Qatar Storm Drainage Manual

State of Qatar - Public Works Authority
Drainage Affairs

Volume 3 SW Drainage Page i
Contents
Contents.................................................................................................................................i
1 Drainage Systems Design ........................................................................................1
1.1 Policies and Environmental Controls ............................................................................ 1
1.1.1 Flood Standards and Acceptability................................................................................2
1.1.2 Run-off and Recharge of Groundwater .........................................................................3
1.1.3 Multi-purpose Use of Attenuation Storage Areas..........................................................4
1.2 Standards ..................................................................................................................... 5
1.3 Sources of Information.................................................................................................. 5
1.4 Catchments................................................................................................................... 6
1.4.1 Catchment Boundary Definition. ...................................................................................6
1.4.2 Catchment Characteristics............................................................................................6
1.5 Design Storms (Rainfall Intensity & Rainfall Depth)...................................................... 6
1.5.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................6
1.5.2 Rainfall Data Availability................................................................................................6
1.5.3 Historic Design Rainfall Parameters .............................................................................8
1.6 Run-off Estimation ...................................................................................................... 14
1.6.1 Urban Run-Off .............................................................................................................14
1.6.2 Non-Urban Run-off ......................................................................................................14
1.6.3 Runoff Characteristics of Qatar...................................................................................14
1.6.4 Estimation of Runoff ....................................................................................................15
1.7 Ground Permeabilities ................................................................................................ 16
1.8 Groundwater Levels and Quality................................................................................. 16
1.9 Hydraulic Analysis Processes..................................................................................... 16
1.9.1 Models (physical and mathematical)...........................................................................17
1.9.2 Formulae .....................................................................................................................19
1.9.3 Prescribed Software....................................................................................................20
1.10 General Design Considerations.................................................................................. 21
1.10.1 Gullies .........................................................................................................................21
1.10.2 Pipeline systems and Outfalls.....................................................................................21
1.10.3 Pumping Stations (policy for surface water and groundwater discharge)...................22
1.10.4 Attenuation Areas and Detention Ponds.....................................................................23
1.11 Pipelines ..................................................................................................................... 24
1.11.1 Minimum Pipe Sizes and Gradients............................................................................24
1.11.2 Minimum and Maximum Flow Velocities.....................................................................25
1.11.3 Pipeline Materials........................................................................................................25
1.11.4 Pipe Bedding Calculations for Narrow and Wide Trench Conditions..........................26
1.11.5 Manhole Positioning....................................................................................................28
1.11.6 Manholes and Access Chambers ...............................................................................29
1.11.7 Reinstatement and Back-filling....................................................................................29
1.12 Soakaways.................................................................................................................. 30
1.12.1 Standard Soakaways ..................................................................................................30
1.12.2 Borehole Soakaways ..................................................................................................31

Drainage Affairs

Page ii Volume 3 SW Drainage
1
st
Edition June 2005 - Copyright Ashghal
1.12.3 Soakaway Trenches....................................................................................................31
1.13 Storage Facilities ........................................................................................................ 31
1.13.1 Ponds/Depressions .....................................................................................................31
1.13.2 Tanks...........................................................................................................................32
1.14 Groundwater Control................................................................................................... 36
1.14.1 Groundwater Levels ....................................................................................................36
1.14.2 Ground Water Drains ..................................................................................................36
2 Pumping Stations....................................................................................................38
2.1 Standards ................................................................................................................... 38
2.2 Hydraulic Design......................................................................................................... 38
2.2.1 Hydraulic Principles.....................................................................................................38
2.2.2 Pump Arrangements ...................................................................................................40
2.3 Rising Main Design..................................................................................................... 40
2.3.1 Rising Main Diameters ................................................................................................40
2.3.2 Twin Rising Mains .......................................................................................................40
2.3.3 Economic Analysis......................................................................................................40
2.3.4 Rising Main Alignment ................................................................................................41
2.4 Maximum and Minimum Velocities ............................................................................. 41
2.5 Pipe Materials ............................................................................................................. 41
2.6 Thrust Blocks .............................................................................................................. 41
2.7 Air Valves and Washout Facilities............................................................................... 42
2.7.1 Air Valves ....................................................................................................................42
2.7.2 Vented Non-return Valves...........................................................................................42
2.7.3 Wash Outs................................................................................................................42
2.7.4 Isolating Valves ...........................................................................................................42
2.8 Flow Meters ................................................................................................................ 42
2.8.1 Application and Selection............................................................................................42
2.8.2 Magnetic Flowmeters ..................................................................................................42
2.9 Surge Protection Measures ........................................................................................ 44
2.10 Screens....................................................................................................................... 45
2.11 Pumping Stations Selection..................................................................................... 46
2.12 Pumps and Motors...................................................................................................... 50
2.13 Sump Design .............................................................................................................. 50
2.14 Suction/Delivery Pipework, Isolation........................................................................... 52
2.15 Pumping System Characteristics................................................................................ 52
2.16 Pump Pumps and Over-pumping Facilities................................................................. 55
2.17 Power Calculations including Standby Generation..................................................... 55
2.17.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................55
2.17.2 Load Type ...................................................................................................................55
2.17.3 Site condition...............................................................................................................55
2.17.4 Generator set operation and control ..........................................................................56
2.17.5 Type of installation ......................................................................................................56
2.17.6 Type of control panel...................................................................................................56
2.17.7 Ventilation system.......................................................................................................56

Drainage Affairs

Volume 3 SW Drainage Page iii
2.17.8 Fuel system.................................................................................................................56
2.17.9 Starting method...........................................................................................................57
2.17.10 Service facility .............................................................................................................57
2.17.11 Generator set sizing....................................................................................................57
2.18 Switch Gear and Control Panels................................................................................. 58
2.18.1 Typetested and partially type tested assemblies (TTA and PTTA)...........................58
2.18.2 Total connected load...................................................................................................58
2.18.3 Short circuit level .........................................................................................................58
2.18.4 Type of co-ordination ..................................................................................................59
2.18.5 Form of internal separation .........................................................................................59
2.18.6 Bus Bar rating..............................................................................................................60
2.18.7 Type of starter .............................................................................................................60
2.18.8 Protection device.........................................................................................................61
2.18.9 Interlocking facility.......................................................................................................62
2.18.10 Accessibility.................................................................................................................63
2.18.11 Cable entry..................................................................................................................63
2.19 PLCs SCADA/Telemetry............................................................................................ 63
2.19.1 PLC .............................................................................................................................63
2.19.2 RTU.............................................................................................................................64
2.19.3 SCADA and Telemetry Systems.................................................................................64
2.20 Lighting ....................................................................................................................... 65
2.20.1 Light Fitting Selection Criteria .....................................................................................65
2.21 Maintenance Access................................................................................................... 68
2.22 Gantry Cranes and Lifting Facilities............................................................................ 69
2.23 Ventilation, Odour Control and Air Conditioning ......................................................... 70
2.23.1 Ventilation....................................................................................................................70
2.23.2 Odour Control ..............................................................................................................71
2.23.3 Air Conditioning...........................................................................................................71
2.24 Structural Design ........................................................................................................ 72
2.24.1 Substructures ..............................................................................................................72
2.24.2 Superstructures...........................................................................................................79
2.25 Site Boundary Wall/Fence .......................................................................................... 86
2.26 Site Facilities............................................................................................................... 86
3 Documentation ........................................................................................................87
3.1 General ......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.2 Guidance on Environmental Impact Statements......................................................... 87
3.3 Building Permit............................................................................................................ 87
4 Health and Safety ....................................................................................................88
5 References...............................................................................................................89

Drainage Affairs

Drainage Affairs

Volume 3 SW Drainage Page 1
1 Drainage Systems
Design
As stated in Volume 2 - Foul Sewerage, the drainage
system in Qatar, for managing surface water (mostly
stormwater runoff) and groundwater, is separate to
that for managing foul sewage. The surface water
drainage system serving development in Qatar is a
mixture of highway and road drainage, and dedicated
surface water drainage systems. The groundwater
control system is the responsibility of the DA, and is
usually combined with the surface water system, so
that the combined flows are directed to common
attenuation tanks, pumping stations and outfalls.
These shared arrangements will minimise land use
and environmental impacts of separate systems. The
shared system will also operate all year round with
groundwater flows, thus maximising reliability to deal
with the much larger flows from the infrequent rainfall
events.
Highway and road drainage is the responsibility of the
Roads Department, and is to be designed in
accordance with the Qatar Highway Design Manual
(QHDM)
i
. The Qatar Highway Design Manual
requires that the highway engineer must carefully
consider adjacent development and its discharge
points and characteristics in order to accurately
assess the total catchment that may be contributing
to the highway drainage system under design.
Highway drainage is provided for all urban roads,
collecting all rainfall within the catchment area, and
disposing of it within the highway limits or to a
designated outfall point. Thus the highway drainage
system should cater for both carriageway drainage
and drainage of adjacent developments discharging
to the road.
Carriageway drainage is achieved by longitudinal and
transverse gradients of the road surface to direct
storm runoff flows to gullies located in the edge
channel or gutter. The gullies are then linked to the
stormwater disposal system. Due to the flat
topography and limited stormwater drainage system,
the road gullies often discharge to an adjacent
soakaway or infiltration trench. Most developments
discharge their stormwater to

adjacent roads as surface runoff. There are thus
relatively few pipeline systems discharging
stormwater from developments to dedicated
stormwater systems.
The topography of Doha is relatively flat but
undulating, and thus catchment boundaries and
natural drainage routes are often poorly defined.
Recent extensive development has caused
flooding to become more problematic, especially in
the Greater Doha area, due to:
Increased roofed and paved areas producing
greater and quicker surface water runoff
flows;
Reduced permeable areas for surface waters
to soak into the ground;
Interference with natural flood paths by urban
development and road construction;
No provision within the roads services
hierarchy for surface or groundwater
drainage systems;
Development becoming increasingly distant
from natural drainage outlets on the coast;
Greater public awareness of flooding;
Rising groundwater table, reducing the rate of
surface waters soaking into the ground.
The drainage system is designed to address such
flooding problems by managing both surface
runoff and groundwater flows.
The existing Doha surface water and groundwater
control systems comprise individual schemes to
address particular flooding problems.
1.1 Policies and
Environmental
Controls
The difficulty in draining catchments that have no
natural outlet to the sea or to low-lying inland
areas is recognised. The advantages of controlling
surface runoff at source are also accepted.
The policy principles for design of surface water
and groundwater control systems are:
Surface water and groundwater systems
should use common facilities where possible;

Drainage Affairs

Page 2 Volume 3 SW Drainage
1
st
Where stormwater discharges above ground
level, such as from buildings, runoff control
systems (i.e. source control) should be installed;
Runoff control systems should be installed at
source to regulate discharge to the public
infrastructure drainage systems;
Where development is likely to be slow,
soakaway systems and / or use of retention
areas should be used as an interim solution.
Positive drainage systems should be provided to
drain flows to the sea or other approved
discharge areas;
Where a SW system is planned or already
exists, the permissible peak flow from the new
sub-catchment into the SW system will be
determined by DA. If the calculated peak flow
exceeds this figure, the difference must be
catered for by a combination of attenuation
tanks and soakaways;
Rate of runoff should be attenuated by the use
of short-term flooding of roads, storage areas or
tanks;
Soakaways to drain surface waters may be
required to attenuate runoff to positive drainage
systems or retention areas;
Flood plains and routes are to be identified and
kept clear of development to facilitate runoff of
surface waters;
Positive drainage systems, using pipes and
culverts should be constructed where possible in
carriageways in accordance with the agreed
services hierarchy. The designer should note
that there is currently no allowance for positive
drainage systems within the road hierarchy and
therefore the location of all drains must be
agreed with the DA.
Much work is being carried out to manage the
surface water and groundwater regimes in Qatar.
However the urgent need for a thorough Master Plan
Review is evident. This Review would bring focus to
the ongoing drainage activities and allow future
development, road construction and drainage
infrastructure works to progress with confidence.
1.1.1 Flood Standards
and Acceptability
Flood Return Periods
The levels of flood protection required by the DA
are shown in Table 1.1.1 below.
Table 1.1.1 - Levels of Flood Protection Required
for Various Areas in Qatar
Event Area
I in 2 Years Storm Parks, playgrounds, natural
areas and minor roads
1 in 5 Years Storm Low cost housing, major roads
1 in 10 Years Storm Government, institutional and
other official development,
technically sensitive property,
basements, power equipment,
etc High cost housing
1 in 25 Years Storm High prestige or ceremonial
developments
Acceptable Highway Flood Standards
The guidelines for flood standards proposed by
the DA are shown in Table 1.1.2 below.
Table 1.1.2 Guidelines for Flood Standards
on Qatar Roadways
Road Acceptable flooding
Small Local Roads Flood depth of 0.15m
maximum depth and
duration of 2 hours
Main Local Roads Flood depth of 0.15m
maximum depth and
duration of 1 hour
Major Roads Flood depth of 0.10m
maximum and duration of
30 minutes
Primary Routes Flood depth of 0.10m
maximum and duration of
10 minutes

Drainage Affairs

Surcharge
Drains should not be surcharged under groundwater
flows, but may be surcharged under periodic flows
from surface water runoff.
Building Levels
Finished floor level in all buildings shall be
constructed a minimum of 150mm above adjacent
road levels.
1.1.2 Run-off and
Recharge of
Groundwater
1.1.2.1 Surface Water Control
There are few districts served by truly separate
systems (i.e. a foul sewer and storm drain in each
road way serving all properties).
The Wadi Musherib system was constructed to deal
with a major flooding area within C-Ring Road.
Engineered drainage schemes have been designed
to cater for 2, 5 and 10-year storms, depending on
the areas and importance of the buildings and
facilities to be protected. For storms of greater
severity, it is normal practice to retain storage areas
(flood plains) to retain or convey the flood flows.
Flood plains are areas that would not be damaged on
inconvenienced by flooding, such as car parks and
recreational areas. The limit of the flood plain is
defined by the contour of the maximum level which
the floodwaters would be expected to reach during
the specified storm.
The enclosed catchments (being those without outlet
to the sea or suitable low-lying inland areas) are the
most problematic to drain, and therefore it is essential
that both the volume and rate of storm runoff be
controlled to minimise storage and pumping
requirements downstream.
The DA is preparing detailed maps to define flood
plain areas in two categories:
Primary Flood Plain areas which are subject to
an increasing magnitude and frequency of
flooding as urban development takes place in
the upper catchment areas;

Secondary Flood Plain areas which can be
in-filled or have drainage systems installed to
avoid flooding problems, provided the storm
runoff can be transferred (i.e. drain) to lower
lying areas.
These maps will include basic information on the
main drainage routes, and overland flow routes for
each catchment. The intention is that these maps
will be used by various government departments
(i.e. Roads, Planning) to control development in
flood plain areas and across natural drainage
routes.
1.1.2.2 Groundwater Control
Groundwater levels in many parts of Doha have
risen markedly in recent years, causing
deterioration of buildings and buried services. The
high water levels have restricted the performance
of septic tanks and soakaways, and have caused
subsidence of surfaces.
In inland areas, the flat and undulating
topography, combined with highly impervious rock
strata,results in perched water tables Such areas
are without efficient drainage routes, and hence
susceptible to significant rises in groundwater
levels during heavy rainfall.
Urban development has also increased flows
soaking into the ground, due to septic tanks, water
supply leakage and irrigation. The result has been
significant rises in groundwater levels, due to
limited permeability of the ground.
Groundwater levels in Doha have been studied
since the early 1980s. The main conclusions are:
Groundwater levels have been rising due to
recharge as a result of leakage;
Ground conditions and permeability are
highly variable even within very localised
areas;
Reductions in groundwater levels have been
seen where sewerage systems are installed,
due to closure of septic tanks and infiltration
into the sewers;
Most groundwater levels rise by between
1.0m and 1.5m during a wet period when
monthly rainfall exceeds 30mm. Level rise

Drainage Affairs

1
st
reduces to between 0.5m and 0.6m nearer the
coast.
Groundwater drainage systems have used
permeable drains, as were successfully used for the
Wadi Musherib scheme. These are installed in the
same trench as the deeper surface water drain, both
systems discharging to common manholes,
attenuation tanks and pumping stations.
1.1.2.3 Re-Use of Groundwater
Water is a scarce and expensive commodity in the
Middle East, and therefore every opportunity for its
re-use should be exploited.
Irrigation
Currently in Qatar, water supply for irrigation is
supplied by both fresh (drinking) water and treated
sewage effluent (TSE). Fresh water is used to irrigate
public areas, such as parks, due to concerns about
possible infection from TSE. TSE is used elsewhere,
such as for irrigating planting along highways, etc. As
landscaping works spread, the demand for irrigation
water is increasing, and therefore groundwater
presents a possible source for highway irrigation. It is
unlikely that groundwater would be of satisfactory
quality for irrigation of public areas.
To re-use groundwater for irrigation would require:
Groundwater of suitable quality for planting, in
view of the potential pollutants of groundwater
from salts and chemicals derived from soils, and
from septic tanks;
Infrastructure systems to treat as necessary,
and transfer groundwater to the irrigation
system.
Re-Use for Flushing
Another destination for groundwater could be for
flushing toilets, vehicle washing, etc. As with irrigation
re-use, the groundwater would need to be of
adequate quality to be safe for inadvertent exposure
to humans. The necessary infrastructure would also
need to be in place, such as dual storage and
flushing systems in commercial and domestic
premises. Such dual systems are used in other parts
of the world, e.g. Hong Kong, where sea water is
used for flushing toilets.
Ongoing Arrangements
Re-use of groundwater depends on water quality,
and the feasibility of groundwater being treated to
the required quality for reuse. Information on
groundwater quality is limited, so a sampling and
analysis regime should be set-up to analyse
groundwater sources. The main potential sampling
points would be the attenuation tanks and
pumping stations on the surface
water/groundwater control system, and boreholes
within or near the urban area.
Assuming that an adequate supply of
groundwater, of suitable quality can be made
available, then a feasibility study should follow to
assess the practicality of transferring groundwater
into any potential re-use systems. The study
should include cost-benefit analysis, comparing
costs of re-use arrangements, with costs of
expanding current arrangements.
The DA will produce (in co-ordination with SCENR
and other interested parties) the reuse regulations
for surface and groundwater. The existing GW
quality analysis results, the outcoming results of
the comprehensive GW sampling programme, as
well as the reuse regulations will provide a
database. The feasibility study will then assess
the practicality of transferring groundwater into any
potential re-use systems.
1.1.3 Multi-purpose Use
of Attenuation
Storage Areas
Positive SW systems are designed to collect and
discharge rainfall as quickly as possible from the
areas on which it falls. This is not always the most
appropriate means of disposal because of the high
runoff peaks that can be generated.
Sustainable drainage systems are being
introduced in some countries, including facilities
for the attenuation of surface runoff by the use of
attenuation basins, and in some cases detention
areas. These facilities can provide an opportunity
for enhancing the environment by the creation of
wildlife friendly habitat. This is particularly the case
with detention ponds, which can be permanent
features of the landscape.
Where it is only required to provide attenuation
during high rainfall events, this can be achieved by

Drainage Affairs

using recreational areas such as football pitches or
parkland areas. These areas are allowed to flood on
those occasions when the rate of rainfall requires it.
Such areas must be generally below the elevation
level of the surrounding developed areas. Surface
water is collected in a conventional system and
discharged to the attenuation basin, from which it is
allowed to drain at a reduced rate, commensurate
with the ability of the receiving water course to accept
the flows without damage. Where ground conditions
allow, infiltration may occur which helps to reduce the
impact on the receiving waters.
Constructed wetlands (CWs) are defined as
engineered or constructed wetlands that utilise
natural processes involving wetland vegetation, soils,
and their associated microbiological features to
assist, at least partially, in treating an effluent or other
water source. The degree of wildlife habitat provided
by CWs varies broadly. At one end of the spectrum
are those systems that are intended only to provide
temporary storage for an effluent such as TSE, and
provide little or no wildlife habitat. At the other end
are those systems that are intended to provide water
reuse, wildlife habitat, and public use.
1.2 Standards
The following standards are of interest to designers in
SW and foul sewerage systems. This list is by no
means exhaustive, but is intended as an easy initial
reference. (References are also included at the end
of this volume). Volume 1, Section 1.5, also contains
the complete list of references for all volumes of this
manual.
BS EN 752
ii
Drain and sewer systems outside
buildings (supersedes BS 8005
iii
, which is
withdrawn, and part of BS 8301
iv
).
Part 1: 1996 Generalities and
Definitions
Part 2: 1997 Performance
Requirements
Part 3: 1997 Planning
Part 4: 1998 Hydraulic Design
and Environmental
Considerations
Part 5: 1998 Rehabilitation
Part 6: 1998 Pumping
Installations
Part 7: 1998 Maintenance and
Operations
BS EN 598: 1995 Ductile iron pipes, fittings,
accessories and their joints for sewerage
applications Requirements and test
methods
v
.
BS EN 1610: 1998 Construction and testing
of drains and sewers
vi
.
Sewers for Adoption 5th Edition (WRc)
vii
.
BS EN124: 1994 Gully tops and manhole
tops for vehicular and pedestrian areas
Design requirements, type testing, marking,
quality control
viii
.
1.3 Sources of Information
The following publications are of interest to
designers in SW and foul sewerage systems. This
list is by no means exhaustive, but is intended as
an easy initial reference. (References are also
included at the end of this volume). Volume 1,
Section 1.5 also contains the complete list of
references for all manuals.
Department of the Environment National
Water Council Standing Technical Committee
Reports, 1981, Design and analysis of urban
storm drainage - The Wallingford Procedure,
National Water Council UK.
State of Kuwait Ministry of Planning & Hyder
Consulting, 2001, Kuwait Stormwater
Masterplan Hydrological Aspects - Final
Report. Cardiff, (AU00109/D1/015), Hyder
Consulting.
Highways Agency, 2002, DMRB Volume 4
Section 2 Part 5 (HA 104/02) Geotechnics
and Drainage. Chamber pots and gully tops
for road drainage and services: Installation
and maintenance, London, Highways
Agency.
Water Research Council, 1997, Sewerage
Detention Tanks A Design Guide, UK,
WRC.
Sea Outfalls construction, inspection and
repair CIRIA.
Construction Industry Research and
Information Association, 1996, Report R159:

Drainage Affairs

1
st
Sea Outfalls construction, inspection and
repair, London, CIRIA.
Building Research Establishment, 1991,
Soakaway Design, BRE Digest 365, BRE
Watford UK.
HR Wallingford DC Watkins, 1991, Report
SR271 -The hydraulic design and performance
of soakaways, Wallingford UK.
Construction Industry Research and Information
Association, 1996, Infiltration Drainage Manual
of Good Practice, London UK, CIRIA.
Chartered Institution of Water and
Environmental Management, 1996, Research
and Development in Methods of Soakaway
design, UK, CIWEM.
HR Wallingford and DIH Barr, 2000, Tables for
the Hydraulic Design of Pipes, Sewers and
Channels, 7
th
Edition, Trowbridge, Wiltshire, UK
Redwood Books.
Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture,
1997, Qatar Highway Design Manual, January
1997, Qatar, MMAA.
Association, 1996, Design of sewers to control
sediment problems, Report 141, London CIRIA.
Clay Pipe Development Association Limited,
1998, Design and construction of drainage and
sewerage systems using vitrified clay pipes,
Bucks, UK, CPDA.
Association, 1998, Report 177, Dry Weather
Flows in Sewers, London, CIRIA.
Water Research Council, 1994, Velocity
equations, UK, WRC.
Bazaraa, A.S., Ahmed, S., 1991. Rainfall
Characterization in an Arid Area, Engineering
Journal of Qatar University, Vol. 4, pp35-50.
1.4 Catchments
1.4.1 Catchment Boundary
Definition
The boundaries of each catchment can be defined
either by survey or by reference to contour maps.
The boundary will be defined such that any rain that
falls within it will be directed to a point of discharge
under gravity. It should be noted that catchment
boundaries are not always readily definable from
larger scale maps, and may often have changed
significantly due earthmoving operations. It is
therefore essential that sufficient topographical
survey is carried out to verify the catchment
boundary during the design process.
Once the drain layout has been defined
approximately, the main catchment can be divided
into sub-catchments draining to each pipe, or
group of pipes in the area. Sub-catchments may
also be defined, for convenience, to represent
areas with different runoff characteristics (see
section 1.4.2 below).
Catchment and sub-catchment areas can be
measured using a planimeter from paper plans or,
preferably, using electronic methods where the
catchment is represented on a GIS or other
electronic format. Some computer based
simulation software, for example InfoWorks, is
capable of importing catchment data directly into
the model from GIS records.
1.4.2 Catchment
Characteristics
Catchment characteristics are the various types of
development and surface within the catchment.
The different characteristics represent their
potential to generate surface water runoff to be
managed by the drainage system.
1.5 Design Storms (Rainfall
Intensity & Rainfall
Depth)
1.5.1 Introduction
This Section provides information about the
availability of rainfall records in Qatar and their use
in the development of design rainfall parameters
such as intensity-duration-frequency curves, storm
duration and storm profiles.
1.5.2 Rainfall Data
Availability
There is a scarcity of rainfall data in Qatar. The
only operating long-term rain gauge in Qatar is

Drainage Affairs

located at Doha International Airport (Latitude
25 15N and Longitude 51 34E)
ix
. The rain gauge is
operated and maintained by the Department of Civil
Aviation and Meteorology, of the Ministry of
Communication and Transport, State of Qatar. It is a
seven-day disk chart recorder that has been in
operation since November 1976. Prior to that, a
storage gauge recorded daily rainfall from about
1962.
Table 1.5.1 summarises the type of processed rainfall
data available from the Doha International Airport rain
gauge.
Table 1.5.1 - Rainfall data availability from the
Doha International Airport Rain Gauge
Rain Gauge and
Location
Data Type Data Length
Daily rainfall
depths
1962-2000
Rainfall event
data
Nov 1976, Feb
1988 & Mar 1995
Monthly rainfall
totals
1962-2000
Monthly 24 hr
maximum rainfall
1962-2000
Doha International
Station
Latitude 25 15N
Longitude 51 34E

No. of rain days
per month
1962-2000
A number of other long-term gauges have been
referenced in several sources but, during the
compilation of this Manual, data could only be
obtained for the Doha Airport station.
In a Qatar University report by Bazaraa and Ahmed
(1991)
x
, reference is made to a second climatological
station installed in 1978 at Doha Port, within 4km of
Doha International Airport Station. A comparison of
rainfall data (1979-1989) at these two sites is outlined
in Section 3 of Volume 1- Meteorology.
Since March 2002, the DA has had four tipping-
bucket logger rain gauges (logable SEBA) situated
in pumping station compounds around Doha. Details
of the logger rain gauges are also shown in Table
1.5.2.
Table 1.5.2 - Details of logger rain gauges in Doha
Reference Location Logger ID
SW1 Wadi Musheirib (PS 1) R02756
SW2 Luqta (PS SW 2) R02757
SW3 Al Dana (PS SW 3) R02759
SW5 Abu Hamour (PS SW 5) R02758
The tipping buckets record every 0.1mm of rain to
the nearest second and can provide hyetographs
for even very short duration events. Remote
logger downloads take place in Doha using
telemetry, however manual downloads are also
possible.
The following table summarises the period in
which sizeable rainfall events were recorded by
the logger rain gauges.
Table 1.5.3 - Rainfall event data availability
from logger rain gauges around
Doha.
Rain Gauge Data Type Period of Rainfall
Events
SW1 Wadi
Musheirib
Event Logger Apr 2002
SW2 Luqta Event Logger Mar 2002, Apr 2002,
Nov 2002 & Dec 2002
SW3 Al Dana Event Logger Mar 2002 &
Apr 2002
SW5 Abu
Hamour
Event Logger Apr 2002

Initial data from these gauges highlights the highly
localised nature of rainfall in Qatar. Although the
rain gauges are only 5km apart, the first thirteen
events recorded were specific to a single gauge.
As previously stated, there is a distinct lack of
long-term rainfall data in Qatar. The accuracy of
rainfall analysis relies directly on having an
adequate amount of rainfall data, which is
currently not the case in Qatar. Proposals exist
within the DA to install further rain gauges and
collect additional rainfall data over the next ten
years. These proposals include establishing a
further five permanent rainfall gauges around
Doha, in areas of new development, such as:
a Wakrah PS W1
b Doha Industrial area STW
Inlet Pumping Station
c PS 32
d Wajbah PS

Drainage Affairs

1
st
e Duhail Army Camp PS 12
f West Bay Lagoon
One intention for the proposed rain gauges will be to
enable real-time control on flood attenuation ponds in
Qatar.
1.5.3 Historic Design
Rainfall Parameters
1.5.3.1 Intensity-Duration-
Frequency
The scarcity of reliable long-term rainfall data in
Qatar has hampered the development of reliable
design rainfall criteria. To date, IDF (intensity-
duration-frequency) curves have only been
developed using records from the recording rain
gauge at Doha International Airport. A thirteen-year
series (1977-1989) was used by researchers from
Qatar University for this purpose, but it was
recognised that the limited number of storm events
rendered even this data set inadequate.
Although statistical procedures for data processing
and analysis could not be applied rigorously, a
method was adopted whereby an IDF relationship
was developed. This was considered to compare well
with previous research for Qatar and neighbouring
Bahrain.
The IDF relationship in common use for surface
water drainage projects in Qatar is given by equation
1.5.1 below:
Equation 1.5.1
Where:
I = Rainfall intensity (mm/hr)
C = 410 (fitting parameter)
Tr = Return Period (years)
t = storm duration (minutes)
m = 0.206 (fitting parameter)
n = 0.787 (fitting parameter)
d = 10 (fitting parameter)
The IDF curves based on the work by Qatar
University are shown in .Figure 1.5.1. A tabulated
form of the IDF relationship is provided in Table
1.5.4., outlining rainfall intensities (mm/hr) for
varying storm durations (5 mins to 24 hrs) and
return periods (2 to 100 years).
The IDF relationship provides the average
intensity of rainfall during a storm event with a
specified duration and frequency of occurrence
(return period). This can be taken forward to
design runoff calculations.
Alternatively, the IDF relationship can be used to
estimate the return period of a recorded event,
given the total rainfall depth and its duration.
Rainfall data collected in Doha has been used to
develop the IDF relationship. There is insufficient
data elsewhere to determine if it is equally valid in
all areas of the State. Although storms are
generally highly localised in nature, this does not
preclude the IDF relationship from being similar
across Qatar.
Within the next ten years or so, the DA will review
the rainfall data collected from various gauges
around Greater Doha and an exercise will be
undertaken to update the IDF curves presented in
this manual.
( )
n
m
r
d t
CT
I
+
=

