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FDSWXOR 41 IXQGDPHQWRV GH HODVWLFLGDG

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flsdohv gho whqvru gh whqvlrqhv A 1 Hv xq uhvxowdgr frqrflgr txh hvwdv wuhv gluhfflrqhv
vlhpsuh h{lvwhq | vrq pxwxdphqwh ruwrjrqdohv/ frqirupdqgr dv/ rughqdgdv dghfxdgd0
phqwh/ xq wulhgur fduwhvldqr gh{wujlur1 Hv hylghqwh txh vl vh wrpd glfkr wulhgur frpr
vlvwhpd gh uhihuhqfld/ hq o ho whqvru gh whqvlrqhv hv xq whqvru gldjrqdo irupdgr sru orv
ydoruhv sulqflsdohv gh whqvlq1
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ihuhqfld dgrswdgr/ orv frhflhqwhv gh od hfxdflq +414:,/ L / L2 h L / qr ghehq ghshqghu
gh vwh/ | vh frqrfhq/ sru wdqwr/ frpr lqyduldqwhv gh whqvlq1 Od lqyduldqfld gh L
hvwdeohfh od lqyduldqfld gh od wud}d gho whqvru gh whqvlrqhv/ hv ghflu/ txh od vxpd gh odv
whqvlrqhv qrupdohv txh dfwdq vreuh wuhv sodqrv fxdohvtxlhud pxwxdphqwh ruwrjrqdohv
hv frqvwdqwh h ljxdo d od vxpd gh orv ydoruhv gh odv whqvlrqhv sulqflsdohv1 Vl L hv qxor/
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wlhqh xq hvwdgr sodqr gh whqvlrqhv1 Hvwh hv ho fdvr/ sru hmhpsor/ gh xqd sodfd ghojdgd
fdujdgd phgldqwh ixhu}dv dsolfdgdv hq ho frqwruqr | sdudohodv do sodqr gh od sodfd1 Ho
hvwdgr whqvlrqdo txhgd hqwrqfhv ghqlgr sru odv frpsrqhqwhv % > + >  %+ 1 Frqrflgdv
hvwdv frpsrqhqwhv gho whqvru gh whqvlrqhv hq fxdotxlhu sxqwr R/ hv srvleoh ghwhuplqdu
od whqvlq vreuh xqd vxshuflh duelwuduld/ vl vh frqrfhq orv frvhqrv gluhfwruhv gh od
plvpd1
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qrupdo txh od ghqh1 Sru htxloleulr/ | vhjq od h{suhvlq +41<,/ vh wlhqh=
w% @

% frv  .  +% vlq 

w+ @  %+ frv  . + vlq 

+4153d,
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grqgh w% | w+ vrq odv frpsrqhqwhv fduwhvldqdv gh od whqvlq w hq ho sxqwr R vhjq ho

sodqr DE1 Odv frpsrqhqwhv qrupdo | wdqjhqfldo gh glfkd whqvlq vh rewlhqhq sur|hf0
wdqgr odv frpsrqhqwhv w% | w+ vreuh odv gluhfflrqhv qrupdo | wdqjhqfldo do sodqr DE/
uhvshfwlydphqwh=
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@  % frv2  . + vlq2  . 5 %+ vlq  frv 

+4154d,

@  %+ +frv2   vlq2 , . ++   % , vlq  frv 

+4154e,

@ w+ frv   w% vlq 

Los autores, 2002; Edicions UPC, 2002.

44

4181 HVWDGR SODQR GH WHQVLRQHV

Ilj1 41;= Hvwdgr sodqr gh whqvlrqhv

Gh odv hfxdflrqhv dqwhulruhv vh ghgxfh txh h{lvwh xq flhuwr qjxor  sdud ho fxdo od
whqvlq wdqjhqfldo  vh dqxod/ hv ghflu=

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odv fxdohv od whqvlq wdqjhqfldo vh dqxod> glfkdv gluhfflrqhv vrq odv gluhfflrqhv sulqflsd0
ohv gh whqvlq | odv whqvlrqhv qrupdohv fruuhvsrqglhqwhv vrq odv whqvlrqhv sulqflsdohv1
Vl vh frqrfhq odv frpsrqhqwhv gho whqvru gh whqvlrqhv fruuhvsrqglhqwhv d grv sodqrv
shushqglfxoduhv hqwuh v +% / + /  %+ , hv srvleoh ghwhuplqdu odv whqvlrqhv sulqflsdohv
phgldqwh xqd frqvwuxfflq jufd oodpdgd fufxor gh Prku/ txh vh pxhvwud hq od Iljxud
41<1 Hq ho sodqr    vh frqvwux|h ho fufxor txh sdvd sru orv sxqwrv G+% >  %+ , |
G ++ >  %+ ,/ frq fhqwur hq F + 2 +% . + , > 3 ,= Odv lqwhuvhfflrqhv gho fufxor frq ho hmh
 ghwhuplqdq orv ydoruhv gh odv whqvlrqhv sulqflsdohv/ |d txh sdud hoorv  @ 3=
D sduwlu gh od frqvwuxfflq jufd gho fufxor vh sxhghq fdofxodu orv ydoruhv gh odv
whqvlrqhv sulqflsdohv/  | 2 / frpr=
v

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Los autores, 2002; Edicions UPC, 2002.

45

FDSWXOR 41 IXQGDPHQWRV GH HODVWLFLGDG

Ilj1 41<= Fufxor gh Prku sdud hvwdgr sodqr gh whqvlrqhv

Wdpelq vh sxhgh phglu ho qjxor 5 txh ghqh odv gluhfflrqhv sulqflsdohv gh whqvlq
uhvshfwr d orv hmhv +{> |,1 Sru rwur odgr/ od whqvlq wdqjhqfldo p{lpd hq ho sxqwr hv
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jhqhudo gh xq hvwdgr wuld{ldo gh whqvlrqhv/ dxqtxh gh irupd dojr pv frpsohmd d od dtx
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419

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yqfxorv vxflhqwhv frpr sdud lpshgluoh prylplhqwrv gh volgr ujlgr1 Gdgr txh qr
h{lvwh pdwhuldo dojxqr txh vhd lqqlwdphqwh ujlgr/ od dfflq gh odv ixhu}dv vh wudgxfh
hq txh ho fxhusr vh ghirupd1 Vxsrqguhprv hq or txh vljxh txh ho fxhusr vh frpsruwd
gh irupd vxflhqwhphqwh ujlgd frpr sdud txh orv prylplhqwrv txh vh surgxfhq hq
ho surfhvr gh ghirupdflq vhdq shtxhrv frpsdudgrv frq odv glphqvlrqhv gho fxhusr
+sulqflslr gh uljlgh},1
Od ghirupdflq gh xq hohphqwr glihuhqfldo gh yroxphq gh glphqvlrqhv +g{> g|> g},/
wdo frpr ho txh vh pxhvwud hq od Iljxud 4143/ sxhgh ghvfrpsrqhuvh hq wuhv sduwhv=
urwdflq | wudvodflq +prylplhqwrv gh volgr ujlgr, | ghirupdflq sxud +fdpelr gh
irupd,1 Qrv rfxsduhprv hq hvwh dsduwdgr gh od ghirupdflq sxud qlfdphqwh1

Los autores, 2002; Edicions UPC, 2002.

