Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Performance
Preliminary PDHPE
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6/11/09 10:47 AM
Peak
Performance
Preliminary PDHPE
Darryl Buchanan
Wayne Cotton
Karen Ingram
Jo McLean
Donna OConnor
Peter Sinclair
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Contents
Preface
About the authors
x
xi
chapter
chapter
2
3
Meanings of health
Definitions of health
Dimensions of health
Relative and dynamic nature of health
3
3
4
6
Perceptions of health
Perceptions of individual health
Perceptions of the health of others
Implications of different perceptions of health
Perceptions of health as social constructs
Impact of the media, peers and family
8
8
9
9
10
11
12
12
18
Chapter review
31
34
34
34
36
40
43
44
45
46
48
48
50
Chapter review
51
53
53
55
56
57
58
60
62
66
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68
68
71
75
78
79
79
80
81
81
85
86
86
86
Chapter review
87
chapter
91
Skeletal system
Major bones involved in movement
Structure and function of joints
Joint actions
92
94
97
100
104
104
108
108
109
Respiratory system
Structure and functions
Lung function
Exchange of gases
110
110
112
112
Circulatory system
Components of blood
Structure and function of the heart
Structure and function of arteries, veins and capillaries
Pulmonary and systemic circulation
Blood pressure
114
114
115
116
116
118
Chapter review
120
122
122
122
128
130
132
134
vi
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chapter
138
138
140
140
141
142
143
145
145
148
148
149
149
150
151
Chapter review
152
155
Motion
The application of linear motion, velocity, speed, acceleration and momentum
in movement and performance contexts
155
162
162
164
164
Fluid mechanics
Flotation
Centre of buoyancy
Fluid resistance
166
166
169
Force
How the body applies force
How the body absorbs force
Applying force to an object
173
173
175
177
Chapter review
181
155
Preliminary Options
chapter
First aid
185
What are the main priorities for assessment and management of first aid patients?
Setting priorities for managing a first aid situation and assessing the casualty
Crisis management
185
185
190
How should the major types of injuries and medical conditions be managed
in first aid situations?
Management of injuries
Management of medical conditions
196
196
204
vii
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chapter
chapter
chapter
9
10
211
212
213
214
216
Chapter review
218
220
220
220
228
230
234
237
238
242
247
247
250
252
Chapter review
255
Fitness choices
257
257
257
260
263
264
267
272
272
277
281
Chapter review
284
Outdoor recreation
286
286
287
What are the technical skills and understanding needed for safe participation
in outdoor recreation?
Planning skills
Campsite selection
Conservation skills
Navigation skills
Emergency management skills
Skills needed for other outdoor activitiesrelevant to the experience
289
289
293
294
298
307
310
viii
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310
311
312
314
315
Chapter review
317
Suggested answers
Glossary
Acknowledgments
Index
320
331
339
341
ix
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Preface
Peak Performance 1 is an exciting new text written expressly for the recently
revised Stage 6 Personal Development, Health and Physical Education
syllabus in NSW.
Written by a team of leading educators, everything a Preliminary student
needs to perform at their peak is included here. Peak Performance 1:
Covers all core and option topics in an accessible, well illustrated way
Addresses every syllabus dot point comprehensively, clearly and
succinctly
Strikes the ideal balance of covering the breadth of syllabus content in
the appropriate depth. This approach supports all students to access the
material while ensuring great scope for deeper learning.
Maintains a clear focus on what students specifically need to know and be
able to do in Stage 6 PDHPE
Provides ample opportunities for critical thinking and analysis, including
a broad range of relevant and specific examples to support practical
application
The use of Peak Performance 1 will help teachers deliver the Preliminary
Personal Development, Health and Physical Education course with
confidence. Collecting together the best teaching and learning practice
available, Peak Performance 1 will make Personal Development, Health and
Physical Education enjoyable and relevant for a new generation of students.
About the CD
978 1 4202 2881 6
Darryl Buchanan, Donna OConnor, Jo McLean and Karen Ingram 2010
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xi
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Preliminary
Core
Better health
for individuals
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Health
and individuals
Health is a changeable concept that can mean many different things to different people.
It is made up of a number of components that interact with each other to impact upon an
individuals level of health. The meaning of health to an individual may change over time
depending on their circumstances and is shaped by a variety of factors, including
the perceptions of the person about their own heath and that of others, other peoples
perceptions of health and the influence of such things as the media, a persons family and
their peers. Young people form their own meanings of health and these meanings have a
direct correlation to their health behaviours and whether they are health enhancing or
health compromising.
Meanings of health
Denitions of health
The question of health and how is it defined is the source of much debate.
The concept of health has been around for thousands of years and it is often
seen as something that people aspire to. Health has frequently been equated
purely with physical aspects of the body and whether or not a person is well
or unwell. However, more holistic views of health take into consideration
other components of a persons life and make up. The term health means
different things to different people and this fluidity makes it difficult to come
up with one definitive explanation.
Pericles (495429 BC) an Athenian statesman and general believed
health to be that state of moral, mental and physical well-being, which
enables a man to face any crisis in life with the utmost facility and grace.
