You are on page 1of 163

MATH 1103

Pre-Calculus Mathematic
For Science and Engineering

SECTION NOTES





































1

Table of Contents:

1. The Rectangular Coordinate System, Lines, and Circles
1.1 The Rectangular Coordinate System
1. Plotting Ordered Pairs
2. Graphing Equations by Plotting Points
3. Finding the Midpoint of a Line Segment Using the Midpoint Formula
4. Finding the Distance between Two Points Using the Distance Formula
1.3 Lines
1. Determining the Slope of a Line
2. Sketching a Line Given a Point and the Slope
3. Finding the Equation of a Line Using the Point-Slope Form
4. Finding the Equation of a Line Using the Slope-Intercept Form
5. Writing the Equation of a Line in Standard Form
6. Finding the Slope and the y-intercept of a Line in Standard Form
7. Sketching Lines by Plotting Intercepts
8. Finding the Equation of a Horizontal Line and a Vertical Line
1.4 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
1. Understanding the Definition of a Parallel Lines
2. Understanding the Definition of Perpendicular Lines
3. Determining Whether Two Lines are Parallel, Perpendicular, or Neither
4. Finding the Equations of Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
5. Solving a Geometric Application of Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
2. Functions
2.1 Relations and Functions
1. Understanding the Definitions of Relations and Functions
2. Determining Whether Equations Represent Functions
3. Using Function Notation; Evaluating Functions
4. Using the Vertical Line Test
5. Determining the Domain of a Function Given the Equation
2.2 Properties of a Function's Graph
1. Determining the Intercepts of a Function
2. Determining the Domain and Range of a Function from Its Graph
3. Determining Whether a Function Is Increasing, Decreasing, or Constant
4. Determining Relative Maximum and Relative Minimum Values of a Function
5. Determining Whether a Function Is Even, Odd, or Neither
6. Determining Information about a Function from a Graph
2.3 Graphs of Basic Functions; Piecewise Functions
1. Sketching the Graph of the Basic Functions
2. Analyzing Piecewise-Defined Functions
3. Solving Applications of Piecewise-Defined Functions
2.4 Transformations of Functions
1. Using Vertical Shifts to Graph Functions
2. Using Horizontal Shifts to Graph Functions
3. Using Reflections to Graph Functions
4. Using Vertical Stretches and Compressions to Graph Functions
5. Using Horizontal Stretches and Compressions to Graph Functions
6. Using Combinations of Transformations to Graph Functions



2


2.5 The Algebra of Functions; Composite Functions
1. Evaluating a Combined Function
2. Finding the Intersection of Intervals
3. Finding Combined Functions and Their Domains
4. Forming and Evaluating Composite Functions
5. Determining the Domain of Composite Functions
2.6 One-to-One Functions; Inverse Functions
1. Understanding the Definition of a One-to-One Function
2. Determining Whether a Function is One-to-One Using the Horizontal Line Test
3. Understanding and Verifying Inverse Functions
4. Sketching the Graphs of Inverse Functions
5. Finding the Inverse of a One-to-One Function
3. Polynomial and Rational Functions
3.1 Quadratic Functions
1. Understanding the Definition of a Quadratic Function and Its Graph
2. Graphing Quadratic Functions Written in Standard Form
3. Graphing Quadratic Functions by Completing the Square
4. Graphing Quadratic Functions Using the Vertex Formula
5. Determining the Equation of a Quadratic Function Given Its Graph
3.2 Applications and Modeling of Quadratic Functions
1. Maximizing Projectile Motion Functions
2. Maximizing Area Functions
3.3 The Graphs of Polynomial Functions
1. Understanding the Definition of a Polynomial Function
2. Sketching the Graphs of Power Functions
3. Determining the End Behavior of Polynomial Functions
4. Determining the Intercepts of a Polynomial Function
5. Determining the Real Zeros of Polynomial Functions and Their Multiplicities
6. Sketching the Graph of a Polynomial Function
7. Determining a Possible Equation of a Polynomial Function Given Its Graph
3.4 Synthetic Division; The Remainder and Factor Theorems
1. Using the Division Algorithm
2. Using Synthetic Division
3. Using Remainder Theorem
4. Using the Factor Theorem
5. Sketching the Graph of a Polynomial Function
3.5 The Zeros of Polynomial Functions; The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
1. Using the Rational Zeros Theorem
2. Finding the Zeros of a Polynomial Function
3. Solving Polynomial Equations
4. Using the Complex Conjugate Pairs Theorem
5. Using the Intermediate Value Theorem
6. Sketching the Graphs of Polynomial Functions







3

3.6 Rational Functions and Their Graphs
1. Finding the Domain and Intercepts of Rational Functions
2. Identifying Vertical Asymptotes
3. Identifying Horizontal Asymptotes
4. Using Transformations to Sketch the Graphs of Rational Functions
5. Sketching Rational Functions Having Removable Discontinuities
6. Identifying Slant Asymptotes
7. Sketching Rational Functions
B.9 Solving Polynomial and Rational Inequalities
1. Solving Polynomial Inequalities
2. Solving Rational Inequalities
4. Exponential and Logarithmic Functions and Equations
4.1 Exponential Functions
1. Understanding the Characteristics of Exponential Functions
2. Sketching the Graphs of Exponential Functions Using Transformations
3. Solving Exponential Equations by Relating the Bases
4. Solving Applications of Exponential Functions
4.2 The Natural Exponential Function
1. Understanding the Characteristics of the Natural Exponential Function
2. Sketching the Graphs of Natural Exponential Functions Using Transformations
3. Solving Natural Exponential Equations by Relating the Bases
4. Solving Applications of the Natural Exponential Function
4.3 Logarithmic Functions
1. Understanding the Definition of a Logarithmic Functions
2. Evaluating Logarithmic Expressions
3. Understanding the Properties of Logarithms
4. Using the Common and natural Logarithms
5. Understanding the Characteristics of Logarithmic Functions
6. Sketching the Graphs of Logarithmic Functions Using Transformations
7. Finding the Domain of Logarithmic Functions
4.4 Properties of Logarithms
1. Using the Product Rule, Quotient Rule, and Power Rule for Logarithms
2. Expanding and Condensing Logarithmic Expressions
3. Solving Logarithmic Equations Using the Logarithm Property of Equality
4. Using the Change of Base Formula
4.5 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations
1. Solving Exponential Equations
2. Solving Logarithmic Equations
3. Inverse Functions of Exponential and Logarithmic Fnctions
4.6 Applications of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
1. Solving Compound Interest Applications
2. Exponential Growth and Decay
3. Using Newtons Law of Cooling
5. An Introduction to Trigonometric Functions
5.1 An Introduction to Angles: Degree and Radian Measure
1. Understanding Degree Measure
2. Finding Conterminal Angles Using Degree Measure
3. Understanding Radian Measure
4. Converting between Degree Measure and Radian Measure
5. Finding Conterminal Angles Using Radian Measure

4

5.3 The Unit Circle
1. Understanding the Definition of the Unit Circle
2. Using Symmetry to Determine Points on the Unit Circle
3. Understanding the Unit Circle Definitions of the Trigonometric Functions
4. Understanding the Fundamental Trigonometric Identities
5. Using the Unit Circle to Evaluate Trigonometric Functions at Increments of


6. Using the Unit Circle to Evaluate Trigonometric Functions for Increments of

, and


7. Evaluating Trigonometric Functions using a Calculator
5.4/8.1 Right Triangle Trigonometry and Applications
1. Understanding the Right Triangle Definitions of the Trigonometric Functions
2. Using the Special Right Triangles
3. Understanding Cofunctions
4. Understanding the Four Families of Special Angles
5. Understanding the Definitions of the Trigonometric Functions of General Angles
6. Finding the Values of the Trigonometric Functions of Quadrantal Angles
7. Understanding the Signs of the Trigonometric Functions
8. Determining Reference Angles
9. Evaluating Trigonometric Functions of Angles Belonging to the

, or

Families
10. Applications of Right Triangle Trigonometry
6. The Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
6.1 The Graphs of Sine and Cosine
1. Understanding the Graph of the Sine Function and Its Properties
2. Understanding the Graph of the Cosine Function and Its Properties
3. Sketching Graphs of the Form y= A sin x and y=A cos x
4. Sketching Graphs of the Form y=sin (Bx) and y= cos (Bx)
5. Sketching Graphs of the Form y= A sin (Bx) and y= A cos (Bx)
6.2 More on Graphs of Sine and Cosine; Phase Shift
1. Sketching Graphs of the Form y=sin (x-C) and y= cos (x-C)
2. Sketching Graphs of the Form y= A sin (Bx C) and y= A cos (Bx C)
3. Sketching Graphs of the Form y= A sin (Bx C) + D and y=A cos (Bx C) +D
6.3 The Graphs of the Tangent, Cosecant, Secant, and Cotangent Functions
1. Understanding the Graph of the Tangent Function and Its Properties
2. Sketching Graphs of the Form y=A tan (Bx C) +D
3. Understanding the Graph of the Cotangent Function and Its Properties
4. Sketching Graphs of the Form y=A cot (Bx C) + D
5. Understanding the Graph of the Cosecant and Secant Functions and their Properties
6. Sketching Graphs of the Form y= A csc (Bx C)+D and y= A sec (Bx-C)+D
6.4 Inverse Trigonometric Functions I
1. Understanding and Finding the Exact and Approximate Values of the Inverse Sine Function
2. Understanding and Finding the Exact and Approximate Values of the Inverse Cosine
Function
3. Understanding and Finding the Exact and Approximate Values of the Inverse Tangent
Function
6.5 Inverse Trigonometric Functions II
1. Evaluating Composite Functions Involving Inverse Trigonometric Functions of the form
f o f
-1
and f
-1
o f
2. Evaluating Composite Functions Involving Inverse Trigonometric Functions of the Form
f o g
-1
and f
-1
o g
3. Understanding the Inverse Cosecant, Inverse Secant, and Inverse Cotangent Functions
4. Writing Trigonometric Expressions as Algebraic Expressions
5