46

4191 FRQFHSWR GH GHIRUPDFLQ

Ilj1 4143= Surfhvr gh ghirupdflq gh xq hohphqwr gh yroxphq

Orv odgrv gho sdudohohsshgr hohphqwdo prglfdq vxv orqjlwxghv lqlfldohv g{/ g|/ g}
gh pdqhud txh odv sur|hfflrqhv gh odv qxhydv orqjlwxghv vreuh orv wuhv hmhv gh uhihuhqfld
sdvdq d ydohu +4 . % , g{> +4 . + , g|> +4 . 5 , g}/ uhvshfwlydphqwh1 Dvlplvpr/ odv
sur|hfflrqhv gh orv qjxorv uhfwrv txh irupdq hqwuh v odv fdudv gho hohphqwr dqwhv gh
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sulqflslr gh uljlgh}/ wdqwr odv ghirupdflrqhv olqhdohv frpr odv dqjxoduhv vrq shtxhdv/
frpsdudgdv frq od xqlgdg1
Vh frqvlghudq srvlwlydv odv ghirupdflrqhv olqhdohv gh dodujdplhqwr | qhjdwlydv odv
gh dfruwdplhqwr1 Dvlplvpr/ vh frqvlghudq srvlwlydv odv ghirupdflrqhv dqjxoduhv txh
ruljlqdq glvplqxflq gh orv qjxorv uhfwrv irupdgrv sru orv sodqrv fruuhvsrqglhqwhv d
orv hmhv gh uhihuhqfld/ | qhjdwlydv odv txh ruljlqdq dxphqwr gh glfkrv qjxorv1
H{shulphqwdophqwh/ vh revhuyd txh/ hq orv pdwhuldohv phfqlfdphqwh lvwursrv/ odv
whqvlrqhv qrupdohv gdq oxjdu d dodujdplhqwrv/ plhqwudv txh odv whqvlrqhv wdqjhqfldohv
suryrfdq glvwruvlrqhv +yhu Vhfflq 4143,1

Ilj1 4144= Dodujdplhqwr | glvwruvlq hq xq pdwhuldo lvwursr

Los autores, 2002; Edicions UPC, 2002.

47

FDSWXOR 41 IXQGDPHQWRV GH HODVWLFLGDG

41:

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sru od ghirupdflq gho sdudohohsshgr hohphqwdo txh whqjd d RG sru gldjrqdo/ suhvflq0
glhqgr gh urwdflrqhv | wudvodflrqhv gh volgr ujlgr +yhu Iljxud 4145d,1
Fdofxodprv d frqwlqxdflq odv frpsrqhqwhv fduwhvldqdv gho yhfwru / r vhd +% >  +c 5 ,1
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dodujdplhqwrv +f, Ghvsod}dplhqwrv ghelgrv d odv glvwruvlrqhv

Los autores, 2002; Edicions UPC, 2002.

48

41:1 WHQVRU GH GHIRUPDFLRQHV

r pdwulfldophqwh=
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ghirupdflq gh xq sxqwr +whqvru gh ghirupdflrqhv, | orv frvhqrv gluhfwruhv gh xq
hohphqwr olqhdo fxdotxlhud/ vh sxhgh frqrfhu od ghirupdflq gh glfkr hohphqwr1
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Los autores, 2002; Edicions UPC, 2002.

+415<,

+4163,

49

41;

FDSWXOR 41 IXQGDPHQWRV GH HODVWLFLGDG

Hodvwlflgdg | olqhdolgdg1 Oh| gh Krrnh

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fxhusr wlhqgh d uhfxshudu vx irupd sulplwlyd1 Hvwd whqghqfld txh/ hq pd|ru r phqru
judgr/ wlhqhq wrgrv orv fxhusrv vh ghqrplqd hodvwlflgdg1
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wlfrv1 Odv ghirupdflrqhv txh hq hoorv vh surgxfhq frqvwdq gh xqd sduwh gh ghirupdflq
hovwlfd/ txh ghvdsduhfh do fhvdu odv ixhu}dv dsolfdgdv/ | xqd sduwh gh ghirupdflq shu0
pdqhqwh/ txh vh pdqwlhqh srvwhulruphqwh1 Hq xq hohydgr qphur gh fxhusrv/ vl odv
ixhu}dv qr vreuhsdvdq ghwhuplqdgrv ydoruhv/ odv ghirupdflrqhv shupdqhqwhv vrq px|
shtxhdv/ | hq frqvhfxhqfld/ glfkrv fxhusrv sxhghq frqvlghuduvh hovwlfrv1
Frqvlghuhprv xq h{shulphqwr vhqfloor= vh prqwd xqd yljd eldsr|dgd frpr od gh od
Iljxud 4147 | vh plgh ho ghvsod}dplhqwr yhuwlfdo  gh xq flhuwr sxqwr D gh od plvpd
surgxflgr sru xqd ixhu}d S dsolfdgd hq rwur sxqwr E gh glfkd yljd1 Od ixhu}d S vh
dxphqwd gh irupd judgxdo kdvwd xq flhuwr ydoru | vh glexmd od fxuyd S   rewhqlgd1
Vl dkrud ghvfdujdprv od yljd gh irupd judgxdo | glexmdprv wdpelq od fxuyd S   hq
ghvfdujd/ revhuyduhprv txh sdud ydoruhv p{lprv gh S phqruhv txh flhuwr ydoru oplwh
Se / oodpdgr oplwh hovwlfr/ odv udpdv gh fdujd | ghvfdujd frlqflghq/ qr kd| ghirupdflq
shupdqhqwh/ | sru or wdqwr/ ho frpsruwdplhqwr hv hovwlfr1 Vl od fdujd S h{fhgh ho
oplwh hovwlfr/ od udpd gh ghvfdujd vh vhsdud gh od gh fdujd/ vh surgxfhq ghirupdflrqhv
shupdqhqwhv | vh glfh txh ho frpsruwdplhqwr qr hv shuihfwdphqwh hovwlfr1
Hq ho plvpr h{shulphqwr revhuyduhprv txh h{lvwh rwur ydoru oplwh SR / phqru txh
Se +|/ qrupdophqwh/ su{lpr d vwh,/ oodpdgr oplwh gh sursruflrqdolgdg/ wdo txh sdud
fdujdv phqruhv txh vwh orv ghvsod}dplhqwrv vrq sursruflrqdohv d odv ixhu}dv txh orv
ruljlqdq1 Hvwh hqxqfldgr ghqh ho frpsruwdplhqwr hovwlfr olqhdo | vh frqrfh frpr Oh|
gh Krrnh/ |d txh ixh hvwdeohflgr sru Urehuw Krrnh hq 49:; hq vx wudedmr Gh Srwhqwld
Uhvwlwxwlyd +ri Vsulqjv,1

Ilj1 4147= H{shulphqwr | fxuyd fdujdghvsod}dplhqwr

Los autores, 2002; Edicions UPC, 2002.

4:

41<1 SULQFLSLR GH VXSHUSRVLFLQ

Pdwhpwlfdphqwh/ od oh| gh Krrnh vh h{suhvd gh od irupd=

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plhqwr  txh vwd surgxfh1 Reyldphqwh/ hvwd frqvwdqwh ghshqgh gh od jhrphwud gho
sureohpd | gh odv surslhgdghv phfqlfdv gho pdwhuldo gh od yljd1

41<

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ixhu}dv dfwxdqwhv vrq px| shtxhrv hq uhodflq d odv glphqvlrqhv gho fxhusr/ gh wdo
pdqhud txh vh sxhgd frqvlghudu txh vwh pdqwlhqh od irupd | glphqvlrqhv ruljlqdohv/
hqwrqfhv sxhgh dsolfduvh ho Sulqflslr gh Vxshusrvlflq r Sulqflslr gh Olqhdolgdg1 Ho
Sulqflslr gh Vxshusrvlflq hvwdeohfh txh orv hihfwrv txh xq vlvwhpd gh ixhu}dv dsolfdgdv
ruljlqd hq xq fxhusr vrq ljxdohv d od vxpd gh orv hihfwrv txh ruljlqdq hvdv plvpdv
ixhu}dv dfwxdqgr sru vhsdudgr1
Vl vreuh xq fxhusr dfwd xq vlvwhpd irupdgr sru wuhv ixhu}dv S > S2 | S > ho Sulqflslr
gh Vxshusrvlflq hvwdeohfh txh od frpsrqhqwh x gho ghvsod}dplhqwr gh xq sxqwr lqwhulru
R> vhjq xqd flhuwd gluhfflq gh uhihuhqfld/ vhu=
x @ x . x2 . x

+4165,

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dfwdq S > S2 | S vrodv/ uhvshfwlydphqwh1 Vl od oh| gh Krrnh hv dsolfdeoh/ vhu=
x @ n S
| srguhprv hvfulelu=

x2 @ n2 S2

x @ n S

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Ilj1 4148= Sulqflslr gh vxshusrvlflq

Los autores, 2002; Edicions UPC, 2002.