While New Zealand poet and author Katherine Mansfield (18881923) stated
that, by health I mean the power to live a full, adult, living, breathing life
in close contact with what I love I want to be all that I am capable
of becoming.
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Dimensions of health
Close examination of the various definitions of health reveal that health is
not made up of just one component but rather is a complex balance between
many different dimensions. These dimensions relate to all parts of a persons
being and continually interact with each other. These complex interactions
determine the health of the person; they can differ on a daily basis from
person to person and in different contexts.
The five commonly regarded dimensions of health are as follows:
1 Physicalthe physical dimension of health refers to the functioning of
the body and the things that relate to this, such as physical activity, good
nutrition, fitness and absence of disease.
2 Socialthe social dimension of health relates to ones ability to interact
with other individuals. It involves building healthy relationships, fostering
a positive self-image, improving interpersonal social skills and accepting
diversity. It includes ones interactions with family, friends and the
community.
3 Emotionalthe emotional or mental dimension of health refers to a
persons capacity to cope, adjust, and adapt to challenges and changes.
It also includes a knowledge and acceptance of ones feelings and
emotions, the ability to manage stress in an appropriate manner, the
ability to be resilient in tough times and having a well-developed sense
of self.
4 Cognitivethe cognitive, or intellectual, dimension of health includes
being able to access, process and use knowledge to assist in decision
making, reasoning, weighing up the consequences of actions, life planning
and career development.
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CHAPTER 1
Health is made up of a
number of interacting
dimensions
Physical
Cognitive/intellectual
Physical
Spiritual
Dimensions of health
Social
Emotional/mental
Wellbeing a persons
experience of feelings of
happiness, contentment and
satisfaction.
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Dimension
Health-enhancing behaviours
Physical
Consider the Dietary Guidelines for Australians and seek advice on nutrition
Adhere to the National Guidelines for Physical Activity
Adhere to the Australian Guidelines to Reduce Health Risks from Drinking Alcohol
Have regular health checks e.g. pap smears, cholesterol checks
Social
Emotional/
mental
Cognitive/
intellectual
Spiritual
Practise yoga
Read inspirational books
Take nature walks
Dynamic characterised by
energy or effective action,
active, forceful; the opposite
to static.
As can be seen from the health definitions and dimensions discussed, health
is not something that remains static. Our health can alter almost daily
according to our circumstances, age, environment and interactions. A person
may rate their health highly on a particular day as they are employed, have a
number of friends, are involved in various social and sporting activities and,
as a result, have a positive self-image and high self-esteem. However, they
may arrive at work one day to discover they have been made redundant. This
can result in a change in economic circumstances, an inability to participate
in social activities due to a lack of funds, which in turn leads to a decrease
in their feelings of self-worth. This person would then rate their health
very differently.
Health is seen as dynamic in nature as it is constantly changing. It is not
something that we achieve and then do not have to worry about any more.
If we were to rate our health on a continuum ranging from extremely good
Figure 1.2
A persons health is
constantly changing
depending upon their
circumstances, age,
environment and
interactions with others
Last week
A month ago
EXTREMELY
POOR
HEALTH
Today
A year ago
EXTREMELY
GOOD
HEALTH
6/11/09 10:58 AM
health to extremely poor health, the placement of our rating would move
continually, as we shift from being well to unwell to well again, happy to
unhappy or productive in our work or study to struggling with workplace
demands. Our health will also change, reflecting its dynamic nature, as we
mature, develop, interact with others and take on new life experiences.
Health is also seen as relative, that is, it tends to be defined in relation
to something else. We see our health in relation to our previous health, the
health of others, our current circumstances and our potential for health.
A 22-year-old professional athlete with a persistent injury may consider
themself unhealthy in relation to their health when they are at peak fitness
and performance. Alternatively, a 70-year-old man who is recovering rapidly
from major surgery, which has increased his life expectancy, may consider
his health excellent in relation to what it was before the operation. A child in
Iraq may equate health to whether or not they can attend school without being
in constant fear for their life, whereas a child in Australia may see health as
being able to participate in sports and games at school.
Our health may also change in relation to the different contexts we may
find ourselves in. For example, a social runner may rate their health highly
when they are with family and friends but if they join a serious running group
with people who are training for an event, the social runner may rate their
health differently compared to the other people in this context.
We all have a maximum health potential, which changes throughout our
lifetime. Our health potential can be at a high level when all five dimensions
of health are interacting smoothly, however, we may suddenly be subject
to an illness or injury, such as diabetes or chronic back pain. We can still
lead a healthy lifestyle and function well in the circumstances but our
level of health and our health potential has changed in relation to others
and ourselves.
Health is also relative according to the stage of a persons life. Younger
people may relate their feelings of health and wellbeing to fitness, energy,
wellness or physical strength whereas older people may equate health to
wholeness, an ability to cope and inner strength. Each will rate their level of
health accordingly and this does not mean that one is more or less healthy
than the other is.
CHAPTER 1
Discuss the different definitions of health, highlighting their strengths and weaknesses.