7. Trigonometric Identities
7.1 Trigonometric Identities
1. Reviewing the Fundamental Identities
2. Substituting Known Identities to Verify an Identity
3. Changing to Sines and Cosines to Verify and Identity
4. Factoring to Verify an Identity
5. Separating a Single Quotient into Multiple Quotients to Verify an Identity
6. Combining Fractional Expressions to Verify an Identity
7. Multiplying by Conjugates to Verify an Identity
8. Summarizing the Techniques for Verifying Identities
7.2 The Sum and Difference Formulas
1. Understanding the Sum and Difference Formulas for the Cosine Function
2. Understanding the Sum and Difference Formulas for the Cosine Function
3. Understanding the Sum and Difference Formulas for the Tangent Function
4. Using the Sum and Difference Formulas to Verify Identities
5. Using the Sum and Difference Formulas to Evaluate Expressions Involving Inverse
Trigonometric Functions
7.3 The Double-Angle and Half-Angle Formulas
1. Understanding the Double-Angle Formulas
2. Understanding the Power Reduction Formulas
3. Understanding the Half-Angle Formulas
4. Using the Double-Angle, Power Reduction, and Half-Angle Formulas to Verify Identities
5. Using the Double-Angle and Half-Angle Formulas to Evaluate Expressions Involving Inverse
Trigonometric Functions
7.5 Trigonometric Equations
1. Solving Trigonometric Equations That Are Linear in Form
2. Solving Trigonometric Equations That Are Quadratic in Form
3. Solving Trigonometric Equations Using Identities
4. Solving Other Types of Trigonometric Equations
5. Solving Trigonometric Equations Using a Calculator
8. Applications of Trigonometry
8.2 The Law of Sines
1. Determining if the Law of Sines Can Be Used to Solve an Oblique Triangle
2. Using the Law of Sines to Solve the SAA Case or ASA Case
3. Using the Law of Sines to Solve the SSA Case
4. Using the Law of Sines to Solve Applied Problems Involving Oblique Triangles
8.3 The Law of Cosines
1. Determining if the Law of Sine sot the Law of Cosines Should Be Used to Begin to Solve an
Oblique Triangle
2. Using the Law of Cosines to Solve the SAS Case
3. Using the Law of Cosines to Solve the SSS Case
4. Using the Law of Sines and Cosines to Solve Applied Problems involving Oblique
Triangles





6


























7

Prerequisites
Math 1103 assumes you are comfortable with the following concepts

1. Simplify 108





2. Plot ordered pairs A(-2,3), B(0,4), C(2,5) and know the quadrants/axes.








3. Find the midpoint of the line segment with endpoints (-3,2) and (4,6).






4. Find the distance between the points A(-1,5) and B(4,-5).





8

Section 1.3 Lines
Definition of SLOPE:





1. A) Find the slope of a line passing through the points (-2,3) and (2,-5)




B) Find the slope of the line passing through the points (0, -7) and (-4, -9)





Point-Slope Form



2. Find an equation in point-slope form of a line with slope m = 2/3 and passes through the
point (-1,-4)





Slope-Intercept Form



3. Find an equation in slope-intercept form of a line with a slope of and a y-intercept of 3.


9


Standard Form of a Line: ___________________________________
Things to remember about Standard Form:
1) A, B and C must be integers
2) A must be postive

4. Find the equation of the line passing through the points (-1,3) and (2,-4). Write the equation in:
a) point-slope form







b) slope intercept form







c) standard form







Now try changing the equation 2x + 3y = 4 into slope-intercept form..







What is the slope? _________ What is the y-intercept? __________




Given a line in standard form, Ax + By = C, the slope is _______ and the y-intercept is _________.

To find the x-intercept, let y = _______. To find the y-intercept, let x = _______.


5. Find the slope and y-intercept of the line 3x 2y = 6.

10

6. Find the x and y intercepts of the equation 3x 5y = 21











Horizontal Lines have a slope of ________ and are written as the equation _______________

Vertical Lines have ________________ and are written as the equation ______________

7. Write the equation of a horizontal line passing through the point (-1,3).



8. Write the equation of a vertical line passing through the point (-1,3).





Practice Problems
1. Find an equation in slope intercept form of a line passing through the points (5, -3) and (-1, 2).








2. Write the equation
3
5
4
y x = + in standard form.







11

3. Write the equation of a line passing through the points (4, 3) and (-5, 3) in standard form.
















4. Find the slope of each line below:

a. y = 4x 3





b. 2x + 3y = 6






c. y = 4





d. x = -1








12

Section 1.4 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
Definition of Parallel Lines



1. Show that the lines y =
2
3
x 1 and 4x + 6y = 12 are parallel.



2. Find the equation of a line in standard form that is parallel to y =
1
2
4
x and goes through the
point (-2,3)





Definition of Perpendicular Lines



3. Show that the lines 3x 6y = 12 and 2x + y = 4 are perpendicular.




4. Find the equation of the line perpendicular to the line y = -5x + 2 that passes through the point (3,-1).
Write your answer in slope-intercept form.



13

5. Find the equation of a line in standard form of a line perpendicular to x = 7 that passes through the
point (11, -3).








Practice Problems
1. Determine whether each of the following pairs of lines are parallel, perpendicular or neither.

a. 3x y = 4 b. y = 0.5x + 3 c. x = 1
x + 3y = 7 x + 2y = 1 x = 3








2. Find the equation of the line parallel to the line 2x + 4y = 1 that passes through the point (3, -5). Write your
answer in standard form.









3. Find the equation of a line in standard form that is perpendicular to 2x + 3y = 3 and passes through the point
(4, -2).




14

Section 2.1 Relations and Functions

Relation

Domain

Range

Function a relation is a function if and only if each element in the __________________ is paired with
exactly one element in the ______________. (in other words.all the xs must be different.)

State the domain and range of each of the following relations and then determine if it is a function.
1. { (3,7), (-3,2), (-4,5), (1,4), (3,-4) }



2. { (-1,2), (0,2), (1,5), (2,3), (3,2) }






Determine whether the given equation is a function.

3. 5x 4y = 20



4. xy 2y = 7x + 3



5. y
2
3x
2
= 5


15


Function Notation


Independent Variable - is always x Dependent Variable - is always y

Rewrite each equation using function notation and then find the value of f(4).
6. 3x + y = 5




7. 2x 3y = 12




8. Given that f(x) =x
2
+3x 1 evaluate the following:
a) f(2)


b) f(-3)


c) f(x + h)



d)
( ) ( ) f x h f x
h
+




16


Difference Quotient is the ________________ rate of change of a function within a certain interval.

Difference Quotient Formula:



Find the difference quotient for each of the following
9. f(x) = x
2
4x










10. f(x) = 3x
2
+ 2x 5












17

11. The Vertical Line Test can determine if a graph is a function. Tell whether each graph is a function.


Determining the Domain of a Function Given the Equation
The domain of a function is the set of all the _____ values that can be used in an equation.
*There are only 3 functions where the domain would not be all real numbers..fractions, even roots
and logarithms.
Polynomial Functions:




For a polynomial function the domain is ____________________________________________
written in interval notation as ____________

Rational Functions:


For a rational function the domain is _________________________________________________

Root Functions:



For an even root function the domain is _______________________,

for an odd root function the domain is ________________________.
18

State whether each of the following is a polynomial, rational or root function and then state the
domain:
12)
2
( ) 2 5 f x x x = 13)
2
( )
6
x
f x
x x
=











14)
2
( ) 2 8 h x x x = 15)
3
( ) 5 9 f x x =













Practice Problems:
1. Rewrite the equation 2y 3x = 5 3xy using function notation.







2. If f(x) =
1
2
+ x
, evaluate f(-5) and f(a + 2)





19

3. Find the difference quotient for the function f(x) = x
2
+ 3x 4.















4. State the domain for each of the following:

a) f(x) = 3x
2
2x + 6




b) f(x) =
6 5
2
2
+
+
x x
x






c) f(x) = 2 3 x








20

Section 2.2 Properties of a Functions Graphs

The X and Y Intercepts

Define y-intercept:

How do we find the y-intercept?

Define x-intercept:

How do we find the x-intercept?



Find the intercepts of the following functions:
1. ( ) 3 2 f x x = +







2.
3 2
( ) 12 g x x x x =






3.
3 2
( ) 2 2 f x x x x = + .



21

Determining the Domain and Range of a Function from Its Graph
Find the domain and range of each function below:
4. 5.






Domain: Domain:

Range: Range:


Determining Whether a Function is Increasing, Decreasing, or Constant

A function is Increasing

A function is Decreasing:

A function is Constant


6. Determine the intervals on which the function seen below is increasing, decreasing, and constant:
(THE INTERVAL(S) ARE ALWAYS X-INTERVALS.)
The function is increasing on the interval(s):

The function is decreasing on the interval(s):

The function is constant on the interval(s):

22

Determining Relative Maximum and Relative Minimum Values of a Function

Relative Maximum:


Relative Minimum:



7. Use the graph below to answer each of the following questions:







a) On what interval(s) is f increasing?

b) On what interval(s) is f decreasing?
c) For what value(s) of x does f have a relative minimum?
d) For what value(s) of x does f have a relative maximum?
e) What are the relative minima?
f) What are the relative maxima?

Determining Whether a Function is Even, Odd, or Neither
TYPE OF
FUNCTION
ALGEBRAIC
DEFINITION
TYPE OF SYMMETRY
(Write y-axis or origin
symmetry.)
Even
( ) _____________ f x =


Odd

( ) _____________ f x =


23

8. Determine whether each function is even, odd, or neither. (Explain in your own words why each
function is even, odd, or neither.)








You do NOT need the graph of a function to determine if it is even, odd, or neither! Determine using algebra
(check by graphing) whether each of the following functions is even, odd, or neither:
9.
3
( ) f x x x = + 10.
2
1
( ) 7 g x x
x
= +







11.
5
1
( ) 2 h x x
x
= 12.
2
( ) 4 G x x x = +







24

Practice Problems

1. Use the graph below to answer each question:







a) What is the y-intercept?

b) What are the real zeros of f?

c) Determine the domain and range of f.

d) Determine the interval(s) on which f is increasing, decreasing and constant.

e) For what value(s) of x does f obtain a relative maximum? What are the relative maxima?

f) For what value(s) of x does f obtain a relative minimum? What are the relative minima?

g) Is f even, odd or neither?

h) For what values of x is ( ) 4 f x = ?

i) For what values of x is ( ) 0 f x < ?


25

Section 2.3 Graphs of Basic Functions; Piecewise Functions
PARENT GRAPHS



26

Piecewise Functions
1. Sketch the function
2
if 1
( )
1 if 1
x x
f x
x x

<
=

>









2. Use the following piecewise function to answer the following:
Let
3
1 if 1
( ) if 1 0
1
if 0
x
f x x x
x
x

<

= s <

>


a) Sketch the graph of f.




b) Evaluate ( 3), ( 1), and (2) f f f .




c) Determine the domain of f.


d) Determine the range of f.

27

Practice Problems
1. Write a function for the piecewise function given below. Then state the domain and range.


2. Graph the following piecewise function.









3. Write a piecewise function for the graph below.







28

Section 2.4 Transformations of Functions

Given any parent function y =f(x), we can transform the function k h bx f a y + = ) ( using a specific order
of shifts, stretches and reflections. (You should know all parent functions from Section 2.3)

The order to transformations is:

1. Horizontal shift

2. Horizontal Stretch/Compression

3. Reflection on the y-axis

4. Reflection of the x-axis

5. Vertical Stretch/Compression

6. Vertical Shift

*Note: to help you with these transformations..remember anything inside the parenthesis affects x by doing
the opposite of what it says, and anything outside the parenthesis affects y by doing exactly what it says.
Without a calculator, state the order of transformations, and then graph the following functions by sketching the
parent function and using the rules for transformations.
1.
2
) 3 ( 3 ) ( = x x f 2. 1 4
3
1
) ( + + = x x f









3. 3 ) ( = x x f 4. 4 ) 1 ( 2 ) (
2
+ = x x f










29

Using the following graph, find the ordered pairs and graph each of the given transformations.