Drainage Affairs

Table 1.5.4 - Intensity-Frequency-Duration (IDF) values recommended for use throughout Qatar
Return Period (years)
Duration (mins)
2 5 10 25 50 100
5 56.1 67.8 78.2 94.4 108.9 125.7
10 44.8 54.1 62.4 75.3 86.9 100.2
15 37.6 45.4 52.3 63.2 72.9 84.1
20 32.5 39.3 45.3 54.7 63.1 72.8
30 25.9 31.3 36.1 43.6 50.3 58.1
45 20.2 24.4 28.1 34.0 39.2 45.2
60 16.7 20.2 23.3 28.1 32.4 37.4
2hrs 10.3 12.4 14.3 17.3 19.9 23.0
3hrs 7.6 9.2 10.6 12.8 14.8 17.0
6hrs 4.5 5.4 6.3 7.6 8.7 10.1
12hrs 2.6 3.2 3.7 4.4 5.1 5.9
24hrs 1.5 1.9 2.1 2.6 3.0 3.4

Drainage Affairs

1
st

Rainfall "Intensit y-Fr equency-Duration" Profiles
(based on r esearch by Qatar Univer sity)
0 .00
20 .00
40 .00
60 .00
80 .00
100 .00
120 .00
0 20 4 0 6 0 80 10 0 1 20
Time (minutes)
R
a
i
n
f
a
l
l

I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
m
m
/
h
r
)
2 -Year Storm
5 -Year Storm
10-Year Storm
25-Year Storm
50-Year Storm

Figure 1.5.1 - Intensity-Duration-Frequency Relationship

State of Qatar -Public Works Authority
Drainage Affairs

1
st
1.5.3.2 Selection of Design Storm
Duration
A design storm duration and a specified design return
period are required to determine a design rainfall
intensity, i (mm/hr) from IDF relationships as
discussed in Section 1.5.3.1. This section discusses
the recommended processes for selecting a suitable
design storm duration.
For sewerage and drainage design it is common to
take the design storm duration as the time of
concentration of the catchment, tC. Time of
concentration is defined as the interval in time from
the beginning of the rainfall to the time when water
from the furthest point in the catchment reaches the
point under consideration.
Time of concentration, tC, can be estimated by one of
a number of formulae. Many formulae have been
derived from catchments with well-defined drainage
networks and do not necessarily lend themselves
well to non-urban arid areas, where a combination of
wadi and overland sheet flow predominates. The
following equation for tC is based on flow rate
computations and has been recommended for use in
Kuwait
xi
. It is considered that it will also have
reasonable applicability in Qatar in undeveloped
(non-urban) areas:
Equation 1.5.2
Where:
tC = Time of concentration (mins)
n = Mannings roughness coefficient
L = Length of flow for furthest point (metres)
S = Average slope (metres/metres)
i = Average rainfall intensity (mm/hr)
In this method the rainfall intensity, i, is required. The
calculation is therefore performed iteratively using
values of i from the IDF curves for different durations
for the selected return period, until the value
calculated for tC equals the duration that corresponds
to that of the rainfall intensity used to derive it. It is
recommended that an appropriate n value to use for
undeveloped areas of Qatar lies between 0.020
and 0.035. This range has been established using
a method for developing Mannings n values for
floodplains (Arcement and Schneider, 1989)
xii
.
Having derived a time of concentration, the
corresponding rainfall depth is used to define a
storm profile. This estimate of storm duration
should be considered as an initial estimate.
Shorter and longer duration events should also be
applied to the catchment until the duration giving
rise to the highest peak flow has been identified.
One alternative for determining time of
concentration is outlined in the QHDM, which
recommends the following equations.
Mannings equation, as shown in Equation 1.5.3 is
initially used for the calculation of flow velocity.
Equation 1.5.3
Where:
V = Mean velocity of flow (m/s)
n = Mannings coefficient of roughness
R = Hydraulic Radius (m)
S = Slope (percent)
The mean velocity, V, calculated from Mannings
Equation, is used to determine the time of
concentration using the following equation:
Equation 1.5.4
Where:
tc = Time of concentration (seconds)
V = Mean velocity of flow (m/s)
L = Length of flow path from the point of
consideration to the furthest catchment
extremity (metres)
This approach is recommended for use when the
rational method of runoff calculation is used, and
3 / 2 3 / 1
3 / 1
526
i S
nL
t
c
=
n
S R
V
2 / 1 3 / 2
=
V
L
t
c
=

Drainage Affairs

1
st

is particularly appropriate for developed (urban)
areas. However, it is recommended that in Qatar for
non- urban areas, Equation 1.5.2 is used instead.
When considering short duration storms, the rainfall
intensity changes rapidly with only a small change in
storm duration. This is exemplified in Figure 1.5.1.
Therefore, it is crucial for small drainage areas that
an accurate assessment of tC is undertaken.
Generally in Qatar, storms are of short duration
(typically 0.52 hours) and catchments are small
such that tC is usually of a similar magnitude.
Where inter-catchment transfers are involved,
pumped-storage schemes are usually designed to
cater for the runoff from a storm duration of 24 hours.
This takes into account the total rainfall from multiple
events occurring in a day. In this case, the use of IDF
curves and a storm duration equal to the time of
concentration of the catchment is superseded by the
use of a 24-hour rainfall depth derived by the DA.
The following depths are currently recommended for
the design of small storage systems (e.g. soakaways,
storage tanks, etc.). For higher return periods, these
depths are comparable with those derived by the IDF
curves for 24-hour duration events:
2yr 25mm
5yr 45mm
10yr 55mm
25yr 65mm
The above values are expected to be updated by the
DA periodically.
For larger storage systems which have a significant
outflow (e.g. detention ponds) it may be more
appropriate to use rainfall depth values for durations
of between 2 and 24 hours.
The choice of return-period depends on the design
standard for the land use type concerned. However,
for storms with a return period in excess of 25 years it
is recognised and accepted that inundation will occur
to some extent, and the focus changes from
achieving a higher design standard to inundation
management.
1.5.3.3 Design Storm Profiles
The IDF relationship provides an average intensity
of rainfall for given storm durations and return
periods. Where a hyetograph (distribution of
rainfall over time) is required, a storm shape or
profile is needed. The storm profiles are used to
simulate a design storm over a catchment.
As previously mentioned, there are insufficient
records of local rainfall in Qatar, particularly
hyetographs, with which to derive design storm
profiles.
Such profiles have, however, previously been
developed for the nearby State of Kuwait in the
Kuwait Stormwater Masterplan (KSM)
xiii
. Kuwait
shares a similar climate to Qatar, generally
experiencing an annual rainfall of less than
100mm/year. Kuwait also experiences large inter-
annual and regional rainfall fluctuations (refer to
Section 3.6.2 of Volume 1 Meteorology). A
number of steps were taken in order to develop
storm profiles for Kuwait. A total of 477 storms
with depths greater than or equal to 5mm were
available for analysis. The profiles of the available
storms were analysed by grouping them into sets
of varying storm durations including: 0-3 hours; 3-
6 hours; 6-12 hours; longer than 12 hours. Each
storm was examined to determine the proportion
of rainfall falling with variation in time. The
developed storm profiles are provided in Table
1.5.5
In the absence of any other data to suggest
otherwise, it is recommended designers use the
above storm data for Kuwait for the purposes of
design in Qatar.

Drainage Affairs

1
st
Table 1.5.5 - Average storm profiles for varying duration, recommended for use in Qatar
Duration 0-3 hr storms 3-6 hr storms
% duration 0 0.16 0.33 0.52 0.72 0.86 1 0 0.12 0.3 0.51 0.71 0.88 1
%rainfall 0 0.23 0.38 0.54 0.69 0.8 1 0 0.17 0.34 0.53 0.69 0.87 1
Duration 6-12hr storms 12+ storms
% duration 0 0.12 0.3 0.51 0.71 0.89 1 0 0.11 0.31 0.51 0.71 0.9 1
%rainfall 0 0.14 0.32 0.52 0.72 0.89 1 0 0.13 0.34 0.54 0.71 0.88 1
1.5.3.4 Areal Rainfall Reduction
Where relatively large catchments are being
considered, with times of concentration in excess of
three hours, lower intensity, longer duration rainfall
events may become important in peak runoff
generation. Single thunderstorms cover only a
relatively small area. However, a large thunderstorm
can be of the order of up to 20km diameter with the
storm centre up to around 8km in diameter, and can
last several hours. Such storms may sit entirely within
large catchments, and in these cases the runoff-
generating part of the catchment is restricted to the
area of the thunderstorm overlying it. While these
events contain the highest intensities, catchments
with much larger areas may generate more runoff
from more widespread, lower intensity, frontal-type
events. For this reason, the area of the catchment
under consideration becomes important in estimating
the depth of rainfall over the whole catchment from
the IDF curves, rather than the area of the
thunderstorm.
Given the finite areal extent of thunderstorms, it is
recommended that catchments with areas less than
50km
2
, that is, areas less than the centre of a large
storm cell with a diameter of 8km, have no areal
rainfall reduction applied to them. The centre of the
storm cell should be considered to lie over the
catchment, and rainfall depths taken from the IDF
curves should be used directly. These rainfall depths
can be considered as conservative.
It should be noted here that, implicit in this
recommendation, is the assumption that the
IDFcurves are based on maximum rainfall intensities
at the centre of thunderstorms.
Catchments in the Greater Doha area are all
smaller than 50km
2
, however, some developed
catchments are linked with pumped-storage
schemes to facilitate runoff disposal. For inter-
catchment transfer schemes where the total
catchment area exceeds 50km
2
, an areal
reduction factor should be applied to the overall
catchment rainfall. This is to account for the
decrease in rainfall intensity with increasing
distance from the centre of the storm. A method to
account for this decrease is given by Equation
1.5.5
xiv
.
Equation 1.5.5
Where:
Pa = Catchment average precipitation
Pm = Catchment maximum precipitation from
IDF curve (mm)
A = Catchment area (km
2
)
The rainfall reduction described above is to
account for the reduction in storm intensity when
moving away from the centre of the storm (i.e. a
storm-centred areal rainfall reduction rather than
the more common statistical rainfall reduction
usually referred to as Areal Reduction Factor
ARF). It therefore only applies to thunderstorm-
type events.
For design purposes, rainfall durations of up to
three hours are considered to be associated with
thunderstorm events, whereas those of longer
duration are considered to be associated with
frontal-type rainfall. For this reason, the rainfall
( ) A P P
m a
03 . 0 1 =

Drainage Affairs


reduction should not be applied to rainfall in excess
of three hours duration.
For those catchments or inter-catchment transfer
schemes with times of concentration in excess of
three hours, it is recommended that two types of
storm be applied to the catchment:
1 A three-hour storm with areal rainfall reduction
from Equation 1.5.5 applied, using the storm
profile for storms up to three hours. This event
corresponds to a thunderstorm-type event;
2 A storm with a duration corresponding to the
correct time of concentration for the catchment,
without any rainfall reduction applied. The storm
profile for the relevant duration should be used.
This event corresponds to the more widespread
rainfall associated with frontal-type conditions.
Proposals exist within the DA to install further rain
gauges and collect additional rainfall data over the
next ten years. For inter-catchment transfer schemes,
where the total catchment area exceeds 50km
2
, it is
recommended that efforts are made to reassess
ARFs based on the latest rainfall data available at the
time of scheme design. Because of the lack of rainfall
data, periodic reviews of the ARFs shall be
confirmed with DA.
1.6 Run-off Estimation
1.6.1 Urban Run-Off
Once the total catchment area has been defined,
estimates must be made of the extent and type of
surfaces that will drain into each part of the system.
The percentage impermeability (PIMP) of each area
is measured by defining impervious surfaces such as
roofs, roads, paved areas, etc. This can be done from
maps or from aerial photographs.
Alternatively, the PIMP can be related approximately
to the density of development.
A dimensionless runoff coefficient, C, is defined that
accounts for initial losses such as surface depression
storage, and continuing losses such as infiltration.
This coefficient is applied to PIMP and may be a
typical value as defined in Table 1.6.1 or may be
determined by careful examination of the catchment
characteristics.
Table 1.6.1 - Examples of Runoff Coefficients.
Area
description
Runoff
coefft
Surface
type
Runoff
coefft
City Centre 0.70-0.95
Asphalt &
concrete
paving
0.70-0.95
Suburban
business
0.50-0.70 Roofs 0.75-0.95
Industrial 0.50-0.90
Recreation
areas
0.05-0.35
Residential 0.30-0.70
Open areas,
gardens
0.05-0.30
Note: Weighted average coefficients are needed for
areas of mixed land use.
1.6.2 Non-Urban Run-off
Run-off from undeveloped, non-urban areas takes
place via overland sheet flow and, less
frequently, via wadis and incised drainage
channels. Qatars runoff characteristics are
discussed in the following sections, but, in general,
due to the low but undulating topography and
shallow land gradients, runoff coefficients are
typically of the order of 510%.
1.6.3 Runoff
Characteristics of
Qatar
Qatars runoff characteristics are determined
primarily by its aridity, its generally very low relief,
and its mainly sandy soil surface. These three
factors result in infrequent runoff. As a
consequence, there are no perennial streams in
Qatar.
There are no flow gauging stations in the country,
nor, it is believed, has there been any attempt to
measure runoff from any non-urban area in Qatar.
Consequently, there is no local knowledge nor are
there any local data with which to estimate runoff
characteristics for non-urban areas.
Generally, land gradients throughout Qatar are
gentle (typically 1:3501:400 in Greater Doha).
Runoff, when it does happen, therefore generally
occurs as overland flow. Very little incision has
taken place, although there are localised
occasions where runoff has cut through underlying

Drainage Affairs

1
st
sandstone to form a more definite channel. However,
these occurrences are rare and generally do not
continue for more than a few tens of metres before
opening back onto sandy plains.
Where gradients are sufficient (and certainly in
excess of around 1%), wadi channels may be
identified as slight depressions, usually no more than
a few centimetres to a few tens of centimetres deep.
The sand in these channels is usually of a lighter
colour than that of the surrounding area, and is also
much softer.
Although much has been written on the nature of arid
zone runoff from mountainous desert conditions,
literature searches have revealed that there is almost
no information on the runoff characteristics of sandy
desert conditions.
1.6.4 Estimation of Runoff
Once the design storm has been defined, its effect on
the catchment needs to be determined. Various
hydrological processes happen that generally reduce
the amount of rainfall that ends up as runoff from the
catchment. These processes normally include
interception by vegetation cover, satisfaction of soil
moisture deficits and/or exceedence of infiltration
capacities of soils in the catchment, and the filling of
depressions (for overland flow). They are normally
referred to as catchment losses.
1.6.4.1 Interception Losses
In the desert catchments of Qatar, vegetative cover is
minimal due to over-grazing. Consequently, the vast
majority of rain falls directly onto bare soil, and
interception losses are negligible.
1.6.4.2 Infiltration Losses
Infiltration losses occur when rainfall hits the ground.
They are the most important component in the
estimation of the amount, and timing, of rainfall that
produces runoff.
The rate at which water enters the soil is known as
the infiltration rate, and this reduces as the storm
progresses and the soil becomes wetter. Surface
runoff will only occur once the rate at which the rain
falling on the surface exceeds the infiltration rate of
the soil. The nature of the soil, and its infiltration
capabilities, are therefore one of the most
important components in the rainfall-runoff
process.
The maximum infiltration rates of sandy soils are
very high, way in excess of the maximum intensity
of the heaviest rainfall. If this were the whole
situation, runoff would never occur from any of the
sand-dominated soils of Qatar. However, research
conducted in the arid regions of the eastern
Mediterranean has shown that the impact of
raindrops falling on bare sandy soils causes the
formation of a surface crust or membrane
xv
. The
infiltration rate of this membrane is very low,
relative to the original infiltration rate of the dry
soil, and has been shown to form after a certain
depth of rain has fallen. The rate at which the
membrane forms is relatively independent of the
soil composition, the main factors being the
exposure of the soil to the direct impact of rain
drops, and the occurrence of antecedent rainfall.
1.6.5 Depression Losses
Depression losses represent surface runoff that
fills depressions before it can proceed to the
catchment outlet. As such, it occurs after
infiltration rates have been exceeded and overland
flow has commenced. Typical figures for natural
catchments are usually between 10-15mm
xvi

although they are sometimes assumed to be zero
in large storms
xvii
. Values of 2mm and 6mm have
been used for pavements and turf at the plot
scale, respectively
xviii
.
Depression storage is used up exponentially
(decaying) through the storm once rainfall exceeds
the infiltration rate, according to Equation 1.6.1.

Equation 1.6.1
Where:
VS = Volume of water in depression storage
(mm)
Sd = Maximum depression storage capacity
(mm)
Pe = Precipitation in excess of interception and
infiltration (mm)
( )
d e
S P
d S
e S V

= 1

Drainage Affairs


Once the volume and timing of excess rainfall, or
runoff, has been determined, it needs to be routed
down the catchment. As time progresses more and
more of the catchment will contribute to the flow at
the downstream end, until rain from the furthest point
reaches the catchment outlet. The timing of this
process, and the consequent build up of flow to
derive the outflow hydrograph, is termed runoff
routing.
The nature of the desert catchments in Qatar is such
that there are no permanent watercourses or natural
conveyance channels. In some cases there are wadis
formed in the sand plains, but these are more
concentrations of overland flow than of formal
channel flow. Given the character of runoff production
from these sand-dominated catchments, with rainfall-
induced surface crusting being the principle means,
runoff occurs primarily as overland flow.
1.7 Ground Permeabilities
Indicative data on the bulk permeability of the ground
are available from site investigations carried out for
the studies listed in Volume 1, Section 1.4 of this
manual. This data may be regarded as a starting
point for estimation but studies indicate a wide range
of values across comparatively small areas and
variation with depth is similarly likely. As such, if
permeability is a critical factor in the design process,
actual site investigation data from permeability tests
or pumping tests are essential.
Data for greater Doha compiled by the DA indicate
the following permeability values as being applicable
(all m/s):
Maximum: 10
-4
- 10
-5
(upper loose sands)
Average: 10
-6
- 10
-7
(fissured or weathered
rock)
Minimum: 10
-8
- 10
-9
(rock)
These values are generally applicable to the upper
20m of the Simsima Limestone and must be treated
with caution, as the database has not been
systematically collected to represent the whole of the
Greater Doha area.
1.8 Groundwater Levels
and Quality
Most groundwater levels and quality data relevant
to the drainage issue that are available are
applicable to the Greater Doha area. A review of
groundwater levels and quality conditions is
provided in Section 4.2 of Volume 1. A summary
of the most important conditions is as follows:
Groundwater Levels
The rock formation most relevant to this issue
is the Simsima Limestone, which outcrops
over most of Qatar;
In Greater Doha, shallowest groundwater
levels (less than 2.5m depth) are found within
3km of the West Bay Lagoon area and in
topographic depressions;
Elsewhere, levels are 2.55m depth or
greater;
Urban development has been accompanied
by a general rise in groundwater levels due to
over-irrigation, leakage from water mains,
use of soakaway drainage systems etc. This
rise has been checked in some areas where
drainage systems have been installed but is
continuing in others;
A seasonal variation of 12m has been
recorded in some areas;
This propensity for GW changes must be
taken into account in the design of drainage
systems.

Groundwater Quality
The Electrical Conductivity of groundwater is a
guide to its total dissolved solids (TDS) content;
under natural conditions, EC values of 10,000
20,000umohs may be expected but values of
5000-6000umohs are sometimes recorded
indicating the effects of urban leakage.
1.9 Hydraulic Analysis
Processes
The Modified Rational Method for hydraulic
analysis has the following aspects:
It depends on a thorough knowledge of the
local rainfall characteristics;

Drainage Affairs

1
st
It requires accurate IDF curves from which
rainfall intensities can be deduced for different
storm durations for the design return period;
It assumes that, for a given return period,
longer storms have lower intensities and
shorter storms have higher intensities;
It assumes that rain falls uniformly across the
catchment;
Contributing impermeable areas are required
for each pipe length;
A time of entry must be determined in order to
avoid unrealistically high rainfall intensities;
Base flows from groundwater can be included
in the design;
Iterative process for design;
Pipe sizes and gradients are adjusted to
provide appropriate self-cleansing velocities;
Half pipe flow velocity is numerically equal to
full pipe flow velocity;
The user must be aware of the limitations of
this method of design;
The Modified Rational Method is suitable for
catchments up to 150ha.
Design method
The following procedure should be followed for the
Modified Rational Method:
1. Determine from table 1.1.1 and confirm
acceptance with DA the design rainfall return
period (T), pipe roughness (ks), time of entry (te)
and runoff coefficient (C).
2. Prepare a preliminary layout of drains, including
tentative inlet locations.
3. Mark pipe numbers on plan in accordance with
numbering convention.
4. Estimate impervious areas for each pipe.
5. Assume approximate gradients and pipe
diameters for each pipe.
6. Calculate pipe full velocity (vf) and pipe full
capacity or discharge rate (Qf = D2vf/4)
7. Calculate time of concentration from time of
entry and time of flow (tc = te + tf). For
downstream pipes compare alternative feeder
branches and select the branch resulting in the
maximum tc.
8. Read rainfall intensity from the IDF curves for
t = tc for design storm return period T.
9. Estimate the cumulative contributing
impervious area.
10. Calculate Qp from the formula:

Qp = 2.78CAi.i
Equation 1.9.1
Where:
Qp = flow in drainage pipes
C = runoff coefficient
AI = contributing runoff area
i = average rainfall intensity
11. Check Qp < Qf and vmax > vf > vmin.
12 Adjust pipe diameter and gradient as
necessary within the physical constraints
pertaining and return to step 5.
Minimum Pipe Sizes and Gradients
The following aspects need to be considered:
Pipes should be of sufficient size to carry
maximum design flows at a depth D, i.e. at
pipe full condition;
Surface water drains require higher
velocities than foul sewers for self-cleansing
purposes because of the higher density of
solid material to be transported;
Surface water drains should not be less
than 300mm in diameter;
Self-cleansing velocities increase with pipe
size;
Pipe sizes should not decrease downstream
even when the calculations indicate that this
would be hydraulically satisfactory;
Pipes should be designed to run parallel to
the ground surface wherever possible.
1.9.1 Models (physical
and mathematical)
Modelling is the process of replicating the
hydraulic performance of drainage, pumping and
treatment systems by constructing models of the

Drainage Affairs


intended/existing installations. These models need to
be verified before use to provide confidence that they
adequately represent the actual performance of the
system.
The verified model is then used to test system
performance under its proposed use. The model
must be capable of modification to test various
physical configurations and operating regimes for the
installation, to produce the optimum solution for
actual construction.
Traditionally physical models were favoured,
especially for coastal/estuary/river systems and
complex pumping installations. In recent years
mathematical models, have superseded physical
models. Mathematical models are exploiting
increased computer hardware and software
capability, and are more efficient than physical
models in time and effort.
1.9.1.1 Physical Models
Physical modelling consists of constructing a reduced
scale, geometrically similar model of a proposed
system, and operating the model to simulate full-
scale flow conditions. Model tests can provide the
designer with the assurance that the proposed
scheme operates satisfactorily, or allows him to
improve the flow conditions and achieve a better
design.
Changes in the model can be made by trial and error,
and are usually based on the experience and intuitive
understanding of the engineer conducting the tests.
The amount of modification which can be undertaken
on a physical model is limited, and therefore the initial
model should be as accurate as possible.
Factors to be considered in deciding on the need for
physical models include:
The similarity of the proposed scheme to
existing satisfactory designs. As well as the
designers own experience, much information is
available from manufacturers published reports
and design guides. However it should be
recognised that most large scale and/or complex
designs will be unique, and hence modelling will
be needed;
The size and cost of the proposed scheme.
Bearing in mind that physical modelling can take
many months with corresponding high costs,
then designers of small schemes should seek to
adopt standard and well-proven designs for
small schemes. Large schemes, such as
terminal pumping stations with multiple
pumps and complex inlet arrangements
would merit modelling. For general guidance,
DA classify SW pumping station sizes as:
Small flows <0.5m
3
/s
Medium flows 0.51.0m
3
/s
Large flows >1.0m
3
/s
As a rule, small pumping stations, will not require
modelling, whereas large installations do. Medium
sized installations will only require modelling if a
new design philosophy is proposed, which hasnt
previously been adopted in Qatar. Physical
models are still required where theory does not
represent flow conditions in sufficient detail or
readily cater for changes in boundary conditions
(eg at entry to pumps) Where specially mentioned
in the PSA, this will take precedence over the
manual.
All hydraulically significant details such as
screens, penstocks, support channels and
benching, should be included in the model. No
components above maximum water level need be
modelled.
Model construction should be in durable and
waterproof materials, with clear Perspex being the
best for viewing purposes. Model size should be
as large as costs allow. Scales can vary from
perhaps 1:4 for very small sumps, up to 1:50 for
large intakes to reservoirs or tanks. For sump
models, 1:25 would be the smallest desirable
scale.
Physical testing could typically take between one
and six months for construction, testing and
reporting.
1.9.1.2 Mathematical Models
Mathematical models almost exclusively use
computers and bespoke software to build and
apply the model. Relevant computer modelling
systems include sewerage, drainage and sewage
treatment.
Sewerage and drainage models use construction
record data to build representations of the system
as linked pipes and nodes, with specific modules
for ancillaries such as pumping stations and
overflows. Inflows from connected developments

Drainage Affairs

1
st
and contributing areas are directed to the nodes, and
a computerised hydraulic engine simulates the
hydraulic performance of flows around the system.
The veracity of the model is established by verifying
flows and depths predicted by the model against
actual measurements taken by flow monitors
temporarily installed at hydraulically significant points
around the system. After the model has been verified,
then simulations of future changes and system
modifications are run to check the effect on the
system and the effectiveness of proposed upgrading.
Sensitivity analysis may be performed on the verified
model by varying some of the input parameters to
indicate their impact on the theoretical outcomes.
This is used to determine more cost effective and / or
efficient design options
It should be noted that the rainfall characteristics in
Qatar will not make it possible to verify models in
accordance with common practice. The WRC Guide
to Short Term Flow surveys
xix
recommends a
minimum 5 week survey duration; however, surveys
in Qatar should be planned to commence in October
and may need to last up until April to capture a
sufficient number of discrete rainfall events. Should
these occur early in the survey, then it can be
curtailed before the forecasted completion date, but
conversely the survey may need to be extended for
another rain season if insufficient rainfall occurs.
Hydraulic models shall be constructed, verified
(where possible) and reported in accordance with the
Code of Practice for the Hydraulic Modelling of Sewer
Systems, as published by the Waste Water Planning
Users Group (WaPUG)
xx
.
Models shall be retained electronically by the
designer for a minimum period of 12 years from the
date on which the last modifications for which the
model was used have been commissioned and taken
over by the DA. DA propose to model all of the trunk
mains, and follow with infill models of local areas
during the coming years.
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) software is a
general-purpose tool for fluid engineering analysis.
The software applies established hydraulic equations
to solve energy and mass transfer for laminar and
turbulent flows.
The software is extremely versatile and can be
tailored to address a wide range of fluid flow issues. It
permits cost effective, detailed analysis of fluid flow
problems, providing an alternative to testing or
physical modelling, at an earlier stage in the
design cycle.
CFD provides information on flow characteristics
such as pressure loss, flow distribution and mixing
rates and complements traditional testing and
experimentation. CFD is used for early conceptual
studies of new designs, for detailed design and
development, for scale-up, for troubleshooting and
for system retrofitting.
As computing power increases, CFD is being used
for modelling of larger hydraulic structures, such
as pumping station sumps, reservoirs and tanks.
1.9.2 Formulae
1.9.2.1 The Colebrook-White
Equation
The Colebrook-White equation allows calculation
of velocity of flow in a gravity drain flowing full for
any given gradient, diameter, and roughness
coefficient, as follows;
( )
( )
(
(
+ =
gDS D
D
k
gDS v
s
2
51 . 2
7 . 3
log 2 2

Equation 1.5.1

Where g = acceleration due to gravity, m
2
/s
D = diameter, m
S = slope or headloss per unit length

s
k = roughness coefficient, mm
= kinematic viscosity of water (m
2
/s).
Thus, for a 400 mm diameter pipe with
s
k = 1.5 ,
and slope 1 in 157, flow temperature 15
o
C, the
velocity will be 1.33 m/s
Using the relationship :
Q=Av
Equation 1.5.2
Where:
Q = flow in the pipe (m
3
/s)

Drainage Affairs


A = Cross-sectional area of flow
V = velocity of flow
This allows the pipe full discharge to be calculated
where:
A=D
2
/4
Equation1.5.3
Thus, for the above pipe at full flow, the capacity will
be 167 l/s
A sample calculation sheet for sewers using the
above formulae is included in Volume 1 Appendix 1
Tables are available from hydraulic research giving
values for a wide range of pipe sizes at a range of
gradients for various values of ks.
Tables 1.5.1 and 1.5.2 below give recommended
values of ks and . Both are taken from the
Wallingford design tables
xxi
.
Table 1.9.1 - Pipe Roughness ks Values
ks Value (mm) Material
Normal Poor
Concrete (Precast + O Rings) 0.15 0.6
Concrete (Steel Forms) 0.6 1.5
DI (PE Lined) 0.06 0.15
GRP 0.06 -
VCP 0.06 0.15

Further values can be obtained by direct reference to
pages 32 to 33 of the Wallingford design tables.
Caution should be exercised in the use of the
Wallingford tables. It should be noted that the quality
of pipes can vary considerably from one
manufacturer to the next, and that condition of pipes
can vary with time. Designers should avoid using the
optimistic values quoted by some plastic pipe
manufacturers, as these invariably refer to new pipes
under laboratory conditions. Sewers for Adoption
xxii

recommends a value of 0.6 for all new design, which
allows for deterioration in pipe surface and normal
wear.
Table 1.9.2 - Kinematic Viscosity Values
Temperature,
0
C Viscosity, m
2
/s x 10
6

15 1.141
25 0.897
35 0.727
For detailed surface water modelling applications,
the viscosity should be varied for a range of
temperatures, but for routine applications a
conservative approach will be to use the lower
temperature of 15
0
C.
1.9.2.2 Mannings
Equation
Mannings equation is an empirical formula for
uniform flow in open channels. Mannings equation
is:
v=(1/n)R
2/3
S0

Equation 1.9.5
Where:
n is Mannings roughness coefficient,
S0 is bed slope,
R is the hydraulic radius (= A/P, where A is the
cross-sectional area of flow and P is the wetted
perimeter of fluid in the conduit).
Typical values of Mannings n are given below.
Table 1.9.3 - Typical Values of Mannings n
Channel Material n range
Cement 0.010-0.015
Concrete 0.010-0.020
Brickwork 0.011-0.018
Mannings equation is only valid for rough
turbulent and steady state flow conditions.
1.9.3 Prescribed
Software
The DA approved software is:
InfoWorks CS for modelling of sewerage and
drainage systems;
Microsoft Access or Jet Access for asset
databases;
STC25 for management of sewerage and
drainage asset information;
MapInfo for GIS mapping.