+4166,
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4;

FDSWXOR 41 IXQGDPHQWRV GH HODVWLFLGDG

Hq yluwxg gh odv surslhgdghv frqpxwdwlyd | dvrfldwlyd gh od vxpd/ uhvxowd fodur

txh ho hqxqfldgr gho Sulqflslr gh Vxshusrvlflq hv htxlydohqwh d hvwdeohfhu txh orv
hihfwrv txh xq vlvwhpd gh ixhu}dv dsolfdgdv ruljlqd hq xq fxhusr vrq lqghshqglhqwhv gho
rughq gh dsolfdflq gh odv ixhu}dv1 Pdwhpwlfdphqwh/ ho Sulqflslr gh Vxshusrvlflq
hvwdeohfh txh od uhodflq dfflq0uhvsxhvwd hv olqhdo/ | wlhqh/ sru wdqwr/ odv surslhgdghv
gh odv ixqflrqhv olqhdohv1

4143

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ixhu}dv +dfflrqhv, | ghvsod}dplhqwrv +hihfwrv,/ d od uhodflq h{lvwhqwh hqwuh whqvlrqhv
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fdphqwh lvwursrv/ hv ghflu/ txh vxv surslhgdghv phfqlfdv vrq ljxdohv hq wrgdv odv
gluhfflrqhv1 Hvwd klswhvlv gh lvrwursd phfqlfd qr vh fxpsoh h{dfwdphqwh hq dojxqrv
pdwhuldohv gh frqvwuxfflq wdohv frpr od pdghud/ txh hv eurvd/ ql hq odv urfdv hvwudwl0
fdgdv/ ql hq pdwhuldohv ideulfdgrv phgldqwh xq surfhvr gh odplqdflq/ hwf1 D shvdu gh
hoor/ orv uhvxowdgrv txh vh rewlhqhq frq hvwd klswhvlv vrq vdwlvidfwrulrv hq od pd|rud
gh orv fdvrv1

Ilj1 4149= Hohphqwr glihuhqfldo gh yroxphq | ghirupdflq edmr whqvlq qrupdo

Los autores, 2002; Edicions UPC, 2002.

4<

41431 OH\ GH KRRNH JHQHUDOL]DGD

Frqvlghuhprv xq hohphqwr glihuhqfldo gh yroxphq vreuh fx|dv fdudv dfwdq odv fr0
uuhvsrqglhqwhv frpsrqhqwhv gh whqvlq +Iljxud 4149,1 Sdud hvwxgldu od ghirupdflq gho
hohphqwr/ vh xwlol}d ho sulqflslr gh vxshusrvlflq/ vxpdqgr odv ghirupdflrqhv surgx0
flgdv sru odv glvwlqwdv frpsrqhqwhv gh whqvlq dfwxdqgr sru vhsdudgr1 Hq yluwxg gh
od klswhvlv gh lvrwursd phfqlfd/ vxsrqguhprv txh hvwdv ghirupdflrqhv vrq lqghshq0
glhqwhv gh od rulhqwdflq gh orv hmhv gh uhihuhqfld hvfrjlgrv1
Vxsrqjdprv sulphur txh vreuh ho hohphqwr glihuhqfldo vor dfwd od frpsrqhqwh %
gh whqvlq qrupdo/ vreuh grv fdudv rsxhvwdv1 H{shulphqwdophqwh vh frpsuxhed txh/
hq pdwhuldohv lvwursrv/ odv whqvlrqhv qrupdohv qr surgxfhq ghirupdflq dqjxodu | vor
ruljlqdq ghirupdflrqhv olqhdohv vhjq odv dulvwdv gho sdudohohsshgr +Iljxud 4149e,1 Gh
dfxhugr frq od oh| gh Krrnh/ hvwdv ghirupdflrqhv olqhdohv vhuq sursruflrqdohv d odv
whqvlrqhv % txh odv surgxfhq/ hv ghflu=
%
R D  RD
@
H
RD


R E  RE
%
@ % @ 
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H
RE


R F  RF
%
@
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RF

% @
+
5

+4168,

grqgh H hv ho pgxor gh hodvwlflgdg orqjlwxglqdo r pgxor gh \rxqj/ xqd surslhgdg

gho pdwhuldo txh vh ghwhuplqd h{shulphqwdophqwh1 Hv fodur hq odv h{suhvlrqhv +4168,
txh odv glphqvlrqhv gho pgxor gh hodvwlflgdg vrq gh ixhu}d sru xqlgdg gh vxshuflh
^I O32 `1 Ho pgxor gh hodvwlflgdg ixh lqwurgxflgr sru U1 \rxqj hq 4;36/ dxqtxh vx
ghqlflq prghuqd vh gheh d O1 Qdylhu +4;59,1 Hq od Wdeod :14 jxudq ydoruhv phglrv
gho pgxor gh hodvwlflgdg gh dojxqrv pdwhuldohv xwlol}dgrv hq frqvwuxfflq/ lqjhqlhud
flylo | phfqlfd1
Hq odv h{suhvlrqhv dqwhulruhv vh revhuyd txh ho dodujdplhqwr orqjlwxglqdo xqlwdulr
% yd dfrpsddgr gh frqwudfflrqhv odwhudohv xqlwduldv + > 5 / sursruflrqdohv d % /
Pdwhuldo

H ^JSd`

Pdwhuldo

H ^JSd`

Dfhur
Freuh
Odwq
Eurqfh
Judqlwr
Pdghud

543
453
433
443
83
43

Krupljq
Flqf
Gxudoxplqlr
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53
433
:3
:9
4:3
73

Wdeod 414= Pgxor gh \rxqj sdud glihuhqwhv pdwhuldohv

Los autores, 2002; Edicions UPC, 2002.

53

FDSWXOR 41 IXQGDPHQWRV GH HODVWLFLGDG

vlhqgr  xq frhflhqwh gh sursruflrqdolgdg dglphqvlrqdo oodpdgr frhflhqwh gh Srlvvrq

+V1 G1 Srlvvrq/ 4;5<, txh hv xqd frqvwdqwh ivlfd gho pdwhuldo1 Hq ho dfhur ho ydoru gho
frhflhqwh gh Srlvvrq  hv ljxdo d 3> 6 | hq ho krupljq ydoh hqwuh 3> 48 | 3> 531
Gh irupd dqorjd/ od dfwxdflq gh od frpsrqhqwh qrupdo gh whqvlq + surgxfh
xqdv ghirupdflrqhv orqjlwxglqdohv | wudqvyhuvdohv gh ydoru=
+
+
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52 @ %2 @ 
+4169,
H
H
| od dfwxdflq gh od frpsrqhqwh qrupdo gh whqvlq  5 surgxfh xqdv ghirupdflrqhv=
5
5
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H
H
Dsolfdqgr ho sulqflslr gh vxshusrvlflq/ od ghirupdflq olqhdo vhjq ho hmh { ghelgd
d od dfflq frqmxqwd gh odv whqvlrqhv qrupdohv  % > + > 5 vhu % @ % . %2 . % 1
Dqorjdphqwh rfxuulu sdud odv ghirupdflrqhv olqhdohv + | 5 1 Sru or wdqwr/ vh wlhqh=

%
 + + . 5 ,
% @
H
H
+

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 +5 . % ,
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Frqvlghuhprv dkrud odv ghirupdflrqhv txh odv frpsrqhqwhv wdqjhqfldohv gh od whq0
vlq surgxfhq hq ho sdudohohsshgr hohphqwdo1 H{shulphqwdophqwh vh frpsuxhed txh/ hq
xq pdwhuldo phfqlfdphqwh lvwursr/ od dfwxdflq gh fdgd xqr gh orv sduhv gh whqvlrqhv
wdqjhqfldohv uhfsurfrv +hvwr hv/  %+ |  +% >  +5 |  5+ >  %5 |  5% , surgxfh xqd ghirupd0
flq dqjxodu + %+ >  +5 >  5% > uhvshfwlydphqwh, txh wudqvirupd glfkr sdudohohsshgr uhfwr
hq xqr reofxr +yhu Iljxud 414:,1

Ilj1 414:= Ghirupdflq edmr whqvlq wdqjhqfldo

Los autores, 2002; Edicions UPC, 2002.