5. y = f(-x)+2 6. y = f(x+3)








7. y = f(2x) 8. y = 2f(x)














30



Practice Problems


Use the graph of ( ) = y f x to sketch each of the following functions.







1. y = f(2x) 2. y = 2 f(x 3) 1 3. ) 3 (
2
1
+ = x y


















31

Section 2.5 The Algebra of Functions; Composition Functions
Basic Function Operation Rules: Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division
- (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)
- (f - g)(x) = f (x) - g(x)
- (fg)(x) = f (x) g(x)
-
) (
) (
) (
x g
x f
x
g
f
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
, (If g(x) = 0 , the quotient is undefined.)


If f(x) = 3 x , g(x) =4x 2, and h(x) =x +5 find each of the following:

1. (g + h)(x)
2. (h g)(x)
3. (g h)(x)
4. (f/h)(x)
5. (f + h)(7)
6. (f g)(4)
7. (h/g)(-1)
Use the graph to evaluate each expression or state that it is undefined:
8. (f + g)(1)

9. (f g)(0)

10. (fg)(4)

11. (f/g)(2)




32

Composition of Functions:
The term "composition of functions" (or "composite function") refers to the combining of functions in a manner
where the output from one function becomes the input for the next function.
In math terms, the range (the y-value answers) of one function becomes the domain (the x-values) of the next
function.
The notation used for composition is:
and is read "f composed with g of x" or "f of g of x"


Let ( ) 4 1, ( ) and ( ) 3
2
= + = = +

x
f x x g x h x x
x



12) Find the function f g and state the domain of f g


13) Find the function f h and state the domain of f h .


14) Find the function h(f(x)) and state the domain of h(f(x)).


15) Evaluate ( )(4) f g , or state that it is undefined.


16) Evaluate ( ) (1) g h , or state that it is undefined.

Using the graphs of functions f and g to the right, find the
following values
17. f(g(-3))
18. g(f(5))
19. ( f g )(0)


33

Practice Problems
Use the graph to evaluate each expression or state that it is undefined:

1)
( )(4) f g


2) ( )( 3) g f


3)
( )( 1) f f








Given f(x) = 3x 5 and g(x) = 4 2x find each of the following:

4) (f g)(3)




5) (fg)(x)





6) (f(g(x))





7) g(f(1))










34


Section 2.6 One-to-One Functions; Inverse Functions
Remember that a relation "maps" elements of one set to another set.
A _________________ is when each x-value produces exactly one, unique y-value in a relation.

If that function has each y-value paired with exactly one, unique x-value then the function is _________

1. Sketch and name a function that is one-to-one.










2. Sketch and name a function that is not one-to-one.











Remember that you can tell that a graph is a function by using the vertical line test.
Similarly, you can use the ____________________ line test to tell if that function is one-to-one.


3.












35

Inverse Functions

If a function, f(x), is one-to-one, then we can find the inverse of that function, f
-1
(x), which when graphed the
function and its inverse are symmetric about the line y=x. The inverse of a function is found by interchanging
the coordinates in each ordered pair of the original function f(x).

I nverse Notation: f
-1
(x) is read, f inverse of x

Steps to finding the inverse function:
1. Replace the f(x) with y.
2. Interchange all xs with ys and interchange the y with x.
3. Solve for y.
4. Replace the y with f
-1
(x).

Find the inverse for each of the following functions.
4. f(x) = 3x 7 5. f(x) = 2 + 3 x











6. f(x) =
5
3

+
x
x
7. f(x) =
3 5
7 4

x
x













8. If f(x) is one-to-one, and f(2) = 7, then: a) f
-1
(7) = _________ and b) (f(2))
-1
= ___________



9. If g(x) is one-to-one, and g(5) = 14, then: a) g
-1
(14) = __________ and b) (g(5))
-1
= __________


36

10. Below are the graphs of two one-to-one functions. Sketch the graphs of their inverse functions.














To show that functions f and g are inverses, you must prove that f(g(x)) = x AND g(f(x)) = x


11. Determine whether the functions, f(x) = 4x + 4 and g(x) = 1
4

x
are inverse functions.












12. Determine whether the functions, f(x) = (x + 2)
3
+ 4 and g(x) = 2 4
3
x are inverse functions.














37


Thinking about the graphs of functions and their inverses:
Graphically for a function to be 1-1, the graph must pass the _______________________ line test.
Graphically to find the inverse of a function, it must reflect over the line ______________.

Thinking about the domain and range of functions and their inverses:
The domain of f(x) must become the ________________ of f
-1
(x).
The range of f(x) must become the _________________ of f
-1
(x).

Find the inverse, state the domain and range of f(x) and f
-1
(x) and sketch the graph of both.
13. f(x) = 1 x ; where x 1









Practice Problems
1. Show that f(x) = 3
4
1
x and g(x) = 4x + 12 are inverse functions.







2. Find the inverse function for f (x) =
x
x
5 1
2

.






38


3. Given the graph of f(x) below, answer the following questions.



























39

Section 3.1 Quadratic Functions

Quadratic Form: f(x) = ax
2
+ bx + c, a 0 Standard Form: f(x) = a(x h)
2
+ k, a 0
Vertex:
|
.
|

\
|
)
2
( ,
2 a
b
f
a
b
Vertex: (h, k)
Axis of symmetry: x =
a
b
2

Axis of symmetry: x = h
y-intercept: c y-intercept: let x=0 and solve for y

if a > 0, minimum, opens up if a > 0, minimum, opens up
if a < 0, maximum, opens down if a < 0, maximum, opens down

Domain: ( -,) Domain: ( -,)
Range: if a > 0, [y value of vertex, ) Range: if a > 0, [k, )
if a < 0, ( -, y value of vertex] if a < 0, ( -, k]


1. Rewrite each of the following quadratic equations in quadratic form.

a. f(x) = 2(x 3)
2
+ 4 b. f(x) = -3(x + 1)
2
2








2. Rewrite each of the following quadratic equations in standard form. Then state the vertex, the
axis of symmetry, domain and range.

a. f(x) = x
2
+ 8x + 5 b. f(x) = 2x
2
20x + 43









3. Find b and c, so that y = 2x
2
+ bx + c has a vertex at (-10,5).





40

*SOLVING a quadratic equation means the same thing as finding the x-intercepts, finding the roots, finding the zeros, or
finding the solutions.

4 WAYS TO SOLVE A QUADRATIC EQUATION:

1. Graph to find the x-intercepts *Remember to set the equation equal to zero!!
2. Factoring and set the factors equal to zero *Always keep the x
2
term positive!
3. Completing the square
4. Quadratic Formula:
a
ac b b
x
2
4
2

=




For #4-7, For each quadratic function, state if the graph opens up or down, find the x and y intercepts, the
vertex, the maximum or minimum value, the intervals that are increasing and decreasing, domain and range.

4. f(x) = x
2
x 6 5. f(x) = 2(x 3)
2
5















6. x
2
+ 8x = 7 7. 2x
2
+ 4x +9 = 0

















41


8. Analyze the graph to address the following about the quadratic function it represents.














Practice Problems:

1. Write the quadratic function, f(x) = x
2
6x + 3, in standard form.








2. For the function, f(x) = 2(x + 1)
2
+ 3, find each of the following:

a. Vertex

b. Axis of Symmetry

c. x-intercept(s)

d. y-intercept

e. Domain

f. Range



3. Find b and c, so that y = 2x
2
+ bx + c has a vertex at (4, -3).



42

Section 3.2 - Applications and Modeling of Quadratic Functions
Solve each of the following quadratic application problems:

1. A toy rocket is launched with an initial velocity of 44.1 meters per second from a 1-meter tall platform. The
height h of the object at any time t seconds after launch is given by the function
2
( ) 4.9 44.1 1 h t t t = + + .
a. How long after launch did it take the rocket to reach its maximum height?









b. What is the maximum height obtained by the toy rocket?









2. NASA launches a rocket at t = 0 seconds. Its height, in meters above sea-level, as a function of time is given
by h(t) = -4.9t
2
+ 319t + 241.
a. Assuming that the rocket will splash down into the ocean, at what time does splashdown occur?









b. How high above sea-level does the rocket get at its peak?










43

3. The length of a rectangular garden is 8 feet longer than its width. If the gardens perimeter is 208 feet, what
is the area of the garden in square feet?










4. Suppose that you have 3,000 feet of fencing to construct the rectangular pen that borders a river as seen
below.









a. What should the length and width of this fence be in order to maximize area?













b. What is the maximum area?






44

Practice Problems:
1. A model rocket was launched with an initial velocity of 44.1 meters per second from a 6-meter tall platform.
The height h of the object at any time t seconds after launch is given by the function:
2
( ) 4.9 44.1 6 h t t t , where h(t) is the height of the rocket and t is the time in seconds.

a. How long after launch did it take the rocket to reach its maximum height?





b. What was the maximum height obtained by the model rocket?





c. How long did it take for the rocket to hit the ground?








2. Suppose a rectangular garden is positioned against the side of a barn. You have 480 feet of fencing to
enclose the remaining three sides. What should the length and width be in order to maximize the area of this
garden and what is the maximum area?











45

Section 3.3 The Graphs of Polynomial Functions

What is a polynomial function?


How do you find the degree of a polynomial function?

What are the leading coefficient and constant coefficient of a polynomial function?









1. Determine which functions are polynomial functions. If the function is a polynomial function,
identify the degree, the leading coefficient, and the constant coefficient.

3 2
1
( ) 3 2
6
f x x x


5 3 2
7
( ) 4 3 3 g x x x x
x




2
3
( ) 4 6.5
7
h x x x




2 4
3 7
( )
9
x x x
k x


46

End Behaviors of Polynomial Functions
Leading Coefficient Test
If the leading coefficient is positive then the right side end behavior is __________
If the leading coefficient is negative then the right side end behavior is ___________

Degree of the Polynomial Test
If the degree of the polynomial is even then the left and right end behaviors go in the

_________________ direction
If the degree of the polynomial is odd then the left and right end behaviors go in the

__________________ direction

2. Use the end behavior of each graph to determine whether the degree is even or odd and whether the leading
coefficient is positive or negative.



3. State the direction of the left and right end behaviors.

a.
3 2
( ) 4 4 f x x x x = +
b.
4 3 2
( ) 2 3 f x x x x =
c.
5 2
( ) 3 5 2 1 f x x x x


47

Intercepts of Polynomial Functions
How do you find the y-intercept of a polynomial function?



How do you find the x-intercepts of a polynomial function?



What are some other names that we can use for x-intercepts?



4. Find the x and y-intercepts of the polynomial function
3 2
( ) 4 4 f x x x x = + .







5. Using the end behavior information from #3a and the intercepts found in #4 above,
sketch an example of what this graph will look like.





48

Zeros of a Polynomial Function and Their Multiplicities

If ( ) x c is a factor of a polynomial function then __________________________________.

Multiplicity
If ( )
k
x c is a factor of a polynomial function where k is a positive integer then

__________________________________________________________________________ .


Example: If (x 2)
3
is a factor of a polynomial, then x = _______ is a zero of the polynomial
and it has a multiplicity of _______.