Synthesise your understandings of the dimensions of health and write your own definition
of health.
Draw up your own continuum of health and place yourself on it, based on how you rate
your health now. Be sure to take into account all five dimensions of health. Do the same for
a week ago, a month ago and a year ago. Compare your ratings with a friends and explain
why you placed yourselves where you did.
Outline which of the dimensions of health you feel you could improve upon, if any. Propose
realistic strategies that you could employ to include more health-enhancing behaviours in
these areas.
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Perceptions of health
When we talk about health and what it means to individuals, it is important
to consider how and why people form their varying views. Through our life
experiences and interacting with others, we gain and use knowledge to form
understandings and beliefs about different things. An individuals picture of
what health means, how it looks, and what they recognise as good or poor
health can be referred to as their perceptions of health.
Criteria standards or
principles by which something
can be judged or decided.
Table 1.2
Self-assessed
health status of
young people aged
1524 years, sex and
age group, 200405
(per cent)
Health status
1824 years
Males
Females
Males
1524 years
Females
Persons
85.1
79.3
64.7
64.1
70.9
68.5
69.7
Good
11.3
15.7
28.0
27.9
22.9
24.4
23.6
3.6
5.0
7.3
8.0
6.2
7.1
6.7
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Fair or poor
Total
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CHAPTER 1
Stigmatise to disapprove
of a person or group because
they are perceived as being
different; making it clear
that something is socially
unacceptable.
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10
Wheelchair sports
help promote positive
perceptions of health for
groups with special needs
A construct is something
that is formed or put together
as a result of various ideas or
influences.
Figure 1.4
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CHAPTER 1
11
Figure 1.5
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12
Explain why people have different perceptions of health and how these perceptions are
formed.
Consider whether the health status of your group of friends would be different from another
group of Year 11 students who may have had different experiences. Justify your answer.
Critically analyse whether media images and newspaper stories challenge or reinforce
peoples perceptions of the health of young people.
Examine how peoples perceptions of the health of others can influence the way they relate
to them.
Discuss how an individuals perceptions of health may affect their behaviours and wellbeing.
Socioeconomic status
(SES) individuals or a familys
income, education, occupation
and standing in the community.
Homogenous alike
or all the same.
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CHAPTER 1
13
The AIHWs 2007 report, Young Australians: Their health and wellbeing,
gives the key message that most young Australians health and wellbeing is
faring quite well. While the report emphasises some areas for concern, the
overall health status of young Australians is positive and many young people
are engaging in health-enhancing behaviours. This is highlighted by the
following findings:
Over 90 per cent of young people rate their health as excellent, very good
or good.
The life expectancy of young Australians has improved.
Mortality rates have halved since the late 1980s.
Mortality rates for motor vehicle accidents and suicide have decreased.
The rate of melanoma has decreased.
Asthma prevalence rates have declined and the number of asthma
hospitalisations have halved since the 1990s.
The incidence of vaccine-preventable illness such as measles, rubella and
meningococcal disease is low.
There has been a decline in the notification rates for communicable
diseases such as Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B and HIV.
A large number of young people are free of tooth decay.
Most young people live in two-parent families.
Most Year 7 students meet the benchmarks for literacy and numeracy.
Figure 1.6 Trends in injury and poisoning deaths for young people aged 1224 years, 19852004
90
Notes
Male
Female
80
70
60
2 Includes deaths
registered during 2004
for which an external
cause was coded as
the underlying cause
of death (ICD-9 codes
E800E999 and ICD-10
codes V01Y98).
50
40
30
20
10
0
1 Age-standardised
to the Australian
population as at 30 June
2001.
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Year
AIHW National Mortality Database
Figure 1.7 Death rates for young people aged 1224 years 19802004
140
Male
Female
Persons
120
100
Note: age-standardised
to the young Australian
population as at 30 June
2001.v
80
60
40
20
0
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
Year
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002 2004
6/11/09 10:58 AM
14
Notes
1 Age-standardised
to the Australian
population as at
30 June 2001.
2 ICD-9-CM code
493 (199697 to
199798) and
ICD-10-AM codes
J45 & J46 (199899
to 200405).
Figure 1.8 Asthma hospital separation rates for young people aged 1224 years, 199697 to 200405
350
Male
300
Female
250
200
150
100
50
0
199697 199798 199899 199900 200001 200102 200203 200304 200405
Year
Figure 1.9
Proportion of students
spending at least an hour
a day on moderate to
vigorous activity,
by gender and school year
(summer) for 1997 and 2004
Other major studies also point towards the many positive aspects of
the health status of young people. The NSW Schools Physical Activity and
Nutrition Survey 2004 (SPANS) found that almost three quarters of the
boys and girls in the survey met the recommendation of at least one hour of
moderate to vigorous physical activity daily, and that physical activity levels
had increased for both males and females since the last similar survey. They
also found that the performance of fundamental movement skills such as
running, throwing, catching, jumping and kicking had improved markedly.