54

41431 OH\ GH KRRNH JHQHUDOL]DGD

Vhjq od oh| gh Krrnh/ odv glvwruvlrqhv surgxflgdv vhuq sursruflrqdohv d od whqvlq

wdqjhqfldo dfwxdqwh=
 %+
 %+ @
J
 +5
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+416<,
J
 5%
 5% @
J
grqgh J hv xqd frqvwdqwh ivlfd gho pdwhuldo txh vh oodpd pgxor gh hodvwlflgdg wudqv0
yhuvdo r pgxor gh uljlgh} d fruwdqwh | wlhqh odv glphqvlrqhv ^I O32 `1
Odv hfxdflrqhv +416;, | +416<, frqvwlwx|hq od h{suhvlq dqdowlfd gh od oh| gh Krrnh
jhqhudol}dgd sdud xq pdwhuldo lvwursr1 Hvwdv hfxdflrqhv sxhghq lqyhuwluvh sdud rewhqhu
odv frpsrqhqwhv gho hvwdgr gh whqvlrqhv hq ixqflq gho hvwdgr gh ghirupdflrqhv=
% @ J, . 5%
+ @ J, . 5+
5 @ J, . 55

 %+ @ J %+

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+4173,

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grqgh J, @ % . + . 5 hv od glodwdflq yroxpwulfd |  |  vrq orv frhflhqwhv gh

Odp/ ghqlgrv sru odv vljxlhqwhv h{suhvlrqhv=
@
414314

H
+4 . ,+4  5,

@

H
5+4 . ,

+4174,

Pgxor gh uljlgh} d fruwdqwh

Dqdolfhprv xq hohphqwr glihuhqfldo fxdgudgr DEFG/ vrphwlgr d xq hvwdgr sodqr gh

fruwdqwh sxur  %+ @  / dfwxdqgr hq odv fdudv gho hohphqwr +yhu Iljxud 414;d,1 Vhjq
od frqvwuxfflq gho fufxor gh Prku fruuhvsrqglhqwh +yhu Iljxud 414;e,/ odv whqvlrqhv
sulqflsdohv gh hvwh hvwdgr vrq  @ . | 2 @  sdud gluhfflrqhv irupdqgr xq
qjxor gh @7 udg frq ho hmh krul}rqwdo1 Sru wdqwr/ ho sodqr gh od gldjrqdo EG hvw
vrphwlgr d xqd wudfflq sulqflsdo gh ydoru  @ . / | ho sodqr gh od gldjrqdo DF hvw
frpsulplgr sru xqd whqvlq sulqflsdo gh ydoru 2 @  1
Vl sru frprglgdg vh jlud @7 udg ho hohphqwr glihuhqfldo | vh holjhq xqrv hmhv gh
uhihuhqfld +{> |, dolqhdgrv frq odv gluhfflrqhv sulqflsdohv gh whqvlq +yhu Iljxud 414<,/
vh wlhqh % @  @ . | + @ 2 @  1 Hq hvwd vlwxdflq/ ho dodujdplhqwr gh orv
vhjphqwrv RD | RF hv ljxdo do dfruwdplhqwr gh orv vhjphqwrv RE | RG1 Sxhgh
hvfuleluvh txh=
RD @ RD +4 . % ,

RE  @ RE +4 . + ,

Los autores, 2002; Edicions UPC, 2002.

+4175d,
+4175e,

55

FDSWXOR 41 IXQGDPHQWRV GH HODVWLFLGDG

Ilj1 414;= +d, Hvwdgr gh fruwdqwh sxur +e, Fufxor gh Prku

Ghvsuhfldqgr lqqlwvlprv gh vhjxqgr rughq/ odv orqjlwxghv DE/ EF/ FG | GD qr
_ fdpeld
fdpeldq/ shur v or kdfhq orv qjxorv hqwuh orv vhjphqwrv1 Dv/ ho qjxor RDE
E/ fx|d wdqjhqwh ydoh=
_
do RD
wdq


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|d txh RD @ RE1 Sru od oh| gh Krrnh jhqhudol}dgd/ | uhfrugdqgr txh % @  |

+ @  / vh wlhqh=
4
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+4178,

sdud qjxorv @5 shtxhrv1 Ljxdodqgr odv hfxdflrqhv +4176, | +4178, vh wlhqh=

4.
@

5
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| uhfrugdqgr txh  @  @J vh wlhqh txh=

J@

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5 +4 . ,

Los autores, 2002; Edicions UPC, 2002.

+417:,

56

41431 OH\ GH KRRNH JHQHUDOL]DGD

Ilj1 414<= Glvwruvlq edmr hvwdgr gh fruwdqwh sxur

grqgh J hv ho pgxor gh uljlgh} d fruwdqwh1 Vh revhuyd txh vx ydoru hv ljxdo d / ho vh0
jxqgr frhflhqwh gh Odp1 Sru wdqwr/ xq pdwhuldo hovwlfr lvwursr ylhqh fdudfwhul}dgr
sru fxdotxlhud gh orv sduhv gh frqvwdqwhv ivlfdv +H> ,> +H> J, +> ,1
Sru lqwxlflq ivlfd | ud}rqhv whuprglqplfdv/ ho pgxor gh uljlgh} d fruwdqwh gh0
eh vhu srvlwlyr/ sru or wdqwr gheh vhu   4> 31 Vlq hpedujr/ qr vh kdq phglgr
frhflhqwhv gh Srlvvrq qhjdwlyrv hq qlqjq pdwhuldo1 Ho ydoru pqlpr gh > phglgr
h{shulphqwdophqwh/ hv ho gho ehulolr + @ 3> 34  3> 38,1
414315

Pgxor gh hodvwlflgdg yroxpwulfr

Frqvlghuhprv xq sdudohohsshgr glihuhqfldo gh odgrv +g{> g|> g}, vrphwlgr d od dfflq

gh whqvlrqhv qrupdohv  % > + > 5 dfwxdqgr vreuh vxv fdudv1 Od ghirupdflq olqhdo vhjq
orv hmhv +{> |> }, hv ljxdo d % > + > 5 +Iljxud 4153,1 Hq frqvhfxhqfld/ ho yroxphq gho
hohphqwr h{shulphqwd xqd yduldflq xqlwduld ljxdo d=
gY 
+4 . % ,+4 . + ,+4 . 5 ,
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gY
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+417;,

gY 
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gY

+417<,

grqgh gY @ g{g|g} hv ho yroxphq lqlfldo | gY  @ +4 . % ,g{+4 . + ,g|+4 . 5 ,g} hv ho

yroxphq ghvsxv gh od ghirupdflq1
Vl vh ghvsuhfldq lqqlwvlprv gh rughq vxshulru/ hvwd yduldflq hv ljxdo d=

Los autores, 2002; Edicions UPC, 2002.

57

FDSWXOR 41 IXQGDPHQWRV GH HODVWLFLGDG

Ilj1 4153= Ghirupdflq edmr whqvlrqhv qrupdohv

Gh od uhodflq dqwhulru vh revhuyd txh od glodwdflq felfd/ hv ghflu/ ho lqfuhphqwr
xqlwdulr gh yroxphq/ hv ljxdo d=
gY   gY
@ J, @ % . + . 5
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+4183,

Sdud rewhqhu od h{suhvlq gh hvwd glodwdflq yroxpwulfd hq ixqflq gh odv whqvlrqhv

dfwxdqwhv/ vh vxpdq odv ljxdogdghv +416;, gh od oh| gh Krrnh jhqhudol}dgd/ hv ghflu=
J, @ % . + . 5 @

4  5
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Vl ho hvwdgr whqvlrqdo d txh hvw vrphwlgr ho sdudohohsshgr hohphqwdo hv wdo txh vh

fxpsoh txh % @  + @ 5 @ s +hvwdgr gh suhvlq klgurvwwlfd,/ hqwrqfhv ho ydoru gh od
glodwdflq yroxpwulfd hv ljxdo d=
J, @ 6

+4  5,
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grqgh=
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6+4  5,

+4185,

+4186,

hv xqd frqvwdqwh ivlfd gho pdwhuldo txh vh oodpd pgxor gh hodvwlflgdg yroxpwulfr/ |
wlhqh glphqvlrqhv ^I O32 `1
Sru lqwxlflq ivlfd | ud}rqhv whuprglqplfdv/ ho pgxor gh hodvwlflgdg yroxpwulfr
gheh vhu srvlwlyr/ or fxdo lpsolfd txh   4@5= Hv ghflu/ txh hq fxdotxlhu pdwhuldo
lvwursr ho frhflhqwh gh Srlvvrq gheh vhu qhfhvduldphqwh lqihulru d 3> 8/ txh fruuhvsrqgh
do oplwh gh frpsruwdplhqwr lqfrpsuhvleoh +N @ 4,1

Los autores, 2002; Edicions UPC, 2002.