If ( )
k
x c is a factor of a polynomial function where c is a real number and k is an integer such that:

a. k = 1, then ________________________________________________________

b. k 1, and

* If k is odd, then __________________________________________________

* If k is even, then _________________________________________________


















49

6. Find all real zeros of
2
( ) ( 1)( 1) f x x x x = . Determine the multiplicities of each zero, and decide
whether the graph touches or crosses at each zero. (Try to create a rough sketch of this graph.)












Turning Points

What is a turning point?



How many turning points can a graph have?



What is a turning point in which the graph changes from increasing to decreasing called?

What is a turning point in which the graph changes from decreasing to increasing called?








50

7.
Use all the information from this section: end behaviors, x and y intercepts, multiplicities and turning points
to sketch each of the following polynomial functions.

a
2
( ) 2( 2) ( 1) f x x x = +



















b
4 3 2
( ) 2 3 f x x x x =
















51


Practice Problems
1. Analyze the graph to address the following about the polynomial function it represents.

a) Is the degree of the polynomial function even or odd?


b) Is the leading coefficient positive or negative?


c) What is the value of the constant coefficient?


d) Identify the real zeros, and state the multiplicity of each.





e) Select from this list a possible function that could be represented by this graph.

i.
2
1
( ) ( 5)( 2)( 1)
20
( 4) f x x x x x = + +
ii.
2 2 2
1
( ) ( 5) ( 2) ( 1)
800
( 4) f x x x x x = + +
iii.
2
1
( ) ( 5)( 2)( 1)
20
( 4) f x x x x x = + +
iv.
2
1
( ) ( 5)( 2)( 1)
10
( 4) f x x x x x = + +








52

Section 3.4 Synthetic Division: The Remainder and Factor Theorems

The Division Algorithm: f(x) = d(x) q(x) + r(x)
where d(x) is the ____________________
q(x) is the ____________________
and r(x) is the ____________________

1. Divide the polynomial f(x) = 3x
2
4x 5 by the divisor d(x) = x 2 by using both long division and
synthetic division. Then write f(x) in the form f(x) = d(x) q(x) + r(x).









*Note When dividing polynomials by either long division or synthetic division, remember to always use a
place holder for any missing exponents within the polynomial.



2. Find f(2) for the function above in problem #1.






The Remainder Theorem



53

3. Use the remainder theorem to find the remainder when f(x) is divided by x c for each of the following:
a.
4 2
( ) 5 8 3 1; 2 f x x x x x = +








b.
3 2
( ) 3 5 5 6; 2 f x x x x x = + +





The Factor Theorem





4. Use the function,
3 2
( ) 2 7 2 3 f x x x x = + + to answer the following:
a. is (x + 3) a factor of f(x)?






b. what is the quotient once f(x) was divided by (x +3)?




c. find the remaining factors of f(x).



54


5. Find the remaining zero(s) of f(x) = x
3
x
2
14x + 24, given that c = 2 is a zero.








Practice Problems:
1. Use synthetic division to divide f(x) by x c then write f(x) in the form f(x) = (x c)q(x) + r
for f(x) = 2x
3
5x
2
+ 6; x + 1










2. Use the factor theorem to determine whether (x + 5) is a factor of x
3
+ 8x
2
+ 11x 20 .







3. Find the remaining zeros of
3 2
( ) 3 11 8 4; f x x x x = + + if c =2 is a zero with multiplicity 2.





55

Section 3.5 The Zeros of Polynomial Functions: The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

The Rational Zero Theorem - If a polynomial function, written in descending order of the exponents, has
integer coefficients, then any rational zero must be of the form p / q, where p is a factor of the constant term
and q is a factor of the leading coefficient.
The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra Every polynomial function of degree n 1 has at least one complex
zero.
Number of Zeros Theorem Every polynomial can have no more zeros than its degree.

1. Use the rational zeros theorem to determine the potential zeros of the polynomial function
4 3 2
( ) 4 7 9 10 f x x x x x = +








2. Completely factor the polynomial f(x) = x
3
+ 13x
2
+ 47x + 35 to find all the solutions.













56

3. Completely factor the polynomial f(x) = 6x
4
+ x
3
31x
2
5x + 5 to find all the solutions


















4. Find a third degree polynomial that has zeros 3, 6 and -1.
















57

Practice Problems:
1. Completely factor each polynomial below and the find all the zeros leaving them in rational form (no
decimal answers).
a. f(x) = x
3
6x + 4











b. f(x) = 4x
3
5x
2
23x + 6



















2. Find a fourth degree polynomial with roots of 1 and 2 with multiplicity 1; and with a root of 0 with
multiplicity 2.







58

Section 3.6 Rational Functions and Their Graphs
Rational Functions
) (
) (
) (
x Q
x P
x f = ; where Q(x) 0 C
Domain: All real numbers except for what makes the denominator equal to zero
Removable Discontinuities (Holes): A common factor to both the numerator and denominator
Roots (x-intercepts): The x-values that make the numerator equal to zero (if NOT a hole)
Y-intercept: constant term of P(x) / constant term of Q(x)
Vertical Asymptotes (V.A.): The x-values that makes the denominator equal to zero (if NOT a hole)

Horizontal Asymptote: If function is BOTTOM HEAVY, then y = 0
If function has EQUAL degrees, then y = ratio of leading coefficients
Slant Asymptote: If function is TOP HEAVY, then y = quotient of P(x)/Q(x) w/o remainder


Examples: State whether the following rational functions are top heavy, bottom heavy or equal.
Then find the horizontal or slant asymptote.

f(x) =
5 2
3
2
+

x
x




j(x) =
2 3
3 5
2
2
+

x
x




g(x) =
3 8
2 5
x
x
+
+




d(x) =
9
7 3
3
2
+

x
x




h(x) =
2
2 3 1
5
x x
x
+ +
+



59

For each of the following,
a) state the domain
b) state if there are any removable discontinuities (holes)
c) state the y-intercept
d) state the x-intercept(s), if any
e) state the vertical asymptotes, if any
f) state the horizontal or slant asymptotes
g) sketch the graph (use your calculator to find more ordered pairs if needed).
h) state if there is any symmetry about the y-axis, x-axis or the origin


1. f(x) =
4
3 2
x
x











2. f(x) =
2
2
4
6
x
x x

+










60

3. f(x) =
2
2 8
3 4
x
x x
















4. f(x) =
2
2 3 2
1
x x
x
+















61


5. f(x) =
2
2
2 11 5
25
x x
x
+















Practice Problems:
1. Use the function
3 2
3 2
2 9 18
( )
6 5 12
x x x
f x
x x x
+
=
+ +
, to answer each of the following:
a. Factor just the function in the numerator.





b. Factor just the function in the denominator.



62

c. Write the rational function in factored form.



d. What is the domain?


e. Are there any removable discontinuities?



f. What is the y-intercept?


g. Are there any roots?


h. Find the vertical asymptotes.


i. Will there be a horizontal or slant asymptote? Why?

j. What is the horizontal or slant asymptote?



k. Draw the final sketch of the graph below.




63

Section B.9 - Solving Polynomial and Rational Inequalities

Polynomial Inequalities

Steps for solving:
1. Move all terms to one side, and let P(x) = 0.
2. Solve the polynomial by factoring or graphing to find the roots (boundary points).
3. Draw a number line and mark each root (boundary point) correctly on the number line.
4. Pick a test point in each area between the boundary points and decide whether those values
are true or false in the original inequality.
5. The answers will be the areas that make the inequality TRUE.
6. Write your answer in interval notation.
*Remember If > or < is used, then you will use parenthesis ( ).
If or is used, then you will use brackets [ ].


Solve each of the following polynomial inequalities.
1. x
3
3x
2
+ 2x 0












2. x
2
+ 5x < 3 x
2













64

Rational Inequalities

Steps to Solving:
1. Move all terms to one side, so that the other side of the inequality = 0.
2. Simplify the rational expression using common denominators (or factor if just one fraction) so
that your function looks like
( )
( )
P x
Q x
.
3. Find all the roots from the numerator and all the vertical asymptotes from the denominator (these
will be your boundary points).
4. Draw a number line and mark all the boundary points on it.
5. Pick a test point in each area between the boundary points and decide whether those values
are true or false in the original inequality.
6. The answers will be the areas that make the inequality TRUE.
7. Write your answer in INTERVAL NOTATION.
*If or are your inequalities, then roots get [ ] and vertical asymptotes get ( ).
*If > or < are your inequalities, then all numbers get ( ).




Solve each of the following and write your answer in interval notation.
3.
4
0
1
x
x

>
+













4.
2
25
0
8
x
x








65

5. 2
3
2
>
+

x
x













Practice Problems:
1. Solve x
2
< 36.










2. Solve x
3
+ x
2
20x 0









66

3. Solve
7
0
3
x
x
+
<

.


















4. Solve
12
2
3 x
>
+
.















67

Section 4.1 Exponential Functions
Lets recall:

Properties of Exponents: Example:
a
x
a
y
= a
x+y
2
3
2
4
= ____________
x
x y
y
a
a
a

=
7
3
x
x
= ____________
(a
x
)
y
= a
xy
(x
5
)
3
= ___________
1
x
x
a
a

= x
-3
= ______________


Definition of Exponential Functions: f(x) = b
x
, b > 0, b 1


Characteristics of Exponential Functions:
If b > 1 If 0 < b < 1
Domain: Domain:
Range: Range:
Horizontal Asymptote: Horizontal Asymptote:

Sketch: Sketch:








68

1. Sketch and compare the graphs of:
y = 2
x

y = 3
x

y = 5
x












2. Sketch and compare the graphs of:

1
2
x
y
| |
=
|
\ .

1
3
x
y
| |
=
|
\ .

1
5
x
y
| |
=
|
\ .






69

3. Find the exponential function, f(x) = b
x
whose graph is given below:








4. Find an exponential function f(x) = Ca
x
whose graph goes through the points (0,2) and (2,18).
*HINT Find the values for C and a.















5. Find an exponential function f(x) = Ca
x
whose graph goes through the points (-1, 2) and (-3, 32).
*HINT Find the values for C and a.













70

6. Use the rules for transformations to sketch the graph of f(x) = 2
x+1
+ 3, and state the
domain and the range.











There are 2 ways to solve an exponential function.
1. Use the Method of Relating the Bases (which we will cover in this section)
2 . Use Logarithms (which we will cover in Section 4.5)


Method of Relating the Bases - If an exponential equation can be written in the form b
u
=b
v
,
then the exponents u and vmust be equal.
Notation: If b
u
=b
v
, then u =v


Solve each of the following exponential equations.
7.
1
8
16
x
=












71

8. 5 25
x
=














9.
2
1
(6 )
36
x x
x
+
=















10.
( )
8 4
4
1
3
27
x
x

=










72

Compound Interest Formula
(1 )
nt
r
A P
n
= +

Where A is the value after compounding (the amount you end up with)
P is the principal value (the amount you start with)
r is the interest rate (written as a decimal)
t is the time (in years for money)
For interest compounded.
annually, use n = ________
semi-annually, use n = ________
quarterly, use n = ________
monthly, use n = ________
daily, use n = ________

11. If you have $2500 and you put it in an account that pays 3.25% interest compounded monthly, how
much money will be in your account after 4 years?