Drainage Affairs

1
st
1.10 General Design
Considerations
The requirements for drainage systems are
essentially similar to those for sewerage systems in
respect of layout arrangements and standards (e.g.
avoidance of buildings constructed over
drains/sewers).
Flood routing and overland flow is a basic
requirement for all surface drainage systems, to
ensure that flows generated by storms in excess of
the design event and drain capacity will not cause
serious damage by flooding or erosion
1.10.1 Gullies
Gullies in Middle Eastern countries can be
particularly problematic. For the majority of the year
they are redundant and tend to fill with sand so that
when the rain does arrive, the gullies do not function
and flooding of the highway and adjacent areas can
occur. Increased maintenance is one way of tackling
this problem but can be expensive. Prevention of
sand ingress is the best way to address the problem.
Different types of road gullies can be used but all are
prone to siltation. Preventing the ingress of sand into
the gullies is one of the most important
considerations during design.
The different types of road gully are listed below:
1. Conventional gully pot with surface grating. This
type of gully can be protected from sand ingress
by the attachment of a flat sealing plate over the
grating that would have to be removed for the
rainy season.
2. Side entry gully. This type of gully is set under
the line of the kerb and water enters it by way of
an opening in the face of the kerb. This type of
gully could be protected by the installation of a
vertical sealing plate to cover the gully opening.
3. Combined side entry and horizontal grating.
These gullies are a combination of 1 and 2
above and therefore would require both a
horizontal sealing plate and a vertical sealing
plate.
4. Slotted kerb drainage. This system comprises a
concrete kerb with and integral pipe cast within
the kerb. Water enters the pipe by way of a
longitudinal slot running the length of the
kerb. At intervals along the length of the kerb
line there are take-off points which connect to
the surface water drain. As these systems
are as long as the road, sealing them against
sand ingress is difficult as it would mean
sealing the entire length of the drain slot.
Note that design and spacing of gullies is
undertaken as part of roads projects and
controlled by the RA, with spacing specified in
QHDM. The road surface (including gullies) and
soakaways are the responsibility of the RA,
whereas the pipe network (positive drainage) is
that of DA. Design of gullies is to QHDM, but note
that spacing only caters for five year storms. The
guidelines do not cater for greater periods, which
may be required to prevent flooding in
underpasses and other special areas. Table 1.1.2
refers
The prescribed gully spacing in the QHDM is used
as a basis for attenuating storm runoff from the
carriageway surfaces to the SW system
1.10.2 Pipeline systems
and Outfalls
System Layout
The system layout shall comply with any overall
Master Plan requirements, and be subject to
manhole and chamber positioning requirements
stated herein.
Drains and culverts shall preferably be located
within public roads and highways. There is no
agreed services hierarchy, and the location must
be to the approval of DA and RA.
Control of Siltation and Access for
Maintenance
Steps should be taken to prevent sediment and
debris from entering the drainage system. This
can be achieved by requiring developers to
include sediment settlement and wheel washing
facilities in their site facilities to minimise discharge
of sediment laden flows to the public drainage
system.
Liaison with the RA is also needed on gully
cleaning and highway resurfacing operations.

Drainage Affairs


Due to Health and Safety requirements access to the
drainage system for cleaning should be at designated
locations only. Pipelines should be designed (using
self-cleansing velocities, low flow channels, etc) to
direct sediment to these locations. Sediment
clearance facilities should minimise the need for man
entry by providing access for mechanical equipment,
either by ramp for full machine entry or by large
openings for bucket entry. Sediment clearance
facilities should be located to minimise disruption to
traffic and the public during cleaning operations.
Inlet and Outfall Locations and Structures
Most upstream inlets to the system will be from
highway gullies and other paved areas. However,
there will occasionally be a requirement to design
intake structures to capture flow from wadis and
attenuation areas. Hydraulic conditions at these
locations will require careful consideration to prevent
siltation and local scour, whilst passing the required
design flow.
Outfalls should be located in accordance with any
overall Master Plan requirements, and in accordance
with Development Plans. Outfall structures are likely
to be large and visually intrusive constructions, and
therefore liaison with the Planning Department will be
required for their arrangement and finishes.
Structural design will need to take account of
aggressive conditions due to seawater and potentially
polluted flows, as well as from traffic loading.
Increased cover to reinforcement should be applied,
with possible additional non-structural protective
finishes.
Coarse screens should be provided at all entry points
accessible to the public. Such points would include
large intakes and outfall pipes These screens have
the dual purpose of preventing entry into the system
and of retaining coarse materials. Screens should be
constructed of stainless steel, with 75mm spaces
between the bars. The screens should be top hinged
and lockable for maintenance by the DA. Lockable
bollards should also be provided to prevent entry or
parking at large outfall structures.
Tidal Influences and Sea Outfall Siltation
Due to the low level and flat terrain of the coast of
Qatar, it is to be expected that sea outfalls will be
subject to tidal influences. Unless the foreshore is
rocky, the outfalls will attract deposition of sand.
Outfall designs should recognise that it is
impractical to remove such sand depositions.
Allowance should therefore be made in the
hydraulic design of the outfalls for the permanent
presence of sand to a level consistent with that of
the adjacent foreshore. Marine organism and
seaweed will be attracted to sea outfall structures.
However levels of such marine growth are
generally not hydraulically significant.
The DA require all standard outfall pipe inverts to
be at least 0.9m QND and weir outfalls at least
1.35m QND (ie highest recorded sea level). This,
together with the requirements for minimum cover
and large pipe diameters, means that all outfalls
will require special design, such as the use of
pressure sewers, and the use of wide diffusion
aprons in low-lying areas.
Erosion protection should be provided at sandy
outfalls where the beach or inland depression
could be scoured. At beaches the outfall structure
can alter the beach profile with time. Riprap or
gabion surface protection should be provided to
protect against scour.
Submerged outfalls to offshore deep water may be
required in exceptional cases
1.10.3 Pumping Stations
(policy for surface
water and
groundwater
discharge)
As explained in the Introduction, the choice of area
for provision of surface water/groundwater
systems has been the need to drain areas of
flooding and high water table. This policy will
continue, supported by the future Master Plans.
The problem of intermittent operation of
stormwater pumping stations, and accompanying
reliability problems, has to some extent been
addressed by combining stormwater and
groundwater systems. Thus attenuation tanks and
pumping stations are operating all year round,
although at much lower flows than result from
rainfall.
Nevertheless, overall system planning should
focus on achieving gravity flow throughout the

Drainage Affairs

1
st
network, thus minimising the need for pumping
facilities.
Preferred Types of Pumping Stations
As with sewage pumping stations, the preference is
for centrifugal pumps using wet well/dry well or
submersible pumping station arrangements,
depending on the flow rates involved.
Septicity and odour are not usually of concern with
surface and groundwater. Control facilities would
therefore not be provided, unless there are specific
problems such as polluted flows for septic tanks.
Storage Tanks
Due to the depth of the incoming drains and the large
volumes to be stored such tanks are usually very
large, deep and expensive installations. Hydraulic
modelling to confirm that the most cost-effective
combination of pumping and storage installation is
being provided should therefore support their design.
Tank configuration should discourage deposition of
sediment with sloping floors and low-flow channels.
Settling ponds or catchbasins should be provided
immediately upstream of the wet well to prevent
accumulation of sediment in the vicinity of the pump
suctions, with consequent wear on the pumps.
Inlet Screens
Inlet screens or trash racks should be provided
upstream of the pumping station. Screens should be
of stainless steel construction and with 50mm
spacing between the screen bars.
Standby Power Generation
Due to the likely intermittent operation of the storm
pumps, it could be argued that the least reliable
aspect of the pumping station is the pumping and
control equipment, rather than the power supply.
Standby power generation is therefore not required at
stormwater/groundwater pumping stations. However
arrangements for entry, location and connection of
portable power generators is to be provided.
1.10.4 Attenuation Areas
and Detention Ponds
These are also known as EFAs (Environmental
Flooding Areas) in Qatar. They originate in
undeveloped areas from natural depressions. DA
policy is to preserve such areas for incorporation into
the drainage master plans, but in recent years
several of these areas have been built upon,
exacerbating flooding problems. (see also section
1.13)
The publications Sustainable Urban Drainage
Systems Design Manual for England and
Wales
xxiii
together with Sustainable Urban
Drainage Systems Best Practice Guide
xxiv

published by DETR, CIRIA, provide detailed
guidance on the design of detention structures for
surface runoff.
It is generally accepted that open areas that retain
water should be designed with gentle side slopes,
not exceeding 20% gradient, and should not result
in a retained water depth exceeding one metre.
These structures should be designed as either
detention or retention structures, depending on the
intended function. Detention basins are normally
dry and are used to attenuate flows of surface
runoff in times of rainfall. As such, these structures
can have a dual use, for example sports pitches
can be used as detention basins. The water in a
detention basin will be lost by one or more
processes:
Firstly by discharge via a flow control device
to a surface water drain or wadi;
Secondly, by evaporation (up to 2.0m/yr for
Qatar);
Thirdly by soaking into the ground.
All these processes help to reduce the impact of
the surface runoff discharge on the environment.
These arrangements require very careful design
that takes full account of any health and safety
issues. The primary concern relates to the danger
of drowning in the attenuation basin when it is full
of water. For this reason, these basins are always
designed with gently sloping sides and a
maximum depth of 1m at the centre. It is possible
to fence off water retaining features but this is not
recommended as it makes the job of rescue more
difficult in the event of an emergency and also
interferes with maintenance.
DA prefers the construction of permanent
structures to prevent future alternative
development. Please also refer to section 1.13.1
Where water is likely to be retained for prolonged
periods, consideration should be given to

Drainage Affairs


problems that may arise from breeding mosquitoes.
Siting
The following are key considerations involved in the
potential siting of a constructed wetland (CW).
Opportunity for restoration of degraded or former
wetlands: In general, CWs should only be located in
existing wetland areas if the source of water meets
water quality standards; its use would result in net
environmental benefit to the aquatic system; it would
help restore the aquatic system to its historic natural
condition.
Water-depleted and effluent dependent systems:
Constructed wetlands may provide particularly
valuable ecological benefits in regions where water
resources, especially wetlands, are limited due to
climatic conditions, such as Qatar. Pre-treated
effluent from wastewater treatment works might be
the only source of water for wetlands and their
dependent ecosystems. Note that SCENR has
defined water quality standards and requirements for
such initiatives.
Other site selection factors: The suitability of a site
for constructing a wetland may depend on the
condition of one or more of the following factors
substrate, soil chemistry, hydrology/geomorphology,
vegetation, presence of endangered species or
critical habitat, wildlife, cultural/socio-economic
impacts, the surrounding landscape, land use zoning,
health and safety. Project proponents should
carefully examine these factors, and consult with the
appropriate agencies (SCENR, Agriculture and Water
Resources Department, Planning Department) in
determining the most appropriate site(s). The need
for an EIA review, procedures or other requirements
needed for final site location and characteristics,
should be considered.
Design Issues
Any design should ensure that adverse impacts on
waters or lands of Qatar be avoided. Potential
adverse impacts to be considered during design
include: disruption of the natural composition and
diversity of plant and animal communities; alteration
to existing hydrological regime, introduction or spread
of noxious species; threats to groundwater resources.
The margins of wetlands should be designed as
natural transition zones. Where possible, the facility
should be integrated with other natural resource
features to provide wildlife corridors and open
space.
Where possible, the wetland design should
provide habitats with a diversity of native species
comparable to similar wetlands elsewhere in
Qatar. The design should maximise vegetative
species without increasing the proportion of
weedy, non-indigenous, or invasive species at the
expense of native species.
The design should utilise forebays for sediment
collection/settling and ease of maintenance.
Multiple cells should be considered for optimum
management without disruption to the overall
system (phased settlement, and better
maintenance).
The publics perception of the CW should be
considered during design. Where appropriate,
public use should be encouraged, e.g. for
environmental education and general amenity
value.
Further design guidance is provided in
Constructed wetlands treatment of municipal
wastewater process design manual, US EPA 625-
R-99-010
xxv
.
1.11 Pipelines
1.11.1 Minimum Pipe
Sizes and
Gradients
CIRIA Report R141 Design of Sewers to Control
Sediment Problems 1996
xxvi
defines self-cleansing
drains as follows.
An efficient self-cleansing drain is one having a
sediment-transporting capacity that is sufficient to
maintain a balance between the amounts of
deposition and erosion, with a time averaged
depth of sediment deposit that minimises the
combined costs of construction, operation and
maintenance.
Public surface water drains should be at least
300mm diameter and laid to a gradient of 1 in 60
or 1.67%. This gradient can be relaxed to 1 in 150
(0.67%) where significant surface areas are

Drainage Affairs

1
st
connected to the head of the drain, but in this case
the standard of workmanship during construction
must be high.
As drain sizes increase, so too do self-cleansing
velocities with the result that very large surface water
drains require velocities to exceed 2m/s to be self-
cleansing. Such velocities in large diameter pipes
pose a safety hazard and facilities, such as safety
chains, must be provided to prevent operatives being
washed away downstream in these drains.
1.11.2 Minimum and
Maximum Flow
Velocities
CIRIA
xxvi
recommends that sewers should be
designed to:
1. transport a minimum concentration of fine
particles in suspension.
2. transport coarser granular material as bed load.
3. erode cohesive particles for a deposited bed.
In order to minimise the maintenance requirements of
any given length of surface water drain, it is normal to
design the drain to be self-cleansing at design flow.
This means that the drain is designed to achieve a
velocity that will carry all solid deposited material
along the pipe and not leave any materials deposited
in the invert of the drain.
Table 1.11.1 is based on the simplified CIRIA
xxvi

method of assessing self-cleansing velocities in
drains. Surface water drains require generally higher
self-cleansing velocities because of the higher
particle densities.
Table 1.11.1 - Approximate Self-Cleansing
Velocities for Surface Water drains
Pipe size (mm) Approximate self-
cleansing velocity
(m/sec)
300 0.75
400 0.77
500 0.82
600 0.86
700 0.87
800 0.88
Pipe size (mm) Approximate self-
cleansing velocity
(m/sec)
900 0.88
1000 0.92

Where large diameter drains (over 1m diameter)
are laid to steep gradients, very high flow
velocities occur. For example, a 600mm diameter
pipe laid to a gradient of 1 in 100 or 1.0%, will
have a velocity of flow of around 2.45m/sec when
flowing 450mm deep, or a 1000mm pipe laid to a
similar gradient with a depth of flow of 750mm will
have a discharge velocity of approaching
3.4m/sec. Such velocities may be considered
unacceptable and the engineer may wish to
implement energy dissipation measures. It should
be emphasised that scour in pipes at these
velocities is not a significant problem with modern
materials.
DA policy is to limit peak velocities to 2.5 m/s -
3.0m/s in extreme cases, for SW drains.
In small drains, less than 600mm diameter, it is
not necessary to include measures to limit flow
velocity. The use of backdrop manholes for this
purpose is discouraged. However, backdrop
manholes may be justified where there is a
significant difference in level between a branch
drain and the trunk drain it is to join. In this case,
the economics may justify the construction of a
backdrop to minimise excavation for the branch
drain trench. The discharge from a backdrop into a
manhole requires careful design to prevent flows
from washing over the benching opposite the
discharge.
Backdrops for large diameter drains are complex
structures, which may involve the creation of
vortices to dissipate energy, and these require
specialist design.
1.11.3 Pipeline Materials
Please refer also to Volume 1 Section 4.3
Clay (VC) Pipes
The preferred pipe materials for use in SW and
GW gravity drainage pipelines to 1000mm nb shall
be VC, due to its availability and good resistance

Drainage Affairs


to aggressive groundwater conditions. Specification
to be in accordance with QNBC
Concrete Pipes
Also widely used is concrete, especially for sizes
>1000mm.nb Due consideration must be given to
prevention of corrosion from aggressive groundwater
conditions, and materials shall be specified in
accordance with QNBS. Where ground water drains
are flowing continuously, coatings shall be provided
internally and externally. Where drains are for SW
only, internal coatings may be omitted, but external
are still required.
Ductile Iron (DI) Pipes
The preferred pipe materials for use in SW and GW
pressure pipelines shall be DI. Due consideration
must be given to prevention of corrosion from
aggressive groundwater conditions, and materials
shall be specified in accordance with QNBS. All DI
pipes should be lined internally and externally against
corrosion.
Other Pipe Materials
Where pipes are installed by trenchless techniques
(See Vol 2, section 5), composite materials must be
selected in conjunction with the system in use. High
strength concrete jacking pipes may be slip-lined,
typically with GRP or MDPE. The internal pipe
becomes the watertight element, and the concrete
provides the structural element.
Pipeline Jointing
Pipe joints must be selected and specified in
accordance with the proposed conditions of use.
Buried joints in concrete gravity pipe will generally be
socket and spigot, with internal sealing gaskets.
Jacking pipes will require a smooth external finish,
and the internal GRP pipes will be formed with sleeve
joints. Where MDPE pipes are inserted by slip-lining,
they shall be butt fusion jointed in situ.
DI joints should be socket and spigot for straight runs
of buried pipe, but self-anchoring may also be used in
critical areas. Where pipes pass through chambers
and pumping stations, a combination of victaulic and
flanged pipework will be necessary to facilitate
removal of valves and other appurtenances. The
ability of the joints to withstand static and dynamic
thrust at such locations should be carefully
considered.
1.11.4 Pipe Bedding
Calculations for
Narrow and Wide
Trench Conditions
Pipes can be categorised into rigid, flexible and
intermediate pipes as follows:
a Rigid pipes support loads in the ground by
virtue of resistance of the pipe wall as a ring
in bending.
b Flexible pipes rely on the horizontal thrust
from the surrounding soil to enable them to
resist vertical load without excessive
deformation.
c Intermediate pipes are those pipes which
exhibit behaviour between those in (a) and
(b). They are also called semi-rigid pipes.
Concrete pipes and vitrified clay pipes are
examples of rigid pipes while steel, ductile iron,
UPVC, MDPE and HDPE pipes may be classified
as flexible or intermediate pipes, depending on
their wall thickness and stiffness of pipe material.
The load on rigid pipes is concentrated at the top
and bottom of the pipe, thus creating bending
moments. Flexible pipes may change shape by
deflection and transfer part of the vertical load into
horizontal or radial thrusts, which are resisted by
passive pressure of the surrounding soil. The load
on flexible pipes is mainly compressive force,
which is resisted by arch action rather than ring
bending.
The loads on buried gravity pipelines are as
follows:
a The first type comprises loading due to the fill
in which the pipeline is buried, static and
moving traffic loads superimposed on the
surface of the fill, and water load in the
pipeline.
b The second type of load includes those loads
due to relative movements of pipes and soil
caused by seasonal ground water variations,
ground subsidence, temperature change and
differential settlement along the pipeline.
Loads of the first type should be considered in the
design of both the longitudinal section and cross
section of the pipeline. Provided the longitudinal
support is continuous and of uniform quality, and
the pipes are properly laid and jointed, it is

Drainage Affairs

1
st
sufficient to design for the cross section of the
pipeline.
In general, loads of the second type are not readily
calculable and they only affect the longitudinal
integrity of the pipeline. Differential settlement is of
primary concern especially for pipelines to be laid in
newly reclaimed areas. The effect of differential
settlement can be catered for by using either flexible
joints (which permit angular deflection and telescopic
movement) or piled foundations (which are very
expensive). If the pipeline is partly or wholly
submerged, there is also a need to check the effect
of flotation of the empty pipeline.
The design criteria for the structural design of rigid
pipes is the maximum load at which failure occurs,
while those for flexible pipes are the maximum
acceptable deformation and/or the buckling load.
The approach for rigid pipes is not applicable to
flexible pipes. For the structural design of flexible
pipes, it is necessary to refer to relevant literature
such as manufacturers catalogue and/or technical
information on material properties and allowable
deformations for different types of coatings, details of
joints etc.
Please refer to Volume 1 Appendix 7 for Pipe
bedding Calculations

1.11.4.1 Bedding Design for
Rigid Pipes
The design procedures for rigid pipes are outlined as:
a Determine the total design load due to:
the fill load, which is influenced by the conditions
under which the pipe is installed, i.e. narrow or
wide trench conditions;
the superimposed load which can be uniformly
distributed, or concentrated traffic loads; and
the water load in the pipe.
b Choose the type of bedding (whether granular,
plain or reinforced concrete) on which the pipe
will rest. Apply the appropriate bedding factor
and determine the minimum ultimate strength of
the pipe to take the total design load.
c Select a pipe of appropriate grade or strength.
1.11.4.2 Narrow Trench
Conditions
When a pipe is laid in a relatively narrow trench in
undisturbed ground and the backfill is properly
compacted, the backfill will settle relative to the
undisturbed ground and the weight of fill is jointly
supported by the pipe and the shearing friction
forces acting upwards along the trench walls. The
load on the pipe would be less than the weight of
the backfill on it and is considered under narrow
trench conditions.
1.11.4.3 Wide Trench
Conditions
When the pipe is laid on a firm surface and then
covered with fill, the fill directly above the pipe
yields less than the fill on the sides. Shearing
friction forces acting downwards are set up,
resulting in the vertical load transmitted to the pipe
being in excess of that due to the weight of the fill
directly above the fill. The load on the pipe will
then be determined as in wide trench condition.
1.11.4.4 Bedding Factors
The strength of a precast concrete or vitrified clay
pipe is given by the standard crushing test. When
the pipe is installed under fill and supported on a
bedding, the distribution of loads is different from
that of the standard crushing test. The load
required to produce failure of a pipe in the ground
is higher than the load required to produce failure
in the standard crushing test. The ratio of the
maximum effective uniformly distributed load to
the test load is known as the 'bedding factor'
which varies with the types of bedding materials
under the pipe and depends to a considerable
extent on the efficiency of their construction and
on the degree of compaction of the side fill.
1.11.4.5 Design Strength
For design, it is required that the total external
load on the pipe will not exceed the ultimate
strength of the pipe multiplied by an appropriate
bedding factor and divided by a factor of safety.
The design formula is as follows:

Drainage Affairs


s
m t
e
F
F W
W
where We = total external load on pipe,
Wt = ultimate strength of pipe,
Fm = bedding factor,
Fs = design safety factor of 1.25 for
ultimate strength of pipe
1.11.5 Manhole Positioning
The drainage system should be designed to facilitate
flows by gravity in a branched arrangement of small
local drains connected to larger district drains,
connected to the major trunk drains.
All public drains should be located in government
owned lands, to permit access for construction and
maintenance and to facilitate connection from private
premises.
Manholes, drains and culverts should be sited with
due regard to public utility services. Drains and
culverts in roads and highways should be located in
accordance with the Standard Services Reservations
Drawings as published by the Roads Department.
The location of manholes in the drainage system is
dictated by a number of factors:
Spacing between manholes should not exceed
90m
xxvii
for non manentry drains For manentry
pipes up to 1800mm diam, a spacing of up to
200m
xxviii
may be permitted. Greater spacings
may only be provided in special cases, where
due consideration is given to maintenance, and
subject to DA approval;
Manholes should not be constructed close to
kerb lines;
Manholes should be constructed at the head of
each system, and at every change of diameter,
direction and/or gradient;
A manhole should be constructed at every
significant junction;
Manholes should not be constructed in locations
on bends in highways, which may cause
vehicles to skid;
Manholes should be accessible at all times;
Where a connecting branch joins a main drain
on a junction, a manhole should be constructed
within 10m of the junction on the connecting
branch.
Manholes and chambers will form the main points
for access to the enclosed drainage system for
operation and maintenance. They should therefore
be located with adequate access for maintenance
vehicles.
Where new manholes are to be constructed in
existing highways, close liaison is required with
the Roads Department. Although the Standard
Services Reservation Drawings (available from the
DA) should be followed where possible, care must
be taken to ensure that the locations of all existing
utilities in the vicinity are known, and that the
proposed manhole location will not interfere with
such utilities. Manholes should not be located
such that they would prevent access to utility
equipment, especially in an emergency situation.
Building over or near to a drain or culvert, and
associated manholes and chambers will not be
permitted. Building over drains or directly adjacent
to them, causes major problems with access for
maintenance and renewal of drainage assets. In
extreme cases demolition of premises could be
required.
The land along the line of the drain or culvert for
construction, and access for maintenance and
replacement, is called the easement width.
Where access to a drain or culvert is restricted on
both sides, the easement width required is a
minimum of 6m, being normally 3m either side of
the centre line of the pipeline or culvert. Where the
depth from finished ground level to invert exceeds
3m, or the drain diameter (or culvert width)
exceeds 600mm, the easement widths required
are the greater of two times the depth to the invert
of the drain plus the pipe diameter (or culvert
width), or 10 times the diameter of the drain (or
culvert width).
Foundations and basements of buildings adjacent
to easements shall be designed to ensure that no
building load is transferred to the drain or culvert.
The nearest point of the building or basement
must not fall within a 45-degree line of influence
from the base of the trench.
These requirements refer to permanent
easements required in connection with pipe-laying
and subsequent maintenance. They exclude

Drainage Affairs

1
st
temporary storage areas, and the like, used during
construction.
1.11.6 Manholes and
Access Chambers
These installations are required within drainage
systems for testing, inspection, maintenance, repair
and removal of debris. Every drain length on the
public system should be accessible without the need
to enter premises or cross property boundaries.
Manholes and chambers generally fall into two
categories, being:
Inspection Chambers - These structures are of
shallow depth (less than 2m to pipe invert) and
are intended for use on drainage systems within
property boundaries and for the terminal
manhole (MH 1) of the house connection.
These chambers are generally used for
inspection of drain pipelines and clearance of
blockages.
Drainage System Manholes - These structures
are of depth to suit the levels of the drain
pipelines, and are the means of access into the
public drainage system.
The arrangement and dimensions of manholes
depend on the diameter of the connecting drains
and their depth to invert below finished ground
level.
Elements of Design
Manholes and chambers shall generally be
constructed in accordance with the Standard
Drawings contained in Volume 8.
Minimum cover size should provide sufficient access
to admit persons with normal hand tools and cleaning
equipment, and to admit persons wearing breathing
apparatus in emergencies. Maximum cover size
should be limited by the weight which persons can
safely lift.
Access shafts should be sufficiently large for persons
to go down to the drain in comfort (with breathing
apparatus in emergencies) and yet be small enough
for the nearness of the walls to give a sense of
security.
Where the invert of the manhole or chamber is
more than 6m from the cover level, intermediate
platforms shall be provided at regular intervals.
Headroom between platforms should not be less
than 2.1m nor greater than 6m. The platform
should be fitted with handrailing and safety chains
around the access opening to protect persons
from falling. The location of openings in
successive platforms shall be offset to prevent
dangers of free-falling.
Inverts and benching should be neatly formed.
The ends of pipes should protrude a minimum
length into the manholes. The channel inverts
should be curved to that of the connecting pipes
and carried up the full diameter of the pipes in flat
vertical surfaces, matching the cross-sections,
levels and gradients of their respective drains.
The benching should be formed from plane
surfaces, sloping gently towards the drains.
Benching slopes should not be too steep to cause
persons to slip into the drain, nor too flat to
accumulate sediment. A suitable gradient for
benching is 1 in 12.
1.11.7 Reinstatement and
Back-filling
Reinstatement and back-filling of pipelines and
around manholes and chambers has the potential
of creating dangers to road users due to
settlement. These dangers are caused by
undulations in the road surface due to settlement
of trench backfill and sudden level differences at
manholes and chambers, due to settlement of the
surrounding backfill.
Minimising settlement relies on good quality
backfilling, at the specified loading, and using
material at optimum water content.
Designers should therefore be aware of the need
to adequately supervise all backfilling and
reinstatement operations. They should also liase
with the Roads Department regarding permanent
reinstatement of carriageways.
Further information on reinstatement and
backfilling is contained in the Standard Drawings
contained in Volume 8, and the Qatar Construction
Specification
xxix
.