Research indicates that young people who have better fundamental movement
skills are more likely to be more active, fitter and have better self-esteem than
those who have poor skills in these areas.
100
Year 8 boys
Year 8 girls
Year 10 boys
Year 10 girls
80
60
40
20
0
1997
Year
2004
Data from the Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) shows a decline in road
deaths across the population and in particular for young people. The national
road toll in 2008 was 395, which is the lowest since 1944 despite Australia
having twice the population, eleven times as many drivers and fifteen times
more vehicles on the road.
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CHAPTER 1
15
Figure 1.10
900
0 to 18
All ages
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1976
1980
1984
1988
1992
1996
2000
2004
2008
Year
Figure 1.11
Fatalities per 100 000 population
30
0 to 18
All ages
25
20
15
10
5
0
1976
1980
1984
1988
1992
1996
2000
2004
2008
Year
Figure 1.12
600
500
400
Road-related deaths
20022007
300
200
100
0
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Year
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16
Figure 1.13
100
1995
1998
2001
2004
2007
90
80
Percentage
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1419
2029
3039
4049
5059
60+
Age
Figure 1.14
100
1995
1998
2001
2004
2007
90
80
Percentage
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1419
2029
3039
4049
5059
60+
Age
Table 1.3 National Drug Strategy Household Survey 19982007, summary of drug use:
proportion of the population aged 14 and over
Lifetime Use
Recent Use*
Drug
1998
2001
2004
2007
1998
2001
2004
2007
Tobacco
50.8
49.4
47.4
44.6
24.9
23.2
20.7
19.4
Alcohol
86.9
90.4
90.7
89.9
80.7
82.4
83.6
82.9
Cannabis
39.1
33.6
33.6
33.5
17.9
12.9
11.3
9.1
Inhalants
3.9
2.6
2.5
3.1
0.9
0.4
0.4
0.4
Heroin
2.2
1.6
1.4
1.6
0.8
0.2
0.2
0.2
Methamphetamine
8.8
8.9
9.1
6.3
3.7
3.4
3.2
2.3
Cocaine
4.3
4.4
4.7
5.9
1.4
1.3
1.0
1.6
Hallucinogens
9.9
7.6
7.5
6.7
3.0
1.1
0.7
0.6
Ecstasy
4.8
6.1
7.5
8.9
2.4
2.9
3.4
3.5
6/11/09 10:58 AM
CHAPTER 1
17
These surveys tend to report on the amount of people who have used
drugs, which means looking at drug usage from a deficit model. If we are
to focus on the positive health status of young people and break down the
common perception that all adolescents use drugs, it is a valuable exercise
to view the statistics from a non-usage perspective.
Figure 1.15
100
90
80
Percentage
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Cocaine
Heroin
Ecstasy
Tobacco
Alcohol
Figure 1.16
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18
According to the information provided on the previous pages, there appears to be many
positive trends relating to the health status of young people. Explain why you think the
picture that many people have of the health of young people is different to this.
Outline the benefits of presenting statistics about young people and drug usage from the
point of view of how many people have not used particular drugs as opposed to how many
people have taken a particular drug.
Modifiable able to be
changed or altered.
Reinforce to strengthen.
Detrimental damaging or
making something worse.
6/11/09 10:58 AM
people who choose to binge drink may then put themselves in danger from
other risk behaviours, such as engaging in unprotected sexual activity, being a
passenger or driver in a vehicle while under the influence of drugs or alcohol
or becoming involved in a violent altercation.
Not all risk behaviours are harmful and there are both positive and
negative outcomes of risk taking. Adolescence is a time of opportunity,
creativity and learning. Taking risks can result in a person learning about
themself and others, developing skills such as conflict resolution and problem
solving and, perhaps, finding a flair or ability for something. However, it
all depends on what type of risk behaviours a person is involved in. There
is a difference between the controlled risks of playing extreme sports
or challenging yourself to do something you have not done before and
uncontrolled risks such as train surfing, drug use or drink driving.
A young persons practice of protective and risk behaviours tends to occur
in key contexts, and these may influence the type of behaviour a person
engages in and the degree of risk associated with it. For example, in the
school and home environment protective behaviours are often taught and
modelled and there is more opportunity to participate in safe and controlled
risk taking. However, a young persons peer group may discourage certain
protective behaviours and encourage risk taking in various forms; this means
the degree of risk is increased, as the safety of the situation may be decreased.
For young people to stay safe and healthy, while at the same time enjoying
new experiences and taking on challenges and adventures, it is important to be
able to recognise risk behaviours associated with health issues relevant to them.
Once these behaviours are recognised, a young person can then reduce the
potential for harm around these health issues by developing a suite of protective
behaviours that allow them to plan for the safety of themselves and others; to
seek help if required and, in doing so, enhance their health and wellbeing.
A number of health issues are relevant to young people and it is
worthwhile to explore the protective and risk behaviours that are associated
with these. Some of these health issues are more significant to some groups
than others. Many protective factors are protective for general health and
wellbeing and can be employed in a variety of situations, while others are
specific to a particular health issue.