41441 UHODFLQ WHQVLQ0GHIRUPDFLQ1 HVWXGLR H[SHULPHQWDO

4144

58

Uhodflq whqvlq0ghirupdflq1 Hvwxglr h{shulphqwdo

Od uhodflq uhdo hqwuh whqvlq | ghirupdflq gh xq pdwhuldo vh ghwhuplqd gh irupd

h{shulphqwdo phgldqwh hqvd|rv hq oderudwrulr1 Orv hqvd|rv pv vlpsohv gh uhdol}du vrq
orv gh wudfflq r gh frpsuhvlq sxud vreuh surehwdv floqgulfdv r sulvpwlfdv qrupdol0
}dgdv1 Hvwrv hqvd|rv vh uhdol}dq dsolfdqgr hq orv h{wuhprv gh od surehwd xqd ixhu}d S
hq gluhfflq gho hmh gh od plvpd1 Oodpdqgr D do uhd lqlfldo gh od vhfflq wudqvyhuvdo
gh od surehwd/ vh ghqh frpr whqvlq qrplqdo +phgld, d od uhodflq=
S
@
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D
Sru rwur odgr/ oodpdqgr O d od orqjlwxg fdoleudgd gh od surehwd | O do dodujdplhqwr
gh vwd surgxflgd sru od ixhu}d d{ldo/ vh ghqh frpr ghirupdflq d{ldo qrplqdo d od
uhodflq=
O
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Vl hq ho hqvd|r vh plgh wdpelq od yduldflq g gh xqd gh odv glphqvlrqhv wudqvyhu0
vdohv gh od surehwd/ gh orqjlwxg lqlfldo g> vh sxhgh fdofxodu od ghirupdflq wudqvyhuvdo
qrplqdo frpr=
g
| @
+4189,
g
Ho hqvd|r vh uhdol}d dxphqwdqgr surjuhvlydphqwh od ixhu}d S dsolfdgd gh irupd
ohqwd | judgxdo | plglhqgr orv dodujdplhqwrv d{ldohv O | orv dfruwdplhqwrv wudqvyhu0
vdohv g fruuhvsrqglhqwhv d fdgd qlyho gh fdujd1 D sduwlu gh orv frqmxqwrv gh ydoruhv
+S> O> g, rewhqlgrv/ vh fdofxodq orv fruuhvsrqglhqwhv frqmxqwrv gh ydoruhv gh whq0
vlq | ghirupdflq qrplqdohv +> > | ,1 Orv sduhv +> , vh uhsuhvhqwdq hq xqd fxuyd
txh vh ghqrplqd fxuyd gh whqvlq0ghirupdflq gho pdwhuldo +Iljxud 4155,1
Od fxuyd whqvlq0ghirupdflq rewhqlgd ghshqgh gh pxowlwxg gh idfwruhv +yhorflgdg
gh dsolfdflq gh od fdujd/ whpshudwxud/ glvsrvlwlyr h{shulphqwdo hpsohdgr/ hwf1, sru
or txh orv hqvd|rv ghehq uhdol}duvh gh irupd qrupdol}dgd/ frq htxlsrv hvwdqgdul}d0
grv | hq frqglflrqhv frqwurodgdv1 Gh hvwd irupd vh frqvljxh txh orv uhvxowdgrv vhdq
uhsuhvhqwdwlyrv gh od hvwuxfwxud lqwhuqd fdudfwhuvwlfd gho pdwhuldo hqvd|dgr1

Ilj1 4154= Hqvd|r gh wudfflq xqld{ldo

Los autores, 2002; Edicions UPC, 2002.

59

FDSWXOR 41 IXQGDPHQWRV GH HODVWLFLGDG

Ilj1 4155= Fxuyd whqvlqghirupdflq xqld{ldo

Dxqtxh ho frpsruwdplhqwr gh fdgd pdwhuldo hv glihuhqwh/ hq od fxuyd whqvlq0
ghirupdflq vh glvwlqjxhq/ hq jhqhudo/ odv }rqdv | whqvlrqhv oplwh vljxlhqwhv=
 Wudpr sursruflrqdo +RD,1 Hq hvwh wudpr lqlfldo vh fxpsoh od oh| gh Krrnh/ hv
ghflu/ od uhodflq hqwuh whqvlq | ghirupdflq hv olqhdo sdud whqvlrqhv lqihulruhv
do ydoru R txh vh oodpd oplwh gh sursruflrqdolgdg1 Od shqglhqwh gho wudpr
ghwhuplqd ho ydoru gho pgxor gh hodvwlflgdg r gh \rxqj +H, gho pdwhuldo1 Ho
frhflhqwh gh Srlvvrq sxhgh fdofxoduvh frpr od uhodflq hqwuh od ghirupdflq
wudqvyhuvdo | od orqjlwxglqdo/  @ | @=
 Wudpr hovwlfr +RE,1 Hq hvwh wudpr od ghvfdujd vh surgxfh gh irupd hovwlfd/ hv
ghflu/ vlq txh dsduh}fdq ghirupdflrqhv shupdqhqwhv do glvplqxlu od fdujd kdvwd
dqxoduod1 Vh oodpd oplwh hovwlfr +e , d od p{lpd whqvlq txh vh sxhgh dofdq}du
vlq txh vh surgx}fdq ghirupdflrqhv shupdqhqwhv/ wdpelq oodpdgdv lqhovwlfdv r
sovwlfdv1 Ho wudpr DE/ gh frpsruwdplhqwr hovwlfr qr olqhdo/ sxhgh vhu pv r
phqrv revhuydeoh ghshqglhqgr gho pdwhuldo1
 Wudpr sovwlfr +EG,1 Hq hvwh wudpr vh revhuyd ghirupdflq shupdqhqwh do
ghvfdujdu od surehwd/ sru hmhpsor od pdufdgd RO hq ho gldjudpd1 Vh oodpd oplwh
gh xhqfld +s , d od whqvlq d sduwlu gh od fxdo ho pdwhuldo vh ghirupd fdvl vlq
dxphqwr gh od whqvlq1

Los autores, 2002; Edicions UPC, 2002.

41441 UHODFLQ WHQVLQ0GHIRUPDFLQ1 HVWXGLR H[SHULPHQWDO

5:

