lace these .ith $ositie ha,its
.hich5 as James s%##ested5 .ill ,e ,ene!icial to them in the !%t%re4
It is also 7%ite im$ressie that James .as also .ell ahead o! his time .hen he stated that
children sho%ld s$end more attention to their ha,its and cond%ct .hile in a 8$lastic state94 This
indicates that he .as .ell a.are o! the $ossi,ility o! ,rain $lasticityD that is5 the a,ility o! the ,rain to
chan#e and ada$t .ith e:$erience4 In his .ork5 James states that more attention sho%ld ,e deoted to
children/s cond%ct .hile they are in a $lastic state and ,e!ore they ,ecome 8mere .alkin# ,%ndles o!
ha,its94 While his early theory that the ,rain is most $lastic and s%sce$ti,le to e:$erience and ha,it at
a yo%n#er a#e has set the sta#e !or !%rther research5 recent literat%re has also s%##ested that
thro%#ho%t the li!es$an5 there are critical .indo.s 0not limited to childhood and adolescence3 in
.hich the ,rain may ,e more or less $lastic 0?ol, > Ci,,5 +-1134
Association
James deotes a cha$ter to the idea o! association in ed%cation5 statin# that st%dents are
essentially .alkin# 8$ieces o! associatin# machinery49 He ar#%es that ed%cation is de$endent on
st%dents associatin# one thin# .ith another5 and that more co$io%s associations lead to increased
WILLIAM JAMES @
ada$tations to the .orld4 Aor instance5 .hen teachin# com$le: math conce$ts s%ch as !ractions5 the
teacher may ,%ild associations ,y com$arin# Hone-7%arter/ .ith a car/s #as #a%#e .hich is one-
7%arter o! the .ay !%ll5 th%s associatin# the idea .ith a conce$t .ith .hich the child is already
!amiliar 0$ersonal comm%nication5 +-1)34 S%ch associations hae ,een sho.n to im$roe children/s
%nderstandin# and retention o! ne.ly introd%ced material4 James also s%##ests that .hen teachin#5
ed%cators sho%ld ,%ild m%lti$le associations ,y teachin# in many di!!erent .ays5 incl%din# %sin#
aryin# ill%strations o! conce$ts and askin# 7%estionsIelicitin# st%dent res$onses in many di!!erent
.ays4 Recent literat%re in ne%ro$sycholo#y has sho.n a direct link ,et.een ne%ronal actiity in the
hi$$ocam$%s and ne. associatie learnin#5 indicatin# stron# ,rain ,ased eidence !or James/ idea o!
creatin# m%lti$le associations in the child/s ,rain 0S%<%ki5 +--*34
Interest
In his cha$ter on interest5 James starts ,y e:$ressin# that teachers sho%ld kno. .hat their
st%dents are already interested in ,e!ore they start teachin# them4 In this .ay5 they .ill kno. .hat
areas o! interest .ill need to ,e !%rther deelo$ed4 He ar#%es that a ne. to$ic5 .hile not inherently
interestin# to the st%dent at !irst5 may ,ecome interestin# ,y association4 There!ore5 he ,elieed that
teachers sho%ld ,e#in .ith the st%dent/s natie interests and then teach ne. conce$ts .hich hae
some immediate connection .ith these4 The role o! interest in ed%cation and learnin# has ,een
e:amined oer the years5 incl%din# research on the im$act o! di!!erent ty$es o! st%dent interest 0i4e4
emotional interest in a to$ic ers%s co#nitie interest3 0Har$ > Mayer5 122@34 Recent research has
also con!irmed the idea that interest is im$ortant in learnin#4 In a st%dy cond%cted ,y Face%r >
Schie!ele 0+--*35 it .as !o%nd that .hen st%dents .ere #ien the o$$ort%nity to select te:ts !or to$ics
in .hich they .ere already interested5 recall o! in!ormation and learnin# o%tcomes .ere increased4
Modern tho%#hts on the role o! interest in ed%cation seem to ,%ild on James/ .ork ,y not only
WILLIAM JAMES 1
con!irmin# that teachers sho%ld im$art ne. learnin# ,ased on $reio%s kno.led#e and e:$erience5
,%t they sho%ld also e:$and on the same 0'rakash5 +-1+34 Recent ,est $ractice models also s%##est
that s%,;ect matter sho%ld incl%de that .hich st%dents are nat%rally interested in ,ased on their
deelo$mental leel5 and that the teacher m%st model interest in the material they are teachin#
0'rakash5 +-1+34
Attention
James s%##ested that teachers sho%ld enco%ra#e s%stained attention o! st%dents ,y steerin#
clear o! ro%tine5 .hich seems 7%ite contrary to .hat .e c%rrently kno. a,o%t the role o! ro%tine in
the classroom4 He stated that teachers sho%ld ,e constantly chan#in# the .ay that 7%estions are
asked5 $roidin# reca$s5 ill%strations5 e:am$les5 and noelty o! order4 While his s%##ested strate#ies
may $roe ,ene!icial in s%stainin# the attention o! ty$ical learners5 it has ,een s%##ested in recent
literat%re that st%dents .ith attention di!!ic%lties ,ene!it most !rom consistent5 $recise5 and
$redicta,le ro%tine and str%ct%re 0Molloy5 +-1-D Forth &akota Ed%cation &e$artment5 +-1134
James also reco#ni<ed that some st%dents hae di!!erent attention $atterns and are easily