Drainage Affairs


1.12 Soakaways
Policy Considerations
Soakaway is the general term applied to structures
that facilitate the detention and subsurface dispersion
of stormwater. There is frequent reference in the
literature to use of soakaways in Qatar (see Volume
1, Section 1.5) and the UK Building Research
Establishment has provided a general design guide in
BRE Digest 365 (BRE, September 1991)
xxx
. The DA
itself has produced a drawing showing details of a
standard soakaway chamber, which is reproduced in
Volume 8.
It may be noted that as groundwater levels rise
generally in an area the ability of soakaways to
function may be reduced. However soakaways are
recognised as being an inexpensive method of
dealing with small-sized storms, although the extent
to which they attenuate storm waters is limited.
General Design Issues
The following issues require consideration when the
use of soakaways is contemplated. The list is
indicative only and site-specific geotechnical and
hydrogeological investigation and interpretation is
always required as the basis for successful design:
Groundwater level is an issue because sufficient
hydraulic gradient is needed between the water
level in the soakaway and the groundwater level
to cause downward and outward flow;
For the standard ring-type soakaway chamber of
some 3m overall depth, it is recommended that
in areas where groundwater levels are rising use
minimum 4m below ground level as a
precautionary measure;
The permeability of the ground has a significant
influence on the ability of soakaways to function.
In Qatar most permeability is attributable to sub-
vertical jointing which is very variable over short
distances and use of trench type soakaways
may overcome this because the chances of
encountering fissured zones is increased.
Generally, the following guidelines apply:
Standard soakaway: permeability (k) > 1 x 10
-
5
m/s required;
Soakaway trench: permeability (k) > 1 x 10
-6
m/s
required;
Methods of determining permeability are
described in Volume I, Chapter 3;
The propensity for soakaways to become
inefficient by becoming clogged is also an
issue. This may be due to silting up (which
can occur early as the initial slug of water
laden with silt can be generated when
groundwater is disturbed during construction
work), and/or smearing when the soakaway
is drilled (i.e. the fissures are blocked off by
the crushed drill cuttings). These problems
may be minimised by jetting the system clean
prior to its first use. All infiltration devices
should be constructed late in the construction
programme to minimise these effects;
Silting up, possibly incorporating an element
of chemical encrustation, may also cause
longer-term deterioration. It is often
preferable to construct these devices last in
the programme rather than early in the
programme as would normally be expected
for drainage features;
Ideally, soakaways should not be sited under
or adjacent to buildings or roads because of
the danger of induced subsidence due to the
increased flow of ground water;
In rural areas, where groundwater wells are
used as a source of water supply, a minimum
protective distance should be provided
between these wells and the location of
soakaways to avoid cross-contamination.
This distance must be agreed with the DA,
and will depend upon ground investigation
information at the site.
1.12.1 Standard
Soakaways
Guidance on the design of soakaways has been
given by CIRIA, and this indicates that the size of
a soakaway excavation will be dependent on the
results of the soakage tests.
Three types of standard soakaway are in common
use:
Perforated manhole rings;
Rubble filled geotextile;
Brick or block built chambers with open
vertical joints.
The standard soakaway is typically 2.4m deep
with a 0.5m clearance path for outflow. It is formed
from a series of 1500mm or 1800mm diameter

Drainage Affairs

1
st
precast concrete rings in a granular surround and
geotextile membrane with a pre-cast concrete cover.
Storm water enters the chamber near the ground
surface and the chamber provides local attenuation
of storm water.
Wherever soakaways are to be used, trench
soakaways shall be preferred.
The DA Drawing - CAD REF SOAK.DWG dated July
1997) provides design details.
1.12.2 Borehole Soakaways
Borehole soakaways consist of a vertical borehole
into which surface water is discharged via an
effective head discharge structure. The head
structure must be capable of intercepting all solid
material that would otherwise tend to block the
borehole.
Borehole soakaways should only be used where the
possibility of polluted water being discharged into
them is absolutely minimal. This criterion is only likely
to be met by discharges from roofs.
Borehole depths are dependent on the nature of the
sub-strata, and should only be drilled where the
stratum drains freely such as fissured rock or gravels.
Boreholes should be lined where the materials
through which they are passing are non-cohesive,
such as sands and gravels.
Confirmatory SI shall be carried out to the approval of
DA in all cases
Boreholes should be sunk last in the programme of
construction in order to avoid the possibility of
contamination from site works.
Borehole soakaways should never be constructed
where the underlying aquifer is, or may in future be,
used for the supply of drinking water.
DA Drawing - CAD REF SOAK.DWG dated July 1997
provides details.
1.12.3 Soakaway Trenches
The advantages of soakaway trenches have been
recognised in Doha as a means of overcoming the
problem of locally impermeable ground. Because the
jointing that increases permeability is sub-vertical, a
horizontal soakaway is likely to encounter and
connect otherwise separate zones of higher
permeability, thereby facilitating the dispersal of
the stormwater. Also for a given stored volume,
they have a larger internal surface area for
dispersion of the water onto the ground.
They can also be used as a conveyance system
and converted to positive drainage systems by
future interconnection
The design principles of trench-type soakaways
are given in BRE digest 365
xxx
referred to earlier.
Detailed design will need to take into account site-
specific conditions and the requirements of a
detailed hydrogeological and geotechnical site
investigation are given in Chapter 3 of Volume
1.Several different types of design are accepted in
Qatar, eg culverts, plastic modules, and perforated
pipes. Choice will be dependent upon local
conditions
Infiltration trenches are normally constructed
parallel to the edge of a carriageway or other liner
feature to be drained. They generally comprise a
trench, up to 1m deep and 500mm wide, filled with
single sized stone. The stone may be surrounded
with suitable fine-textured geotextile.
Normally water is allowed to run off the edge of
the carriageway directly into the infiltration trench.
The water should not be allowed to flow across
open ground before entering the trench as it may
pick up soil and sand which, if deposited in the
trench, will reduce its effective life.
When constructed adjacent to carriageways, the
top layer of stone may be bound together by the
application of a bituminous spray, at application
rates sufficient to bind the stone but insufficient to
seal the top of the trench. This treatment is
intended to reduce the risk of the stones being
displaced and causing an accident should a
vehicle inadvertently veer off the carriageway and
onto the infiltration drain. The highway authority
should be consulted on the size of single-sized
stone that is acceptable adjacent to the
carriageway.
1.13 Storage Facilities
1.13.1 Ponds/Depressions

Drainage Affairs


There are several types of storage which can be
designed and the nomenclature is often used
interchangeably.
Storage facilities can be described as attenuation
areas, detention basins, or retention ponds or tanks.
All of these have similarities in that their purpose is to
attenuate peak flows into the drainage system and
store a percentage of flood water for a predetermined
time. Ponds used for storage of floodwater in Qatar
are commonly called EFAs. This is a similar concept
to detention basins used in other countries. Types of
storage area which might be designed for Qatar are:
EFAs i.e. detention basins (see section 1.10.4),
which will be formed in low lying areas and can
be subjected to an acceptable level of surface
flooding during rainfall;
Permanent wetlands/Constructed Wetlands (see
section 1.10.4), are retention ponds which
permanently contain water either naturally or by
design, but accommodate flood peaks by
varying water level during rainfall events;
Combined EFAs with constructed storage
tanks. These may benefit by enhancing the
natural amenity of the EFA (normally arising
from the original topography of the area) with
engineered storage structures to provide a
permanent land feature. This method of flood
attenuation is preferred by DA as it optimises
the use of land in Qatar;
Storage Tanks (see section 1.13.2 below).
There are no set procedures for designing such
facilities, but major considerations which must be
addressed by designers include the following:
Soil conditions and geology;
Environmental factors (see section 1.10.4
above, and Volume 1);
Health and safety;
Land availability;
Required storage volume;
Detention period. This will typically be taken as
24 hrs for initial sizing, but precise determination
of the detention period will depend upon the
available reserve in the system and the storm
size under consideration, all of which will be
determined by a modelling exercise, and agreed
with the DA;
Rates of evaporation;
Flow controls, hydraulic conditions, inlet and
outlet structures;
Accessibility for operation and maintenance;
Operability as a storage facility in conjunction
with other uses, e.g. how siltation will be dealt
with in sports pitches and playgrounds.
From the above considerations, it will be apparent
that CWs will not generally be viable in Qatar, as
the health and safety requirement for a maximum
depth of 1m is less than the rate of evaporation.
This means that all such ponds are likely to dry out
between the infrequent rainfall events. This leads
towards provision of EFAs as more practical.
However, CWs may be considered appropriate in
certain areas, and at present there are two in
operation (at Abu Nakla and Messaimeer Lake,
both of which are associated with wastewater
treatment). They may be included as elements of
permanent landscaping, where appropriate
measures will be required to control depth and
retain water during dry periods. This may involve
compartmentalising and use of pumping.
1.13.2 Tanks
Layouts
Tank arrangements fall into two main categories,
namely on-line and off-line, of which there are
many further sub-classes. Figure 1.13.1 shows
schematic layouts.
On-line tanks are storages constructed along the
route of the pipe in question, and share the same
hydraulic gradient. On-line tanks (with perhaps the
exception of emergency storage) always drain
flows to the downstream drain by gravity. On-line
tanks would normally be preferred to off-line from
an operational point of view, but require certain
hydraulic conditions to be satisfied in order to
present a viable option. All storage tanks, are
generally equipped with flow control devices on
their outlet to limit peak flows from the tank, unless
the flow control is provided by downstream
constraints.
Off-line tanks are constructed along a route
separated from the main drain, and may return
flows to the main drain by gravity or pumping,
again depending upon the hydraulic conditions.

Drainage Affairs

1
st
There are many different possible arrangements for
such tanks, each design being dependent upon
required level of service and local topography.
Materials and Construction
Materials for tank construction may be concrete,
GRP, plastic or coated steel. In-situ reinforced
concrete is the most obvious choice for construction
of specific designs, but certain applications will lend
themselves to the use of proprietary products, e.g.
large diameter pipes, precast concrete box-culverts
and modular thin-walled plastic or GRP tanks with
mass concrete surrounds. Designs using plastics
should ensure adequate resistance to jetting
pressures. All underground structures should have
adequate resistance against uplift due to
groundwater pressures.
On-line Storage
This is the simplest type of arrangement, and should
be used wherever possible. Hydraulic conditions will
determine the viability. The tank will need to operate
within the hydraulic regime of the existing system
on-line tanks of any size will not be practical in very
flat drains or culverts, due to the large surface area
requirement. On-line tanks become more practical
with increased gradient, but on extreme slopes, due
consideration will need to be given to the greater
pressures developed at the downstream ends, e.g. at
pipe joints. In such cases, consideration may be
given to the use of backdrops and cascades of tanks.
An on-line tank will operate by surcharging as the
flow approaches the predetermined pass-forward
flow. This flow may be the capacity of the
downstream drain or pumping station, as in Case 1,
Figure 1.13.1, or a lesser value to prevent
downstream flooding, as in Case 2, whereby a flow
control is required to limit the pass-forward flow. In
both of the above cases, care should be taken to
ensure an adequate self-cleansing velocity, to
prevent sediment build up. In large diameter tanks
with low base-flows, this may be difficult. In such
cases, a dry weather flow channel should be
provided. It is recommended (Sewerage Detention
Tanks A Design Guide, WRc, 1997
xxxi
) that the
longitudinal slope of the tank be kept to a minimum of
1:100 in on-line tanks, and that sidewall slopes into
the centre channel are a minimum of 1:4. Care
should be taken with benching in on-line and off-line
tanks - this should be steel trowel finished with
granolithic topping to prevent accumulation of solids.
Off-line Storage
Off-line storage with gravity return is shown in
Cases 3 to 6, Figure 1.13.1. This would typically
be preferred where construction could proceed
without the need for over-pumping, or insufficient
length is available for on-line storage. The storage
may be provided in a single tank, an over-sized
pipe/box-culvert or groups of pipes. Care should
be given to flow distribution at the upstream end,
and the order of preference in filling. As the tank
may not be 100% filled on a regular basis,
selection of a preferential flow channel will reduce
the need for desilting operations.
Operational Issues
Operation and maintenance of such underground
structures present particular health and safety
issues for access and maintenance. These
aspects include:
Blockage of flow control devices: access
needs to be provided to safely enter the
structure and for clearance tools and removal
of debris. Where a blockage has resulted in
water being retained for some time, clearing
the blockage suddenly may have an
unacceptable impact on downstream
facilities, such as pumping stations and
outfalls. Designs therefore need to consider
facilities for gradual emptying or removal of
flows;
Removal of sediment: access needs to be
provided to safely enter the structure and for
clearance tools and removal of debris;
Design to optimise removal of sediment: to
minimise time and effort needed inside
underground structures. Modifications to the
structure of the tank to allow sediment to be
removed from ground level; use of low friction
coatings to discourage accumulation of
sediment; modification of inlet design to
increase scour; steepening of benching and
installation of dry-weather flow channels to
encourage self-cleansing; use of mechanical
plant and flushing mechanisms to periodically
remove sediments.
A checklist of typical design considerations is
included in Table 1.13.1 below. The designer
should note that this is an aide memoir, but not
exclusive, as each application will have its own
issues which require resolution.

Drainage Affairs

1
st

1. On-line Storage
2. On-line Storage + Flow Control
Storage Tank
Storage Tank
3. Off-line Storage + Gravity Return
Storage Tank
4. Off-line Storage
+ Screened Overflow
+ Gravity Return
5. Off-line Storage
+ Screened overflow
+ Gravity Return
6. Off-line Storage
+ Gravity Return
+ variable flow control
7. Off-line Storage
+ Pumped Return
+ screened overflow
Storage Tank
Flow Control
Storage Tank
Flow Control
Non-return
Valve
Overflow
& Screen
Overflow
& Screen
Flow Control
Storage Tank
Outfall
Outfall
Outfall
Outfall
Overflow
& Screen
Overflow
& Screen
Storage Tank
Flume
Flow Control
Flume
Pump
Figure 1.13.1 Alternative Tank Layouts

Figure 1.13.1 Alternative Storage Tank Layouts

Drainage Affairs

1
st
Table 1.13.1 - Storage Tank Design Checklist
Consider maintenance & cleaning operations
Consider the erection/removal of falsework in confined spaces during construction (use false soffits or pre-cast slabs
for roof sections)

Design benching to be self-cleansing
Ensure sufficient access of adequate size are incorporated (NB can plant be removed once constructed)
Consider type of covers (think about manual handling, and security of access)
Incorporate a sufficient number of davit sockets
What telemetry is required?
On-line or Off-line tank?
Are welfare facilities required?
Is a gravity discharge achievable? Otherwise pumps will be required.
Is a power supply needed?
Is a water supply needed for washing down?
Planning permission is required for all control kiosks and permanent accesses to the site
Is a standby generator required?
DA and RA Discharge consents for emergency overflow
What is required in the way of control kiosks/buildings
Ensure that access for a tanker is possible
Place screens on inlet to tanks on off-line tanks
Consider the type of screen required
Design out any possible maintenance hazards
Ensure adequate ventilation is achieved
Is odour control required?
Consider retention times of the tank
How long does it take to empty the tank? Consider follow on storm events
Provide a facility for overpumping of the tank
Are overflows required?
Provide penstocks on the tank inlets/outlets to enable flows to be diverted or isolated
What return period is tank designed to (1 in x year)?
Provide a penstock protected bypass pipe
Is a flow control required on the tank outlet/bypass pipe?
Reinstatement of area, consider future access requirements
Does the site need to be purchased?
HARAS complete?
EIA complete ?

Drainage Affairs

1
st

1.14 Groundwater
Control
1.14.1 Groundwater Levels
It is generally desirable to achieve certain critical
groundwater levels to ensure successful operation of
urban infrastructure. As a general guide, the following
are recommended.
Table 1.14.1 Guideline Depths of Infrastructure
and Minimum GW Levels
Facility Depth (MBGL) Minimum Depth
to ground water
Septic tanks and
soakaways
Formation level
3.0-4.0
0.5 below
formation level
Telephone
cables and
chambers
0.4-1.5 2.0
Power cables
and chambers
0.4-1.5 2.0
Potable water
system; pipes
and chambers
0.9 1.4
TSE system,
pipes and
chambers
1.0 1.5
Roads; formation
level of base
course
0.3-1.0 0.5 below
formation level
Buildings
foundation level
1.0-1.5 0.5 below
formation level
Buildings
basements
4.0-4.5 0.5 below
formation level
1.14.2 Ground Water Drains
Horizontal groundwater drains present an opportunity
to passively maintain groundwater levels at district
level. This type of drainage should not be confused
with building or foundation drainage, which is also
commonly referred to as land drainage in Qatar.
Because installing this form of drainage involves
relatively deep excavation, it is disruptive to install in
existing urban areas and is better suited to areas
under development.
The need for groundwater drains will be
determined by the DA and included in the PSA. A
key consideration is the required depth to the
water table, as determined by the guidelines tabled
in 1.14.1 above.
A key reference for the design of appropriate
systems is Computing Drain Spacings
xviii
. The
work describes methods of computing drain
spacings for a range of ground conditions. The
output is the spacing required between drains set
at different depths for specified values of recharge,
depth to water table at the midpoint between
drains and permeability. The calculation is steady
state, so that Q(in) is equal to Q(out).
This methodology makes the distinction between
horizontal flow and radial flow patterns in the
subsoil. Where flow of groundwater is horizontal,
using parallel ditches reaching down to an
impervious floor, the flow will be horizontal, and
the Hooghoudt Equations can be used to
determine flow quantity per unit area, as follows:
q = (8h/L
o
2
) (K
1
D
1
+K
2
D
2
)
Equation 1.14.1
Where:
q = flow per unit surface area per expressed
as m/d.
K1 = hydraulic conductivity of the soil (flow
region) above drain level (m/d).
K2 = hydraulic conductivity of the soil (flow
region) below drain level (m/d) - for
homogeneous soils, K1 = K2.
D1 = average depth of flow region above drain
level, or average thickness of the soil layer
through which the flow above the drains
takes place.
D2 = average depth of pervious flow region
below drain level, (depth to an impervious
layer or depth of flow).
h = hydraulic head, i.e. height of water table
above drain level midway between drains
(m).
Lo = drain spacing (m).

Drainage Affairs

1
st
In this case, a ditch can mean an open drainage
channel or a French drain, containing pipe and
porous drainage Media surround, acting as a cut-off
drain. The pipe or channel is then designed as in
section 1.9 above, to cater for the flow determined
from the above equation. The above equation applies
to horizontal flow only, which will cover most
situations in Doha where there is an impervious layer
overlain by a pervious upper layer.
Where a combination of radial flow and horizontal is
anticipated, the above equation may overestimate
drain spacings, and the generalised Hooghoudt
Ernst equation should be used, which is:
[L/Lo]
3
+ [8c/( Lo)][ L/Lo]
2
[L/Lo]-B[8c/( Lo)] = 0
Equation 1.14.2
Where:
L = drain spacing based upon both radial and
horizontal flow (m).
Lo = drain spacing based upon horizontal flow only
(m).
c = D2ln(aD2/u), a radial resistance factor (m).
a = geometry factor

for radial flow, generally taken as
1 for simple situations where no more than one layer
of differing permeabilities exists below drain level.
u = wetted perimeter.
B = K1D1/KD = flow above drain as a fraction of the
total horizontal flow.
KD = K1D1+ K2D2
Equation 1.14.3
Where:
K = Equivalent value .
D = overall depth.
The above equations are normally solved by
graphical methods, and examples of this approach
are shown in the above referenced publication
xviii
.
A further simplified version of the Hooghoudt Ernst
equation is also presented in the above paper, as
follows:
L = Lo c
Equation 1.14.4
This equation holds where c/Lo < 0.3 and B < 0.1
(although the authors of the above publication
state that it is not applicable for some uncommon
situations, such as K = 0.25m/d, D > 5m). This
equation provides a useful approach for
approximate sizing of land drainage during the
planning process.
Work with this methodology shows it to be very
sensitive to the value of permeability used so site
investigation that includes permeability testing is
essential for all projects incorporating land
drainage.
A common method of groundwater collection into
the SW drainage system is via the twin-pipe
system. This is preferred by DA and a typical
trench cross-section detail is included in the
Volume 8.
Note that this method is not readily applicable to
perched water table conditions.

Drainage Affairs

1
st

2 Pumping Stations
2.1 Standards
The standards to be used are listed in Section 1.2,
and sources of information in Section 1.3 of this
volume.
2.2 Hydraulic Design
The overall design philosophy of the pumping system
needs to be a balanced design with due
considerations of functional, environmental and
economic aspects. For pumping systems in the
vicinity of sensitive receivers, reliability of the system
is of key concern.
Particular attention should be paid to the following
issues:
Design flow;
Standby power supply or temporary storage;
Overflows and emergency bypass;
Twin rising mains;
Availability of QGEWC power supply;
Land area available and proximity to housing or
public areas;
Access to the proposed site.
Duty/Assist pumps;
The pumping station will probably be pumping both
groundwater (low flows all year round) and
stormwater (high flows after rainfall). Therefore, the
pumps and rising mains need to be sized for the
range of flows resulting from these very different flow
regimes.
The pumping station will probably be serving an area
of new development. It is likely that the initial flows to
the station will be much smaller than those expected
for the full design. Flows will increase in the following
years to reach design capacity of the station. If the
inflows are greatly below the pump output, the result
will be excessive periods of inactivity of the station,
with the potential for premature failure of equipment.
Such infrequent operation of pumps will also result in
retention of flows in the rising main and retention
tank, corrosion and adverse environmental effects on
the outfall system.
Consideration should therefore be given to the
sizing and numbers of pumps to match the range
of groundwater and stormwater flows, and the
likely build-up of incoming flows.
For GW flows, storage shall be designed at the
pump station to enable pumping for periods of 30
60 minutes, followed by storage recharge
periods of up to 3 or 4 hours.Pumps shall be
designed primarily to meet surface water
discharge conditions but be capable of meeting
the more frequent demand for groundwater
discharge. Pump operations shall be rotated to
ensure that all pumps are activated at least for
several days each month
For SW flows, storage shall be determined to meet
attenuation requirements. Generally a minimum of
2 to 3 pumps shall be required (ie 1 duty plus 1 or
more assist). This approach ensures that failure of
any pump will not reduce peak discharges by more
than 33% Generally, no standby pumps will be
required.
Where possible, similar pumps should be installed,
on duty and assist basis, with similar standby
pump(s). The use of similar pumps will avoid any
changes in pumping regime due to the rotation of
duty pumps for operational reasons.
Consideration should also be given to installing
twin rising mains. One main only would be used in
the early years of the scheme to achieve
satisfactory maximum flow velocities and hence
minimise siltation. When flows increase then the
second main would be brought into use.
Although not strictly required for the early years of
a scheme, it would not be economic to construct
one rising main and then construct the second
within a short period, say five years. The additional
costs and disruption of digging a second trench,
together with operational and safety requirements
of working adjacent to a live rising main, would
be avoided.
2.2.1 Hydraulic Principles
A pumping system may consist of inlet piping,
pumps, valves, outlet piping, fittings, open
channels and/or rising mains. When a particular
system is being analysed for the purpose of
selecting a pump or pumps, the head losses

Drainage Affairs

1
st
through these various components must be
calculated. The station loss (i.e. the loss on the
suction and delivery pipework from the sump to the
common header) should also be considered. The
frictional and minor head losses of these components
are approximately proportional to the square of the
velocity of flow through the system and are called the
variable head.
Friction losses should be determined using the
ColebrookWhite Formula.
Losses in fittings at the station, and outside of it
should be determined using the formula:
H = kv
2
/2g Equation 2.2.1
Where H denotes the fitting headloss (m), k is the
loss coefficient, v the velocity (m/s) and g is the
gravitational constant, 9.81m/s
2
.
Indicative values of k are given in Table 2.2.1 below.
Table 2.2.1 Indicative Minor Loss Coefficients,
k, for Various Fittings
Fitting Coefficient k
Standard 90
0
bend 0.75
Long Radius 90
0
bend 0.4
Standard 45
0
bend 0.3
Tee - line to branch 1.2
Tee flow in line 0.35
Taper up 0.5
Sharp Entry 0.5
Bellmouth Entry 0.1
Sudden Exit 1.0
Non-return valve* 1.0
Gate Valve, fully open* 0.12
*Note that for valves it is advisable to obtain manufacturers
data on headlosses. System head calculations would
normally be carried out using valve open figures.
It is also necessary to determine the static head
required to raise the liquid from suction level to a
higher discharge level. The pressure at the
discharge liquid surface may be higher than that at
the suction liquid surface, a condition that requires
more pumping head. These two heads are fixed
system heads, as they do not vary with rate of flow.
Fixed system heads can be negative, if the discharge
level or the pressure above that level is lower than
suction level or pressure. Fixed system heads are
called static heads.
The Total Dynamic Head (TDH) for a system is the
sum of the major and minor friction losses plus the
static head. The duty point for a pump selection
will be the required flow at the TDH.
A system head curve is a plot of total system head,
variable plus fixed, for various flow rates. It may
express the system head in metres and the flow
rate in cubic metres per second. Procedures to
plot a system-head curve are:
1. Define the pumping system and its length;
2. Calculate the fixed system head;
3. Calculate the variable system head losses for
several flow rates;
4. Combine the fixed head and variable heads
for several flow rates to obtain a curve of total
system head versus flow rate.
The flow delivered by a centrifugal pump varies
with system head. Pump manufacturers provide
information on the performance of their pumps in
the form of characteristic curves of head versus
capacity, commonly known as pump curves. By
superimposing the characteristic curve of a
centrifugal pump on a system-head curve, the duty
point of a pump can be determined.
The curves will intersect at the flow rate of the
pump, as this is the point at which the pump head
is equal to the required system head for the same
flow.
The recommended values for coefficient of
ColebrookWhite Roughness Factor (Section 1.9.2
above) ks for use in rising mains are contained in
Table 2.2.2 below. Note also the values indicated
in Table 1.9.1, which refer to gravity sewers.
Table 2.2.2 Recommended Values of
Colebrook-White Roughness Factors (ks) for
use in Rising Mains
Mean Velocity in m/s ks (mm)
Up to 1.1m/s 0.3mm
Between 1.1m/s and 1.8m/s 0.15mm

Drainage Affairs

1
st

The discharge capacity for multiple pumps will not be
simply the sum of the discharge capacity of individual
pumps because the system-head curve for multiple
pumps will be different from that of a single pump.
2.2.2 Pump Arrangements
The number of pumps to be installed depends on the
station capacity and the range of flows. The
maximum discharge rate from a pumping station,
when all duty pumps and rising mains are in use
should be slightly greater than or equal to the
maximum design flow of the station. This will be less
than the peak incoming flow due to storage
attenuation. Pumps should be selected with head-
capacity characteristics that correspond as closely as
possible to the overall station requirements. Because
of the infrequency with which theSW pumps operate
in Qatar, the concept of standby pumps is no longer
required by DA policy. .
It is not desirable to have pumps of different sizes for
operation and maintenance reasons, unless the flow
ranges vary widely throughout the day. To cater for
slow build-up of flow in the early years of operation,
phased installation of pumps, or the use of a smaller
diameter impeller should be considered.
2.3 Rising Main Design
2.3.1 Rising Main
Diameters
The minimum diameter of pumping mains is
controlled by the need to avoid blockage, and
therefore should not be less than 100mm. Where
surface water is effectively screened before pumping
the minimum diameters should not be less than
80mm.
The maximum and minimum diameters are sized to
maintain flow velocities for all stages of pumping
within the ranges specified in Section 2.4.
2.3.2 Twin Rising Mains
The use of twin rising mains should be considered on
a case by case basis. The main factors for
consideration include the design elements, the risk
assessment and cost benefit analysis.
Considerations for the design elements comprise;
the rate of build-up of flow, the range of flow
conditions, the range of velocity in the mains, the
availability of land for the twin mains and
associated valve chambers as well as the
complications in pump operations.
A thorough risk assessment should be carried out,
which should include the likelihood of a main
bursting, the consequence of failure, area affected,
sensitive receivers affected and the feasibility of
temporary diversion.
A cost benefit analysis should include all tangible
factors (such as cost of pipework, land cost,
energy cost) and intangible factors (such as
nuisance).
Twin rising mains should be considered in the
following circumstances:
To accommodate a wide range of flow
conditions, such that the velocity in the mains
can be kept within acceptable limits. For
instance, a pumping system serving a new
development may have very low initial flows
with a slow build-up of flow;
To provide continued operation for a major
pumping system when one of the mains is
damaged and where the failure of the system
would have serious consequence;
To minimise adverse environmental impacts
to sensitive areas;
To facilitate future inspection and
maintenance of major pumping systems,
while the normal surface or ground water flow
can be maintained.
When twin mains are found to be preferred, it is
advisable to use both mains as duty rather than
one as duty and the other as standby from an
economical and operational point of view. Should
one of the duty mains be taken out of operation,
the remaining one would still be able to deliver a
higher quantity of flow at a higher velocity. The
occurrence of overflow or bypass can be
minimised or even eliminated.
2.3.3 Economic Analysis
As the size of the rising mains increases, the
velocity and the system head will decrease, with
savings in the cost of pumping. The increase in

Drainage Affairs

1
st
the capital cost of rising mains will be offset by the
power cost of pumping. However, it is also important
that the velocity in the mains should be within a
suitable range to minimise the deposition of silt.
Excessive hydraulic head losses are to be avoided.
The selection of a suitable size for the rising mains
should be based on economic analysis of capital cost
and recurrent cost of the pumping system, including
the power cost. A trial and error approach should be
adopted in order to arrive at the optimal solution while
maintaining the velocity within acceptable limits.
Therefore, combinations of different sizes of rising
mains and the system head should be evaluated,
taking into account both the capital cost and the
energy cost of pumping.
2.3.4 Rising Main
Alignment
The alignment of the rising main should discourage
surge in its flow conditions. Where possible the rising
main should be laid with continuous uphill gradient,
and with gentle curves in both horizontal and vertical
planes. Otherwise, air-release valves should be
provided at high points, and as the profile of the main
dictates. Washouts should be installed at low points.
The arrangement and locations of valves should be
planned together with the alignment of the rising
mains.
Long flat lengths of rising main should be avoided, as
should pumping downhill to the discharge point.
2.4 Maximum and Minimum
Velocities
The maximum velocity should not exceed 2.5m/s, or
3m/s in extreme cases, governed by the concerns
for the power cost. The desirable range of velocity
should be 1m/s to 2m/s with due consideration given
to the various combinations of number of duty pumps
in operation. Velocities should be slightly higher in
SW rising mains than foul, because of the higher
density of the silt when compared to foul sewage.
Minimum velocities should be in accordance with
table 1.11.1
2.5 Pipe Materials
Materials for use in pumping stations will be
Ductile Iron, as discussed in section 1.11.3.
2.6 Thrust Blocks
Thrust blocks are concrete blocks designed to
prevent pipes from being moved by forces exerted
within the pipe by the flow of water hitting bends,
tapers, and closed or partially closed valves. In
the design of pressurised pipelines, thrust blocks
are essential on flexibly jointed pipelines, where
any pipe movement would open up the joints in the
line and cause water leakage.
Thrust blocks are also necessary near valves
where a flexible joint is located, to facilitate
removal of the valve for maintenance purposes.
The size of block is dependent upon the deflection
of the flow, the size of the pipe and the head of
water inside the pipe. Please also refer to the
recommendations of pipe manufacturers.
An example thrust block calculation spreadsheet in
shown in Volume 1 Appendix 1
The following design assumptions are to be
adopted:
Thrusts developed due to changes in
direction of pipeline, dead end or change in
diameter should be considered. Force due to
change in velocity head is assumed negligible
unless there is a drastic change in pipe
diameter;
Thrust blocks should be designed for the
condition of no support being available from
the backfill;
The restraining effect of the ground behind
blocks should be ignored on the basis that the
ground might be disturbed by work on
adjacent services. The block should be
designed so that the total thrust in the
pipeline is resisted by the self-weight of the
block, or frictional resistance offered by the
self-weight. Special foundations, such as
raking piles, may be required in such
circumstances;
For pipes with flexible joints such as DI pipes
with socket and spigot joints, all the thrust is
assumed to be taken up by the blocks.