CHAPTER 1
19
Mental health
As discussed earlier in this chapter, one of the dimensions of health is our
emotional or mental health, which refers to the way we think, act and feel,
and to our ability to cope with challenges. While many young people rate
their health highly, recent studies indicate that just over 25 per cent of young
people, aged 18 to 24 have been diagnosed with a mental disorder. Mental
disorders are the leading contributor to the burden of disease for young
people, with anxiety and depression being the most common problems.
Mental disorders can affect almost every aspect of a young persons
life and, if untreated, can be a risk factor for self-harm and suicide. While
many young people experience mental disorders, very few seek help and,
therefore, they may suffer unnecessarily. Diagnosis, treatment and appropriate
management can greatly reduce a persons suffering and allow them to
increase their level of health and wellbeing. Life is a rollercoaster for young
people and having a broad repertoire of skills and strategies to help deal with
all the things life throws in their direction can be extremely empowering.
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20
Protective behaviours
Risk behaviours
Thinking you are the only person in this situation and that
others will not understand
Catastrophising
Overgeneralising
Knowing where you can go for help e.g. the internet, youth
centres, school counsellor
Taking drugs
Self-harming
Binge drinking
Investigate what services are available to young people in your local community to assist
them with a mental health issue or concern. Using this information, compile a directory
that could possibly be included in your school diary. Include the name of the organisation,
contact details and a short summary of the services they offer. Do not forget to include
internet sites as well as physical organisations.
6/11/09 10:58 AM
CHAPTER 1
21
Food habits
Waistlines are increasing in Australia society and the results of SPANS
support this with the finding that 25 per cent of young people are overweight
or obese. Other findings from the survey showed that a large proportion of
young people exhibit poor eating habits.
Less than a quarter of young people eat the recommended amount of
vegetables per day (4 serves).
55 per cent of boys and 4 per cent of girls drink more than one glass
of soft drink per day.
Less than a quarter of young people drink low fat milk.
80 per cent of young people eat at fast-food outlets at least once a week.
Many young people skip breakfast.
Around 30 per cent of young people eat their evening meal in front of
the television.
Being overweight or obese can have a significant impact on the lives
of young people. It can seriously affect their self-esteem and may subject
them to bullying and negative stereotypes. Poor eating habits, which lead to
being overweight or obese, can
increase the likelihood that a
young person will suffer from
asthma, diabetes, high blood
pressure, high cholesterol, fatty
liver disease and a range of other
social, emotional and physical
problems in both the short and
long term. The incidence of type
2 diabetes, which was normally
associated with older people,
is increasing among young
people. Poor eating habits are
also associated with being under
weight and disordered eating in
young people, and these factors
can also lead to health problems.
Many factors influence a
young persons food habits
and these will be discussed in
chapter 2, however, the following
table identifies some common
risk behaviours associated with
food habits and some protective
behaviours that can be put in
place.
Figure 1.17
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22
Table 1.5 Protective and risk behaviours associated with food habits
Protective behaviours
Risk behaviours
Seeking out good information about food through magazines, the internet,
health clubs and your local doctor
Eating a variety of foods in accordance with the Dietary Guidelines for
Children and Adolescents and the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating
Asking to eat meals as a family around the table a few times a week rather
than sitting in front of the television
Physical activity
Many young people are involved in physical activity and although the general
trend is towards an increase in physical activity levels, there are still concerns
in this area. The Australian Physical Activity Recommendations for Children
and Young People state that all young people should be involved in at least
60 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity per day. While a high
percentage of young people meet this recommendation, activity levels tend to
decline with age. Other issues relating to physical activity include that more
boys are physically active than girls, that younger students tend to be more
active than older students, all young people are more active in the summer
months of the year, and young people who live in rural areas tend to be more
active than those who live in urban areas.
The amount of time spent in sedentary activities is also of concern. The
Australian Government recommends that students should not spend more
than two hours a day using electronic entertainment such as television,
computers and hand-held games. However, the SPANS found a high
proportion of boys and girls spending much more time than this engaged
in these non-active pursuits. Less young people are using active means of
transport to get to school and to get around on the weekends than in the past.
It is more common for young people to be driven to school and other activities
or to take public transport than to walk or ride a bike. While there are many
reasons for this trend, it means that a potential avenue for physical activity is
not often used.
6/11/09 10:58 AM
CHAPTER 1
23
There are many short and long-term benefits associated with physical
activity, such as the development of social skills and social networks through
team sports, the increased likelihood of healthy blood-pressure levels, low
cholesterol and low insulin levels, building stronger bones, maintaining a
healthy weight range and increasing self-esteem. Putting in place protective
factors around physical activity can assist in gaining these and other benefits.
Table 1.6 Protective and risk behaviours for physical activity
Protective behaviours
Risk behaviours
Walking or riding to school or getting off the bus a few stops earlier and
walking part of the way
Planning for physical activity and looking for ways to be physically active
in everyday life e.g. walking the dog, riding your bike, parking further
away from the shops
Discuss why statistics show that young women are less physically active than young men are.
Account for the decline in physical activity levels as people get older.