distracted5 .hich indicates that he .as a.are o! some o! the characteristics .hich .e no. incl%de as
sym$toms o! A&H&4 While he .as a.are o! these attention di!!ic%lties5 James also s%##ested that no
matter ho. Hscatter,rained/5 i! a st%dent #en%inely cares a,o%t a s%,;ect5 they can s%stain attention to
it4 Recent research and literat%re con!irm his idea o! selectie s%stained attention5 indicatin# that
children .ith attention di!!ic%lties are a,le to !oc%s on somethin# .hich is o! interest to them ,eca%se
these actiities $roide more stim%lation !or them 0Sheras5 +-1134 Aor e:am$le5 a child .ho is
!oc%sed and attentie .hile $layin# a ideo #ame is likely a,le to attend to the #ame ,eca%se their
,rain is ,ein# $roided .ith the immediate a%ditory and is%al stim%lation and !eed,ack .hich
s%stains their attention 0Sheras5 +-113 and does not ca%se them to lose attention .hile seekin# other
WILLIAM JAMES 2
0more stim%latin#3 actiities4 Re#ardless o! .hy or ho. children .ith attention di!!ic%lties are a,le to
!oc%s on certain tasks5 James .as .ell ahead o! his time .hen he s%##ested that these children had
the a,ility to s%stain attention4
Memory
In his cha$ter on memory5 James ar#%es that memory is de$endent on c%es and association5
and that the %se o! mnemonics is im$ortant in memory deelo$ment4 He s%##ests that the ,est
method is not to sim$ly Hhammer in/ ne. conce$ts5 ,%t rather to hae st%dents analy<e the material
they are learnin# in ario%s .ays in order to im$roe memory !or ne. learnin#4 Recent research has
s%$$orted James/s ie.s on the im$ortance o! mnemonics5 een !or ery yo%n# children4 Aor
e:am$le5 st%dies hae sho.n that the %se o! mnemonic strate#ies increased kinder#arten st%dents/
ac7%isition o! letter-name and letter-so%nd kno.led#e as com$ared to st%dents .ho did not receie
mnemonic trainin# 0White5 +--(34 Today5 mnemonic strate#ies are still ta%#ht to st%dents5 indicatin#
their im$ortance in memory deelo$ment4
The Will
Ainally5 in his last cha$ter5 James s%##ested that5 in re#ards to $oor st%dent ,ehaior5 teachers
sho%ld ie. the ,ehaio%r as a res%lt o! ne%ral $atholo#y rather than moral c%l$a,ility4 In other
.ords5 ,e!ore ass%min# that a st%dent is choosing to act a certain .ay5 James ,elieed that teachers
sho%ld ass%me that the child is not able to act any other .ay4 Also5 his statement can ,e inter$reted to
mean that teachers sho%ld not ass%me that children are actin# a certain .ay sim$ly ,eca%se they .ish
to ,e de!iant4 This ar#%ment has ,een directly echoed more than a cent%ry later ,y Creene 0+--235
.ho states that challen#in# ,ehaio%r is not sim$ly a means !or children to seek attention5 ,e
mani$%latie5 or to test the limitsD rather5 it is a ,y$rod%ct o! la##in# co#nitie skills 0i4e4 ada$ta,ility5
WILLIAM JAMES 1-
!le:i,ility and $ro,lem solin#34 It seems that James5 more than one h%ndred years a#o5 ,elieed in
Creene/s 0+--23 idea that children do .ell if they can.
As eidenced ,y this reie.5 it seems that the ma;ority o! the ideas $resented in James/ 011223
Talks to Teachers are $realent in ed%cation and ed%cational $sycholo#y today4 His tho%#hts on the
role o! teachers5 reactions5 ha,it5 attention5 interest5 and memory seem to hae !ormed a ,ase !rom
.hich !%rther research .as 0and contin%es to ,e3 carried o%t4 At a time .hen !ormal schoolin# .as
still emer#in#5 James $roided kno.led#e and insi#hts .hich still in!l%ence ho. .e ed%cate children
today5 and .ill contin%e to hae an im$act on the deelo$ment o! the !ield o! ed%cation in the !%t%re4
Re!erences
WILLIAM JAMES 11
Coernment o! Al,erta 0n4d34 Teachers As Role Models !or Healthy Ha,its4 Retrieed !rom
htt$ :II ... 4healthyal,erta 4com I@-@4 htm
Creen 5 J4 0+--@34 Aetal alcohol s$ectr%m disorders: Understandin# the e!!ects o! $renatal
alcohol e:$os%re and s%$$ortin# st%dents 4 Journal of School Health5 770)34
Creene5 R4W4 0+--234 Lost at school: Why o%r kids .ith ,ehaioral challen#es are !allin#
thro%#h the cracks and ho. .e can hel$ them 0Reised +nd edition34 Fe. =ork:
Scri,ner4
Har$5 S4A45 > Mayer5 R4E4 0122@34 The role o! interest in learnin# !rom scienti!ic te:t and
ill%strations: on the distinction ,et.een emotional interest and co#nitie interest4
Journal of Educational Psychology, 890135 2+-1-+4
Harty5 H45 ?losterman5 '45 > Matklin5 J4 0121234 Science hands-on teachin#-learnin#
actiities o! elementary school teachers4 School science and mathematics5 890(34
Healthy "hild Manito,a 0+--234 What educators need to kno about fasd4
Retrieed !rom htt$:II...4#o4m,4caIhealthychildI!asdI!asded%cators
James5 William 0112234 Talks to Teachers on 'sycholo#yD And to St%dents on Some o!