12. If you invested a specific amount of money into an account paying 4% interest compounded annually, and
after 10 years you have $5000 in the account, how much money did you invest into this account originally?












73

Practice Problems:
1. Find an exponential function f(x) = Ca
x
whose graph goes through the points (0,3) and (2,147) .











2. Solve the equation
4 1
( 3) 27
x x+
=















3. If you have $1300 and you put it in an account that pays 2.75% interest compounded daily, how
much money will be in your account after 6 years?









74

Section 4.2 The Natural Exponential Function

Any positive number, b, where b 1, can be used
as the base of an exponential function. However,
there is one number that appears as the base in
exponential applications more than any other
number. This number is called the natural base
and is symbolized using the letter e. The number e
is an irrational number that is defined as the value of
expression
1
1
n
n
| |
+
|
\ .
as n approaches infinity. The
table to the right shows the values of this expression
for increasingly large values of n.



e _____________________

What do you think the graph of y =e
x
looks like? Domain? Range? Horizontal Asymptotes?












Use your calculator to evaluate the following. Round your answers to four decimal places.
1. e
2

2. e
-0.356

3. 100e
0.013


75

State the domain and range for each of the following exponential equations.
4. f(x) = 2
x-1
+ 5




5. f(x) = e
x+2





6. f(x) = 2
x
3




7. f(x) = e
x+4
1





Just as with any other bases for an exponential function, we can use the method of relating the bases
when the base is e.

Solve the following exponential equations using the method of relating the bases.
8.
3 1
1
x
e
e

=










76

9.
2
2 8
( )
x
e e =











10.
2
3
10
( )
x
x
e
e
e
=








Continuous Compound Interest
rt
A Pe =

where A is the amount after compounding (the amount you end up with)
P is the principal amount (the amount you start with)
r is the interest rate (written as a decimal)
t is the time (in years for money)


11. How much money would be in an account after 5 years if an original investment of $6000 was compounded
continuously at 4.5%? Round to the nearest cent.






77

12. The population of a small town follows the exponential growth model
.015
( ) 900
t
P t e = , where t is the
number of years after 1900. Answer the following questions, rounding each answer to the nearest whole
number.
a. What was the population of this town in 1900?




b. What was the population of this town in 1950?






c. Use this model to predict the population of this town in 2018.









13. Twenty years ago, the State of Idaho Fish and Game Department introduced a new breed of wolf into a
certain Idaho forest. The current wolf population in this forest is now estimated at 825, with a relative
growth rate of 12%. Answer the following questions, rounding each answer to the nearest whole number.
a. How many wolves did the Idaho Fish and Game Department introduce into this forest?








b. How many wolves can be expected after another 20 years?






78

Practice Problems:
1. Solve the exponential equation
2
1
x
e
e
=












2. State the domain and range of f(x) = e
x 7
+ 3.







3. Suppose your great-grandfather invested $500 earing 6.5% interest compounded continuously 100 years ago.
How much would his investment be worth today? Round to the nearest cent.












79

Section 4.3 Logarithmic Functions
A logarithm is an operator that wants you to find the exponent. (just like taking the square root
is an operator)

log
2
16 is read log base 2 of 16 and means 2 to what power is 16?
log
3
27 is read log base 3 of 27 and means 3 to what power is 27?
log
9
81 is read log base 9 of 81 and means 9 to what power is 81?

You can write an expression in either logarithmic form OR exponential form..
Logarithmic Form:
log
b
a p =

Exponential Form:
p
b a =


log
5
25 = 2 can be written as 5
2
= 25
log
6
36
1
= 2 can be written as _______________
____________ can be written as 3
-2
=
9
1

log
7
343 = 3 can be written as ________________


Logarithms and Exponential Functions are Inverse Functions of one another

Graph y = 2
x
and sketch its inverse function y = log
2
x. State the domain and range of each.








80

Write each of the following in logarithmic form.
1. 5
3
= 125

2. 1.7
3x
= z

Write each of the following in exponential form.
3. log
3
81 = 4

4. log
4
16 = y

Evaluate each of the following use the method of relating the bases in necessary.
5. log
5
25


6. log
3
1
27



7.
2
1
log
4




General Properties of Logarithms
1 log
b
b = 1
2 log
b
1 = 0
3 b
log
b
x
= x
4 log
b
b
x
= x

Use the properties of logarithms to evaluate each of the following.
8. log
3
3
4

9. log
12
12
10. 7
log
7
13

11. log
8
1
81

Common Logs logarithms that have a base of 10 (we do not write 10 with common logs) LOG
Natural Logs logarithms that have a base of e (we write these as ln) LN
Example: log
10
100 is written as log100 and log
10
28 is written as log28
log
e
50 is written as ln 50 and log
e
324 is written as ln 324

12. Use your calculator to find the following (round to 3 decimal places)
a) log 58 b) log 1000 c) ln 90 d) ln 1


e) ln e f) log
5
128 g) log
9
82 h) log
15
15


Rewrite each of the following exponential equations as an equation involving either a common logarithm
or natural logarithm.
13. e
0
=1


14. 10
3
= 1000


15. e
x
= y


16. 10
4x
= 2300


Rewrite each logarithmic equation as an exponential equation.
17. log100 = 2
18. ln 20 = x
19. log(x 1) = T
82


Domain of a Logarithm if f(x) = log
b
[g(x)]+k, then the domain of f(x) is the solution to g(x) >0
Range of a Logarithm is always ( - , )

Find the domain and range for each of the following functions.
20. log
2
(3x 5) + 2



21. log
3
(7 x) 1



22. log(5 + 2x)



Using the fact that exponential and logarithmic functions are inverse functions of one another, for each
problem below, find f
-1
(x).

23. f(x) = 4
x
24. f(x) = 6
x 2
+ 5









83


25. f(x) = log
3
x 26. f(x) = log
9
(x + 1) 2
















Practice Problems:

1. Evaluate log
2
64



2. Solve 5 25
x
=







3. Find the domain and range for f(x) = log
2
(2 3x) + 1







4. Find f
-1
(x) for each function
a. f(x) = 9
x+4
8 b. f(x) =
2
log ( 3) 5 x +






84

Section 4.4 Properties of Logarithms
Properties for Logarithms and Natural Logarithms

log
a
(MN) = log
a
M + log
a
N log
a
(
N
M
) = log
a
M log
a
N log
a
M
N
= N log
a
M
ln(MN) = lnM + lnN ln(
N
M
) = lnM lnN lnM
N
= N lnM

Change of Base Formula log
a
M =
log( )
log( )
M
a


Use the properties above to expand each expression below.
1. ln(5 ) x





2.
2
log (8 ) x






3.
5
12
log
x
| |
|
\ .





4.
5
ln
x
e
| |
|
\ .







85

True or False
5. ( ) log log log
b b b
u b u v + = +


6. ( ) log log log
b b b
u b u v =


7.
log
log log
log
b
b b
b
u
u v
v
=



8.
( )
log log
b b
r
u r u =


Expand each of the following using the properties of logarithms.
9. log
7
x
2
y
3




10.
3
4
7
ln
x
y
| |
|
\ .




Condense each of the following using the properties of logarithms.
11. ( )
1
log 1 3log log5
2
x z +




12.
( )
3 3 3
1
log 2log log 10
3
x y +

86

Use the change of base formula (or using the new software on the TI-84s) to evaluate each of the
following. Round 3 decimal places.
13. log
3
10



14. log
9
200



15.
3
log t






Practice Problems:
1. Expand ln
3 1 4
a c b







2. Condense 4log x + 4log(x
2
+ 1) 2log(x 1)






3. If ln a = 2, ln b = 3 and ln c = 5, evaluate ln
|
|
.
|

\
|

1 4
2
c b
a
using the properties of logarithms.




87

Section 4.5 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations
When you solve an exponential or logarithmic equation, you need to be able to tell what kind of problem it is:
Is it an exponential problem where you can get the same base? Like 4
x
= 16
x+3

Is it an exponential problem where you cannot get the same base? Like 3
x
= 5
x-2

Is it a logarithmic equation where each term is a logarithm? Like log x + log 5 = log 50
Is it a logarithmic equation where some terms are logs and others are numbers? Like log
2
x log
2
4 = 9

Can you see the differences?????
Type 1 I can get the same base Type 2 I cannot get the same base
Step 1: Rewrite using the same base Step 1: Simplify the exponential side to just a number raised
to a power by moving the rest to the other side
Step 2: Drop the base Step 2: Take the natural log (LN) of both sides
Step 3: Set the exponents equal Step 3: Use log properties to get the exponents out in front
Step 4: Solve for x Step 4: Solve for x
Type 3: Each term is a logarithm Type 4: Some terms are logs and others are numbers
Step 1: Condense each side down to one log Step 1: Put all log terms on one side, and all numbers on the
other
Step 2: Drop the logs Step 2: Condense the side with logs down to one log
Step 3: Solve for x Step 3: Rewrite the equation in exponential form
Step 4: Solve for x.

**FOR TYPES 3 and 4 You must check your answers to make sure that what you are taking the log of is
POSITIVE!!!! (That means you need to find the domain!)


Solve each of the following equations by deciding which type each equation is.
1. 5
x-1
= 3
x
2. 14e
x
3 = 20








3. 16
x-2
=
1
8
1
x
4.
2 1
1
1
3
27
+

| |
|
\ .
=
x
x






88

5. log
3
4 + log
3
x = log
3
9 + log
3
8 6. ln (x
2
- 5) = ln (x + 7)







7. log (x
2
4x 50) = 1 8. log
2
(x+2) 5 = log
2
(x 2)









9. 2log
3
x = log
3
4 + 2 10. ( )
5 5
2log 1 log 64 = x









89

Practice Problems:
1. Solve
5
25 175
x
e









2. Solve ( )
7 7
log 1 log 12 x =









3. Solve
1
8
16
x
=












4. Solve
2 2
log ( 10) log ( 6) 5 + + + = x x






90

Section 4.6 Applications of Exponential and Logarithmic Equations
We will use our two interest formulas from earlier this chapter..










1. How long will it take (in years and months) for an investment to double if it earns 7.5%
compounded monthly?











2. Suppose an investment of $5,000 compounded continuously grew to an amount of $5,130.50 in 6
months. Find the interest rate, and then determine how long it will take for the investment to grow
to $6,000. Round the interest rate to the nearest hundredth of a percent and the time to the nearest
hundredth of a year.







91


Exponential Growth: When a population grows at a rate proportional to the size of the current
population, the following exponential growth function is used.
0
( ) =
kt
P t Pe where k >0 and
0
P
(sometimes called P-not) is the initial population. The graph of this exponential growth function is
seen below.