Body image
Body image is a persons attitude towards their bodyhow they see themself,
how they think and feel about the way they look and how they believe others
perceive them. Many young people identify body image as a concern; and a
range of things, such as a persons attitudes and beliefs as well as the media,
our peers and society, can influence their thoughts. A young persons body
image can have a huge impact on their health and wellbeing. Poor body image
can affect self-esteem and a young persons social adjustment.
6/11/09 10:58 AM
24
Research into body image among young people shows a growing trend
towards a more distorted and negative perception of the body and, as a result,
a large degree of dissatisfaction with their body. This generally manifests
itself in a desire among young women and men to be slimmer, and a desire
for a more muscular body shape in young men. A distorted body image and
body dissatisfaction can lead to many damaging behaviours and may also lead
to disordered eating patterns such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa.
Young people need a great deal of encouragement and support around issues
relating to body image due to the pervasive nature of the media in putting
forward unrealistic stereotypes.
Table 1.7 Protective and risk behaviours for body image
Protective behaviours
Risk behaviours
Knowing that it is okay to eat a balanced diet that includes all foods,
some in moderation
Being involved with different groups of friends who have similar interests
and who encourage you
Knowing where you can seek help or advice about problems and concerns
to do with your body
Celebrating diversity
Visit the Dove Campaign for Real Beauty at <www.campaignforrealbeauty.com.au/doveself-esteem-fund> and view the advertisements Evolution and Onslaught.
a Assess the impact you believe these advertisements may have on a young persons
perceptions of body image.
b Discuss what media literacy skills these advertisements are advocating.
c Propose other ways that young people can be informed about the unrealistic messages
the media portrays about body image.
Debate the following statement: You cannot believe everything you see in the media.
6/11/09 10:58 AM
CHAPTER 1
25
Drug use
Adolescence is a time when young people may choose to experiment with
drug use and, even though large numbers of young people do not use or abuse
drugs, there are some areas of concern. The earlier young people are initiated
into the use of drugs such as tobacco, alcohol and illicit drugs, the more likely
they are to continue to use these substances and develop problems that may
affect their future health.
The AIHWs most recent findings around young people and tobacco use
show that while there has been a steady decrease in the amount of smokers
between 1224 years of age, 17 per cent of young people are smokers and, of
this figure, there are slightly more female smokers than males. This may be
connected with issues around body image and the perception that smoking
supresses the appetite.
The use of illicit drugs is decreasing for young people, in all areas
except for ecstasy use. While the percentage of young people using ecstasy
is still less than 10 per cent of 1619-year-olds, it is still important for young
people to be aware of the associated risks and for them to put in place
protective behaviours to ensure they make health-enhancing decisions
around illicit drugs.
Table 1.8 Protective and risk behaviours for drug use
Protective behaviours
Risk behaviours
Binge drinking
Drink spiking
Having minimal coping skills
Not knowing where to seek
help
Using alcohol or other drugs to
mask a problem or concern
Underage drinking
Drink walking
6/11/09 10:58 AM
26
Some young people drink alcohol in amounts that put them at risk of
alcohol-related short-term harm. The immediate effects of alcohol combined
with the tendency of adolescents to engage in a range of risk-taking behaviours
greatly increases the risk of serious injury or death. Young people are the group
most at risk of alcohol-related harm such as motor vehicle accidents, physical
and sexual assaults, falls, drowning and suicide. Alcohol harm is not limited
to the young person but also affects their peers, families and bystanders. The
National Health Medical Research Councils Australian Guidelines to Reduce
Health Risks from Drinking Alcohol 2009 recommends that the safest option
for children and young people less than 18 years of age is not to drink alcohol
at all. They suggest that children under 15 years are at the greatest risk of harm
from drinking and that not drinking alcohol at all in this age group is very
important. For young people aged 1517 years, they suggest that delaying the
initiation of drinking as long as possible is safest. To view all the Guidelines
visit <www.nhmrc.gov.au/your_health/healthy/alcohol>.
Sexual health
Chlamydia is a sexually
transmitted bacterial infection,
which can affect the penis,
cervix, fallopian tubes, anus,
and throat; it can cause serious
health problems, such as pelvic
inflammatory disease and
infertility, if left untreated.
Sexual health is an important issue for young people but frequently this
issue is not given the attention it requires due to its sensitive nature. Sexual
health can be a confusing issue for young people and often they do no not
know where to turn to for advice. Inadequate sexual health information can
result in poor overall health outcomes for young people. It is important that
young people feel comfortable with their sexuality and, when they do receive
information on sexual health, it needs to be relevant, engaging, culturally and
gender specific and from a trustworthy source.
According to the 2008 Secondary Students and Sexual Health Survey the
majority of young people (78 per cent), in Years 10 and 12 have participated
in some form of sexual activity ranging from deep kissing through to
sexual intercourse. The proportion of students who have experienced
sexual intercourse has increased markedly in the six years since the previous
survey in 2002, along with an increase in the number of sexual partners.