 Wudpr gh xhqfld +FG,1 Hq hvwh wudpr od ghirupdflq dxphqwd vlq txh vh sur0
gx}fd xq dxphqwr dsuhfldeoh gh od whqvlq1 Kdvwd oohjdu do sxqwr G od ghirupdflq
orqjlwxglqdo | odv ghirupdflrqhv wudqvyhuvdohv vrq vhqvleohphqwh xqliruphv d or
odujr gh od orqjlwxg wlo gh od surehwd1
 Wudpr gh hqgxuhflplhqwr sru ghirupdflq +GH,1 D sduwlu gh xq ghwhuplqdgr
ydoru gh od ghirupdflq/ od whqvlq qhfhvduld sdud vhjxlu dxphqwdqgr od ghiru0
pdflq sovwlfd vh lqfuhphqwd1 D hvwh ihqphqr vh oh oodpd hqgxuhflplhqwr sru
ghirupdflq | vxhoh yhqlu dfrpsddgr sru od suglgd gho hvwdgr xqliruph gh gh0
irupdflrqhv | ho lqlflr gh od orfdol}dflq gh vwdv hq od }rqd phgld gh od surehwd1
 Wudpr gh hvwulfflq +HI ,1 Hq hvwh wudpr vh revhuyd txh od vhfflq gh xqd
sduwh gh od surehwd frplhq}d d glvplqxlu gh irupd dsuhfldeoh1 Hvwh ihqphqr gh
orfdol}dflq gh odv ghirupdflrqhv orqjlwxglqdohv | wudqvyhuvdohv/ frq suglgd gho
hvwdgr xqliruph dqwhulru/ vh ghqrplqd hvwulfflq1 Od dsduhqwh suglgd gh whqvlq
hq hvwh wudpr vh gheh d od ghqlflq qrplqdo gh od whqvlq/ txh hvw fdofxodgd
vreuh ho uhd lqlfldo gh od surehwd/ hq oxjdu gh fdofxoduod vreuh ho uhd uhdo hq fdgd
prphqwr/ | txh hv phqru ghelgr d od hvwulfflq1 Vh ghqrplqd whqvlq gh urwxud
+o , d od p{lpd whqvlq phglgd hq ho hqvd|r1
Ho wlsr gh fxuyd whqvlq0ghirupdflq ghvfulwr fruuhvsrqgh d orv pdwhuldohv oodpdgrv
gfwlohv/ frpr sru hmhpsor ho dfhur r ho freuh/ txh suhvhqwdq xq pdufdgr frpsruwd0
plhqwr sovwlfr | dofdq}dq od urwxud frq xq qlyho hohydgr gh ghirupdflq1 Dv/ sdud
hvwrv pdwhuldohv/ ( * 53  | 8 * 533  / | orv wudprv ghvfulwrv vrq iflophqwh
lghqwlfdeohv1

Ilj1 4156= Fxuyd whqvlqghirupdflq sdud pdwhuldohv iujlohv

Los autores, 2002; Edicions UPC, 2002.

5;

FDSWXOR 41 IXQGDPHQWRV GH HODVWLFLGDG

Hq rwurv pdwhuldohv frpr/ sru hmhpsor/ od ixqglflq/ ho krupljq r ho ylgulr/ ood0

pdgrv iujlohv/ qr vh suhvhqwd xqd }rqd gh xhqfld sovwlfd elhq ghqlgd1 Hq hvwrv
pdwhuldohv vh wrpd frqyhqflrqdophqwh frpr whqvlq gh xhqfld/ s / od fruuhvsrqglhqwh
d xqd ghirupdflq shupdqhqwh gh 3/5 ( +Iljxud 4156,1 Hvwrv pdwhuldohv urpshq frq
srfd ghirupdflq +8 * 8  ,/ euxvfdphqwh/ flufxqvwdqfld sholjurvd sdud od vhjxulgdg
gh odv hvwuxfwxudv1
Qr revwdqwh or glfkr/ qr hv gho wrgr uljxurvr fdolfdu d xq pdwhuldo frqfuhwr frpr
gwlo r iujlo/ |d txh ho frpsruwdplhqwr phfqlfr ghshqgh hq judq phglgd gh odv
frqglflrqhv gh fdujd1 Dv/ xq dfhur gfwlo hq frqglflrqhv qrupdohv sxhgh prvwudu
xq frpsruwdplhqwr pdufdgdphqwh iujlo d edmdv whpshudwxudv r d dowdv yhorflgdghv gh
fdujd1 Sru rwud sduwh/ ho klhuur ixqglgr r ho ylgulr pxhvwudq xq frpsruwdplhqwr gfwlo
d dowdv whpshudwxudv1
Gheh vhdoduvh wdpelq txh pxfkrv pdwhuldohv iujlohv h{klehq uhvlvwhqfldv px| gl0
ihuhqwhv vhjq hvwq vrolflwdgrv d wudfflq r d frpsuhvlq1 Dv sru hmhpsor/ ho krupljq
| od pd|rud gh odv urfdv qdwxudohv wlhqhq xq frpsruwdplhqwr px| iujlo d wudfflq frq
xqd uhvlvwhqfld uhodwlydphqwh edmd1 Sru rwur odgr/ vx frpsruwdplhqwr d frpsuhvlq hv
pxfkr pv gfwlo/ dxqtxh vlq prvwudu xqd }rqd fodud gh xhqfld/ | vx uhvlvwhqfld d
frpsuhvlq hv pxfkr pd|ru txh d wudfflq/ gho rughq gh 43 yhfhv pd|ru/ wdo frpr vh
pxhvwud hq od Iljxud 41571
Orv dfhurv gh frqvwuxfflq/ hq fdpelr/ wlhqhq xq frpsruwdplhqwr sduhflgr hq wudf0
flq | hq frpsuhvlq +sdud slh}dv srfr hvehowdv,/ | frq pdufdgrv wudprv gh xhqfld hq

Ilj1 4157= Fxuyd whqvlqghirupdflq sdud ho krupljq

Los autores, 2002; Edicions UPC, 2002.

41451 WHQVLQ OPLWH/ WHQVLQ DGPLVLEOH \ FRHILFLHQWH GH VHJXULGDG

5<

Ilj1 4158= Fxuyd whqvlqghirupdflq lghdol}dgd sdud ho dfhur gh frqvwuxfflq

dperv fdvrv1 Sdud hvwrv pdwhuldohv od fxuyd whqvlq0ghirupdflq vh vxhoh uhsuhvhqwdu
phgldqwh gldjudpdv wulolqhdohv +Iljxud 4158,/ hq orv txh vor vh frqvlghudq orv wudprv
sursruflrqdohv | orv wudprv gh xhqfld1 Rwurv wlsrv gh dohdflq gh dfhur/ sru vx sdu0
wh/ dshqdv pxhvwudq xq wudpr krul}rqwdo gh xhqfld/ shur wlhqhq xqd }rqd fodud gh
hqgxuhflplhqwr sru ghirupdflq/ kdelwxdophqwh olqhdo1

4145

Whqvlq oplwh/ whqvlq dgplvleoh | frhflhqwh gh vhjxulgdg

Ho ojlfr uhtxlvlwr gh vhjxulgdg h{ljleoh d odv hvwuxfwxudv txh vh sur|hfwdq | vh frqv0

wux|hq frqoohyd od ghqlflq gh xq ydoru vxshulru gh od whqvlq txh ho pdwhuldo sxhgh
dofdq}du vlq txh h{lvwd ulhvjr gh txh vh surgx}fd xq idoor hvwuxfwxudo/ |d vhd vwh wr0
wdo r sdufldo1 Dv/ vh ghqh whqvlq oplwh/ olp / frpr dtxho ydoru gh od whqvlq do
fxdo ho pdwhuldo dofdq}d vx oplwh gh uhvlvwhqfld/ | sru ghedmr gho fxdo qr vh surgxfhq
ql ghirupdflrqhv h{fhvlydv ql/ sru vxsxhvwr/ od urwxud gho plvpr1 Hq orv pdwhuldohv
gfwlohv/ wdohv frpr ho dfhur/ hv kdelwxdo frqvlghudu frpr whqvlq oplwh od whqvlq gh
xhqfld +olp @  s ,/ plhqwudv txh hq orv pdwhuldohv iujlohv/ frpr ho krupljq/ vh vxhoh
frqvlghudu frpr whqvlq oplwh od whqvlq gh urwxud +,lp @ o ,1
Vlq hpedujr/ hq od sufwlfd/ odv hvwuxfwxudv vh glvhdq sdud wudedmdu d qlyhohv gh
whqvlq vljqlfdwlydphqwh sru ghedmr gh od whqvlq oplwh gh orv fruuhvsrqglhqwhv pd0
whuldohv hvwuxfwxudohv1 Orv prwlyrv sdud hvwd sufwlfd vrq ydulrv/ | ixqgdphqwdophqwh
ghelgrv d od h{lvwhqfld gh lqfhuwlgxpeuhv txh ho sur|hfwlvwd gheh frqwhpsodu hq od idvh
gh glvhr=
 lqfhuwlgxpeuhv dvrfldgdv d od fdudfwhul}dflq gh odv surslhgdghv phfqlfdv gh orv
pdwhuldohv/ ghelgdv d od fdolgdg | krprjhqhlgdg gho pdwhuldo/ d od glvshuvlq hq

Los autores, 2002; Edicions UPC, 2002.