3. The population of a small town grows at a rate proportional to its current size. In 1900, the
population was 900. In 1920, the population had grown to 1,600. What was the population of this
town in 1950? Round to the nearest whole number.






















92

Exponential Decay


A graph of this exponential decay function is seen below








One very useful application of the exponential decay model is half-life.


4. Suppose that a meteorite is found containing 4% of its original krypton-99. If the half-life of
krypton-99 is 80 years, how old is the meteorite? Round to the nearest year.











93

Practice Problems:
1. What is the half-life of a substance if we start with 108 grams in an experiment and after 270 minutes our
substance has decayed to 6.75 grams?







2. If 3000 dollars is invested in a bank account at an interest rate of 7 per cent per year, compounded
continuously. How many years will it take for your balance to reach 50,000 dollars?








3. Suppose a culture of 100 bacteria is put in a petri dish and the culture doubles every hour. How long
would it take for there to be 5000 bacteria in the dish?








4. What is the interest rate necessary for an investment to quadruple after 18 years of continuous
compound interest?





94

Section 5.1 An Introduction to Angles: Degrees and Radian Measures

Vertex common __________________ shared by 2 rays
Initial Side the ________________ ray
Terminal Side the _________________ ray



Positive Angles angles that move ____________________________ from the initial side
Negative Angles angle that move ______________________ from the initial side



Standard Position when the vertex of an angle is positioned at the _______________ of a
coordinate plane and the initial side is on the positive x-axis.










Degree Measure one rotation around a circle is equal to __________
An acute angle is an angle whose measure is between ________ and ___________
A right angle is an angle whose measure is ___________
An obtuse angle is an angle whose measure is between _________ and ___________
A quadrantal angle is and angle whose terminal side lies on ________________________
A straight angle is an angle whose measure is ___________


95

1. In degree mode, sketch each of the following angles in standard position.
a. 90








b. 45








c. 120








d. 400









e. 370










96

2. Sketch each of these angles below: 60, 300, and 420
What do you notice about each terminal side?






Coterminal Angles - angles in standard position having the same __________________side.
Formula to find coterminal angles in degree measure: 360
The angle with least positive measure that is coterminal with an angle, , is denoted by
C



3. Find 2 positive and 2 negative coterminal angles for the angle = 215











4. Find
C
(the angle of least positive measure) for = 697











97


Radian Measure one rotation around a circle is equal to ________radians.

One Radian is the measure of the arc length of an angle given in standard position. (it takes
approximately 6.24 radians to complete one rotation of a circle)






5. On the circle above, mark locations for radians, 2 radians, /2 radians, and /4 radians.

Then mark locations for 1 radian, 2 radians, 3 radians, 4 radians, 5 radians, and 6 radians.





6. Sketch each of these angles below in standard position:
3
4
t
,
3
2
t
, and
3
t



98

7. Sketch each of these angles below in standard position:
3
4
t
,
3
2
t
, and
3
t





Conversions

To convert from degrees to radians multiply by _____________________

To convert from radians to degrees multiply by _____________________


8. Convert 135 to radians.



9. Convert 330 to radians.



10. Convert
5
6
t
radians to degrees.



11. Convert
7
4
t
radians to degrees.




12. Convert 3 radians to degrees.







99

REVISITING..
Coterminal Angles - angles in standard position having the same __________________side.
Formula to find coterminal angles in radian measure: 2
The angle with least positive measure that is coterminal with an angle, , is denoted by
C


13. Find one positive and one negative coterminal angle to an angle with measure =
7
6
t









14. Find
C
(the angle of least positive measure) for =
23
6
t








Practice Problems:
1. Sketch an angle whose measure is = 500 in standard position.


2. Find
C
(the angle of least positive measure) for = 890



3. In what quadrant does the angle with measure = 5 radians lie?



4. Convert 480 to a radian measure.

100

Section 5.3 The Unit Circle

A Trigonometric Ratio is a relationship between any two sides of a right triangle.

Definitions of Trigonometric Functions
(given an ordered pair (x,y) and radius r)





1. Given that
21
sin
5
t = and
2
cos
5
t = , find the values of the remaining four trigonometric functions
using identities.











2. Given that
3
cos
4
u = , find the values of the remaining five trig ratios.







101

3. Given that the ordered pair (5,7) lies on the terminal side of an angle in standard position, find the
values of the six trigonometric functions for the angle formed.
















From Geometry:

We learned the equation of a circle in standard form with center (h,k) and radius, r.
(x h)
2
+ (y k)
2
= r
2

The Unit Circle is a circle with radius = 1 whose center goes through the origin (0,0)



So we can write the equation of the unit circle as __________________________


4. Determine the missing coordinate of a point
1
,
8
y
| |

|
\ .
that lies on the graph of the unit circle
in Quadrant 3.








102

5. Determine the missing coordinate of a point
3
,
2
x
| |
|
|
\ .
that lies on the graph of the unit circle
in Quadrant 1.










6. Verify that the point
1 3 7
( , )
8 8
lies on the graph of the unit circle.

















So, if the radius, r, is replaced with 1 for the unit circle, then we have the following:
















103

Lets review the Special Right Triangles on the Unit Circle..

















So it is important to remember that on the unit circle:
the ordered pair (x,y) is the same as the ordered pair (cos , sin )
104


Evaluate each of the following trigonometric expressions found on the unit circle. Give the exact answer.

7. cos 210


8. sin 330


9. tan 150


10. sec 30


11. csc 180


12. cot 315


13. sin
3
4
t



14. cot
2
3
t



15. csc
3
2
t



16. sec
11
6
t



17. cos
5
4
t



18. tan
13
6
t



105

If an angle is NOT on the unit circle or if the directions allow you to round your answers to four decimal places
you can use your calculator to evaluate. Just remember to check and make sure you are in the correct MODE
before evaluating.

Evaluate each trigonometric expression using a calculator. Round each answer to four decimal places.

19. cos 162


20. sin 82


21. tan 273


22. sec 19


23. csc 305


24. sin
5
9
t



25. tan
7
t



26. cot
8
11
t



27. sec
9
10
t










106

Practice Problems:
1. Use the blank unit circle below and fill in all the blanks without looking at the completed unit circle. You
should be able to complete this on your own to do well from here on out.



107

Evaluate each of the following trigonometric expressions found on the unit circle. Give the exact answer.
2. sin 210


3. cos 330


4. tan 120


5. sec 60


6. cot 180


7. tan
3
4
t



8. cos
2
3
t



9. csc
2
t



10. sec
11
6
t


Evaluate each trigonometric expression using a calculator. Round each answer to four decimal places.

11. sin 234

12. tan 273

13. sec 191

14. csc 322

15. cos
4
11
t

16. tan
7
t

17. csc
13
3
t

108

Sections 5.4 and 8.1 Right Triangle Trigonometry
Reference Angle the positive acute angle formed by the closest x-axis and the terminal side of the given
angle,
The measure of the reference angle, denoted by
R
, depends on the quadrant in which the terminal side of lies.

There are 4 cases:
Case 1 If is located in the 1
st
quadrant, then the measure of
R
is the same as the measure of
Case 2 If is located in the 2
nd
quadrant, then the measure of
R
is:
180 if in degrees, or if in radiams.
Case 3 If is located in the 3
rd
quadrant, then the measure of
R
is:
180 if in degrees, or if in radians.
Case 4 If is located in the 4
th
quadrant, then the measure of
R
is:
360 if in degrees, or 2 if in radians.






For each of the following given angles, determine the reference angle.
1. =
5
3
t






2. =
23
8
t







109

3. =
15
6
t






4. =
31
12
t









Now we will look at right triangles that are NOT necessarily positioned in standard position. This means that we
cannot use the unit circle to evaluate, but we can use the trigonometric ratios as they work on ALL right
triangles.


Given the right triangles below, evaluate the six trigonometric functions for angle .

5.






110



6.




7. Suppose that the point (-4, -6) is on the terminal side of an angle . Find the six trigonometric functions of
. (Remember to pay attention to what quadrant you are in and the signs of your
trig ratios.)







8. Suppose is a positive angle in standard position such that sin < 0 and sec > 0
a. Determine the quadrant in which the terminal side of angle lies.






b. Find the exact value of tan if sec = 5



111

Applications of Right Triangles

9. Suppose that the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is 11 inches. If one of the acute angles
is 37 , find the values of all the missing parts of the triangle. Round to two decimal places.









10. If a right triangle has a smallest angle of 18 and the shorter leg is 4 inches, find the values of all the missing
parts of the triangle. Round to two decimal places.









Angle of Elevation




Angle of Depression




112

11. The angle of elevation to the top of a flagpole measured by a digital protractor is
9
t
radians from a point on
the ground 90 feet away from its base. Find the height of the flagpole. Round to two decimal places










12. A man standing at the top of a 100 foot cliff spots a fire in the distance at an angle of depression of 53.
Find the distance the fire is from the base of the cliff.












13. A man flies a kite and lets out 100 feet of string. The angle of elevation of the string is 52 .

a. How high off the ground is the kite?
b. How far away is the man from the spot directly under the kite?









113

Practice Problems:
1. Find the reference angle for = 262







2. Find the reference angle for =
16
5
t










3. Suppose that the point (7, -2) is on the terminal side of an angle . Find the exact value of the six
trigonometric functions of .



















114

4. From an airplane at an altitude of 1200 m, the angle of depression to a building on the ground measures 28.
Find the distance from the plane to the building.


















5. Find the exact value of csc if cos =
25
7
and is in Quadrant 2.




















115

Section 6.1 The Graphs of Sine and Cosine

What is a Periodic Function? a function that repeats its values in regular intervals or periods.
The period of a function is equal to the length it takes for the function to repeat.
The amplitude of a periodic function is one-half of the positive difference between the maximum and minimum
values of the function.


The Sine Function and Its Properties
Take the sine values from the unit circle and graph them below:







y =sin x y = Asin(Bx C) D
odd function: f(-x) = - f(x) Symmetric about the origin
Period =
2
B
t
Amplitude = A
Domain: ( -, ) Range: [ D A, D + A]

1. Since sin x is a periodic function with a period of 2, find two other expressions equivalent to
11
sin
6
t | |
|
\ .
.



2. Since sin x is an odd function, find one other expressions equivalent to
3
sin
5
t | |

|
\ .
.


116

The Cosine Function and Its Properties
Take the cosine values from the unit circle and graph them below:







y =cos x y = Acos(Bx C) D
even function: f(-x) = f(x) Symmetric about the y-axis
Period =
2
B
t
Amplitude = A
Domain: ( -, ) Range: [ D A, D + A]

3. Since cos x is a periodic function with a period of 2, find two other expressions equivalent to
9
sin
10
t | |
|
\ .
.




4. Since cos x is an even function, find one other expressions equivalent to
5
cos
13
t | |

|
\ .
.