Drainage Affairs

1
st

2.7 Air Valves and Washout
Facilities
These facilities are required to minimise the adverse
effects of surge and to facilitate the operation and
maintenance of the rising main.
2.7.1 Air Valves
Air-relief valves are installed at locations of minimum
pressure. Air is sucked into the air-relief valve when
pipeline internal pressure is below atmospheric. Upon
subsequent pressure rise, the admitted air is then
expelled. Air valves are usually installed at convex
points where air could accumulate or need to be
introduced, such as at local high points and at severe
vertical bends (which should be avoided, if possible).
Each air valve will operate independently and
therefore several valves may be required along the
pipeline if there are numerous rises and falls in the
vertical profile of the rising main.
2.7.2 Vented Non-return
Valves
An air valve combined with a vented non-return valve
allows air to enter the pipeline freely on separation,
but controls the expulsion of air as the column
rejoins. This has the effect of creating an air buffer
between the column interfaces, thus reducing the
impact velocity of the rejoining column and the surge
potential of the system.
2.7.3 Wash Outs
The purpose of the washout system is to drain the
rising main to allow maintenance. The washout
should be installed at low points of the pipeline
profile, and needs to be located carefully, taking into
account that water will be discharged. For long rising
mains with few low points, wash-outs should be
strategically located at suitable intervals to reduce the
time required for emptying the main in an emergency.
The washout chamber should be provided with a
sump so that the drained contents of the rising main
may be tankered away, if a direct connection to a
suitably sized drain is not available.
2.7.4 Isolating Valves
For long rising mains, Isolating valves should be
included to allow sections of the rising main to be
isolated and emptied within a reasonable time. In-
line sluice or gate valves are often used as
isolating valves. The isolating valve installation
may incorporate washout facilities.
2.8 Flow Meters
2.8.1 Application and
Selection
The variety of choices facing an engineer
confronted with a flow measurement application is
vast. For example, the positive displacement
principle types include rotary piston, oval gear,
sliding vane, and reciprocating piston. Each type
has advantages and limitations and no one type
combines all the features and all the advantages.
Differential pressure meters have the advantage
that they are the most familiar of any meter type.
They are suitable for gas and liquid, viscous and
corrosive fluids. Their usable flow range is limited
and they require a separate transmitter in addition
to the sensor. Some of the most important
parameters for flowmeters are accuracy, flow
range, and whether the medium is sewage or
water. Meter selection should be done in two
steps. The first step is to identify the meters that
are technically capable of performing the required
measurement and are available in acceptable
materials of construction; then, to select the best
choice from those available. Assess the need for
special features such as reverse flow, pulsating
flow, response time and so on.
2.8.2 Magnetic
Flowmeters
It is not normally considered necessary to measure
flows of surface water but if it is decided that this
should be done, then magnetic-type flowmeters
may be used. These devices use Faradays law of
electromagnetic induction for making a flow
measurement. That is when a conductor moves
through a magnetic field of given field strength, a
voltage level is produced in the conductor that is
dependent on the relative velocity between the

Drainage Affairs

1
st
conductor and the field. Faraday foresaw the
practical application of the principle to flow
measurement, because many liquids are adequate
electrical conductors. So these meters measure the
velocity of an electrically conductive liquid as it cuts
the magnetic field produced across the metering
tube. The principal advantages include no moving
components, no pressure loss, and no wear and tear
in components.
Magnetic flowmeters offer the designer the best
solution for pumped surface water flow. With nothing
protruding into the flow of water, the chances of a
blockage if installed correctly are non-existent.
Magnetic flowmeters should always be installed with
full pipe conditions.
Care should be taken during design to provide
sufficient straight run, up-stream and down-stream of
the flowmeter in accordance with the manufacturers
installation instructions. As a general guideline, 12
pipe diameters of straight pipe on the inlet, and 6
pipe diameters on the outlet, will ensure that the
flowmeter is able to achieve the specified accuracy. If
the amount of space available is restricted, then the
minimum usually accepted by manufactures is inlet
run > 5 pipe diameters, and outlet run > 3 pipe
diameters.
Refer to standard installation details Volume 8. The
installation should allow for the future removal and
replacement of the flowmeter.
The following International and British Standards are
a good source of information on flowmeter selection
and installation.
BS EN ISO 6817: 1997: Measurement of Conductive
Liquid Flow in Closed Conduits
xxxii
.
BS 7405: 1991: Guide to Selection and Application of
Flowmeters for the Measurement of Fluid Flow in
Closed Conduits
xxxiii
.
Flowmeters should be pressure tested, calibrated by
the manufacturer, and certified to a traceable
international standard. As a minimum, the overall
accuracy should be better than 0.5% of the flow
range. The repeatability of the result should be within
0.2%.
In addition to the calibration certificate the flowmeter
manufacturers should provide the following:
Isolated 4-20mA dc and pulse outputs;
Programmable in-built alarm relays for empty
pipe, low and reverse flows;
In-built digital display for flow rate, total flow
and alarms;
Transmitter enclosure shall be protected to
IP67;
Calibration and programming kit.
The earthing rings should be included according to
the individual manufacturers instructions. The
sensor lining should be neoprene or an equivalent
material of similar or improved properties, suitable
for the application of pumped surface water. In
below ground flowmeter chamber installations, the
installed equipment should be submersible to the
maximum chamber depth.
Ultrasonic Flowmeters
Ultrasonic meters are available in two forms:
Doppler and transit-time. With Doppler meters, an
ultrasonic pulse is beamed into the pipe and
reflected by inclusions, such as air or dirt. This
may render them unreliable if the water being
pumped is very clear. The Doppler meter is
frequently used as a clamp on device which can
be fitted to existing pipelines. It detects the velocity
only in a small region of the pipe cross section and
as such its accuracy is not good. The single or
multi-beam transit-time flowmeters project an
ultrasonic beam right across the pipe at an acute
angle, first with the flow and then in opposition to
the flow direction. The difference in transit time is
proportional to flow rate. This type of ultrasonic
meter is considerably more expensive but offers
better accuracy. Unlike the Doppler meter, it
requires a relatively clean fluid.
The main use of this type of flowmeter in pumped
surface water flows is in retrospective installation,
where the pumping main cannot be broken into for
operational reasons. A clamp-on ultrasonic
flowmeter can be used to give reasonably accurate
flow measurement.
For new installations, the lower cost of in-pipe
ultrasonic flowmeters could make them a viable
alternative to magnetic flowmeters for large
diameter pipe installations.

Drainage Affairs

1
st

2.9 Surge Protection
Measures
Surge (or water hammer) is an oscillating pressure
wave generated in a pipeline during changes in the
flow conditions.
There are four common causes of surge in a pipeline:
pump starting;
pump stopping/power failure;
valve action;
improper operation of surge control devices.
The most likely one of these is the sudden stopping
of pumps caused by a power failure.
A surge analysis should usually be carried out unless
the system is simple.
An approximate calculation for a simple pipeline is:
P = a x V
g

Equation 2.9.1
Where:
P = Pressure change (m)
a = pressure wave velocity (m/s)
V = flow velocity change in 1 cycle (m/s)
g = acceleration of gravity (9.81m/s2)
The simple cycle time can be calculated with the
formula:
Cycle time = 2 x pipeline length
Wave velocity

Equation 2.9.2
Table 2.9.1 Indicative Surge Wave Velocity
Values for Selected Pipe Materials
Pipe Material Velocity (m/s)
Ductile Iron 1000 1400
Reinforced Concrete 1000 1200
Plastic 300 500

If the surge pressure approaches zero or the
pipeline maximum pressure, a full surge analysis
should be carried out.
Surge Suppression Methods
Surge suppression could be achieved using one of
-the following devices. The most appropriate
device will depend on the individual circumstances
of the installation:
Flywheel;
Pressure vessel with bladder;
Dip-tube surge vessel;
Surge tower.
Air valves should not be used as a method of
surge control, but their operation under surge
conditions should be carefully considered.
Flywheels
Flywheels absorb energy on start-up, slowing the
rate of velocity change in the pipeline. In reverse,
when the pump is stopping, the flywheel releases
energy again, slowing the rate of velocity change.
Together these two actions reduce the peak surge
pressure.
As the flywheel must be located on the drive shaft
it is not suitable for submersible pumps or close-
coupled pumps. However, they are simple devices
for wet well/dry well pumps and are preferred
where possible.
If submersible pumps have been chosen, a larger
pump running at a slower speed may have the
effect of a flywheel.
Because the flow continues through the pump
after the stop signal, the effect on the stop and
start levels should be carefully considered.
Pressure Vessels
Pressure vessels for surge suppression are tanks
partially filled with a gas (air or nitrogen). Usually
the liquid is contained in a bladder with gas on the
outside to prevent the liquid absorbing the gas or
coming into contact with the inside of the pressure
vessel, and this is the preferred type. The bladder
material should be carefully selected for use in the
conditions experienced in Qatar.

Drainage Affairs

1
st
Refilling is usually from a high-pressure cylinder and
care should be taken to avoid over pressurisation of
the bladder. Bladders should not lose pressure in
normal operation, but they can fail, leading to
absorption of the gas into the liquid, and a drop in
pressure.
Vessels without a bladder are charged with air
pressure from an air compressor, either manually or
automatically. There is therefore additional machinery
and an additional maintenance requirement. This
type of surge vessel is not recommended.
On pump start-up, liquid enters the vessel,
compressing the gas until it equals the liquid
pressure. When the pump stops, the gas pressure
forces liquid back out into the pipe system, both
actions slow the rate of pressure change, which
reduces the peak surge pressure.
To dampen oscillations, a non-return valve may be
fitted to the surge vessel outlet pipe, to allow
unrestricted flow into the pipeline, and a bypass
around the NRV fitted with an orifice plate to restrict
the flow back into the vessel.
Dip Tube Surge Vessels
A dip tube surge vessel is pressure vessel, the top
portion forming a compression chamber limited by a
dipping tube with a shut off float valve.
This type of vessel is particularly appropriate for use
on rising mains with flat profiles.
Surge Towers
A surge tower is a vertical tank or pipe fitted into the
pipeline, open to atmosphere and the energy storage
is by the static head of the liquid in the tower.
Surge towers are only practical for systems with
relatively low heads and surge pressures, but can
pose an odour risk.
Due to the design of a surge tower, there is no
routine maintenance required to ensure the surge
tower keeps operating correctly.
It is unlikely that surge towers would be appropriate
for use in Qatar.
Air Valves
Air valves are required on the pumping mains to
release air, but they should not be used as a surge
protection measure.
However, air valves, particularly if fitted with a
vented non-return valve or in-flow check valve,
may assist in surge control, and their operation
must be carefully considered.
Air valves require regular maintenance because if
the air valve does not function correctly, large or
negative surge pressures could result, with
consequent damage to equipment or personnel.
If air is allowed into the rising main on pump
stop/trip through an air valve, the pump control
system should be designed to prevent a restart
until the transient pressures have stabilised.
Control of the pumps is usually by start/stop level
signals, but where surge on start-up may have a
significant effect, the use of soft starters should
be considered.
2.10 Screens
Screen Selection
Screens should generally be provided for pump
protection, unless they are small circular
submersible stations with small inlets and a design
flow of less than 1520l/s. Screens should
incorporate the following features:
Screen chambers should be separate from
the wet wells;
Coarse screens should be fitted in the screen
chambers at the inlet to pumping stations to
protect the pumping equipment. They should
remove coarse screenings greater than
100mm;
L shaped or coarse basket screens should
be provided;
The screens should be set in guides with
lifting facilities at ground level so they can be
manually removed and cleaned;
Minimum of one duty and one standby
screen.
Screen Installation
The manual duty and standby screen should be
installed in the incoming channel, so that the
standby screen can be lowered into position to
protect the pumps while the duty screen is
removed and cleaned.

Drainage Affairs

1
st

Screenings Handling
Mechanically removed screenings should be placed
in a container until removed from site.
2.11 Pumping Stations
Selection
Surface water pumping station type selection should
be carefully considered for each scheme. In general,
submersible pumping stations are generally selected
for flows up to 100l/s and wet well/dry well stations
for larger flows. However, each station should be
treated on its own merits and the following
considerations assessed:
Initial and final design flow;
Total head on the pumps;
Rising main profile and the requirements for
surge protection (dry well pumps usually have a
greater moment of inertia than submersibles);
Requirement for variable speed drive
(submersible motors are not always adequately
rated for use with VSD);
Space available for pumping station
(submersible stations usually require less
space);
Proximity of housing or public areas (opening
submersible pump wells may create odour
nuisance).
An alternative to wet well submersibles and dry well
pumps is the dry well submersible. These should
normally be considered only where an existing dry
well installation is being uprated and there is
insufficient space to install a conventional dry well
pump and motor.
Particular attention should be paid to motor cooling
and cabling if dry well submersibles are to be
considered.
Axial flow pumps should be considered for very high
flows against low head situations and are therefore
very suitable for surface water lifting stations.
The designer should present three alternative pump
suppliers for tender purposes.
Submersible pumping stations
Submersible pumping stations should incorporate
the following features:
Minimum of two duty pumps, that when
working together meet the full flow
requirement ( standby not required);
Non return and gate valve for each pump
isolation;
Valves to be in a separate, easily accessible
chamber adjacent to the pump sump;
Operation level controls (either air reaction
bubbler, electrode or ultrasonic) as follows:
- High level alarm;
- Pump start;
- Pump stop;
- Low level pump protection, in addition to
the method installed for pump control.
Ultrasonic level controls should be configured to
hold the last measurement in the event of a lost
echo and should be protected against accidental
damage.
Where the available pumps have unsuitable duties
for the full range of flows, the use of variable
speed drives should be considered. However, due
to the additional heat generated in the motor, the
approval of the pump manufacturer should be
obtained before variable speed drives are used.
Submersible Pump Sump Design
The CIRIA guide The hydraulic design of pump
sumps and intakes by M. J. Prosser
xxxiv
should be
referred to when designing pump sumps. Some
pump manufacturers also provide guidance on the
design of sumps for their pumps. Sump design
should be in accordance with the following criteria:
Sumps should be designed so that the
dimensions satisfy the requirements for the
minimum sump volume to ensure the
maximum rated pump starts per hour for the
motor and switchgear are not exceeded;
Sumps should be designed to provide a
uniform steady flow of water into any pump
without creating swirl or entraining air.
Unsteady flow can lead to fluctuating loads,
vibration, noise and premature failure. Swirl
can affect the flow capacity, power and
efficiency. It can also result in local vortices

Drainage Affairs

1
st
that introduce air into the pump, also leading to
fluctuating loads, vibration, noise and premature
failure;
Sumps should be designed to prevent the
accumulation of sediment, scum and surface
flotsam;
Sump corners should be benched to 45
o
.
Minimising the sump floor area and residual
volume will increase the velocity into the pumps
and improve scouring;
The use of flushing devices to improve scour in
pump sumps should be considered;
The velocity in the pump riser pipe at the design
duty should be as high as practicable to reduce
the risk of solids deposition. However, the
velocity should not normally exceed 2.5m/s to
avoid significant headloss and risk of pipe
erosion;
The water surface in the sump should be as free
from waves and turbulence as possible to
provide a strong and reliable echo for ultrasonic
level controls;
At the designed stop level there should still be
sufficient water surface area without
obstructions to provide a good echo return.
Submersible Pump Installation
When submersible pumps are installed, the following
should be considered:
There should be sufficient space between them
to prevent interaction between the pump
suctions;
There should also be sufficient space for
someone to stand beside each pump, should
work be required in the sump;
Pump mounting stools and duckfoot bends
should be securely bolted to the structural
concrete of the sump, and not the benching;
Discharge non-return and isolating valves
should be located outside the sump in a valve
chamber;
Pump guide rails should rise close to the
underside of the sump covers above the pumps;
The covers should have a clear opening large
enough to allow the removal of the pump while
on the guide rails;
Support points for the pump power cables and
lifting chain should be provided under the pump
covers, these should be easily accessible from
the surface.
Wet/Dry Well Pumping Stations.
Wet well/dry well pumping should incorporate the
following features:
Two sumps, normally with 2 duty and 1
standby pump for each sump for the ultimate
flow;
Non return and 2 gate valves for each pump
isolation;
Where possible, the discharge manifold
should be below ground level to minimise
additional pipework and friction losses;
Where wet well/dry well pumping stations are
being uprated, dry well submersible pumps
could be considered;
Operation level controls (either electrode or
ultrasonic) as follows:
- High level alarm;
- Pump start;
- Pump stop;
- Low level pump protection in addition to
the method installed for pump control.
Ultrasonic level controls should be configured
to hold the last measurement in the event of a
lost echo.
Where the available pumps have unsuitable duties
for the full range of flows the use of variable speed
drives should be considered. However due to the
additional heat generated in the motor, the
approval of the pump manufacturer should be
obtained before variable speed drives are used.
Wet Well Design
xxxiv
should be
referred to when designing wet wells, which should
Wet wells should be designed to provide a
uniform steady flow of water into any pump
without creating swirl or entraining air.
vibration, noise and premature failure. Swirl
can affect the flow capacity, power and
efficiency, it can also result in local vortices
that introduce air into the pump also leading
to fluctuating loads, vibration, noise and
premature failure;

Drainage Affairs

1
st

Wet wells should be designed to prevent the
accumulation of sediment, scum and surface
flotsam;
Wet well corners should be benched to 45
o
.
Minimising the sump floor area and residual
volume will increase the velocity into the pumps
and improve scouring;
The use of flushing devices to improve scour in
wet wells should be considered;
The water surface in the wet well should be as
free from waves and turbulence as possible to
level controls;
obstructions to provide a good echo return;
Wet wells should be designed so that the
dimensions satisfy the requirements for the
minimum sump volume to avoid excessive pump
starts;
The pump suction pipes should be installed
through the wet/dry well dividing wall with a
downward bend and bellmouth to position the
pump suction as close to the sump floor as
possible to assist in sediment removal;
There should be sufficient space between the
bellmouths to prevent interaction between the
pump suctions.
Dry Well Design
Dry well design should incorporate the following
features:
The pumps should be installed along the wet/dry
well dividing wall with sufficient space between
them to allow access for maintenance and
repair;
The pump distance from the dividing wall will be
set by the length of the protruding stub pipe,
suction valve and pump inlet pipe;
Drive shafts should be supported from concrete
beams spanning the dry well;
Consideration should also be given to access
around the pumps and valves. Platforms and
walkways should be installed to provide access
to all equipment at a suitable level for safe
operation, maintenance and repair;
The general floor level should be higher than the
sump level to reduce the size of pump plinths
and the need for access platforms;
Careful thought should also be given to the
shipping route for removing equipment;
Access to the dry well and machinery should
be by staircase so that tools and equipment
can be carried in and out safely;
Lifting arrangements for the pumps and
valves (see also sections 2.21 and 2.22);
The dry well floor should slope gently towards
the dividing wall and then to one side where a
sump pump should be installed to keep the
floor as dry as possible;
The sump pump should be installed in a small
well, large enough to accommodate the pump
and should discharge back through the wall
into the wet well. Consideration should be
given to the sump pump discharge to avoid
backflow from the wet well to the dry well;
A high level alarm should be installed in the
dry well to give a warning of flooding before
damage to machinery occurs.
Pump Installation
For the most compact arrangement, a close-
coupled pump can be mounted horizontally with
the discharge upward, however this results in the
motor being low in the dry well and at risk from
flooding. The most common arrangement is for a
vertical pump shaft with the motor above. This will
require a bend between the suction valve and the
pump suction. The bend should be fitted with a
handhole and valve to enable the pump to be
drained prior to maintenance. Further bends may
be required to direct the pump or manifold
discharge upwards. Where space allows,
installation of the discharge manifold at the pump
level, with the discharge directly through the
sidewall should be considered.
Pipes should be sized to achieve sensible
velocities and the risk of cavitation through
insufficient NPSH should be considered when
designing suction pipework. Pumps must be
selected to ensure satisfactory operation when
only one pump is in operation in a new rising main.
Axial Flow Pumps
For situations requiring high flows at low heads
when transferring surface water from one level to
another axial flow pumps should be considered.
Axial flow pumps are usually mounted vertically
and traditionally have been of the trunk slung type

Drainage Affairs

1
st
with the pump bowls in a wet sump and the motor
mounted above in a dry room. The discharge
pipework may be located either above or below the
motor room floor. It is usual for the pump to have its
own thrust bearing, mounted in the motor support
stool, to support the weight of the rotating element
and absorb the hydraulic thrust.
Axial flow pumps are now also available as a
submersible pump installed in a vertical discharge
tube of nominal diameter. The vertical discharge
tube may be a steel pipe or a concrete structure.
This type of installation is not so suitable where the
pumps have to deliver into a rising main.
The operating parameters of axial flow pumps at all
conditions of operations should be carefully
considered, particularly the NPSH requirements.
Sump Design
xxxiv
should be
referred to when designing wet wells. The relevant
pump manufactures recommendations for sump
configurations should be referred to when designing
the sumps and intakes.
More care is needed when designing a sump for an
axial flow pump as this type of pump is more
sensitive to inlet flow conditions:
An anti swirl plate is often required to remove
any swirl at the inlet to the pump;
The inlet, forebay or sump should be designed
to provide a uniform steady flow of water into
any pump without creating swirl or entraining air.
This may require an anti swirl plate, a draft tube
intake or formed suction intake to provide for
smooth acceleration and turning as the flow
enters the pump;
vibration, noise and premature failure. Swirl can
affect the flow capacity, power and efficiency. It
can also result in local vortices that introduce air
into the pump also leading to fluctuating loads,
vibration, noise and premature failure;
As the inflow to the pumps is critical, multiple
pump systems should be designed around the
individual sump modules to ensure uniform
inflow to each pump;
The water surface in the wet well should be as
free from waves and turbulence as possible to
level controls;
obstructions to provide a good echo return.
Pump Installation
A trunk slung pump installation should incorporate
the following features:
The motor should be mounted on a support
stool, which incorporates the pump thrust
bearing;
Oil filled thrust bearings will normally require
cooling. This may be filtered product water
provided suitable controls & alarms are
incorporated;
Shaft protection tubes should not be
necessary if product cooled cutless rubber
pump sleeve bearings are utilised;
The distance between shaft couplings should
be co-ordinated with the pump lifting
arrangements;
Isolating and non-return valves will be
required unless the pump delivery point is
above TWL in the discharge channel;
Delivery pipework may be above or below the
motor room floor. However, access for
maintenance is likely to be easier if above
floor level.
A submersible pump installation should
Concrete shaft or steel tube to support the
pump;
Suitable discharge arrangement. If free
discharge above TWL occurs in the receiving
channel, then no valves are required. If it is a
submerged outflow, some type of non-return
arrangement will be required to prevent
backflow;
A sealed cover plate and sealed cable exit
will be required if the top of the riser pipe is
below delivery channel level.

Drainage Affairs

1
st

2.12 Pumps and Motors
Centrifugal Pumps
These are the most common type of pumps for
surface water and are available in a variety of forms.
The pump operates by passing the liquid through a
spinning impeller where energy is added to increase
the pressure and velocity of the liquid. Submersible
pumps are centrifugal pumps.
Surface water pumps should preferably have an open
type impeller with a minimum passage of 100mm.
Impellers with smaller passages are at risk of
blockage.
Dry well centrifugal pumps should normally have a
maximum running speed of 980rpm. Submersible
pumps may run at up to 1450rpm (4 pole motor) but
pumps operating at 2900rpm (2 pole motor) will suffer
excessive wear and premature failure and should not
be used.

Axial Flow Pumps
Axial flow pumps can be submersible or trunk slung
as detailed above.
Pump Motors
Pump motors should normally be fed from 415 volts,
50 hertz, 3-phase power supply. However for larger
motors 690V or 3.3kV can be used.
An explosion risk assessment study should be
carried out to identify whether motors on submersible
pumps should be certified for use in an explosive
atmosphere. The risk is more likely to be from
petroleum than methane.
Because additional heat is generated in the motor
when used with a variable speed drive, the approval
of the pump manufacturer should be obtained before
VSDs are used.
For dry well and screw pumps where the motors are
installed vertically or at a steep angle they should be
specifically designed for that purpose with adequately
rated end thrust bearings.
Where flywheels are installed, the motor rating shall
be suitably uprated.
2.13 Sump Design
sumps and intakes by M.J. Prosser
xxxiv
should be
referred to when designing sumps or wet wells.
Sumps should be designed to provide a uniform
steady flow of water into any pump without
creating swirl or entraining air. Unsteady flow can
lead to fluctuating loads, vibration, noise and
premature failure. Swirl can affect the flow
capacity, power and efficiency. It can also result in
local vortices that introduce air into the pump also
leading to fluctuating loads, vibration, noise and
premature failure.
Sumps should also be designed to prevent the
accumulation of sediment and surface scum.
Most sumps and wet wells at standard pumping
stations will probably be uniform in section and can
be designed to avoid turbulent flows.
For non-standard pumping stations, which may
have high flows, multiple pumps or complex
shapes, or where turbulent flows, vortices, swirl or
air entrainment are more likely to occur, modelling
For pumping stations, a physical model built to
scale can be very effective in identifying flow
problems and in some cases modelling by
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methodology
may have benefits.

Sump Volume
Pump sumps should have a minimum sump
volume calculated to ensure that in the worst flow
conditions any pump installed does not exceed the
maximum allowable starts per hour. The CIRIA
guide The hydraulic design of pump sumps and
intakes by M. J. Prosser
xxxiv
should be referred to
when designing sumps or wet wells.
The minimum sump volume is the volume between
the start and stop levels of the duty pump, and for
a single pump, the worst case occurs when the
inflow is exactly half of the pumping rate.
To calculate the minimum sump volume for a
specific pump the formula used in the above CIRIA
guide is:

Drainage Affairs

1
st
T = 4V/Qp
Equation 2.13.1
Where:
- T is the cycle time for the pump, e.g. if the
recommended maximum starts per hour for a
pump is 10, then the cycle time will be 6 minutes
(60/10 = 6).
- V is the volume of sump between the start and stop
levels in m3.
- Qp is the pumping rate in m
3
/minute.
Therefore, if Qp is 1.2m
3
/min (20l/s) and the
maximum number of starts is 10/hour, the volume
required will be:
V (m
3
) = 6 (min) x 1.2 (m
3
/min) / 4
V = 1.8m
3
For 10 starts per hour this could also be expressed
as V = 1.5 x Qp.
The sump volume when multiple pumps are installed
is calculated as for a single pump where the
minimum sump volume is the capacity between the
start and stop level for each pump. However,
additional capacity is required to allow a vertical
distance of 150mm between the start or stop levels of
consecutive pumps.

Maximum and minimum start / stop levels.
The minimum stop level should be the level at which
the pump can be stopped and restarted without
losing suction, or as specified by the pump
manufacturer.
To avoid turbulence at pumping stations, the lowest
pump stop level is usually set at the invert of the
incoming drains, the last section of which is laid to a
steep fall to avoid the surface water drains being
used as the sump.
The minimum start level should be the required
distance above the stop level to provide the minimum
sump volume.
Allowable pump starts per hour
The maximum allowable starts per hour should be
as specified by the pump or motor manufacturer.
In the absence of any specified figure the following
are suitable guidance figures:
Less than 100kW: 15 starts/hour
>100kW - <200kw: 10 starts/hour
>200kW: 8 starts/hour
Stop/start levels for single and multiple pump
operation
The start and stop levels for single pump operation
should be set within the maximum and minimum
start/stop levels defined in the previous section
provided that the minimum sump volume is
attainable.
The start level for each additional pump should be
set a suitable height above the previous pump to
prevent accidental pump starts caused by surface
waves or level sensor errors.
The stop level for each additional pump should be
set the required distance below the start level to
provide the minimum sump volume for that
particular pump. The stop level will normally be
just above the previous duty pump stop level.
The effect of flywheels should be considered in
determining stop/start levels because the flywheel
increase the pump start-up and stop times.

Pump duty level
The pump duty level for a single pump should be
the midpoint between the pump start and stop
levels. For multiple pump installations it should be
the midpoint between the top water level (last duty
pump start level) and the bottom water level (first
duty pump stop level).
Pumps should also operate within their
performance curve at both top and bottom water
levels, under single or multiple pump operation.

Drainage Affairs

1
st

2.14 Suction/Delivery
Pipework, Isolation
Pipework
Only superior materials are acceptable for use in
pumping station pipework. The pipework installation
should incorporate the following features:
Sufficient bends and flange adapters to allow
easy dismantling and removal of pumps, non-
return valves or other major items of equipment;
Each dry well pump should be installed with
suction and discharge isolation valves to permit
isolation of the pump from the wet sump and
discharge pipework for maintenance;
Each submersible pump should be installed with
a discharge isolation valve to permit isolation of
the pump from the discharge pipework for
maintenance;
Each pump should also be fitted with a non-
return valve to prevent reverse flow back
through the pump when stopped;
Valves should be positioned to permit the
removal of each pump and non-return valve
without draining either the wet sump or
discharge manifold and allow the other pumps to
continue operating normally;
Suction isolating valves for dry well pumps
should be bolted directly to a flanged pipe
securely fixed through the sump wall;
Discharge isolation valves should be bolted
directly to a flange on the discharge pipe or
manifold;
Discharge non-return valves should be bolted
directly to the discharge isolation valve, they
should be installed in horizontal pipework with a
short length of pipe and a flange adapter on the
pump side to allow dismantling;
Where the pump delivery pipework joins the
pumping station discharge manifold, the entry
should be horizontal;
At the opposite end of the pumping station
discharge manifold, a valved connection back to
the sump should be provided for draining the
discharge pipework, or for flushing the sump;
Consideration should be given to providing an
isolating valve on the pumping main before it
leaves the pumping station/chamber and before
any over pumping connection to allow the
pumping station to be fully isolated and the fixed
pipework drained for repair;
All flexible couplings should be restrained on
both sides by securely fixed equipment, thrust
blocks or tie straps across the coupling to
prevent displacement of the coupling under
pressure.
Valves
Valves should incorporate the following features:
Isolation valves should be of the double-
flanged wedge-gate type with a bolt-on
bonnet. When fully open, the gate should be
withdrawn completely from the flow. The
valve should have an outside screw rising
stem and the handwheel direction of
operation should be clockwise to close.
Station valves should have metal seats;
Valves greater than 350mm diameter should
be fitted with actuators. Where installed in
chambers, they could be fitted with non-rising
stems to limit the headroom required;
Reflux valves should be of the double
flanged, quick action, single door type,
designed to minimise slam on closure by
means of heavy doors weighted as
necessary. The door hinge pin/shaft should
extend through the side of the body and be
fitted with an external lever to permit back
flushing;
Reflux valves should be provided with covers
for cleaning and maintenance without the
need to remove the valve from the pipeline.
The covers should be large enough so that
the flap can be removed and the valve can be
cleaned;
The non-return valves should have proximity
switches to prevent dry running and allow a
change of duty (standby on high level will
then start);
All reflux valves should be installed in the
horizontal plane;
Butterfly valves may be used if there is
insufficient space for a standard gate valve,
but their use should be avoided if possible for
pump isolation purposes.
2.15 Pumping System
Characteristics
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH), vibration,
cavitation and noise are characteristics that must
be considered in pump station design.

Drainage Affairs

1
st
NPSH is used to check an installation for the risk of
cavitation.
NPSH required is the minimum total pressure head
required in a pump at a particular flow/head duty. It is
normally shown as a curve on the pump performance
sheet. NPSH available is calculated as:
NPSH = Pa Vp + Hs Fs
Equation 2.15.1
Where:
Pa = atmospheric pressure at liquid free surface
Vp = vapour pressure of liquid
Hs = height of supply liquid free surface above eye of
pump impeller
Fs = suction entry and friction losses
Ref to Fig 2.15.1
Cavitation is the formation and collapse of vapour
bubbles in a liquid. Vapour bubbles are formed when
the static pressure at a point within a liquid falls
below the pressure at which the liquid will vaporise.
When the bubbles are subjected to a higher pressure
they collapse, causing local shock waves. If this
happens near a surface, erosion can occur.
Cavitation will typically occur in the impeller of a
centrifugal pump where it can cause noise and
vibration as well as affecting the pump efficiency. If
allowed to persist, it can lead to damage to the pump,
or even breaking away of foundations.
Pump duty point
Each pump has a performance curve where the flow
is plotted against head. Each pipework system has a
friction curve where the friction head is plotted
against flow. The system curve is obtained by adding
the static head to the friction losses and plotting the
total head against the flow.
In order to avoid cavitation, the NPSH available
should be at least 1m greater than the NPSH
required by the selected pump at all operating
conditions.
When calculating NPSH available, absolute values
for atmospheric and liquid vapour pressures are
used.
The pump duty point is where the pump
performance curve and the system curve cross. It
shows the flow that a particular pump will deliver
through the pipework system at a particular total
head at the pump duty level. In multiple-pump
installations it is essential that the operating
conditions of a single pump running are carefully
checked to ensure that the pump will operate at
maximum and minimum static heads satisfactorily
and without risk of cavitation.
The duty point should be used when considering
the suitability of alternative pumps for a particular
duty by comparing the efficiency and power
requirements for each pump at the duty point.