Li!eJs Ideals4 Retrieed !rom htt$:II...4#%ten,er#4or#I!ilesI1(+1@I1(+1@-
hI1(+1@-h4htm4
?ol,5 K4 > Ci,,5 R4 0+-1134 Krain $lasticity and ,ehaio%r in the deelo$in# ,rain4
Journal of !anadian "cademy of !hild and "dolescent Psychiatry, #$0B35 +(*-+@(4
Lin5 =45 Mc?eachie5 W45 > ?im5 =4 0+--+34 "olle#e st%dent intrinsic andIor e:trinsic
motiation and learnin#4 %earning and &ndi'idual (ifferences5 )*5 +*1-+*14
Molloy5 '4 0+-1-34 A&H& in the "lassroom: An Ed%cational 'ers$ectie4 Retrieed !rom
htt$:II...4childhealth,c4ca
WILLIAM JAMES 1+
Face%r5 A4 > Schie!ele5 U4 0+--*34 Motiation and learnin#: the role o! interest in
constr%ction o! re$resentation o! te:t and lon#-term retention: inter and
intraindiid%al analyses4 Euro+ean Journal of Psychology of Education, ,,0+35
1**-1@-4
Fe.$ort5 E4 0+--+34 Lan#%a#e deelo$ment5 critical $eriods in4 -ni'ersity of .ochester4
Forth &akota Ed%cation &e$artment4 0+-1134 Strate#ies !or St%dents .ith A&H&4
Retrieed !rom htt$:II...4ed%cation4comIre!erenceIarticleIadd-adhd-strate#ies-
ti$sI
6;i5 S4E45 > Ha,i,%5 I4 0+-1134 The role o! schools and $%,lic li,raries in $romotin#
readin# ha,it amon# children and adolescents in Fi#eria4 Journal of &nformation
and /noledge 0anagement, )0B35 ))-B-4
'aris5 S45 =am,or5 ?45 > Wai-Lin# 'ackard5 K4 0122134 Hands-on ,iolo#y: A m%se%m-
school-%niersity $artnershi$ !or enhancin# st%dentsJ interest and learnin# in
science4 1he Elementary School Journal 5 980)34
'rakash5 J4 0+-1+34 What is the Im$ortance o! Interest and Attention in Ed%cationL
Retrieed !rom htt$:II...4$reserearticles4comI+-11-*+-(1*)Iinterest-and-
attention4html
Sheras5 &4 0+-1134 K%stin# "ommon A&H& Myths: Myth M1 - 8Selectie Attention94
Retrieed !rom htt$:II...4orensteinsol%tions4comI+-11I1+I,%stin#-common-adhd-
myths-myth-1-NE+N1-N2)-NE+N1-N2"selectie-attentionNE+N1-N2&-+I
Simisaye5 A4645 > G%adri5 M464 0+-1-34 &eelo$in# a readin# ha,it in children: La#os
state li,rary ,oard s%mmer readin# $ro#ramme e:$erience4 %ibrary Philoso+hy
WILLIAM JAMES 1)
and Practice #$)$. Retrieed !rom
htt$:II...4.e,$a#es4%idaho4ed%IOm,olinIsimisaye-7%adri4htm
S%<%ki5 W4A4 0+--*34 Associatie learnin# and the hi$$ocam$%s4 Psychological Science
"genda. Retrieed !rom ...4a$a4or#IscienceIa,o%tI$saI+--*I-+Is%<%ki4as$:
Weiner5 L45 > Morse5 K4 0122B34 Interention and the child .ith !as4 "lcohol Health and
.esearch World5)80134
White5 Teresa 0+--(34 The e!!ects o! mnemonics on letter reco#nition and letter so%nd
ac7%isition o! at-risk kinder#arten st%dents4 &octoral dissertation5 Te:as A>M
Uniersity4 Retrieed !rom htt$ :IIhdl4handle 4net I12(2 41 IET& -TAMU -11--4
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