Determine the amplitude, period, domain and range for each of the following trigonometric functions.
5.
2
cos
3
y x =




117



6. 4sin(2 ) y x =





7. 3cos( 5 ) y x = (*use odd/even rules to keep B positive)







Practice Problems:

1. Determine another cosine function equivalent to y = cos(-8x) using the fact that cosine is an
even function.




2. Determine the amplitude, period, domain and range for
1
sin(2 )
5
y x = .






3. Determine the amplitude, period, domain and range for 2cos( 3 ) y x =







118

Section 6.2 More on Graphs of Sine and Cosine: Phase Shift


sin( ) y A Bx C D = cos( ) y A Bx C D =

What is the phase shift? Its the horizontal shift in the graph
Phase Shift =
C
B
(the opposite of C / positive B)

Vertical Shift is the distance the center of the graph moves up or down

Vertical Shift = D


For each trigonometric function below, state the period, domain, range, amplitude, phase shift and vertical
shift.
1. cos( ) y x t =













2. 3sin( )
2
y x
t
= +













119

3. 2sin(2 ) 1
4
y x
t
=
















4. cos( 3 ) 4 y x t = +
















5.
2
cos( 2) 3
3
y x t =







120

Practice Problems:
State the period, domain, range, amplitude, phase shift and vertical shift for the following trigonometric
functions.
1. 4sin(5 ) 6
3
y x
t
=














2. sin( 4) 3 y x t = +













3. 1 ) 4
8
cos( 3 = x y
t








121

Section 6.3 - The Graphs of Tangent, Cosecant, Secant and Cotangent
Amplitude = A Always make B positive Phase Shift =
B
C


Period Odd/Even Functions
sin, cos, csc, sec: P =
2
B
t
Even Functions: Cosine, Secant
tan, cot: P =
B
t
Odd Functions: Sine, Cosecant, Tangent, Cotangent

Principal Cycle Domain and Range
Secant:
2
t
< Bx C <
2
t
Domain { asymp + period k} Range (-, D-A] U [D+A,)
Tangent:
2
t
< Bx C <
2
t
Domain { asymp + period k } Range (-,)

Cosecant: 0 < Bx C < Domain { asymp + period k } Range (-, D-A] U [D+A,)

Cotangent: 0 < Bx C < Domain { asymp + period k } Range (-,)

k represents any integer value
122

Complete each of the following:

1. 3sin(2 ) 1 y x = +

Amplitude
Period
Phase shift
Domain
Range


2. tan(4 )
4
y x
t
=

Principal Cycle
Period
Phase shift
Domain
Range


123

3. 4csc( ) 3
2 10
x
y
t
=

Principal Cycle
Period
Phase shift
Domain
Range

4. sec( 2 ) 5
3
x
y t = +

Principal Cycle
Period
Phase shift
Domain
Range



Practice Problems:
Complete #1-12 on the following two pages.
124

Complete each of the following.


1. y=sin(x-/8)+4
A ___________
Per ________
PS _________
D__________
R ___________

2. y= -3sin(6x+/10) - 1
A ___________
Per ________
PS _________
D__________
R ___________

3. y= cos(x/2+/5) + 1
A ___________
Per ________
PS _________
D__________
R ___________


4. y=4cos(2x-/7) 2
A ___________
Per ________
PS _________
D__________
R ___________

5. y=5tan(3x+/4)
PC___________
Per ________
PS _________
D__________
R ___________

6. y=tan(x/4-/10)
PC ___________
Per ________
PS _________
D__________
R ___________


125




7. y=cot(x-/6)
PC ___________
Per ________
PS _________
D__________
R ___________

8. y=cot(x/3+/8)
PC ___________
Per ________
PS _________
D__________
R ___________

9. y=3sec(2x-/6) + 1
PC ___________
Per ________
PS _________
D__________
R ___________



10 y=2sec(x/4+/20) 1
PC ___________
Per ________
PS _________
D__________
R ___________

11. y=3csc(3x-/8) 4
PC ___________
Per ________
PS _________
D__________
R ___________

12. y=2csc(x/4+/10) + 2
PC ___________
Per ________
PS _________
D__________
R ___________
126

Sections 6.4 and 6.5 - Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The value of sin
-1
x and tan
-1
x, must be in
(

2
,
2
t t
Notation: cos
-1
= arccos sin
-1
= arcsin tan
-1
=
arctan
The value of cos
-1
x , must be in [0, ] sec
-1
= arcsec csc
-1
= arccsc cot
-1
=
arccot

For cosine and sine, -1 x 1


Remember that for inverse functions the domain and range are switched. Lets look at the graphs.
































127


Finding the inverse of a trig function means to find the angle that has that trig function value.

1. Find each exact value of the following: (refer to the unit circle if you need help.)

sin
-1
|
.
|

\
|
2
1
= ___________ cos
-1
|
.
|

\
|

2
1
= ___________ tan
-1
( ) 3 = ____________
cos
-1
(
2
3
) = ___________ arcsin (
2
3
) = ___________ arccot (-1) = ____________

csc
-1
( ) 2
= ___________ sec
-1
|
.
|

\
|
3
2
= ___________ tan
-1
|
|
.
|

\
|

3
1
= ____________
cot
-1
( 3 ) = ___________ arccsc ( 2 ) = ___________ arccot (0) = ____________

cos
-1
(
2
1

) = ___________ arcsin (0) = ___________ arcsec


( ) 2
= ____________


Using the Calculator:

arccos x, use: cos
-1
x -1 x 1 arcsec x, use: cos
-1
(
x
1
) |x| 1

arcsin x, use: sin
-1
x -1 x 1 arccsc x, use: sin
-1
(
x
1
) |x| 1 .

arctan x, use: tan
-1
x arccot x, use: tan
-1
(
x
1
) .



2. Find the measure of each of the following angles, in radians, rounded to 4 decimal places.


sin
-1
(0.3) = _____________ tan
-1
(54) = _______________ arccos (0.83) = ______________
csc
-1
(4.1) = _____________ arccot (-1) = ______________ arcsec (-2) = _______________
arctan (0) = _____________ csc
-1
(0.5) = _______________ arccot (20) = _______________
cot
-1
(1.5) = _____________ sin
-1
(-0.95) = ______________ sec
-1
(-17) = ________________
128

3. Find the exact value of the trig ratio or angle for each of the following composition functions.
a. cos (sin
-1
(
2
1
)) = ______________________ = _______________________
b. tan (cos
-1
(
2
3
)) = ____________________ = _______________________
c. tan
-1
(tan(
6
7t
)) = ______________________ = _______________________
d. cos
-1
(cos(
4
t
)) = _______________________ = _______________________
e. sec (sin
-1
(
2
3
)) = ____________________ = _______________________

4. Rewriting trigonometric functions as an expression of a given variable.
a. Rewrite the function, tan(cos
-1
|
|
.
|

\
|
5
u
) as an algebraic expression involving the variable u.




b. Rewrite the function, cos(sin
-1
|
.
|

\
|
u
3
) as an algebraic expression involving the variable u.




c. Rewrite the function, sin(cos
-1
( ) u 9 ) as an algebraic expression involving the variable u.


129

Practice Problems:
1. Find the exact angle value of arccos (
2
3
)

2. Find the exact angle value of sec
-1
( ) 2


3. Find the exact angle value of tan
-1
( 3 )

4. Find sin
-1
(0.36) to 4 decimal places.

5. Find csc
-1
(15) to 4 decimal places.

6. Find arccot(3.2) to 4 decimal places.

7. Find the exact value of csc(cos
-1
(
2
3
))



8. Rewrite the function, tan(cos
-1
2
7u
) as an algebraic expression involving the variable u.









130

Section 7.1 Trigonometric Identities
You need to learn ALL of these identities.
Reciprocal Identities
csc u =
1
sinu
sec u =
1
cosu
cot u =
1
tanu

sin u =
1
cscu
cos u =
1
secu
tan u =
1
cot u


Quotient Identities
tan u =
sin
cos
u
u
cot u =
cos
sin
u
u


Pythagorean Identities
2 2
cos sin 1 u u + =
2 2
1 tan sec u u + =
2 2
cot 1 csc u u + =

Odd/Even Identities
Odd: sin( ) sin x x = tan( ) tan x x = csc( ) csc x x = cot( ) cot x x =
Even: cos( ) cos x x = sec( ) sec x x =

Simplify each of the following down to one term using the identities above.
1. cot sin x x





2. cos csc u u




3.
2 2
cos (sec 1) x x

131

4. sec
2
x tan
2
x + sec
2
x





5.
2
2
sin
sin csc
cos
u
u u
u
+








Lets talk about some guidelines that can be helpful when trying to verify identities.
1) You must have your basic identities memorized!
2) You should work with the more complicated looking side first. Remember that
you cant move terms from one side to the other or multiply both sides by
something.
3) Typically, you will want to add fractions together, simplify fractions so that
they have monomials in the denominator, and/or factor when possible.
4) Look for opportunities to use trigonometric identities to get functions that are
the same or that are paired up like sine and cosine, or tangent and secant, or
cotangent and cosecant or that are paired up with the other side of the identity.
5) Another strategy might be to convert everything to sines and cosines.
6) You may want to multiply the numerators and denominators of fractions by
something in order to create the difference of two squares like multiplying
(1 + sin x) by (1 sin x) to get (1 sin
2
x) which equals cos
2
x.
7) If nothing comes to mind just try something. It may lead somewhere or it might
not but either way you will gain some insight about how to verify the identity.
132

Verify that each of the following is true.

6. ( ) sin cot tan sec u u u u + =









7.
2 2 2 2
sin cot cos csc u u u u + + =







8.
2
sin
sec cos
cos
u
u u
u
=












133

9.
2
2
2
sec 1
sin
sec
x
x
x

=







10.
2
cos( )
sin( ) csc sin
sec
u
u u u
u

+ =











11.
2 2
sin tan cot cos t t t t =







12.
2
sec csc
sec
cot
u u
u
u
=


134

13.
2
1 1
2sec
1 sin 1 sin
u
u u
+ =
+









14.
2 3
sin cos sin sin x x x x =










15.
2csc cos
3cot
sec sin
u u
u
u u
+ =







135

Practice Problems:
Simplify each of the following down to one term using the trig identities.
1. tan cos u u



2.
2
1
cot tan
tan
u u
u
+





Verify that each of the following is true.
3.
tan
sin
sec
u
u
u
=





4. ( ) tan cos cot sin 1 u u u u + = +




5.
2
1 1
2csc
1 cos 1 cos
u
u u
+ =
+



136

Section 7.2 The Sum and Difference Formulas
You need to learn ALL of the sum and difference formulas. We will use these to find exact values of
trigonometric expressions.
Sum and Difference Identities
sin( ) sin cos cos sin u v u v u v + = + sin( ) sin cos cos sin u v u v u v =
cos( ) cos cos sin sin u v u v u v + = cos( ) cos cos sin sin u v u v u v = +
tan tan
tan( )
1 tan tan
u v
u v
u v
+
+ =


tan tan
tan( )
1 tan tan
u v
u v
u v

=
+


Find the exact value of each of the following using the sum and/or difference formulas.
1. sin(120 + 135)








2. sin
6 4
t t | |

|
\ .







3. cos(225 150)





137

4. cos
5
3 4
t t | |
+
|
\ .