Drainage Affairs

1
st

a = Flow Pump A
b = Flow Pump B
a + b = Total Flow
Figure 2.15.1 Characteristic Curve for Multiple Pumps

Head
(m)
Flow
Pump
Performance Curve (s )

Drainage Affairs

1
st
2.16 Pump Pumps and Over-
pumping Facilities
Sump pumps should be provided for all dry wells and
wet wells at pumping stations. For dry wells they should
be used to remove any water that may collect at low
level. For wet wells they should be used to empty the
wet well prior to man entry.
Over-pumping facilities should be provided where there
is a single sump and access may be required for
maintenance/repairs of pumps/screens/etc. A suction
chamber should be provided before the pumping station
with a penstock to isolate all flows into the pump sump.
A connection into the pumping main should be provided
for the over-pumping discharge. Consideration should
be given to providing an isolating valve on the pumping
main before the over pumping connection to allow the
pumping station to be fully isolated and the fixed
pipework drained for repair.
Sump Pump Installations
Sump pumps should incorporate the following features:
Sump pumps should discharge to the wet well
above the water level to prevent siphoning;
Discharge pipes should be fitted with a non-return
valve and isolating valve in an easily accessible
position;
The sump pump should be fitted with a discharge
connection and guide rail to allow the pump to be
easily removed from the sump for cleaning or
unblocking;
Where a temporary sump pump is to be used a
power supply point and discharge connection
should be provided. Both should be located at high
level in the dry well and easily accessible from the
access walkways.
Sump pumps should be installed in a sump of sufficient
dimensions for the proposed pump and allow a suitable
level controller to operate within the sump, the minimum
depth should be 500mm.
The sump pumps should be sized for the possible
leakage of glands and seals. A guide should be 0.5l/s
for each leakage point, with a minimum of 5l/s. An
assessment should also be made of any possible inflow
from outside the dry well (i.e. rain and flooding).
2.17 Power Calculations
including Standby
Generation
2.17.1 Introduction
A standby power generator set is not required in every
case but is necessary in applications where the loss of
the power supply could result in flooding of sensitive
areas. In less sensitive areas plug in facilities for a
mobile generator may be sufficient. The generator set
configuration and sizing will vary from one application to
another dependent on the load type, operation
characteristics, site condition, and application
requirements.
The sizing and selection of the generator set should
take into consideration the aspects raised in the
following sub-sections.
2.17.2 Load Type
In some applications, the total connected load in the
pumping station will need to be powered from the
generator set in case of power failure, while in other
locations only the essential load will need to be kept
running (partial loads). The designer should consider
the requirements according to the site characteristics
and the proposed application to size the required
generator set. The following points are to be
investigated at the initial stage to select the type of
generator that is required:
Voltage level according to load voltage level (415v,
3.3kv, 6.6kv, 11kv);
Total generator connected load;
Individual load characteristics such as kilowatt
rating, maximum allowable voltage dip by the motor
manufacturer, starting method, sequence of
operation;
Load type - inductive or capacitive;
Load profile.
2.17.3 Site condition
The site condition should also be examined and the
following data collected and submitted to the generator
set manufacturer to be considered in the sizing process:
ambient temperature;

Drainage Affairs


elevation above sea level;
humidity;
wind direction and dust contamination in air;
nearby residential areas for sound level
consideration.
2.17.4 Generator set
operation and control
The generator set operation and control varies from
application to application depending on the following
points:
Number of units to be controlled;
Manual or automatic synchronisation;
Manual or automatic start-up;
Manual or automatic changeover switch between
main local authority incomer and main generator
set incomer (control panel outgoing feeder).
2.17.5 Type of installation
Standby generator may be eather Portable or
Permanent
Depending on the size of the pumping station.
Where a portable generator is provided plug in facilities
must be provided at the central panel.
For permanent standby generator the installation can
be categorised in the following ways:
Building installation: The unit will be installed inside
a building suitable to accommodate all the units
and their ancillaries. This type of installation is
recommended in large or major pumping stations,
or treatment plants;
Weatherproof enclosure: The unit is mounted
inside a weatherproof enclosure on a trailer
suitable for transportation between different sites;
Soundproof enclosure: The unit is installed inside a
soundproof enclosure, mounted on a trailer suitable
for transportation and operation in residential
areas;
Skid mounted unit: For temporary site work (e.g.
construction site).
2.17.6 Type of control panel
The control panel can be unit-mounted on the generator
set unit, or remotely mounted inside the control room.
The control panel is used to operate and monitor the
unit in case of power failure. The panels come with
many options depending on the type of operation
required, and the mode of operation e.g. one unit, two
units, automatic start, or manual start.
2.17.7 Ventilation system
Unit ventilation and the cooling system is critical to the
overall system performance and capability. The
ventilation system is required to keep the surrounding
atmosphere temperature as per the specified ambient
temperature, to avoid any temperature rise due to heat
generation from the engine. The ventilation system
should be by means of forcing air out of the room using
a fan installed at a level above the highest point of the
generator e.g. roof-mounted or wall-mounted. The air
will be delivered through air louvers mounted at the
lowest permissible level to avoid sand ingress from the
surrounding area, and at the same time to guarantee
airflow across the generator set body.
In addition to the room ventilation, the generator should
have an engine-driven fan. This will draw air through
sand trap louvers in the wall and over the
alternator/engine, discharging the air through a set-
mounted radiator and wall-mounted outlet louvers.
2.17.8 Fuel system
The fuel system usually consists of a main storage tank,
daily fuel tank, fuel transfer system, and fuel line
between tanks and the generator set.
Main storage tank. This will be required in
applications where the fuel consumption at site is
very high due to a large number of units installed,
or due to the difficulty in providing daily supply of
fuel to the site. In that case, the storage facility of
the main storage tank should be sufficient for three
days consumption. The bulk tanks should normally
be mounted partially below ground level within
bunds to enable the day tank to empty under
gravity back to the bulk tank in the event of a fire;
Daily fuel tank. The daily fuel tank should be
suitable for eight hours full load operation, and

Drainage Affairs

1
st
normally mounted on a stand beside the generator
set to enable gravity feed to the engine;
The fuel transfer system. A fuel transfer system is
required between the main tank and daily tank to
keep the daily tank full and ready for operation. The
tank level should never fall below a minimum level.
The system consists of transfer pumps, level
sensor, control panel, valves (solenoid valves,
actuated valves, hand operated valves) and flow
meter to monitor the units consumption, as well as
the delivery supply to the main tanks;
A thermal cut-off link must be mounted above the
engine, arranged to close both a valve on the fuel
line between the day tank and the engine, and also
a dump valve to drain the day tank back to the bulk
tank in the event of a fire.
2.17.9 Starting method
The generator starter method is usually one of the
following methods:
Air starting method. This type of starting is suitable
for large generator sets requiring a high starting
torque, especially medium and low speed engines
(750RPM, 600RPM). This usually consists of:
a) Air operated starter unit (sized by the
generator set manufacturer);
b) Air tank vessel (suitable for six starts before
refill);
c) Electrically operated air compressor unit
(capable of refilling the tank within 15
minutes);
d) Diesel operated air compressor with the
same capacity working as backup for the
electrical air compressor;
e) Air piping between air vessel and starter
unit.
Electrical starting method. This type of starter is
suitable for small loads, transportable and enclosed
units, which work at high speeds (1500 RPM). The
starting method consists of an electrically operated
starter, battery, and charging alternator. A battery
charger is required to keep the battery fully
charged and ready for operation in cases where
the unit is rarely operated. The battery type should
be maintenance free for high reliability starting;
Starting aid. Some applications require immediate
starting and load handling without any delay due to
critical load type. To get the generator set ready
for such an application the unit should be equipped
with a jacket water heater to keep the engine warm
and ready for load immediately after starting
without any delay for warming the engine before
applying the load.
2.17.10 Service facility
The generator set building should be equipped with an
overhead crane capable of lifting the heaviest part likely
to be encountered during maintenance of the generator
set. The main inlet and outlet louvers and building shall
be designed such that the complete generator set can
be installed and removed through the louver openings.
For container or enclosure units, a lifting facility should
be provided for offloading and transporting the unit. The
enclosure should be capable of having the side and roof
dismantled and removed for ease of maintenance and
parts replacement.
2.17.11 Generator set sizing
Generator sizing is best left to the
manufacturers/suppliers. Details of the loads to be
carried and applied along with the generator
performance class, e.g 10 kW building supplies + 1 x
75kW motor + 1 x 45kW motor + 1 x 90 kW motor
(largest starting load @ 675kVA), Governing
Performance Class G3 to ISO 8525 Parts 1&5. Details
of the motor starting type i.e D.O.L , star/delta, soft start
or variable speed drive should be provided.
The supplier should also be given the site conditions as
the ambient temperature will affect the engine
performance.

Drainage Affairs


2.18 Switch Gear and Control
Panels
Low voltage switchgear and control panels form the link
between the electrical load, such as; motors, lighting,
actuator valves, air conditioning equipment and the
power generation source (main authority supply,
generator set).
The design of the switchboard should take into
consideration the points discussed in the following sub-
sections.
2.18.1 Typetested and
partially type tested
assemblies (TTA and
PTTA)
According to BS EN60439-1
xxxv
the low voltage
switchgear (assembly) and its component parts shall be
made in a way that it can be safely assembled and
connected. Assure that this configuration of assembly
and its components are safely operated without any risk
to the operator or equipment. Some of the risks that can
affect the operation to be considered include:
1. Direct and indirect contact with live parts.
2. Temperature rise.
3. Electrical Arc.
4. Overload.
5. Insulation failure.
6. Mechanical failure.
To achieve a type-tested assembly (TTA) the following
performance requirements should be verified:
Temperature rise limits;
Dielectric properties;
Short circuit withstand strength (main circuit);
Effectiveness of protective circuit;
Short circuit withstand strength of the protective
circuit;
Clearance and creepage distance;
Mechanical operation test;
IP degree of protection.
The partially type-tested assemblies (PTTA) are
assemblies that contain both type-tested and non type-
tested arrangements (derived by calculation from the
type-tested arrangements compliant with tests required
for TTA).
2.18.2 Total connected load
The control panel sizing and design to cover the
demand of the total load connected, including the
standby load.
2.18.3 Short circuit level
The short circuit level calculation carried out according
to the total connected load and power source from the
local authority electricity network. The short circuit level
is one of the most important criteria in switchboard
design. Its importance arises from the need to protect
the equipment with the correct protection device,
suitable for the specific level of short circuit, so that no
damage or harm can affect the equipment or human
safety. Care must be taken in the design stage to control
the fault level. If the total connected load is too high, the
total connected load to the switchgear can be split into
two or more assemblies to reduce the fault level.
The short circuit level can be calculated according to the
following steps.
Step-1 Determine the transformer full load amperes:
I(fl) = KVAx100
0
E (l-l) x
1.732
Equation 2.18.1
Where:
I(fl) = transformer full load
KVA = transformer capacity volt ampere
E (l-l) = line to line voltage
Step-2 Find the transformer multiplier
Equatio
n 2.18.2
Multiplier = 100
%Z (T)

Drainage Affairs

1
st

Where:
Z (T) = transformer impedance
Step-3 Determine the transformer let through short
circuit current

Equa
tion 2.18.3
Where:
I s.c = transformer let through short circuit current
Table 2.18.1 shows some examples of expected and
standard fault level.
Table 2.18.1 Example of Expected and Standard
Fault Level
Short circuit level Type of application
16KA/1sec Distribution board (250
Amp)
35KA/1sec Motor Control Centre (400
Amp)
50KA/1sec OR 50
KA/3sec
Motor Control Centre (2000
Amp)
80KA/1sec OR 80KA/3sec Motor Control Centre (3000
Amp)
120KA/1sec OR
120KA/3sec
Motor Control Centre (5000
Amp)
2.18.4 Type of co-ordination
Electrical component co-ordination according to IEC 97-
4-1
xxxvi
, provides two types of protection. Manufacturers
test components such as contactors and circuit breakers
in unison to confirm what will happen under short circuit
conditions.
According to IEC 947-4-1, the co-ordination between the
electrical components can be categorised into the
following two types:
Type 1: co-ordination (personal safety only)
Type 2: co-ordination (personal/components safety)
The designer, where possible, should select type-2 co-
ordination to assure full protection of personal safety as
well as the electrical components. In the event of a short
circuit, this type of co-ordination will ensure that the
components are reusable after fault clearance. Type-1
co-ordination only guarantees personal and electrical
installation safety, and the equipment may not be able to
resume operation without repair or replacement of the
affected part.
2.18.5 Form of internal
separation
The form of separation should be according to BS
EN60439-1
xxxv
or suitable equivalent. The designer
should consider Form-4 (see Figure 2.18.1) in all
designs for high personal safety and equipment
protection.
In the case of multiple incomers and/or feeders, Form-4
should be considered for ease of maintenance without
the need for interruption to other equipment as would be
the case with Form-2.
In case of multi-incomer and outgoing starters/feeders,
Form-4 should be considered for ease of carrying out
maintenance without interruption to other equipment, in
case of isolation of certain feeders.
The Type to be used can vary between Type-3 and
Type-7 as shown in Figure 2.18.1, diagram (1and 2).
According to the project requirements or budget
limitations, Form-2, Type-2 (diagram-3, Figure 2.18.1)
should be considered in some applications, such as unit
mounted control panels (e.g. scrubber units, sludge
drying beds) where the shutdown of the unit is
mandatory to carry out maintenance on the unit.
I s.c = I (fl) x Multiplier

Drainage Affairs


Figure 2.18.1 Form and Type of Internal Separation
Form-4 type-3: Diagram-1
Cable gland
Internal
Separation
Enclosure
Terminal for
external
conductor
Bus bar
Function
unit

Form-4-Type-7: Diagram-2
Internal
Separation
Enclosure
Terminal for
external
conductor
Bus bar
Function
unit

Form 2 Type-2: Diagram-3
Internal
Separation
Enclosure
Terminal for
external
conductor
Bus bar
Function
unit
Cable gland

2.18.6 Bus Bar rating
The bus bar rating should be suitable to carry the total
connected load. As mentioned previously, consider any
future loads by increasing the size of the bus bars and
also consider the suitability of extension at both ends.
2.18.7 Type of starter
The designer should consider the following points when
choosing the starter type to be used.
Motor size
The motor size (kW) will determine if a standard starter
can be used (direct on line DOL or start delta starter
Y/D), or if a more advanced type of starter such as a
soft starter is required. The main issue to consider is the
starting current. The greater the (kW) rating, the greater
the starting current required. A high starting current has
an overall effect on the system stability and other
equipment installed. The following ratings can be
considered as general guidelines only. The designer
should apply knowledge and experience to justify the
starter method to be used.
Table 2.18.2 Guideline Starter Methods for Motor
Ratings (kW)
Motor rating KW Starting method
5kw Direct online (DOL)
5 kW 25 Star delta (Y/D)
>25kw Soft starter ( solid state drive)
(S/S)

Motor duty and application
The motor duty will vary according to its application. The
following table gives examples of such duties.
Table 2.18.3 Example Motor Duties and
Applications
Duty type Application example
Continuous run at
constant load and speed
Potable water
Short run at constant load
and speed
Sewage pumping station
Continuous run at variable
load and speed
Irrigation network
Intermittent periodic duty Injection system

Motor Application
The type of motor starter can also be selected according
to the motor application as mentioned in Table 2.18.3,
as a high number of starts per hour will cause even a
small motor to overheat. An example of a suitable
starter for each application is presented in Table 2.18.4.
Table 2.18.4 - Example Starter Methods for Duty
Types
Duty type Starter

Drainage Affairs

1
st
Continuous run at
constant load and speed
DOL, Y/D, S/S
Short run at constant load
and speed
DOL, Y/D
S/S if sufficient cooling time
between operations
Continuous run at variable
load and speed
VSD
Intermittent periodic duty D.C starter, DOL
Notes: DOL: direct online, Y/D: star/delta , s/S: soft
starter, VSD: variable speed drive.
Voltage level
Starter type can be varied according to the voltage level.
In the medium voltage range (e.g. 3.3kv) the starting
current will be very low when compared with a lower
voltage (e.g. 415v). In this case, the use of a direct
contact starter would be acceptable.
Cost considerations
The cost of the starter should also be considered when
compared to the motor size and application. As an
example, a soft starter could be used to reduce the
starting current for a 10kW motor. Taking into account
the cost of the soft starter and comparing it to the cost of
the motor, the starter could cost more than the motor
however.
Star delta starters can for most applications be
considered more economically viable than a soft starter,
therefore balance the motor cost against soft starter
cost.
2.18.8 Protection device
The designer should categorise all loads connected to
the switchgear according to critical status in the process
and effect on operator safety. Table 2.18.5 provides
examples.

Table 2.18.5 Examples of Protection Required for
Load Types
Load type
Type of
protection
Protective device
Main incomer
feeder
(local
authority/
generator set)
Overload, short
circuit, restricted
earth fault,
phase losses,
phase reveres.
Main MCCB or ACB

Pump, grinder
Overload, short
circuit, earth
leakage, phase
losses, phase
reveres, under
voltage, motor
stall, winding
temperature.
1- conventional
protection device
(OLR), MCCB
2- Electronic
protection devices
3- motor manager
protection unit
Valve actuator
Overload, short
circuit, earth
leakage.
Conventional
protection device
(OLR), ELCB
Instrument
(level/ flow/
pressure)
Overload, short
circuit, earth
leakage
Conventional
protection device
(OLR), ELCB
Building
services
(lighting/
sockets)
Overload, short
circuit, earth
leakage, phase
losses , phase
reverses.
Conventional
protection device
MCB, ELCB,
Fuses,
Note: ELCB = Earth leakage circuit breaker
OLR = Over load relay
MCCB = Moulded case circuit breaker
ACB = Air circuit breaker
Type of protection
1. Short circuit protection:
This type of protection is required to protect the
equipment against short circuit (with three phase,
two phase or single phase), which can occur due
to: insulation failure or damage, or by an incorrect
switching operation. Short circuits are associated
with electrical arcs and can therefore pose a fire
risk.
2. Overload protection:
equipment against overload current which is due to
operational over current present for an excessive
period of time. This over current will raise the motor

Drainage Affairs


winding or cable temperature above the
permissible level and shorten the service life of the
insulation. The task of overload protection is to
allow normal operational overload current to flow,
but to interrupt these currents before the
permissible loading period is exceeded.
3. Under/over voltage protection:
equipment against over/under voltage which is
present due to main power supply instability (e.g.
transformer tap changing/load fluctuating) or
unstable supply from a standby generator (due to
large load connected, faulty governor or voltage
regulator). Operation with an under-voltage
condition will draw more current from the supply,
this over current will raise the motor winding or
cable temperatures above the permissible level
and shorten the service life of the insulation. The
same will be the case with over-voltage which will
effect the insulation of the motor or cable leading to
insulation failure. This type of protection can be
applied at the main incomers of the switchgear by a
special relay to sense the voltage supply and trip
the main incomers if the set limits are exceeded.
4. Phase losses/phase reversal protection:
equipment against phase loss from the main
supply, or phase reversal which can happen in the
event of main supply reconnection or reconnection
of the motor after maintenance. Operation with
phase loss will raise the motor winding temperature
due to an unbalanced current in the motor winding.
In the case of phase reversal, the motor direction
will be reversed, which will result in equipment
damage or faulty operation (pump vibration, high
sound levels etc). This type of protection can be
applied at the main incomers of the switchgear or
motor feeder by a special relay to sense the phase
status (direction/availability) and trip the main
incomers/feeder when a fault occurs.
5. Earth leakage protection:
This type of protection is required to: protect the
equipment and personnel in the event of indirect
contact; give additional protection in the event of
single phase direct contact; earth fault protection;
and protection against fires resulting from earth
fault leakage current.
This type of protection can be applied at the
switchgear outgoing feeders (motor / distribution
board) by a special relay which senses the earth
leakage current through a summation current
transformer, the unbalanced current from the
transformer will release a mechanism that will trip
the breaker when a fault occurs.
6. Motor protection relay (electronic relay):
This type of protection is used to protect the motor
against many faults that can affect the motor
operation and safety. The actual protection type
can be varied according to the motor application
(critical/normal) and size (cost). The following types
of protection can be achieved by a motor protection
relay:
Over / under current;
Phase loss/ unbalance/reversal;
Ground fault;
Locked rotor;
Motor stall.
This type of protection can be applied at the motor
terminals. The fault signal from the relay will
release a mechanism that will trip the breaker when
a fault occurs. Fault indication will usually be
displayed on a LCD screen or by indication LEDs.
2.18.9 Interlocking facility
An interlocking facility is required where more than one
incomer is used in the switchgear required. Some
examples are as follows:
Supply from two transformers/local authority supply;
Supply from two incomers - one from
transformer/local authority supply, and one from
standby generator(s) panel;
Supply from three incomers - two from
transformers/local authority supply, and one from
standby generator(s) panel.
The interlock facility should guarantee the safety of
operation by not allowing under any condition the
connection of two different incomers to the same bus
bar section (transformer/transformer) or (transformer
/generator) or main bus bars with the bus coupler
closed.

Drainage Affairs

1
st
2.18.10 Accessibility
The panel access for cable termination and
maintenance can be arranged in the following format:
Front access (suitable for installation area with
limited space at the back of the MCC);
Back access (suitable for installation area with
available space at the back of the MCC, minimum
one metre);
Front/back access.
2.18.11 Cable entry
Cable entry to the MCC can be arranged in the following
format:
Bottom entry (suitable for MCC fixed at the top of
cable/MCC trench);
Top entry (suitable for MCC with cables such as
feeders and incomers installed at ground level or
above the MCC top level). Top entry panels are not
preferred and should only be used in special
circumstances.
Cables should be sized and installed in accordance with
the IEE (Electrical Wiring) Regulations and QGEWC
Regulations, and de-rated in accordance with the
Electrical Research Association Report No. 69-30
xxxvii
.
Instrument, alarm, and control cables should be
segregated from power cables.
The designer should consider the following when
selecting cable routes:
Number, size and function of cables;
Access for installation and maintenance;
Interface with other equipment, e.g. cable routes
should not prevent other equipment being removed
for maintenance;
Risk of mechanical damage;
Means of support;
Effect of installation method on de-rating factors;
Hazardous area classification.
2.19 PLCs SCADA/Telemetry
2.19.1 PLC
PLC stands for Programmable Logic Controller. The
PLC is a microprocessor-based device which is
programmed to perform certain controlling tasks. The
PLC is the brain of the overall process. It can receive
analogue and digital signals from the process devices,
analyse them and send digital and analogue signals to
control these devices or activate certain alarms.
PLCs were originally used for controlling purposes.
Almost all PLCs are now equipped with signal
transmitters (i.e. include some RTU features) that are
capable of transmitting data to the network operation
centre.
A redundant PLC system with hot standby configuration
is highly recommended for critical applications where
uninterrupted control is required. The power supply for
the PLC system is usually 24Vdc or 110Vac. In case of
power failure, the equipment should be backed up by a
UPS system, which can supply the PLC with up to eight
hours of power depending on the importance of the
process.
The modular type CPU (Central Processing Unit) in the
PLC is capable of: solving application logic; storing the
application program; storing numerical values related to
the application processes and logic; and interfacing to
the I/O systems.
The PLC carries out PID control, which is a significant
task. PID (Proportional-Integral-Derivative) control
action allows the process control to accurately maintain
a setpoint by adjusting the control outputs. For example,
pump flowrate setpoint is maintained by the following:
Proportioning Band: is the area around the setpoint
where the controller is actually controlling the
process. The output is at some level other than
100% or 0%. The band is generally centred around
the setpoint (on single output controls), causing the
output to be at 50% when the setpoint and the flow
rate are equal;
Automatic Reset (Integral): corrects for any offset
(between setpoint and process variable)
automatically over time by shifting the proportioning
band. Reset redefines the output requirements at
the setpoint until the process variable (flowrate)
and the setpoint are equal;
Rate (Derivative): shifts the proportioning band on
a slope change of the process variable. Rate, in
effect applies the brakes in an attempt to prevent
overshoot (or undershoot) on process upsets or
start-up. Unlike Reset, Rate operates anywhere
within the range of the instrument. Rate usually has
an adjustable time constant and should be set
much shorter than reset. The larger the time
constant, the more effect Rate will have;

Drainage Affairs


Modulated Simplex I/O system: is the preferred
solution for safe process since the duplex
(redundant) I/O system is usually expensive, and
the modulated simplex I/O configuration
guarantees that any failure of a single I/O card will
not cause the relevant I/O rack to fail. For instance,
if a rack contains three I/O cards, which controls
three pumps (two duty, one standby), the failure of
one card will cause the whole pumping process to
fail. In Modulated Simplex I/O systems however, it
will cause the failure of one pump, which will be
classed as the standby pump, and the other two
pumps will continue run normally.
2.19.2 RTU
RTU stands for Remote Telemetry Unit. This unit
delivers remote information back to network operation
centres. Operations staff can access remote sites that
have RTUs, via a web browser, SNMP (Simple Network
Management Protocol) Manager, and XML (Extensible
Markup Language). If an ethernet connection is not
available, then the RTU's may be accessed via PSTN
(Public Switched Telephone Network), normal dialup
and even SMS (Short Message Service) messaging.
Earlier generation RTUs were hardwired and supported
limited functionalitys such as data transfer and
alarming. The new generation RTUs are equipped with
powerful processors that allow the RTU to control
certain instruments and devices, and to receive/transmit
analogue and digital I/O (input/output) signals.
The microprocessor based RTU have a proven track
record within the water and wastewater industry, a
robust modular construction, and are constructed for
ease of maintenance and repair. These are intelligent
devices, capable of handling data collection, logging,
report by exception, data retrieval and pump sequence
control programs.
RTUs equipped with RS232/485 links are
recommended for interconnection to standalone control
systems, standard equipment packages and PLCs
(Programmable Logic Controller). A dedicated serial port
should be provided for connecting a hand-held
programming unit or PC.
The RTU software enables the RTU to process local
input equipment information, before transmitting it to the
master station to reduce transmission overheads. A
report by exception operation is necessary for cost
effective communication. The report is triggered by
change of state of digital values, analogues reaching
threshold values or varying by specified amounts. The
RTU also reports when polled, and when the memory
buffer is full.
2.19.3 SCADA and Telemetry
Systems
Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) is
an industrial measurement and control system
consisting of a central host or master (usually called a
master station, master terminal unit or MTU); one or
more field data gathering and control units or remotes
(RTUs); and a collection of standard and/or custom
software used to monitor and control remotely located
field data elements. Contemporary SCADA systems
exhibit predominantly open-loop control characteristics
and utilise predominantly long distance communications,
although some elements of closed-loop control and/or
short distance communications may also be present.
Systems similar to SCADA systems are routinely seen
in factories and treatment plants. These are often
referred to as Distributed Control Systems (DCS). They
have similar functions to SCADA systems, but the field
data gathering or control units are usually located within
a more confined area. Communications may be via a
local area network (LAN), and will normally be reliable
and high speed. A DCS system usually employs
significant amounts of closed loop control.
SCADA systems on the other hand generally cover
larger geographic areas, and rely on a variety of
communication systems that are normally less reliable
than a LAN. Closed loop control in this situation is less
desirable.
The main use of SCADA is to monitor and control plant
or equipment. The control may be automatic, or initiated
by operator commands. The data acquisition is
accomplished by the RTU's scanning the field inputs
connected to the RTU (it may be also called a PLC -
programmable logic controller). This is usually at a fast
rate. The central host will scan the RTU's (usually at a
slower rate). The data is processed to detect alarm
conditions, and if an alarm is present, it will be displayed
on special alarm lists.
Data can be of three main types:
Analogue data (i.e. real numbers) will be trended
(i.e. placed in graphs);
Digital data (on/off) may have alarms attached to
one state or the other;

Drainage Affairs

1
st
Pulse data (e.g. counting revolutions of a meter) is
normally accumulated or counted.
The trending function can be a powerful diagnostic tool
for use by the operators or maintenance personnel. The
data stored and archived can be viewed over any period
of historic time, which allows fault patterns, which would
otherwise go unnoticed to be detected. For stormwater
stations the data can be analysed to determine how the
station coped with storms. Based on this data,
modifications can be made to the operation of the
station to improve its response during such incidents.
The primary interface to the operator is a graphical
display (mimic) which shows a representation of the
plant or equipment in graphical form. Live data is shown
as graphical shapes (foreground) over a static
background. As the data changes in the field, the
foreground is updated, e.g. a valve may be shown as
open or closed. Analogue data can be shown either as a
number, or graphically. The system may have many
such displays, and the operator can select from the
relevant ones at any time.
A further function of the SCADA system is the
production of maintenance data and management
reports. For example, SCADA systems can be easily
configured to produce maintenance requests for
equipment that has run a set number of hours, or if its
performance has been declining over time. If a
standalone maintenance system is already in place,
SCADA systems can feed information directly to the
maintenance software.
For managers, SCADA systems can produce detailed
reports on subjects such as power or chemical usage.
Combined with the trending facility that is also inherent
within SCADA, and by inputting cost data, it can
produce cost forecasts for a wide range of process
consumables.
2.20 Lighting
The designer should follow the guidelines and
information given below to design a proper lighting
system. The British standards specified within and the
CIBSE lighting guide
xxxviii
should be considered during
the design.
2.20.1 Light Fitting Selection
Criteria
Light fittings are selected according to the following
criteria and application.
2.20.2 Installation Location
The location of the light fittings to be designed has a
large affect on the type of luminiare to be specified.
Generally, the following categories can be considered:
1. Internal Lighting
Internal lighting fittings are required in places such as:
a. Motor control centre rooms (MCC);
b. Control and SCADA monitoring rooms;
c. Substation (11kv & transformer);
d. Pump rooms;
e. Off-loading bay & walk ways;
f. Kitchen and toilets;
g. Administration offices;
h. Machinery rooms (compressor, generator,
chemical storage, and chemical dosing system
room).
2. External lighting
a. Building (external wall mounted fittings);
b. Internal road lighting (inside station boundary);
c. Water storage tank lighting;
d. External installed machinery (settlement tanks, inlet
works aeration tanks);
e. Pump wet wells and screen chambers.
2.20.3 Environmental
Conditions
In many industrial applications the environmental
condition is hostile or hazardous as explained below.
1) Hostile conditions - damage to light fittings can
occur due to:
a. High ambient temperatures;
b. Windy and vibrating environments;
c. Corrosive atmosphere (hydrogen sulphide
gases, high humidity);

Drainage Affairs


d. Wet atmosphere (water ingress);
e. Dusty atmosphere.
2) Hazardous conditions - The operation of light
fittings in certain environments can cause fire or
explosion due to gas generation or fumes
(methane, etc).
A risk assessment on the source of ignition and type of
explosive atmospheres should be carried out using the
methodology suggested in BS EN 1127-1
xxxix
for all
potentially hazardous areas such as screen chambers
and wet wells.
2.20.3.1 Luminance Level Required
(Lux)
The luminance level required varies from one area or
application to another. The luminance level should
generally be in accordance with the CIBSE lighting
guide
xxxviii
. The relevant levels are replicated below for
convenience in Table 2.20.1.
Table 2.20.1 Luminescence Levels for Various
Service Areas
Service area Luminance level
(lux)
Internal area (inside building)
Motor control centre room 300
Control / SCADA room 500
11kv switchgear room 300
Transformer bay 150-200
Kitchen 150
Toilets 150
Store 200
Offloading bay / walkway 100-150
Pump house 150-200
Cable gallery 150-200
Administration offices 300
Machinery room 150-200
External area (Inside station boundary)
Internal Road lighting 50- 100
Tank area 50
Building (external wall and door
entrance)
70
External installed machinery 100

2.20.4 Type of Light Fitting
Light fitting types that can be used in different locations
can be categorised as follows.
1. Fluorescent fitting - The fluorescent fitting is a
combination of lamps and luminaries. The fittings are
available with different lamp sizes (18w, 36w, 58w),
arrangements (3x18w, 4x18w, 2x36w, 2x58w) and
installation type (surface mounted, recessed mounted).
This type of fitting is ideally suited to internal installation
use. It can be used in most locations with some changes
in the body material, IP rating and lamp wattages.
2. Flood lights - Flood lights are used mainly for
external building area lighting such as tank areas, and
machinery areas (grit removal, settling tank, aeration
tanks etc). The lighting installation can be wall mounted
on external buildings or post mounted in working
machinery areas, or ground level mounted and directed
to the tank walls in case of tank area lighting. The
fittings should be a minimum of IP65; and the body
should be suitable for the environment of the application
(corrosion resistant, UV protected).
3. High bay lights - High bay lighting should be
used in pump rooms when the bay heights are above six
meters. The high bay lamps can provide lighting for
maintenance purposes, in the case of regular
inspections and access to the pump house. Side
mounted (4-meter height) fluorescent fittings can be
used due to the extended start-up time of high bay
lamps.
4. Emergency lights - Emergency lights are
used in case normal lighting fails or the power supply
fails. They give light in emergency situations such as a
fire, to provide escape-route sign lighting and
emergency-exit sign lighting as per BS 5266
xl
. The type
and installation of emergency lighting should consider
the following points:
Escape route signs shall be mounted above
building exit doors at 2-2.5m above floor level;

Drainage Affairs

1
st
Escape route lighting such as Corridors,
gangway and stairs shall have a horizontal
luminance on the floor (centreline of escape
route) of not less than 0.2lux;
Emergency lighting in large open areas such
as open plan offices should have an average
horizontal luminance for escape purposes of
not less than 1.0lux;
Emergency lighting in Motor control centre
rooms and operator control rooms (SCADA)
should have an average horizontal luminance
not less than 2.0lux.
Emergency light system
There are two types of emergency light system:
a. Self-contained
b. Centrally powered
Luminaire mode of operation
There are two modes of operation as follows:
Maintained: lamp used as normal when the
building is occupied. The power supply is from
the normal source directly or indirectly;
Non-maintained: lamp off as long as the
normal power supply is available. The lamp
will energise from the emergency power
supply automatically in the event of normal
power failure.
Types of emergency lighting
The following types of emergency lighting luminaire
are commonly used:
Self-contained separate luminaire
(maintained/non-maintained);
Normal luminaires modified to contain a
battery pack and conversion unit
(maintained);
Normal luminaires fed from a central battery
system with conversion unit (maintained);
Normal luminaires with a separate lamp for
use with a battery pack, invertors,
rechargeable unit (non-maintained);
Normal luminaires with a separate lamp for
emergency use, fed from a central battery
system (non-maintained)/(sustained
luminaire);
Normal luminaires fed from a central power
source (maintained/ non-maintained).
5. Roadway lighting -The design of roadway
lighting should be according to BS 5489-1xli. For lighting
required for pumping station roads, the selection of the
suitable light fittings, post heights and post spacing will
be according to the level of lux required. The light fitting
body and canopy material should be suitable for the
installation location and environmental conditions.
Usually, three types of lamp are commonly used. These
are; high-pressure sodium, metal halide, and high-
pressure mercury. The installation of the fitting on the
column can be on the post top, bracket or side entry.
6. Bulk head - Bulk head light fittings are used
at the entrance of the pumping station building (located
on top of the door or at the side) as well as in substation
entrance doors and gates. The fitting can be suitable for
indoor or outdoor installation and should be IP65 with
either a high pressure sodium or incandescent lamp
type).
7. Lighting design calculation - The following
formula is used to check the level of lux provided and
adjust the number of fittings to be used. Professional
software can be used for increased accuracy and speed
of design. The following guide is given as an aid for the
experienced lighting engineer and not as a learning
guide for the novice engineer. The information required
to populate the formulae can be found in manufacturers
literature.
Internal Lighting (Lumen Method) Formula:

Es = F x n x N x UF x MF
A
Equation 2.20.1

Es = Average illuminance (lux) of the plane
F = Initial bare lamp lumens flux (lumens)
n = Number of lamps per luminaire
N = Number of luminairies
UF = Utilizsation factor
MF = Maintenance factor
A = Area (m2)
Calculation procedure
Calculate the room index (K), floor cavity index (CIf) and
ceiling cavity index (CFc).