63

FDSWXOR 41 IXQGDPHQWRV GH HODVWLFLGDG

orv hqvd|rv h{shulphqwdohv/ d od dghfxdflq gh vwrv d odv frqglflrqhv uhdohv gh

vhuylflr/ d ihqphqrv gh xhqfld | uhodmdflq/ ghjudgdflq ghelgd d fdxvdv ivlfdv
r txplfdv/ d hihfwrv ffolfrv r glqplfrv/ idwljd/ hwf1
 lqfhuwlgxpeuhv dvrfldgdv d od ghqlflq | fdudfwhul}dflq gh odv dfflrqhv/ |d vhd
sru od lqvxflhqfld gh gdwrv sdud hvwlpduodv +hihfwrv folpwlfrv | dpelhqwdohv/
hihfwrv vvplfrv,/ sru vx lqvxflhqwh ghqlflq hq od idvh gh sur|hfwr +fdujdv gh
vhuylflr r fdujdv h{fhsflrqdohv,/ sru od yduldelolgdg whpsrudo gh vx qdwxudoh}d/
sru ho ghvfrqrflplhqwr gh vx hyroxflq gxudqwh od ylgd wlo gh od hvwuxfwxud/ hwf1
 lqfhuwlgxpeuhv dvrfldgdv d orv pwrgrv gh fofxor/ |d vhd sru odv klswhvlv vlp0
solfdwlydv dgrswdgdv hq odv edvhv gh fofxor/ sru od sursld qdwxudoh}d gh orv
pwrgrv gh dqolvlv r sru od glfxowdg dvrfldgd d vwrv hq fdvr gh xwlol}du pwr0
grv vrvwlfdgrv1
 lqfhuwlgxpeuhv dvrfldgdv d orv pwrgrv gh frqvwuxfflq/ | txh sxhghq hvwdu uhod0
flrqdgdv frq ho surfhvr frqvwuxfwlyr suhylvwr/ orv surfhglplhqwrv gh hmhfxflq |
gh frqwuro gh fdolgdg hpsohdgrv/ hwf1
 lqfhuwlgxpeuhv dvrfldgdv d orv pwrgrv gh frqvhuydflq | pdqwhqlplhqwr/ txh
sxhghq uh hmduvh hq ihqphqrv gh ghjudgdflq surjuhvlyd/ fruurvlq/ djuhvlrqhv
dpelhqwdohv/ hwf1
Hq frqvhfxhqfld/ vh ghqh whqvlq dgplvleoh/ dgp / gh od irupd
dgp @

olp
 olp
q

+418:,

grqgh olp hv od whqvlq oplwh gho pdwhuldo | q hv xq frhflhqwh pd|ru +r h{shflrqdo0

phqwh ljxdo, txh od xqlgdg ghqrplqdgr frhflhqwh gh vhjxulgdg1 Odv hvwuxfwxudv vh
glvhdq/ sru wdqwr/ frq ho fulwhulr gh txh od whqvlq hq fxdotxlhu sxqwr vhd lqihulru do
ydoru gh od whqvlq dgplvleoh> hv ghflu/ vl  pd{ hv ho ydoru p{lpr gh od whqvlq hq od
hvwuxfwxud/ gheh fxpsoluvh txh
pd{  dgp  olp

+418;,

Od ghwhuplqdflq gho frhflhqwh gh vhjxulgdg ghshqgh gh xq judq qphur gh idfwr0

uhv/ shur vwh gheh vhu pd|ru fxdqwr pd|ru vhd ho judgr gh lqfhuwlgxpeuh hq od idvh gh
sur|hfwr r fxdqwr pd|ru vhd ho lpsdfwr/ hq wuplqrv vrflrhfrqplfrv/ txh dfduuhdud
xq hyhqwxdo idoor hvwuxfwxudo1 Ho frhflhqwh gh vhjxulgdg sxhgh uhgxfluvh hq hvwuxfwx0
udv gh srfd frpsohmlgdg r gh ylgd wlo uhgxflgd1 Hq fxdotxlhu fdvr/ hvwh frhflhqwh
vh md vhjq od h{shulhqfld dgtxlulgd hq hvwuxfwxudv dqorjdv | hq ho qlyho whfqrojlfr

Los autores, 2002; Edicions UPC, 2002.

64

41461 WHQVLQ HTXLYDOHQWH \ FULWHULRV GH UHVLVWHQFLD

dsolfdeoh1 Hq hglfdflq h lqjhqlhud gh od frqvwuxfflq vh xvdq frhflhqwhv gh vhjxul0

gdg hqwuh 5 | 8/ dgrswqgrvh ydoruhv pv dowrv sdud od frqvwuxfflq lq vlwx txh sdud
od suhideulfdflq1 Hq lqjhqlhud dhurqdwlfd vh xvdq/ qhfhvduldphqwh/ frhflhqwhv gh
vhjxulgdg phqruhv/ hqwuh 4/8 | 5/ shur dvrfldgrv d pwrgrv gh dqolvlv/ frqvwuxfflq/
frqvhuydflq | frqwuro pxfkr pv frpsohmrv1

4146

Whqvlq htxlydohqwh | fulwhulrv gh uhvlvwhqfld

Hq od Vhfflq dqwhulru vh kd lqwurgxflgr ho frqfhswr gh whqvlq dgplvleoh |/ wdpelq/

ho gh frhflhqwh gh vhjxulgdg/ hq uhodflq do gh whqvlq oplwh1 Hvwh owlpr vh ghqh
xvxdophqwh sdud orv glyhuvrv pdwhuldohv hq ixqflq gh hqvd|rv gh uhvlvwhqfld hq txh ho
hvwdgr whqvlrqdo hv ixqgdphqwdophqwh xqld{ldo1 Vlq hpedujr/ hv kdelwxdo hq orv fdvrv gh
lqwhuv hq Phfqlfd gh Volgrv | hq Fofxor gh Hvwuxfwxudv txh orv pdwhuldohv wudedmhq
hq hvwdgrv elglphqvlrqdohv r wulglphqvlrqdohv gh whqvlq1 Hvwr lpsolfd od qhfhvlgdg gh
uhghqlu ho frqfhswr gh whqvlq oplwh gh irupd txh vhd xwlol}deoh edmr fdujd pxowld{ldo1
Od glfxowdg hvwuled hq od glfxowdg sufwlfd gh uhdol}du hqvd|rv edmr hvwdgrv gh fdujd
frpsohmrv/ sru xq odgr/ | od pxowlsolflgdg gh frpelqdflrqhv gh whqvlrqhv d frqvlghudu/
sru rwur1 Ghelgr d hoor/ hv kdelwxdo phglu ho qlyho gh vrolflwdflq gh xq pdwhuldo d wudyv
gho frqfhswr gh whqvlq +xqld{ldo, htxlydohqwh/ ht 1
Vh ghqh frpr whqvlq htxlydohqwh +r gh frpsdudflq, gh xq hvwdgr pxowld{ldo gh
whqvlrqhv d xq ydoru hvfdodu/ ixqflq gh odv frpsrqhqwhv gho whqvru gh whqvlrqhv +r
gh orv ydoruhv gh odv whqvlrqhv sulqflsdohv gh vwh,/ txh sxhgh fruuhodflrqduvh frq orv
ydoruhv gh whqvlq hq xq hqvd|r xqld{ldo1 Dv/ grv hvwdgrv pxowld{ldohv gh whqvlq vrq
htxlydohqwhv d hihfwrv gh uhvlvwhqfld vl ohv fruuhvsrqghq lgqwlfdv whqvlrqhv htxlydohqwhv1
Hq sduwlfxodu/ xq hvwdgr pxowld{ldo hv htxlydohqwh d xq hvwdgr xqld{ldo hq ho txh dfwd
xqd whqvlq ljxdo d od whqvlq htxlydohqwh gho sulphur1
Ho frqfhswr gh whqvlq htxlydohqwh shuplwh dsolfdu d orv hvwdgrv pxowld{ldohv orv
plvprv fulwhulrv gh vhjxulgdg txh hq hvwdgrv xqld{ldohv1 Dv/ vh h{ljh txh od p{lpd
whqvlq htxlydohqwh hq od hvwuxfwxud qr vxshuh ho ydoru gh od whqvlq dgplvleoh/ ghqlgd
dsolfdqgr xq ghwhuplqdgr frhflhqwh gh vhjxulgdg d od whqvlq oplwh xqld{ldo=
+ht ,pd{  dgp @

olp
q

+418<,

Gh hvwd irupd/ ho sureohpd gh glphqvlrqdu hvwuxfwxudv vrphwlgdv d hvwdgrv jhqhudohv

gh whqvlq vh uhgxfh d ghqlu dghfxdgdphqwh odv whqvlrqhv htxlydohqwhv/ hydoxduodv |
frpsduduodv frq ho ydoru dgplvleoh1
Hq od sufwlfd lqjhqlhulo vh xvdq glyhuvdv ghqlflrqhv hpsulfdv gh od whqvlq htxl0
ydohqwh/ txh vh dghfxdq hq pd|ru r phqru judgr d orv glihuhqwhv pdwhuldohv hpsohdgrv1

Los autores, 2002; Edicions UPC, 2002.