Use the sum and/or difference formulas to simplify down to one expression, then find the exact value of
each expression.
5. sin(12 )cos(78 ) cos(12 )sin(78 ) +








6.
7 5 7 5
cos( ) cos( ) sin( )sin( )
12 12 12 12
t t t t
+






7.
tan260 tan40
1 tan260 tan40
+









138


Since we only have exact values for multiples of 30 and 45 (
6
t
and
4
t
), and we need exact values in
the identities we use, then we will need to re-write other angles using combinations of these.

For example 15 can be written as (45 - 30) or (60 - 45)

8. Rewrite each of the following using multiples of 30 and/or 45

a) 75


b) 105


c)
12
5t



d)
12
7t


Find the exact value of each of the following expressions without the use of a calculator.
9. cos( 75)






10. sin
7
12
t | |
|
\ .









139

11. tan(15)









12. Suppose that the terminal side of angle o lies in Quadrant IV and the terminal side of angle | lies
in Quadrant III. If
4
cos
7
o = and
8
sin
13
| = , find the exact value of cos( ) o | + .
(Hint: Find x, y and r for , and x, y and r for .)




















140

13. Suppose that o is an angle such that
5
tan
7
o = and cos 0 o < . Also, suppose that | is an angle such
that
4
sec
3
| = and csc 0 | > . Find the exact value of sin( ) o | + .










14. Find the exact value of
1 1
1
cos[tan (1) cos ( )]
2

+






















141


Practice Problems:
1. Use the sum or difference formula to evaluate sin105 exactly.





2. Use the sum or difference formula to show that
cos( 2 ) cos u t u + =
is true.






3. Use the sum and difference identities in reverse to rewrite sin3 cos7 cos3 sin7 x x x x
as a single trigonometric function.







4. Find the exact value of cos( + ) if sin =
3
2
, cos < 0, and if sin =
10
1
, tan > 0.









142

Section 7.3 The Double and Half-Angle Formulas
Please learn the following identitieswe will be using these to simplify expressions and to verify proofs.
Double Angle Identities and Half Angle Identities
sin(2 ) 2sin cos u u u =
1 cos
sin
2 2
u u | |
=
|
\ .

2 2
2
2
cos(2 ) cos sin
2cos 1
1 2sin
u u u
u
u
=
=
=

1 cos
cos
2 2
u u + | |
=
|
\ .

2
2tan
tan(2 )
1 tan
u
u
u
=


1 cos sin
tan
2 sin 1 cos
u u u
u u
| |
= =
|
+
\ .


Rewrite each expression as the sine, cosine, or tangent of a double angle. Then evaluate the expression
without using a calculator
1.
2 2
11 11
cos ( ) sin ( )
12 12
t t






2. 2sin67.5 cos67.5





3.
2
2tan( )
8
1 tan ( )
8
t
t








4.
2
2cos 105 1


143

5. Suppose that the terminal side of an angle u lies in Quadrant II such that
5
sin
7
u = .
Find the values of sin2u , cos 2u , and tan2u .
















Use the half-angle formulas to evaluate each expression without using a calculator.
6.
7
sin( )
8
t





7. cos( 15 )




8.
11
tan( )
12
t




144


9. Find the exact value of
1
1 1
cos sin
2 2

| | | |
| |
\ . \ .
without the use of a calculator.








Prove each of the following
10.
sin 2
cot
1 cos 2
u
u
u
=















11.
cos 2
cot tan
sin cos
u
u u
u u
=







145

Practice Problems:
1. Suppose
4
sin , ,
5 2
where
t
u u t = < < find the exact value of sin 2, cos 2 and tan 2.




















2. Find the exact value of sin(22.5).















146

Section 7.5 Trigonometric Equations
It is now time to solve equations that have trigonometric functions. We can solve these using some algebra or
by simply graphing them on our calculators.

To solve equations using algebra you will need to get the equations into factors equal to zero with each factor
containing only one trigonometric function.
General Strategy:
1. Get the equation equal to zero
2. Convert all trigonometric functions into the same function by using
identities or if that isnt possible, then factor the equation into factors where
each has only one type of trigonometric function.
3. Set each factor equal to zero and solve for the trigonometric function.
4. Lastly identify which angles make each equation true.

For example..lets solve the following using this method.
1. 2sin 1 = 0







2. 3 tan 1 0 u + =







147

However, if the equations become more complicated, you may choose to solve them by graphing.
There are 2 types of equations to solve:

1. Solve for a GENERAL formula
a. Set your MODE to DEGREES
b. Find the period and set your [XMIN, XMAX] values to [0, period]
c. Enter the left side of the equation into Y1 and the right side into Y2
d. Find where the two graphs intersect
e. Covert the answers to radians and add periodk to each answer
2. Solve for a SPECIFIC solution on a given interval
a. Set your MODE to DEGREES and set your XMIN and XMAX to the interval values
b. Enter the left side of the equation into Y1 and the right side into Y2
c. Find where the two graphs intersect
d. Convert the answers to radians


Lets try a few using these methods.
Determine a general formula (or formulas) for the solutions to each of the following equations. Then,
determine the specific solutions (if any) on the interval [0, 2)
3. tan( ) 1 0 u + =












4. cos(2 ) 1 u =











148

5. 2sin(3 ) 2 0 u + =













6.
2
cos sin cos u u u =












Practice Problems:

Determine a general formula (or formulas) for the solutions to each of the following equations. Then,
determine the specific solutions (if any) on the interval [0, 2)
1. sin cos 1 u u + =










149




2. 2 cos 2 1 0 u + =

















3.
2
2sin 3cos 3 u u = +

















150

Section 8.2 The Law of Sines

All of the triangles that we have worked with so far have been right triangles. When we solved them, we were
able to use our trigonometric ratios: sine, cosine and tangent. We were able to do that because each triangle
had a right angle.
What happens when we do not have a right angle within the triangle?
What is an oblique triangle?






To solve an oblique triangle means we are to determine all angles and all sides of the triangle. To do this we
must use either the Law of Sines or the Law of Cosines.
In this section, we will be using the Law of Sines to solve the oblique triangles.

The Law of Sines

If A, B, and C are the measures of the angles of any triangle and if a, b, and c are the lengths
of the sides opposite the corresponding angles, then


sin sin sin
a b c
A B C
= = .

An alternative version of the formula can also be used:


sin sin sin A B C
a b c
= =






A B
C
c
a
b
151

But before we can use these, it is necessary to consider when we can use them. To solve any oblique triangle,
at least three pieces of information must be known. If S represents a known side of a triangle and if A
represents a known angle of a triangle, then there are six possible situations where only three pieces of
information can be known. The six possible cases are shown below.


Because the Law of Sines uses proportions that involve both angles and sides, the following pieces of
information are needed to solve an oblique triangle using the Law of Sines:

1. The measure of one angle must be known.
2. The length of the side opposite the known angle must be known.
3. At least one more side or one more angle must be known.

The first three cases listed in the table above involve situations where this information is known. Therefore,
the Law of Sines can be used to solve the SAA, ASA and SSA cases.



152

1.









We will now solve a few triangles for each of the three cases where the Law of Sines can be used.

First we will look at SAA.
2. Solve the triangle below. Round your answers to one decimal place.















153


Next, we will look at ASA
3. Solve triangle ABC is B = 38, C = 72 and a = 7.5 cm. Round all your answers to one decimal place.












Lastly, we will look at SSA..
The last case, SSA takes a little more work. Before we can solve a triangle given SSA, we first must make
sure that we even have a triangle. Sometimes the lengths given in a SSA triangle may result in one triangle,
two triangles or no triangle at all. So we need to investigate the information given before we solve. Therefore,
this is known as The Ambiguous Case.

Lets start with this proportion:
sin sin B A
b a
= and solve for sin B
sin sin
sin
sin
B A
b a
b A
B
a
=
=

Because the values of b, a and sin A are always positive, it follows that the value of sin B is always positive.
Therefore, there are three possibilities for the value of sin B.
1. sin B > 1
2. sin B = 1
3. 0 < sin B < 1
Look at the following table to see what happens within each case..
154




So
with
SSA, we must first decide how many triangles we have before we can solve.

For each of the following, first decide if 0, 1 or 2 triangles exist, then solve the triangle(s).
4. a = 10 ft, b = 28 ft, A = 29









155

5. a = 13 cm, b = 7.8 cm, A = 67











6. B = 11.3in, c = 15.5 in, B = 34.7
















156


Solve each of the following problems using the Law of Sines.
7. To determine the width of a river, forestry workers place markers on opposite sides of the river at
points A and B. A third marker is placed at point C, 200 feet away from point A forming triangle ABC.
If the angle in triangle ABC at point C is 51 and if the angle in triangle ABC at point A is 110 , then
determine the width of the river rounded to the nearest tenth of a foot.











8. Jack is on one side of a 200-foot-wide canyon and Jill is on the other. Jack and Jill can both see the
trail guide at the bottom of the canyon. Jack sees the trail guide at an angle of depression of 60
degrees. Jill can see the trail guide at an angle of depression of 51 degrees. How far is Jack from the
trail guide? How far is Jill from the trail guide?










157

Practice Problems:
Determine whether each of the following results in 0, 1 or 2 triangles. Do NOT solve the triangles.
1. C = 13, A = 22, c = 9 in.





2. A = 70, c = 26 cm., a = 25 cm.





3. B = 84, a = 18 ft., b = 9 ft.




Solve each of the following triangles.
4. C = 63, b = 9 cm., c = 12 cm.











5. B = 95, b = 24 in., a = 5 in.







158

Section 8.3 The Law of Cosines
In the previous section, we used The Law of Sines to solve SAA, ASA and SSA cases of oblique triangles.
That leaves us with three more cases. But AAA can never define a unique triangle, so that just leaves us with
SAS and SSS. Both of these cases need The Law of Cosines to start the solving process since there in no angle
opposite a known side.
The Law of Cosines

If A, B, and C are measures of the angles of any triangle and if a, b, and c are the lengths of the sides
opposite the corresponding angles, then,


2 2 2
2 cos a b c bc A = +

Equivalently, we also have these formulas:


2 2 2
2 cos b a c ac B = +

2 2 2
2 cos c a b ab C = +

You need to be familiar with the structure of these formulas. In particular note that the letter that
appears as the subject of the formula also appears as the angle.



*Note It is a good rule of thumb to always find the largest angle or side first when working with the
Law of Cosines. Always find the smallest angle or side first when working with the Law of Sines.

Solve each of the following triangles.
1.









A B
C
c
a
b
159


2.















3. Two airplanes leave Berlin, one heading straight for London and the other straight for Paris. The angle
formed is 18 degrees. Estimate the distance from London to Paris.










160

4. A triangular playground has sides of lengths 475 feet, 595 feet, and 401 feet. What are the measures of the
angles between the sides, to the nearest tenth of a degree?










Practice Problems:

1. Find the measure angle C below.








2. Find the measure of angle A below.






B
D
11.4 cm
C
10.7 cm
13.2 cm
110
o

15 cm
9 cm
Diagram NOT
accurately drawn.
A B
C
161

You might also like