Drainage Affairs


(K) = (LxW)/(L+W)hm
Equation 2.20.2

(CIf) OR (CFc) = L x W/(L+W)h
Equation 2.20.3
Where:
L = room length
W = room width
Hm = height of the luminaire plane above the
horizontal reference plane
H = depth of the cavity
Calculate the effective reflectance (REx) of the ceiling,
wall and floor cavity (from tables using above calculated
(Cif).
Determine the utilisation factor value (UF) using
luminaire manufacturer data sheets; room index and
effective reflectance (apply any correction factors).
Determine the maintenance factor (MF):
MF = LLMF x LSF x LMF x RSMF
Equation 2.20.4
Where:
LLMF = lamp lumen maintenance factor
LSF = lamp survival factor
LMF = luminaire maintenance factor
RSMF = room surface maintenance factor
Thus, the lighting design is determined as follows:
Using the lumen method formula, calculate the
number of luminairies required (N);
Determine the suitable layout;
Check if the (spacing / height) ratio of the layout is
within the range according to UF;
Check that if the proposed layout is does not
exceeding the maximum ratio limit;
Calculate the luminance that will be achieved by
the final layout.

External and Roadway Lighting Calculation
The calculation for roadways can be carried according
to BS 5489-3
xli
. Caution must be taken in lamp post
foundation design to ensure that the wind effect on the
post is fully considered.
The flood light calculation can be carried out using the
same formula applied for internal lighting calculation
with slight modification:
E = N x L x BF x WLFxMF
A
Equation 2.20.4
Where:
E = Illuminance required (lux)
L = Lamp output per lumens (lm)
BF = Beam factor number of lamps per luminaire
N = Number of luminaries
WLF = waste light factor (usually considered as
0.9)
MF = maintenance factor
A = area to be lighted (m2)
Light control: The control of the lighting system can be
provided by the following means to control the operation of
different lighting systems within the pumping station:
One-way light switches can be used for controlling
a lighting system in an area with a single access,
for example at the main access door to the station;
Two-way light switches can be used for controlling
a lighting system in an area with multiple access
and egress points;
The automatic control of external lighting systems
can be achieved by two main methods:
a) Photocell controller for automatic dusk till
dawn control;
b) Time clock operation for full control of when
external lights are in operation.
2.21 Maintenance Access
Safe access should be provided to all equipment and
local control panels at all times.
Access walkways, platforms and stairs should be
designed so that no dismantling is required for normal
routine maintenance. Vertical access should be by
staircase so that tools and equipment can be carried in

Drainage Affairs

1
st
and out safely. Ladder access should be restricted to
infrequent visual inspection points.
Access around equipment for operation should be
installed at a level where all the controls can be reached
and operated easily without excessive stretching or
bending and where all indicators can be seen.
Access around equipment for maintenance and repair
should be installed at a level where all the maintenance
points can be reached, dismantled and removed without
excessive stretching or bending. Particular attention
should be paid to lifting gear access and operation
where heavy equipment is involved.
Access below ground to dry wells should be by staircase
so that tools and equipment can be carried in and out
safely.
Permanent access to wet wells and screen chambers
should be provided, using stainless steel or GRP to just
above TWL to allow for cleaning. The access
arrangements should be designed such that an operator
could be rescued from the sump with a safety harness
and man-winch.
When designing access to equipment, careful thought
should be given to shipping routes for removing
equipment to a suitable position for further work, or for
removing from the pumping station completely. Exit
routes for equipment should not be the same as for
personnel access unless there is an alternative escape
route.
When the lifting gear has taken the weight of equipment
and the equipment is released from its position, the
clearance in the shipping route should be large enough
for the equipment to pass through without
rearrangement.
2.22 Gantry Cranes and Lifting
Facilities
Permanent or temporary lifting facilities should be
provided for equipment that can not be easily lifted.
Consideration should be given to the weight, shape and
position of the item to be lifted. As a guide lifting facilities
should be provided for anything over 25kg.
For long or heavy lifts, gantry cranes should be powered
in all motions. Trolley cranes should generally be power
lift with manual motion, but small units should be manual
on all motions.
Access must be provided to permanent lifting
equipment, particularly gantry cranes, for maintenance
as generally described in section 2.21.
The following types of lifting equipment are available:
Lifting Eye and Chain Block. Suitable for single
straight lifts only inside a building or dry well. Not
suitable for side forces, but may be used in
conjunction with other suitable lifting eyes to swing
a load sideways;
Davit, Socket and Chain Block. Suitable for most
small single lifts i.e. submersible pumps up to
250kg. Above this, the davit becomes too heavy to
be manhandled;
Runway Beam, Trolley and Chain Block.
Suitable when there are a number of loads in a
straight line, or where a single load must be moved
sideways. For heavy loads or long lifts, the chain
block and trolley should be electrically powered;
Overhead Gantry Crane. Suitable for installations
where there are dispersed or heavy loads that must
be moved in all directions;
Mobile Crane. Suitable for single heavy loads
outdoors which must be moved in all directions i.e.
large submersible pumps.
Submersible pumps should be fitted with stainless steel
chains, with change-over rings every 1.0m, and the
lifting equipment should be fitted with a change-over
sling.
Location of lifting equipment
Lifting equipment should be provided adjacent to all
heavy items that require lifting;
Lifting equipment should be positioned to provide a
straight lift of the load and also be able to lower the
load directly to a suitable setting down position;
Where lifting through openings in floors, the lifting
gear should be positioned to allow a direct single
lift up through all floors without moving the lifting
point or rearranging the load.
Controls for Lifting Equipment
Overhead electric cranes and chain blocks should
be provided with a low voltage pendant control
suspended from a glide track, independent of the
lifting block. The pendant control should extend to
within 500mm of the operating floor, but not touch
the floor;
Electric chain blocks should be provided with a low
voltage pendant control suspended from the block.
The pendant control should extend to within

Drainage Affairs


500mm of the operating floor but not touch the
floor;
Hand operating chains should extend to within
500mm of the operating floor but not touch the
floor;
Long travel drive chains should be located to avoid
snagging, and allow the operator safe passage;
With the load hook in its highest position, if a load
chain touches the operating floor or any item of
plant, a chain collection box should be fitted.
2.23 Ventilation, Odour Control
and Air Conditioning
2.23.1 Ventilation
Ventilation of pumping stations is required to prevent the
accumulation of high levels of potentially hazardous
chemicals, and ensure that working conditions meet
health and safety requirements. UK occupational
exposure limit (OEL) concentrations for hydrogen
sulphide and other gases associated with septic
conditions are given in section 1.6 of EH40/2002
xlii
.
Typical ventilation rates for odour containment in
pumping stations used in current operational practice in
Doha are given in Table 2.23.1.
Table 2.23.1 Typical Ventilation Rates for Odour
Control in Pumping Stations
Air changes per hour
Pumping station (no
man access)
One for local covers
12 for pumping stations
extracted from close to the
sump and process units
Pumping station working
area (current practice)
20 during man access (initiated
by light switch)
Dry wells (current
practice)
12
Separate screen
chamber
Passive ventilation through
carbon filter (where there is no
other route for odour escape)
Ventilation systems should be designed so that in the
event of a fire being detected in any area, all the air
conditioning equipment and ventilation systems are shut
down. All supply and exhaust ventilation louvers should
shut automatically to compartmentalise the buildings
and below ground chambers. This restricts the spread of
the fire and smoke, and ensures effective use of
automatic fire extinguishing systems.
Other points to consider include:
The air conditioning systems, ventilation fans and
odour control equipment should be run
simultaneously and ventilation fan louvers should
shut, when the fan stops;
Louvers should be sized to keep the air velocity
through them below 0.5m/s;
Air ducts should be designed to ensure the velocity
through them does exceed 10m/s in occupied
areas;
Materials should be selected to limit the corrosion
effects of hydrogen sulphide (H2S).
Ventilation of Pump Rooms and Dry Wells
Air supply should be provided by either two or three duty
fans and one standby fan, depending on the size of the
pump room.
Exhaust air should be removed by either two or three
duty fans and one standby fan, depending on the size of
the pump room.
The exhaust fans should have approximately 5% less
flow capacity than the air supply fans to keep the
building at a slight positive air pressure. This is to avoid
drawing unfiltered dust laden air into the pump room
which can drastically shorten the equipment life.
Pump rooms and dry wells should typically have 12 air
changes an hour for normal operation, increasing to 16
air changes an hour during man entry. The cable
basement should be ventilated as part of the pump room
ventilation system.
Ventilation of Wet Areas - Pump Sumps & Screen
Chambers)
Wet areas should normally be ventilated by air
extraction only, with a natural air supply to keep the wet
area under slightly negative pressure and avoid
releasing odours to the atmosphere.
Exhaust air should be removed by duty/standby fans,
depending on the size of the wet areas. Each fan should
have a two-speed motor.

Drainage Affairs

1
st
During man entry, the additional air supply should be
provided by the fans running at high speed.
The fans should be sized so that with all fans running at
high speed, the required air changes per hour for man
entry are achieved.
Ventilation rates should be designed to ensure a
maximum of 3ppm of H2S in the wet areas. The system
should be designed to achieve this with only one fan
operating.
Wet areas should typically have 12 air changes an hour
for normal operation, increasing to 20 air changes an
hour during man entry.
2.23.2 Odour Control
Air vented from pumping stations in most cases will not
require odour treatment. However, the risk of sewage or
contaminated surface/groundwater entering the system
should be assessed.
2.23.3 Air Conditioning
The required air conditioning systems and ventilation
capacities are shown in the tables below.
Table 2.23.2 - Air Conditioning (AC) Systems
Location Air Condition system
Electric Switch Gear Dual Split AC unit system
Control Room Split AC unit system
Table 2.23.3 - Ventilation Capacities
Location Ventilation
(l/s)
per person
Ventilation
(l/s) per
sq.m.
Approximate
air changes
per hour. *
Electric
Switchgear
Room
- 0.8 1
Control
Room
10 1.3 2
Kitchen
and Toilet
- 10 8
Note: Figures extracted from BS 5720, Table 1. *Depending
on the dimensions of the rooms.
The designer shall assess the potential for corrosion of
A/C units, particularly from H2S, and ensure that they
are appropriately designed and located.
Air Conditioning of Electrical Switch Gear Rooms
Electrical switchgear rooms should be completely
isolated from the remainder of the building for the
following reasons:
The thermal loads are higher than elsewhere in the
building;
In the event of a fire being detected the air
conditioning should be switched off to allow the fire
suppression equipment to operate effectively.
Two split AC units working independently (mechanically
and electrically) of each other should be used to air
condition the room, with air diffusers discharging
horizontally towards the panels. Return air should be
sucked back by the split unit, via receiving air diffusers
located at evenly placed points between the supply air
diffusers, and fixed to the ceiling.
Each split AC units should be rated at 50% above the
required capacity (i.e. 150% total), so that should one
unit fail, the other unit will provide 75% of the required
air conditioning capacity.
The required thermal load should be calculated on the
basis of peak conditions.
The required quantity of exhaust air should be removed
from electrical switchgear rooms to atmosphere by a fan
with an actuated louver.
Air inlet should be by natural supply through a filtered
and actuated louver.
In the event of a fire, the electrically actuated louvers
should be closed to seal electrical switchgear rooms
during the use of any fire extinguishing system.
Air Conditioning of Control Rooms, Kitchens and
Toilets
A single split AC unit should be provided for air
conditioning the control room. No air conditioning should
be provided for the kitchen or toilet.
The kitchen and toilet areas should be air conditioned by
exhausting part of the control room air through them.
Exhaust air in the kitchen and toilet areas should be
discharged outside the building. The fans should be run
continuously for the following reasons:
To provide the required air changes for the control
room and kitchen;

Drainage Affairs


To keep the toilet and kitchen area ventilated.
Air louvers should be fitted in the bottom of kitchen and
toilet doors.
2.24 Structural Design
General Design Requirements
Unless local design standards dictate otherwise, in
general, he design of concrete structures shall be in
accordance with BS 8110-1 Structural Use of
Concrete
xliii
and BS8007 Design of Concrete
Structures for Retaining Aqueous Liquids
xliv
. Likewise,
the design of steel structures shall be in accordance
with BS5950-1 Structural Use of Steelwork in
Buildings. Local standards shall govern if any conflict
arises. All structures shall be designed based on a limit-
states philosophy.
Unless required otherwise, all structures shall be
designed for a minimum service life of 60 years.
The designer shall prepare calculations for each design
package, including as a minimum the following
information:
Description of the structure and design methodology
adopted;
All assumptions made for design (i.e. geotechnical
parameters, loadings, etc);
Standards, guidelines and specifications used for
design;
Input and output from software where appropriate.
2.24.1 Substructures
2.24.2 Thermal Crack Control
Requirements
Calculation of the reinforcement requirements for control
of early-age thermal cracking shall be in accordance
with BS 8007
xliv
.
For the calculation of the likely maximum crack spacing
and the reinforcement ratio the following formula shall
be used:
( )
2 1
max
max
T T R
S
+
=

Equation 2.24.1
&
max
2
67 . 0
S
bar
bar
=

Equation 2.24.2
Were:
max = allowable crack width (0.2mm maximum)
Smax = likely crack spacing (mm)
R = restraint factor (0<R<0.5; to be taken as 0.5
for most structures)
= co-efficient of thermal expansion (varies
between 10x10
-6
/
o
C 12x10
-6
/
o
C)
T1 = fall in temperature between the hydration
peak and the ambient (
o
C)
T2 = ambient placing temperature (
o
C)
bar = reinforcement ratio (min = 0.0035)
bar = reinforcement diameter (mm)

Where the section thickness exceeds 500m, only the
outermost 250m of each face shall be used in
calculating reinforcement areas; however, the design
temperature T1 shall still be based on the entire element
thickness.
h<500mm
h/2

For h < 500mm assume each reinforcement face
controls h/2 depth of concrete.
h 500mm
250mm
250mm

For h > 500mm assume each reinforcement face
controls the outer 250mm depth of concrete. Ignore any
central core beyond these surface zones.
Given that thermal crack control requirements determine
the minimum limit of reinforcement, particular care
should be given to the adopted values of T1 and T2.
Factors including local site conditions, concrete mix
design, formwork type, seasonal variations in ambient
temperature, distance from plant to site, etc shall all be
taken into account.

Drainage Affairs

1
st
Considering the relatively high ambient temperatures
that may be encountered in the Qatar region,
consideration shall be given to limiting the concrete
placing temperature T2 to a value ranging between 15
o
C
and 30
o
C. Designers are referred to CIRIA Report Nos
91
xlv
and 135
xlvi
for further information on this subject.
Ground Investigation & Flotation
The designer shall have, at a minimum, an
understanding of the basic ground conditions likely to be
encountered on site, either from historical data or a
desk-top study. Preferably, the designer shall obtain a
Ground Investigative Report (GIR) from suitably
competent geotechnical engineers giving more precise
values and ground conditions. Data to be considered
includes ground level (GL), ground water level (GWL),
soil types, classification and properties, allowable
bearing capacities and a soil chemical analysis.
Depending on the GWL and GL conditions, buoyancy
(or flotation) of the structure may govern the section
thickness. Flotation of all structures shall be checked in
accordance with BS 8007
xliv
against the anticipated
GWL. In considering the flotation calculations, the
following methodology is recommended:
Calculate the volume of water displaced based on
external dimensions of the structure and the GWL;
Calculate the mass of the structure taking into
account construction assumptions (e.g. does the
site need to be de-watered until after the roof has
been placed? does the site need to be de-watered
until any mass concrete benching has been
placed?);
Calculate the factor of safety to obtain 1.10 as a
minimum;
Re-size any element thicknesses as required
(ensuring that structural requirements are still
maintained).
A factor of safety of 1.10 shall be achieved for both
temporary and permanent conditions. For the flotation
calculations the following concrete unit weights are
recommended.
Minimum Maximum
In-situ RC 22.5kN/m
3
23.5kN/m
3

Unreinforced 21.6kN/m
3
22.5kN/m
3

2.24.3 Structural Analysis
Loading
All liquid retaining structures are to be designed for both
the full and empty conditions, with the load combinations
arranged to give the most severe combination likely to
happen.
Both serviceability (SLS) and ultimate (ULS) load
conditions shall be considered. The following load
factors shall be adopted (unless local design codes
specify more onerous load factors) as per Table 2.24.1.
Table 2.24.1 Serviceability (SL) and Ultimate (ULS)
Load Factors
Load SLS Factor ULS
Self Weight 1.0 1.4
Dead Loading 1.0 1.4
Retained Liquids 1.0 1.4
Retained Soils 1.0 1.4
Live Loads (incl
surcharges)
1.0 1.6

In general the walls and base shall be checked against
the following load combination (where appropriate):
Internal hydrostatic pressure only (water-tightness
test before backfilling);
External soil pressure only (backfilled soil but no
water);
Hydrostatic uplift on base;
Base soft-spot capacity;
Hydrostatic + soil pressure + uplift (normal working
conditions);
Roof loading.
Where required, the structure shall be designed for an
appropriate wheel/vehicle live load. Vehicle live loads
shall be in accordance with local standards and
engineering judgement (where local standards do not
cater to vehicle loads then loading shall be in
accordance with BS 5400-2
xlvii
and BS6399-1
xlviii
). A
minimum live load of 5kN/m
2
shall be adopted
regardless of code requirements.
Elements shall be analysed in accordance with BS
8007
xliv
, BS 8110-1
xliii
and established engineering
principles. Depending on the slab arrangement (i.e.
degree of restraint, span ratios, etc.), bases and walls

Drainage Affairs


may be considered as either one-way or two-way
spanning.
Where appropriate seismic loading shall be considered
in accordance with local design codes.
Base Slabs
Base slabs designed as one-way spanning shall be
designed for flexure in accordance with engineering
principles and the following formulae:
156 . 0
2
=
cu
ULS
f bd
M
K
Equation 2.24.3
d
K
d z 95 . 0
9 . 0
25 . 0 5 . 0
\
|
+ =
Equation 2.24.4
and
z f
M
A
sy
ULS
st
95 . 0
=
Equation 2.24.5
where:
MULS = design ultimate moment (kNm)
b = width of section (mm - typically taken as 1m)
d = effective depth (mm)
fcu = concrete strength (N/mm
2
)
z = lever arm (mm)
Ast = area of required tension reinforcement
(mm
2
)
fsy = reinforcement strength (N/mm
2
)

With K 0.156, compression reinforcement is not
required. Designers are referred to BS8110-1
xliii
for
cases where compression reinforcement is required.
Base slabs designed as one-way spanning shall be
designed for shear in accordance with engineering
principles and the following formula:
( )
cu
v
f
d b
V
8 . 0 , N/mm 5
2
=
Equation 2.24.6
where:
= design ultimate shear stress (N/mm
2
)
V = design ultimate shear force (kN)
bv = width of section (mm - typically taken as 1m)
d = effective depth (mm)
fcu = concrete strength (N/mm
2
)

Table 2.24.2 Shear Stress and Rebar to be
provided
Shear
Stress
Form of shear
rebar to be
provided
Area of shear
bar to be
provided
<0.5c None Required -
0.5c < <(c +
0.4)
Minimum links in
areas where <c
Asv
0.4bsv/0.95fsyv
(c + 0.4) < <5
or 0.8fcu
Links in any
combination
Asv bsv(-
c)/0.95fsyv

Shear reinforcement shall be provided based on the
following:
The critical shear stress uc shall be determined in
accordance with BS 8110-1
xliii
;
Base slabs designed as two-way spanning shall be
designed for flexure in accordance with
engineering principles and the following formula:
2
x sx sx
nl m = &
2
x sy sy
nl m =
Equation 2.24.7
Values of sx and sy shall be obtained from Table
2.24.3.
Base slabs designed as two-way spanning shall be
designed for shear in accordance with engineering
principles and the following formulae:
x vx vx
nl = &
x vy vy
nl =
Equation 2.24.7
Values of vx and vy shall be obtained from Table
2.24.4.
A nominal soft spot diameter shall be assumed in
the subgrade (unless local conditions preclude this
from occurring) and the base checked accordingly.

Drainage Affairs

1
st
Table 2.24.3 Base Slab Flexure Coefficients
Short Span Co-efficient (sx)
Values of Ly/Lx Edge Condition
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.75 2.0
Long Span Co-
efficient (sy) for all
values of Ly/Lx
1. Four edges continuous 0.024 0.028 0.032 0.035 0.037 0.040 0.044 0.048 0.024
2. 1 short edge discontinuous 0.028 0.032 0.036 0.038 0.041 0.043 0.047 0.050 0.028
3. 1 long edge discontinuous 0.028 0.035 0.041 0.046 0.050 0.054 0.061 0.066 0.028
4. 2 short edges
discontinuous
0.034 0.038 0.040 0.043 0.045 0.047 0.050 0.053 0.034
5. 2 long edges discontinuous 0.034 0.046 0.056 0.065 0.072 0.078 0.091 0.100 0.034
6. 2 adjacent edges
discontinuous
0.035 0.041 0.046 0.051 0.055 0.058 0.065 0.070 0.035
7. 3 edges discontinuous
(1 long edge continuous)
0.043 0.049 0.053 0.057 0.061 0.064 0.069 0.074 0.043
(1 short edge continuous)
0.043 0.054 0.064 0.072 0.078 0.084 0.096 0.105 0.043
9. 4 edges discontinuous 0.056 0.066 0.074 0.081 0.087 0.093 0.103 0.111 0.056
Table 2.24.4 Base Slab Shear Coefficients
Short Span Co-efficient (vx)
Values of Ly/Lx Edge Condition
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.75 2.0
Long Span Co-
efficient (vy) for all
values of Ly/Lx
1. Four edges continuous 0.33 0.36 0.39 0.41 0.43 0.45 0.48 0.50 0.33
2. 1 short edge discontinuous 0.36 0.39 0.42 0.44 0.45 0.47 0.50 0.52 0.36
3. 1 long edge discontinuous 0.36 0.40 0.44 0.47 0.49 0.51 0.55 0.59 0.36
4. 2 short edges
discontinuous
0.40 0.43 0.45 0.47 0.48 0.49 0.52 0.54 0.26
5. 2 long edges discontinuous 0.26 0.30 0.33 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.44 0.47 0.40
6. 2 adjacent edges
discontinuous
0.40 0.44 0.47 0.50 0.52 0.54 0.57 0.60 0.40
(1 long edge continuous)
0.45 0.48 0.51 0.53 0.55 0.57 0.60 0.63 0.29
(1 short edge continuous)
0.29 0.33 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.45 0.48 0.45
9. 4 edges discontinuous 0.33 0.36 0.39 0.41 0.43 0.45 0.48 0.50 0.33

Drainage Affairs


Walls
Walls may adopt vertical, horizontal or two-way
spanning action. Walls may be analysed by first
principles, design charts or software. Earth pressures
shall be calculated using Rankines theory. At-rest
earth pressures shall be used for structural design.
The value of ko will vary according to site conditions
but a minimum value of ko = 0.5 shall be adopted.
Surface surcharging shall be allowed for (typical
values range between 5-10kN/m
2
), as shall
construction and permanent live loads.
sin 1
sin 1
+
=
a
k Active

Equation 2.24.9
sin 1
sin 1
+
=
p
k Passive

Equation 2.24.10
) 5 . 0 ( sin 1 design for k rest At
o
= =
Equation 2.24.11
S
u
r
c
h
a
r
g
e
C
o
m
p
a
c
t
i
o
n
H
y
d
r
o
s
t
a
t
i
c
S
o
i
l
kqsurch kqcomp wHw ksH
s
------------------ where required -----------------

Where the structural arrangement calls for internal
walls, these walls shall be checked for a full
hydrostatic head against one side only (representing
a full chamber on one side, an empty chamber on the
other).
Where designed as vertical cantilevers, walls shall be
checked for deflection in accordance with BS8110-1
xliii
span-depth criteria.
Roof Slabs
Roof slabs shall generally be designed in a similar
fashion to base slabs, however, they should be
considered as simply supported with limited fixity (and
hence moment transfer) at the supports.
Particular care shall be given to roofs subject to
vehicle loading.
Design Software
Slab and wall elements may also be designed using
appropriate commercial software (e.g. ROBOT
Millennium, STRAND 7, STAADPro, Microstran V8,
etc), either as 2D, or preferably 3D, models.
Appropriate spring elements shall be used to
represent the soil stiffness. Designers should refer to
the program user manuals for assistance with design
software.
Foundations and Settlement
Where an interface between a structure (be it above
ground, partially buried or completely buried) and the
underlying ground exists, there is said to be soil-
structure interaction. The actual behaviour of
structures and soil-structure interaction is complex
and leads to some simplification of assumptions in
order to obtain a design.
A fundamental design concept is the selection of
either a rigid structure or a flexible structure. A flexible
structure will be able to tolerate a degree of
differential settlement by the basic arrangement of the
structure, the nature of its materials and by the
inclusions of movement joints. Conversely, a rigid
structure is designed to neglect any differential
settlement by having sufficient strength to span
across any loss of ground support. Factors to
consider include the relative settlements likely to
occur (i.e. immediate and long-term), any history of
previous soil loading (i.e. over- consolidation) and the
non-homogenous content of most soils.
The support given by the subgrade is often modelled
as springs of varying stiffness (with the stiffness
based on geotechnical parameters), and base slabs
may occasionally be designed as beams on elastic
foundations. This is a time-consuming and
complicated procedure, and many design software
programs are ideally suited to this task (although it
should be remembered that any software output is
only as good as its input).
As stated, the analysis and consideration of any soil-
structure interaction is a complex affair, and in part
depends on a degree of experience. Designers are
strongly recommended to consult geotechnical
engineers and to refer to specialist literature such as
Soil-structure interaction The real behaviour of
structures
xlix
for further information on this subject.
Ground movement leading to differential settlement
can cause severe cracking and leakage from liquid
retaining structures, and as a general rule they should

Drainage Affairs

1
st
be designed as rigid structures. Where appropriate
the design bearing pressure shall be calculated and
checked against the allowable bearing capacity. If
required, measures shall be taken to provide suitable
foundations such as piling or other ground
improvement techniques - consultation with suitably
competent geotechnical engineers is strongly
recommended. A maximum differential settlement
value of 2025mm should be adopted.
Where piled foundations are required, the design
ultimate resistance of a single end-bearing pile shall
be determined from the following formula:
b b s s
A f A f P
*
_
* *
+ =
Equation 2.24.12
where:
P* = design ultimate resistance (kN)
f*s = average ultimate skin resistance of pile
shaft
(kN/m
2
)
As = surface area of pile shaft (m
2
)
f*b = net ultimate bearing resistance (kN/m
2
)
Ab = bearing area of base (m
2
)
For elevated structures more traditional foundations
may be required. Examples include:
Pad (isolated) footings;
Combined footings;
Strip footings.
Simple, concentrically loaded pad (isolated) footings
shall be designed in accordance with engineering
principles and the following methodology:
Determine required size of footing based on
allowable bearing capacity (SLS) and adopt a
suitable thickness;
Design for flexure (ULS) taking a critical section
at the face of the column, designed as a
cantilever;
Design for shear (ULS) taking a critical face
located distance d from the column face;
Design for punching shear (ULS), adopting a
shear perimeter of 4(column width + 3d);
Adjust footing thickness as required.