65

FDSWXOR 41 IXQGDPHQWRV GH HODVWLFLGDG

D hvwdv ghqlflrqhv vh ohv ghqrplqd fulwhulrv gh uhvlvwhqfld1 Orv pv kdelwxdohv vrq orv
vljxlhqwhv=
+d, Fulwhulr gh Udqnlqh
Vhjq hvwh fulwhulr/ ho pdwhuldo idood fxdqgr ho p{lpr ydoru devroxwr gh xqd gh odv
whqvlrqhv sulqflsdohv dofdq}d xq ydoru ljxdo d od whqvlq oplwh1 Hv ghflu/ vl odv whqvlrqhv
sulqflsdohv vrq    2   / od whqvlq htxlydohqwh hv
ht @ +m  m,pd{

l @ 4> 5> 6

+4193,

Hvwh fulwhulr vxhoh hpsohduvh sdud pdwhuldohv frpr ho krupljq/ hq dtxhoodv vlwxdflrqhv
hq txh ho idoor gho pdwhuldo vh surgxfh suhgrplqdqwhphqwh d wudfflq/ vhjq ho oodpdgr
prgr L gh iudfwxud1
+e, Fulwhulr gh Wuhvfd
Vhjq hvwh fulwhulr/ ho pdwhuldo idood fxdqgr od whqvlq wdqjhqfldo p{lpd dofdq}d ho
ydoru fruuhvsrqglhqwh d od whqvlq wdqjhqfldo p{lpd hq ho hqvd|r xqld{ldo1 Hv ghflu/
vl odv whqvlrqhv sulqflsdohv vrq   2    / hqwrqfhv od whqvlq wdqjhqfldo p{lpd
gheh vhu
 ht
  
 pd{ 
@
+4194,
5
5
r vhd/ txh od whqvlq htxlydohqwh vh ghqh frpr
ht @   

+4195,

Hvwh fulwhulr hv dghfxdgr sdud pdwhuldohv gfwlohv vrphwlgrv d hvixhu}rv gh fruwdqwh

hohydgrv | txh vrq lqvhqvleohv do qlyho gh suhvlq klgurvwwlfd1
+f, Fulwhulr gh Yrq Plvhv
Vhjq hvwh fulwhulr/ ho pdwhuldo idood fxdqgr od hqhujd gh ghirupdflq +yhu ho Oleur
5, dvrfldgd d surfhvrv gh ghirupdflq gh glvwruvlq dofdq}d ho ydoru fruuhvsrqglhqwh d
od hqhujd gh glvwruvlq oplwh hq ho hqvd|r xqld{ldo1 Vhjq hvwd klswhvlv/ od whqvlq
htxlydohqwh hv
u k
l
4
ht @
+4196,
+  2 ,2 . +   ,2 . +  2 ,2
5
Hvwh fulwhulr hv dghfxdgr sdud pdwhuldohv gfwlohv frpr orv dfhurv gh frqvwuxfflq/ txh
vrq lqvhqvleohv do qlyho gh suhvlq klgurvwwlfd/ hq dtxhoodv vlwxdflrqhv hq txh ho idoor
gho pdwhuldo vh surgxfh suhgrplqdqwhphqwh sru fl}doodgxud/ vhjq ho oodpdgr prgr LL
gh iudfwxud1

Los autores, 2002; Edicions UPC, 2002.

41461 WHQVLQ HTXLYDOHQWH \ FULWHULRV GH UHVLVWHQFLD

66

+g, Fulwhulr gh PrkuFrxorpe

Hvwh fulwhulr sxhgh frqvlghuduvh xqd jhqhudol}dflq gho fulwhulr gh Wuhvfd sdud dtxhoorv
pdwhuldohv txh vrq vhqvleohv do qlyho gh frqqdplhqwr/ r vhd/ d od suhvlq klgurvwwlfd1
Od whqvlq htxlydohqwh vh ghqh frpr
ht @   n

+4197,

grqgh n @ +olp ,| @+olp ,S hv od uhodflq hqwuh odv whqvlrqhv oplwh d wudfflq | frpsuh0
vlq1 Hvwh fulwhulr hv dghfxdgr wdqwr sdud pdwhuldohv iujlohv frpr gfwlohv/ | vh vxhoh
dsolfdu d orv jhrpdwhuldohv r pdwhuldohv iulfflrqdohv/ wdohv frpr ho krupljq r orv vxhorv/
txh suhvhqwdq xqd pdufdgd glihuhqfld hqwuh odv uhvlvwhqfld d wudfflq | frpsuhvlq1
Hq od Iljxud 4159 vh pxhvwud jufdphqwh od glihuhqfld hqwuh orv glyhuvrv fulwhulrv
gh idoor lqwurgxflgrv1 Sdud xq hvwdgr sodqr gh whqvlrqhv/   @ 3/ vh uhsuhvhqwdq orv
oxjduhv jhrpwulfrv gh odv frpelqdflrqhv gh ydoruhv gh whqvlrqhv sulqflsdohv  / 2 txh
ghwhuplqdq xq ydoru oplwh gh od fruuhvsrqglhqwh whqvlq htxlydohqwh1 Sxhgh ghfluvh
txh ho lqwhulru gh odv fxuydv dv ghqlgdv fruuhvsrqgh d vlwxdflrqhv hovwlfdv/ hv ghflu/
vlq ulhvjr gh idoor1 Ho h{whulru gh glfkdv fxuydv fruuhvsrqgh d hvwdgrv gh whqvlq
lpsrvleohv gh dofdq}du sru ho pdwhuldo hq fxhvwlq1

Ilj1 4159= Hvwdgr odqr gh whqvlrqhv= +d, fulwhulrv gh Udqnlqh/ Wuhvfd | Yrq Plvhv +e,
fulwhulrv gh Wuhvfd | PrkuFrxorpe

Los autores, 2002; Edicions UPC, 2002.

67

FDSWXOR 41 IXQGDPHQWRV GH HODVWLFLGDG

Hq od Iljxud 4159d vh frpsdudq orv fulwhulrv gh Udqnlqh/ Wuhvfd | Yrq Plvhv sdud
xq plvpr ydoru gh od whqvlq oplwh1 Vh revhuyd txh orv fulwhulrv gh Udqnlqh | Wuhvfd
frlqflghq hq orv fxdgudqwhv gh wudfflq | frpsuhvlq/ shur glhuhq vhqvleohphqwh hq
vlwxdflrqhv gh wudfflqfrpsuhvlq/ frq fl}doodgxud suhgrplqdqwh1 Ho fulwhulr gh Yrq
Plvhv sxhgh yhuvh frpr xqd yhuvlq uhgrqghdgd gho fulwhulr gh Wuhvfd1 Hq od Iljxud
4159e vh frpsdudq orv fulwhulrv gh Wuhvfd | PrkuFrxorpe sdud xq plvpr ydoru gh
od whqvlq oplwh gh wudfflq1 Ho fulwhulr gh PrkuFrxorpe sxhgh yhuvh frpr xqd
jhqhudol}dflq gho fulwhulr gh Wuhvfd pxfkr pv dsur{lpdgd do frpsruwdplhqwr uhdo gh
orv jhrpdwhuldohv1

Los autores, 2002; Edicions UPC, 2002.