The percentage of young people having oral sex has also increased, with
a number of the students surveyed reporting having oral sex with three or
more people in the past year. Of those students who are sexually active, it is
concerning to note that just under a third of them had experienced unwanted
sex at some time, generally due to being drunk or being put under pressure
by their sexual partner. The number of young women experiencing
unwanted sex has increased by 10 percent since the 2002 survey. A number
of sexually active young people state that they were drunk or high during
their most recent sexual encounter. A small percentage of young people
report being same-sex attracted, which can put them at risk of marginalisation
and depression.
While young people are using condoms during sexual intercourse, they
are mainly doing so to prevent pregnancy rather than to protect themselves
from sexually transmitted infections (STI). Knowledge about HIV/AIDS
and other STIs has improved since 2002 but is still quite low, which certainly
can have an impact on health behaviours and health status. Chlamydia is
the most commonly reported STI and notification rates of this disease
have doubled since 2001.This could be partly due to increased awareness
and testing, but the increase also relates to some young people engaging
in unprotected sex and having multiple sexual partners. Many young
6/11/09 10:58 AM
27
Notes
1,000
Male
900
1 Age-standardised
to the Australian
population as at
30 June 2001.
Female
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
Year
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Figure 1.18
people report that they are not aware that Chlamydia can cause infertility.
Knowledge about Human Papillomavirus (HPV) and cervical cancer among
the surveyed students was generally poor.
Males are more likely than females to have
multiple partners and to use condoms. These
health behaviours could be influenced by
societal double standards regarding sexual
activity for males compared to females.
Girls may feel they will be labelled easy if
they carry and suggest the use of condoms
and may think that it is alright for a boy to
have a number of sexual partners but not
for a girl. Of concern is the finding that
one in ten sexually active young people
used the withdrawal method as a means of
contraception in their last sexual encounter.
Young people are the most common users of
the morning after pill at Australian family
planning clinics.
Sexual health should incorporate breast
checks, pap smears, testicular checks and
regular sexual health checks if a young person
is sexually active. The Penrith Panthers rugby
league team have recently teamed up with
Family Planning NSW to inform young men
about the importance of testicular checks with
the slogan Penrith Panthers know the feel of
their ballsdo you?
Michael Jennings, NSW Origin representative.
Posters created to promote the importance of
testicular self-examination among young men
as part of looking after their reproductive and
sexual health. Developed by Penrith Panthers
<penrithpanthers.com.au>, Andrology Australia
<andrologyaustralia.org> and Family Planning NSW
<fpnsw.org.au>
CHAPTER 1
Chlamydia notification
rates for young people aged
1224 years, 19952005
Figure 1.19
6/11/09 10:58 AM
28
Protective behaviours
Risk behaviours
Road safety
Wheels user this term
incorporates bicycle riders,
skateboarders, roller-bladers
and roller-skaters.
Morbidity rates illness and
injury rates in a population.
6/11/09 10:58 AM
CHAPTER 1
29
of being involved in a fatal crash increases when there are two or more
passengers in a young persons car. Speeding is the main cause of road crashes
in NSW but other high-risk behaviours that contribute significantly are driver
fatigue, drink driving and not wearing seat belts.
Recent initiatives by the NSW government to improve the safety of young
drivers include:
The graduated licensing scheme introduced in 2000, specifically to
improve training and licensing arrangements for new drivers.
Zero tolerance for P1 drivers for speeding offences.
P2 drivers caught speeding from 1 kilometre per hour to 30 kilometres per
hour over the limit will lose an additional demerit point from July 2009,
which means they will lose their licence for a second speeding offence.
Zero alcohol Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC) levels for L- and P-plate
drivers.
A ban on P-plate licence holders driving high performance vehicles.
This scheme aims to prohibit young driver access to vehicles that are
overrepresented in young driver crashes.
The P1 Peer Passenger Condition, which means that P1 drivers under the
age of 25 must not drive a vehicle with more than one passenger under
21 years old between 11 pm and 5 am. A one-passenger condition also
applies to any provisional (P1 and P2) driver who has been disqualified for
a driving offence. After the disqualification period, the licence holder can
only carry one passenger at all times while driving, for a 12-month period.
No mobile phone (even hands free) use by learner and P1 drivers and
provisional riders.
Figure 1.20
6/11/09 10:58 AM
30
Other areas relating to road safety and young people are passenger safety,
pedestrian safety and safety while riding bikes or skateboards. There is a
range of protective behaviours that young people can put in place to reduce
their risk of injury when involved in these activities. These have been
included in the table below.
Table 1.10 Protective and risk behaviours for road safety
Protective behaviours
Risk behaviours
Drink walking
Planning long trips to include rest stops and using the stop, revive,
survive centres and designated rest areas on NSW roads
Driving at night
6/11/09 10:58 AM
CHAPTER 1
31
Critically analyse the graduated licensing scheme as a means of providing young drivers
with more experience in a range of driving situations.
Discuss the impact that the peer passenger condition may have on motor vehicle-related
accidents for young people.