For eccentric column loading and other foundation
types designers are referred to appropriate literature.
Structures shall be founded on a layer of suitably
compacted subgrade material, a 50100mm blinding
layer, and a suitable slip membrane:
Concrete Slab
Blinding Layer & Slip Membrane
Subgrade

Movement Joints
Where effective means of avoiding differential
settlement or excessive cracking can not be avoided,
then consideration shall be given to the provision of
movement joints at suitable locations.
The location of construction joints shall be specified
by the designer and marked on drawings. Full
structural continuity is assumed at construction joints,
with reinforcement fully continuous across the joint.
Conventional construction techniques should be
followed for all construction joints (i.e. scabble
concrete surface to an acceptable depth, remove all
loose debris, etc).
Movement joints may consist of the following:
Expansion Joint - No restraint to movement, can
freely accommodate either contraction or expansion;
Complete Contraction Joint - No restraint to
movement, freely accommodates contraction;
Partial Contraction Joint - Partial restraint of
movement, partial contraction allowance;
Sliding Joint - Allows two structural members to slide
against each other with minimal restraint.
The use of water-stops and sealing compounds is
essential for movement joints. Due care and
consideration shall be given to the most appropriate
product utilised.

Drainage Affairs

1
st

Table 2.24.5 - Typical Allowable Bearing Pressures
Bearing Pressure Bearing Pressure
Type of Ground
kN/m
2
tons/ft
2

Type of Ground
kN/m
2
tons/ft
2

Clay Soft < 75 < 0.75 Chalk Hard Sound 600 6
- Firm 75-150 0.75-1.5 Limestone Soft 600 6
- Stiff 150-300 1.5 - 3 Shale & Mudstone
- Very Stiff 300-600 3 - 6 - Soft 600-1000 6 - 10
Sand Loose < 100 < 1 - Hard 2000 20
- Medium Dense 100-300 1 - 3 Sandstone Soft 2000 20
- Compact 300+ 3+ Schist, Slate 3000 30
Gravel & Sandy Gravel Sandstone, Limestone
- Loose < 200 < 2 - Hard 4000 40
- Medium Dense 200-600 2 - 6 Igneous Rock - Sound 10000 100
- Compact 600+ 6+

Construction Material 28-day Cube Strength Max. Bearing Pressure under uniform loading
Plain Concrete N/mm
2
lb/in
2
MN/m
2
Lb/in
2

- 1:4:8 8.6 1250 1.7 250
- 1:3:6 11.5 1650 2.4 350
Max. Bearing Pressure under
Eccentric Load
= 1.25 x Uniform Pressure
- 1:2:4 21.0 3000 5.3 760
- 1:1.5:3 25.5 3750 6.5 950
- 1:1:2 30.0 4500 7.6 1140
Max. Bearing Pressure under
Concentrated Load
= 1.50 x Uniform Pressure
Retaining Walls
Where required, retaining walls shall be designed in
a similar fashion to the walls of liquid retaining
structures. Earth pressures shall be calculated using
Rankines theory. At-rest earth pressures shall be
used for structural design. The value of ko will vary
according to site conditions but a minimum value of
ko = 0.5 shall be adopted. Surface surcharging shall
be allowed for (typical values range between 5-
10kN/m
2
), as shall construction and permanent live
loads.
Global stability of the retaining walls shall also be
considered (i.e. sliding failure, overturning failure,
bearing capacity failure, etc).
Concrete
Concrete mix design shall be in accordance with BS
8500
l
or local standards, with an appropriate
exposure class selected to meet the chemical
environment conditions of the ground. Concrete
shall have as a minimum a 28-day characteristic
cube strength of 35N/mm
2
. A minimum cement
content of 325kg/m
3
and a maximum, water-cement
ratio of 0.55 shall also be maintained.
Given that control of cracking from thermal effects
often governs the reinforcement requirements for
water retaining structures, consideration should be
given to the availability and use of blended cement
mixes. The inclusion of pulverised fuel ash (PFA) or
ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) can
significantly reduce the effects of hydration
temperature rise and hence reinforcement
requirements. Designers are referred to CIRIA
Report No 91
xlv
(particularly Tables 5 and 6) for the
use of blended concrete mixes.
It should be noted that natural conditions in the
Middle East, both above and below ground, are
often of an aggressive nature. The climate can
significantly affect above and below ground concrete
due to the high ambient temperatures accelerating
chemical attack and physical degradation. The
existence of soluble salts (mainly sulphate or
chlorites) can be very detrimental to concrete, and
the designer shall take all appropriate measures

Drainage Affairs

1
st
should these chemicals be detected in the soil.
Factors to be considered shall include:
Aggressive ground water;
Contaminated aggregates;
Brackish water;
Rapid drying of concrete.
In these situations the designer shall follow the
recommendations made in BS 8500-1
l
and BRE
Special Digest 1
li
.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement shall comply with BS 4449 or local
standards. The provisions of section 7 of BS 8110-1
shall apply. High-yield reinforcement of between
400500N/mm
2
characteristic strength shall be
adopted throughout.
Cover to Reinforcement
The nominal cover of concrete for all steel shall be a
minimum of 40mm in accordance with BS 8007
xliv
.
This may need to be increased depending on local
soil conditions.
2.24.4 Superstructures
Portal Frame Structures
Portal frame type structures are used extensively for
framing of single-story buildings. They offer cost
advantages over other framing systems for short to
medium span structures in addition to a low
structural depth, clean appearance and relatively
easy maintenance of structural elements. A further
benefit is the relative ease with which overhead
gantry and monorail cranes can be fitted.
Portal frames are readily designed and constructed
from either steel or concrete. External cladding
ranges from masonry to steel sheeting to
transparent plastics, and can be either structural or
non-structural.
Regardless of the material adopted for construction,
the same basic design methodology shall be
adopted.
Load Combinations
Both serviceability (deflection and vibration) and
ultimate (strength, stability and fatigue) limit state
load conditions shall be considered, with the various
load combinations arranged to give the most severe
combination likely to happen.
Where appropriate, seismic loading shall be
considered in accordance with local design codes.
The load factors shown in Table 2.24.6 shall be
adopted (unless local design codes specify more
onerous load factors).
Wind Loads
The calculation of wind loads will predominantly
depend on local site conditions and a localised
design standard. The majority of design codes used
world-wide will include a simplified procedure for
determining the wind forces on relatively small
buildings, with limitations placed on the height, roof
area and slope, and terrain factor. These simplified
methods will give a quick, if somewhat conservative
pressure; hence most codes also make provisions
for a more detailed analysis. These detailed
procedures are often tedious to perform, and lend
themselves readily to spreadsheets or other
software.
As the wind forces and pressures depend on local
conditions the designer shall adopt any and all
recommendations made in local design standards
and codes. The strict use of BS 6399-2
lii
is not
recommended, as it is tailored to British
requirements, however, the design procedure as
described in BS 6399-2 could be used provided
local wind speeds and conditions were adopted.
Dead Loads
Dead loads comprise the self-weight of the structure
and any permanently fixed loads from non-structural
elements. Some common unit weights of materials
are given in Table 2.24.7.
Imposed (Live) Loads
Imposed (or live) loads will be determined from the
intended function of the building. For the type of
buildings that could reasonably be expected to be
found at water or sewerage treatment plants, the live
loads will most likely be either human occupation
(e.g. office facilities), various plant loadings (e.g.
pump, control units, etc) or overhead gantry or
monorail cranes for lifting facilities. Designers are
referred to local standards or specific manufacturer
data for plant loading. BS 6399-1
xlviii
provides some
recommendations for imposed loads, as listed in
Table 2.24.8.

Drainage Affairs

1
st

Crane Loads
The design of steel crane gantry beams for
overhead cranes presents some specific problems
that need to be carefully considered. The design of
crane beams differs from the design of floor beams
in the following ways:
The loads are moving;
Lateral loading is usually involved;
The magnitude of loading depends on the type of
crane (i.e. either electric or hand operated);
Localised stresses occur in the web at the top flange
junction;
Lateral buckling (twisting) needs to be considered;
Fatigue assessment may be required.

As the crane operation is not a steady-state
operation, there are also significant dynamic effects
to be considered. This is usually done by applying
dynamic load multipliers to the calculated static
loads.
Designers are recommended to follow the rules set
out in BS 2573-1
liii
and to consult local design guides
and specialist literature for the design of crane
beams.
Structural Design
Structural design of simple framed buildings shall
generally follow the methodology below:
Calculate all the various loads and arrange into
required combinations (paying particular
attention to the wind loading combinations);
Design the rafter elements;
Design the column elements;
Design the connections (including column base
connections);
Design the cladding;
Design the longitudinal bracing as required.

In general, structures should be considered as
having pinned feet (i.e. column base plates
incapable of transferring moments).
Generic Design Formulae
Simple portal frame structures also lend themselves
readily to be designed using generic formula, which
depend on the relative structural stiffness of the
column and rafter elements. Some generic formulas
are shown in Figure 2.24.1, based on pinned feet.
For further generic formula (including fixed feet
design) designers are referred to Reynolds
Reinforced Concrete Designers Handbook 10th
Ed
liv
.

Drainage Affairs

1
st

Table 2.24.6 Load Factors for Load Combinations
Load Combination Ultimate Limit State (ULS) Serviceability Limit State (SLS)
Dead Live Wind Dead Live Wind
Load Combination 1 1.4 1.6 - 1.0 1.0 -
Load Combination 2 1.4 - 1.4 1.0 - 1.0
Load Combination 3 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.8

Dead Live Crane Dead Live Crane
Vert. Horiz Vert. Horiz
Crane Combination 1 1.2 1.4 1.4 - 1.0 1.0 1.0 -
Crane Combination 2 1.2 1.4 - 1.4 1.0 1.0 - 1.0
Crane Combination 3 1.2 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Table 2.24.7 Common Unit Weights of Materials
Unit Weight Unit Weight Material
kN/m
2
kN/m
3

Material
kN/m
2
kN/m
3

Concrete Gypsum plasterboard 0.115
- Unreinforced 22.0 (12mm thick)
- Reinforced 24.0 Plaster render
Concrete Masonry 24.0 - Lime, 20mm tk 0.380
Bricks Structural 22.6 - Cement, 20mm tk 0.450
- Clay 18.9 - Gypsum, 12mm tk 0.220
- Hollow clay 11.5 Polyester corrugated 0.020
Metal Cladding Sheets
- Aluminium 0.038 Thermal insulation 0.010
- Galv. Steel 0.050 (fibreglass bats)

Table 2.24.8 Recommendations for Imposed (Live) Loads
Type of Activity Examples of Specific use UDL (kN/m
2
) Concentrated Load (kN)
Offices for general use 2.5 2.7
Factories, workshops and similar 5.0 4.5
Catwalks - 1.0 at 1m ctrs
Office and Work areas
Balconies 4.0 1.5/m run

Drainage Affairs

1
st

General areas for static equipment 2.0 1.8
Plant rooms, boiler rooms, etc 7.5 4.5
Warehousing and Storage areas
(including weight of equipment)
Parking for cars, vans, etc (<2500 kg gross) 2.5 9.0

Drainage Affairs

1
st

L
b
b =
1

h
f
f =
1

s I
h I
k
1
2
1
=
h
L
k =
2

3 3
1 1
2
3
1
+ + + = k f f k

( )
3
1
2
4
65 . 0 1
hk
f wL
H H
E A
+
= =
V
A
= V
E
= 0.5wL M
B
= M
D
= -H
A
h

( )
3
2
1 1 1 1
2
8
2 4 3 6
hk
b f b f wb
H H
E A
+
= =
L
wb
V
A
2
2
= M
B
= M
D
= -H
A
h

( )
3
1 1 1 1
4
3 4 6 6
k
f b f b Pb
H H
E A
+
= =
L
Pb
V
A
= M
B
= M
D
= -H
A
h

( )
3
1 1
6
12 6 5
k
f k wh
H
A
+ +
= H
E
= H
A
- wh
L
wh
V V
E A
2
2
= =
2
2
wh
h H M
E D
=
M
B
= H
A
h

( )
3
2
1 1 1
2
625 . 0 5 . 2 3
k
f f k wf
H
A
+ + +
=
( )
L
f h wf
V V
E A
2
2 +
= =
M
B
= -H
A
h M
D
= H
E
h H
E
= H
A
- wf
Figure 2.24.1 Generic Formula for Portal Frames based on Pinned Feet

Drainage Affairs

1
st

F = Total Load
I
AB
= I
CD
L I
h I
K
AB
BC
= k
1
=K+2
k
2
=6K+1 k
3
=2K+3 k
4
=3K+1

3
4hk
FL
H H
D A
= =
2
F
R R
D A
= =
0 = =
D A
M M
3
4k
FL
h H M M
A C B
= = =

3
8
3
hk
FL
H H
D A
= =
2
F
R R
D A
= =
0 = =
D A
M M
3
8
3
k
FL
h H M M
A C B
= = =

|
|
\
|
=
3
3
6
8 k
K k F
H
A

A D
H F H =

L
Fh
R R
A D
2
= =
3
1
8
3
2 k
Fhk
H
F
h M
D B
=
|
\
|
=
0 = =
D A
M M
|
|
\
| +
= =
3
3
2
8 k
K k Fh
h H M
D C

2
F
H H
D A
= =
L
Fh
R R
A D
= =
0 = =
D A
M M
2
Fh
M M
C B
= =
Figure 2.24.1 Generic Formula for Portal Frames based on Pinned Feet
L
h
A
B C
D
F
F
F
F

Drainage Affairs

1
st
Foundations and Floor Slabs
The designer shall have, at a minimum, an
understanding of the basic ground conditions likely to
be encountered on site, either from historical data or
a desk-top study. Preferably, the designer shall
obtain a Ground Investigative Report (GIR) from
suitably competent geotechnical engineers giving
more precise values and ground conditions. Data to
be considered includes ground level (GL), ground
water level (GWL), soil types, classification and
properties, allowable bearing capacities and a soil
chemical analysis.
The analysis and consideration of any soil-structure
interaction (i.e. any interface between a structure (be
it above ground, partially buried or completely buried)
and the underlying ground) is a complex affair, and in
part depends on a degree of experience. Factors to
consider include the relative settlements likely to
occur (i.e. immediate and long-term), any history of
previous soil loading (i.e. over-consolidation) and the
non-homogenous content of most soils.
Designers are strongly recommended to consult
geotechnical engineers and to refer to specialist
literature such as Soil-structure interaction The
real behaviour of structures
xlix
for further information
on this subject.
By their inherent nature steel portal frames with
profiled sheet cladding may be classified as
somewhat flexible structures, able to tolerate
relatively large differential settlements between
adjacent frames.
Concrete frames though, with masonry panels, are
not so flexible and ground movement leading to
differential settlement could cause severe cracking in
the faade. There is also the strong possibility that
shrinkage will occur between the frames and
masonry panels, although joints at these positions
can alleviate this problem.
The design bearing pressure shall be calculated and
checked against the allowable bearing capacity, and
if required measures shall be taken to provide
suitable foundations such as piling or other ground
improvement techniques - consultation with suitably
competent geotechnical engineers is strongly
recommended. A maximum differential settlement
value of 2025mm should be adopted (refer to
section 2.24.1).
For a lightly loaded industrial building that might
reasonably be expected to be used for sewerage
and water treatment plants Table 2.24.9 is a good
guide to the nominal slab thicknesses required
Table 2.24.9 Nominal Slab Thickness
Required for Lightly Loaded
Industrial Buildings
Typical Application
Classification
of Subgrade
Floor
Slab
(mm)
Poor 150
Light industrial
premises with live
loading up to 5kN/m
2

Medium / Good 125
Poor 200
Medium industrial
premises with live
loading between 5 and
20kN/m
2

Medium / Good 175

Where dynamic loading (i.e. from forklifts, trucks,
etc) is applicable, thicknesses will be determined
from calculating flexural tensile stresses in the
slab. Designers are referred to specialist literature
for the design of floor slabs with dynamic loads.
Reinforcement in industrial floor slabs is located
near the top surface to control crack width
development. It does not increase the flexural
strength of the slab. For a jointed reinforced
industrial floor, reinforcement ratios of between
0.1% to 0.3% of the cross-sectional area shall
normally be sufficient. This reinforcement most
often takes the form of steel mesh.
Joints are required to control cracking that occurs
within a slab. Three main types of joints are used
for industrial floor slabs:
Contraction Joints - Allow horizontal movement of
the slab. They are provided transversely to
the direction of placing, and should be
spaced at maximum centres of 15m.
Contraction joints may be either plain
(unreinforced) or reinforced with steel dowels
or shear keys, dowels being the more
common method;
Construction Joints - Transverse construction
joints generally occur at unplanned locations
(such as may be caused by adverse weather
or equipment failure), or planned locations

Drainage Affairs

1
st

(such as the last concrete pour at the end of the
days work). Longitudinal construction joints are
used to form the edges of each pour;
Isolation Joints - Isolation joints permit horizontal and
vertical movement between adjacent elements
(e.g. between the floor slab and column pad
foundations, etc).
2.25 Site Boundary
Wall/Fence
The demarcation of site boundaries is generally only
required for the compound for above ground
installations, such as pumping stations, storage tanks
and treatment plants.
The boundary structure must provide adequate
security to prevent, or at least discourage
unauthorised access to the site. For this reason a
boundary wall is preferable to a fence, which should
only be used to provide temporary security, for
example during construction or maintenance. The
wall should be of solid block or concrete construction,
without decorative openings.
Sewerage and drainage installations can be subject
to public concern, and it is therefore important that
they are compatible with their surroundings as far as
possible.
Since the boundary wall is the most visible part of the
installation, its general appearance needs to blend in
naturally with the neighbourhood. The wall height,
architectural features, colour and finishes should
therefore match those of the surroundings, consistent
with the need to provide security to the site.
The boundary wall and gate details will be subject to
planning approval, along with the buildings and
structures within the compound. The access gates
shall be located and sized to avoid obstruction from
the public.
Typical boundary wall, fence and gate details are
contained in the Standard Drawings in Volume 8.
2.26 Site Facilities
The extent and layout of site facilities are to a great
extent controlled by the available land, and the
purpose and location of the site. Site facilities should
be agreed before design is undertaken, but typical
requirements for urban sites would be:
Stand-by generator plinth (or room for major
installations), water tank and hydrants for
washdown of vehicles and equipment, surge
suppression installation, guardhouse, car
ports;
For remote locations, canteen, living
accommodation and facilities for worship
Site layouts should provide adequate space for
access by operation and maintenance vehicles;
with suitable paved turning areas to allow vehicles
to turn and to pass each other within the
compound.
Access roads and paved areas are to be provided
for tankers, cranes, lorries and mobile generators.
Space shall be provided for doors to buildings to
open fully, and for vehicles to enter buildings for
handling of equipment.
Road design and construction should be in
accordance with the Qatar Highway Design
Manual, with all access roads and hardstandings
paved and drained. Open areas should have
gravel finish to discourage weed growth.
The site layout shall accommodate the access
requirements for all utilities, including the
electricity supplier.
Any potential source of odour nuisance is to be
located a distance of at least 15m for any
habitable building.
The site drainage system shall discharge to the
public system where possible, or to a SW pumping
station on the site.
Typical details for site facilities are contained in
Volume 8 - Standard Drawings.

Drainage Affairs

1
st
3 Documentation
3.1 Guidance on
Environmental Impact
Statements
The State of Qatar policy on sustainable
development, and subsequent environmental
legislation (Law 30) require that an environmental
impact assessment process be followed in planning,
designing and implementing surface and
groundwater control projects. Consultation with the
regulator, SCENR, throughout the process, is a
critically important activity.
Initial screening and scoping of potential
environmental impacts should be undertaken with
SCENR, the Planning Department and the
Department of Agriculture and Water Resources.
Guidance on typical content and requirements of
screening, scoping and EIA analysis, reports and
data collection for sewerage and drainage projects is
given in Volume 1, Sections 2.7, 3.7 and 4.7. This
guidance should be referred to for any environmental
studies associated with surface and groundwater
control projects.
3.2 Building Permit
Please refer to Volume 1 section 4.6 for discussion
on building permits.

Drainage Affairs

1
st

4 Health and Safety
Please refer to Volume 1, sections 4.9 and 4.10 for
more detailed coverage relating to this subject. H&S
design considerations for SW drainage are not
exclusive or prescriptive. In keeping with the DA
policy, H&S is paramount in all aspects of
infrastructure design and operation. The designer
must be aware of the implications of design decisions
on not only the finished product, but its buildability,
construction stage safety, operating life and
decommissioning at the end of its working life. For
this reason, it is essential that the procedures for
production of a Hazard and Risk analysis are carried
out, and incorporated into the pre-tender H&S plan.
No design projects will be accepted as completed by
DA without such steps having been taken and
provision of paperwork to demonstrate this.
Considerations in design to mitigate risks will include
but not be limited to:
The designer must design out the need for entry
into all confined spaces wherever possible;
Safe access should be provided to all plant
requiring maintenance;
All above ground infrastructure must be fenced
off and inaccessible to the general public.
Security arrangements must be designed in
consultation with O&M dept;
Craneage or mobile lifting facilities must be
provided for all heavy equipment;
Stairways should be equipped with handrailing
and toe plates in accordance with the relevant
British Standard;
Tripping hazards should be avoided, likewise
overhead obstructions;
Barriers should be provided to prevent falling
from height;
All hazards should be signposted;
Gas monitoring equipment and alarms to be
designed as hard wired for all confined spaces
requiring access;
Adequate lighting to be provided wherever
access is required;
Welfare facilities should be provided to allow
operatives to clean up after maintenance work;
Manholes must be equipped with covers
which are secure yet can be easily removed
for maintenance purposes;
Covers should be a minimum size to allow
operatives wearing breathing apparatus. A
minimum of 650mm square should be
appropriate in most cases, but will depend
upon the apparatus used by DA O&M;
Flow isolation facilities should be installed;
Access to long tunnels to allow desilting
equipment as necessary;
Zoning classification should be established
for all work carried out on existing and
proposed infrastructure.

Drainage Affairs

1
st
5 References

i
Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture, 1997,
Qatar Highway Design Manual, January 1997, Qatar,
MMAA.
ii
British Standards Institution, various years of
publication, BS EN 752 - Drain and sewer systems
outside buildings, BSI UK.
iii
British Standards Institution, various years of
publication, BS 8005 - Drain and sewer systems
outside buildings, BSI UK (superseded by BS EN
752).
iv
British Standards Institution, 1997, BS 8301: Code
of practice for building drainage, London, BSI. ISBN
0-89116-067-1.pp132, 236.
v
British Standards Institution, 1995, BS EN 598:
1995 Ductile iron pipes, fittings, accessories and
their joints for sewerage applications Requirements
and test methods. London, BSI.
vi
British Standards Institution, 1998, BS EN 1610:
1998 Construction and testing of drains and
sewers, London, BSI.
vii
Water UK/WRc plc, 2001, Sewers for Adoption 5
th

Edition, a design and construction guide for
developers, 5
th
edition, UK, Water UK/WRc.
viii
British Standards Institution, 1994, BS EN
124:1994 Gully tops and manhole tops for vehicular
and pedestrian areas design requirements, type
testing, marking, quality control (AMD 8587), London,
BSI.
ix
Ministry of Civil Aviation and Meteorology, State of
Qatar, 2002. Long Term Climate Report 2000,
extracted from Long Period Means & Extremes of
Climatological Elements, Doha International Airport,
period (1962-2002), Qatar Ministry of Civil Aviation
and Meteorology.
x
Bazaraa, A.S., Ahmed, S., 1991. Rainfall
Characterization in an Arid Area, Engineering Journal
of Qatar University, Vol. 4, pp35-50.
xi
Linsley, R.K., Kohler M.A. & Paulhaus, J.L.H.,
1982, Hydrology for Engineers, 3rd Edition, McGraw-
Hill, pp227-228.

xii
Arcement, G.J., and Schneider, V. R., 1989,
Guide for Selecting Mannings Roughness
Coefficient for Natural Channels and Floodplains,
U.S. Geological Survey, Water Supply Paper
2339, Washington D.C.
xiii
State of Kuwait Ministry of Planning & Hyder
Consulting, 2001, Kuwait Stormwater Masterplan
Hydrological Aspects - Final Report. Cardiff,
(AU00109/D1/015), Hyder Consulting.
xiv
Bras, R.L., 1990, Hydrology: An Introduction to
Hydrologic Science, Addison-Wesley, pp132, 236.
xv
Morin, J., and Benyamini, Y., 1997. Rainfall
Infiltration into Bare Soils, Water Resources
Research, 13(5), pp812-817.
xvi
Linsley, R.K., Kohler M.A. & Paulhaus, J.L.H.,
1982, Hydrology for Engineers, 3rd Edition,
McGraw-Hill, p237.
xvii
Chow, V.T., Maidment, D.R., Mays, L.W., 1988.
Applied Hydrology, McGraw-Hill, p140.
xviii
The International Institute for land Reclamation
and Improvement (ILRI), 1976, Bulletin 15 -
Computing Drain Spacings, ILRI, p14.
xix
Water Research Centre (WRc). 1993. Model
Contract Document for Short Term Sewer Flow
Surveys. 2
nd
ed. Marlow, Buckinghamshire: Water
Research Centre (WRc) Publications.
xx
WaPUG, 2002, Code of Practice for the
Hydraulic Modelling of Sewer Systems Version
3.001, UK, Wastewater Planning Users Group.
xxi
HR Wallingford and DIH Barr, 2000, Tables for
the Hydraulic Design of Pipes, Sewers and
Channels, 7
th
Edition, Trowbridge, Wiltshire, UK
Redwood Books.
xxii
Water UK/WRc plc 2001,Sewers for
Adoption 5
th
Edition, a design and
construction gjuide for developers
xxiii
Construction Industry Research and
Information Association, 2000, C522 Sustainable
Urban Drainage Systems Design Manual for
England and Wales, London UK, CIRIA.

Drainage Affairs

1
st

xxiv
Association, 2001, C523 Sustainable Urban Drainage
Systems Best Practice Manual for England,
Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, London UK,
CIRIA.
xxv
US Environmental Protection Agency, US EPA
Report 625-R-99-010 - Constructed wetlands
treatment of municipal wastewater process design
manual, USA, EPA.
xxvi
Association, 1996, Design of sewers to control
sediment problems, Report 141, London CIRIA.
xxvii
British Standards Institution BS EN 752-3:1997,
Drain and sewer systems outside buildings Part 3:
Planning, UK, BSI. Table NB1.
xxviii
British Standards Institution BS EN 752-3:1997,
Drain and sewer systems outside buildings Part 3:
Planning, UK, BSI. NB 2.2.
xxix
Qatar Construction Specification.
xxx
Building Research Establishment, 1991,
Soakaway Design, BRE Digest 365, BRE Watford
UK.
xxxi
Water Research Council, 1997, Sewerage
Detention Tanks A Design Guide, UK, WRC.
xxxii
British Standards Institution, 1991, BS EN ISO
6817: 1997: Measurement of conductive liquid flow in
closed conduits. London, BSI.
xxxiii
British Standards Institution, 1991, BS 7405:
1991: Guide to selection and application of flow
meters for the measurement of fluid flow in closed
conduits. London, BSI.
xxxiv
CIRIA & BHRA (Construction Industry Research
and Information Association, British Hydromechanics
Research Association). 1977. The hydraulic design of
pump sumps and intakes. CIRIA & BHRA. ISBN: 0-
86017-027-6.
xxxv
CIRIA & BHRA (Construction Industry Research
and Information Association, British Hydromechanics
Research Association). 1977. The hydraulic design of
pump sumps and intakes. CIRIA & BHRA. ISBN: 0-
86017-027-6.

xxxvi
IEC 60947-1Ed 3.2:1999 Low Voltage
Switchgear and Control Gear. General Rules.
xxxvii
Electrical Research Association Report No.
69-30.
xxxviii
Chartered Institution of Building Services
Engineers, 1989-2001, CIBSE Lighting Guides (1-
7), London, CIBSE.
xxxix
British Standards Institution, 1998, BS EN
1127-1: 1998 Explosive Atmospheres
Explosion Prevention and Protection. Basic
Concepts and Methodology, London, BSI.
xl
British Standards Institution, 1981-1999, BS
5266- (1-7):1981-1999 Emergency Lighting,
London, BSI.
xli
British Standards Institution, 2003, BS 5489-1:
2003 Code of Practice for The Design of Road
Lighting. Lighting of Roads and Public Amenity
Areas, London, BSI.
xlii
UK Health and Safety Executive, 2002,
Occupational Exposure Limits, EH40/2002, UK,
Health and Safety Executive.
xliii
BSI. 1997. BS8110-1: 1997. Structural Use of
Concrete Part 1: Code of practice for design and
construction. London. British Standards Institution.
xliv
BSI. 1987. BS8007: 1987. Design of concrete
structures for retaining aqueous liquids. London.
British Standards Institution.
xlv
CIRIA. 1992. Report N
o
. 91 Early-age thermal
crack control in concrete. London. Construction
Industry Research and Information Association.
xlvi
CIRIA. 1995. Report N
o
. 135 Concreting deep
lifts and large volume pours. London. Construction
Industry Research and Information Association.
xlvii
BSI. 1978. BS5400-2: 1978. Steel, concrete
and composite bridges Part 2: Specification for
loads. London. British Standards Institution.
xlviii
BSI. 1996. BS6399-1: 1996. Loading for
buildings Part 1: Code of practice for dead and
imposed loads. London. British Standards
Institution.

Drainage Affairs

1
st

xlix
Institution of Structural Engineers. 1989. Soil-
structure interaction. The real behaviour of structures.
London. The Institution of Structural Engineers.
l
BSI, 2002, BS8500-1: 2002. Concrete
Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206-1
Part 1: Method of specifying and guidance for the
specifier, London, British Standards Institution.
li
BRE, 2001, Concrete in aggressive ground Part 1,
2, 3 & 4, London, BRE Bookshop.
lii
BSI. 1997. BS6399-2: 1997. Loading for buildings
Part 2: Code of practice for wind loads. London.
British Standards Institution.
liii
BSI, 1983, BS2573-1: 1983. Rules for the design of
cranes Part 1: Specification for classification,
stress calculations and design criteria for structures,
London, British Standards Institution.
liv
Reynolds, C.E. and Steedman, J.C, 1988,
Reinforced Concrete Designers Handbook. 10
th
ed.
London, Spon Press.

Qatar Storm Drainage Manual

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Qatar Storm Drainage Manual

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

State of Qatar - Public Works Authority

You might also like