Plan a road trip from Sydney to the Gold Coast to attend the Big Day Out. Include in your
plan what you will do in preparation for the trip, and the rest stops you will make along
the way.
chapter review
Recap
Health can be defined in a number of ways and is made up of five different dimensions
physical, social, cognitive, emotional and spiritual.
The dimensions of health should be balanced so that the individual gains an overall
sense of wellbeing.
An individuals health is constantly changing and is affected by their circumstances, age,
environment and interactions and, as such, is referred to as being dynamic.
Health is also seen as relative, as it is often defined in relation to something else, such
as an individuals previous health, the health of other people, their current situation or
environment and their potential for health.
An individuals perceptions of health are shaped by a variety of factors including their
education, family, culture and personal experiences, along with their values and opinions.
A persons perceptions of their health and that of others may lead them to form opinions
of others or act towards them in a certain way.
Our perceptions of health are seen to be socially constructed as they are formed because
of social influences such as culture, religion, media, education, income, family and
friends.
Young people in Australia are a diverse group and, for the most part, are faring quite well
with their general health and wellbeing. However, there are some inequities in health
among different groups of young people.
6/11/09 10:58 AM
32
The health patterns developed by young people in adolescence will often continue
into adulthood.
A young persons health behaviours can include positive behaviours, those which
support and enhance their health, and risk behaviours, those which may be detrimental
to their health.
chapter review
Organisation
Current URL
Useful for
Australian Institute of
Health and Welfare
www.aihw.gov.au
Reach Out
www.reachout.com.au
www.beyondblue.org.au
Somazone
www.somazone.com.au/about-somazone.html
Federal governments
ecstasy and other
drugs site
www.redi.gov.au/ecstasy_drugs/default.htm
DrugInfo clearinghouse
www.druginfo.adf.org.au
Easy-to-access information on
alcohol, other drugs and prevention
Kids Helpline
www.kidshelp.com.au
www.drinkingnightmare.gov.au
Adios Barbie
www.adiosbarbie.com
National Cannabis
Prevention and
Information Centre
www.ncpic.org.au
6/11/09 10:58 AM
Current URL
Useful for
Completely Gorgeous
www.completelygorgeous.com.au
Get Clued Up
www.getcluedup.com.au
www.rta.nsw.gov.au/roadsafety
www.fpnsw.org.au
Exam-style questions
1 Give an outline of the five dimensions of health, highlighting the
33
chapter review
Organisation
CHAPTER 1
(4 marks)
(6 marks)
(10 marks)
drug use, sexual health, food habits, physical activity or road safety.
Identify a range of risk and protective behaviours for this health issue
and investigate how risk decreases or increases when multiple
factors interact.
6/11/09 10:58 AM
Influences on
the health
of individuals
What influences the health of individuals?
The health of an individual is subject to many influences, some of these have a positive
effect on a persons health outcomes, while some may be detrimental. These influences
tend to act in various combinations and a person can exert differing amounts of control
over them dependent upon their social, economic and environmental circumstances.
The influences that affect an individuals health construct their meanings around
health, the value they attach to health and their health behaviours, whether these
are health enhancing or health compromising. Because some influences on an
individuals health may be out of their control, the health of an individual becomes
the joint responsibility of both the individual and the society in which they live.
Interrelated something
that is connected or linked to
something else.
Individual factors
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CHAPTER 2
35
Figure 2.1
Decision
making
Effective
communicating
Problem
solving
INDIVIDUAL
COPING
SKILLS
Goal
setting
Anger
management
Conflict
resolution
Stress
management
techniques
Well-developed and
effective coping skills can
assist a person in making
health-enhancing decisions
6/11/09 11:12 AM
36
Think about the coping skills you believe you possess. Examine the strategies you can employ
to improve your coping skills and build on any areas in which you feel you are lacking.
Research the steps involved in the decision-making process for problem solving. Design a
flow chart that summarises the main points people should consider when assessing a risky
situation and deciding what course of action to take.
Define intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and discuss which of these would be most effective
for assisting individuals to change their health behaviours.
Sociocultural factors
Health-enhancing
behaviours behaviours
beneficial to a persons
health, such as healthy
eating, physical activity,
communicating with others
and not smoking.
6/11/09 11:12 AM
members to keep their emotions to themselves rather than discuss them may
make it difficult for a young person to talk about any problems they may be
experiencing. This can be distressing for a young person and, if they do not
have the resources to seek help from other means, it may have a negative
impact on their health status.
Our peers are those who share something in common with us, such as age,
background, interests and experiences. People tend to gravitate to those who
share their values and attitudes, and their likes and dislikes. Often, the peer
group is also the benchmark by which a person measures what is appropriate
behaviour, along with determining their sense of self-worth. Everyone
has peers with whom they interact throughout their lifetime, but during
adolescence, a young persons peer group is held in the highest esteem and
has a tremendous impact on the decisions and choices that person makes.
Humans are social beings and have many needs related to relationships,
such as a need to feel valued, to belong and be accepted, to have friends
and to develop a sense of identity. If our needs are not met, some of us may
become prone to depression, drug use, anxiety and feelings of hopelessness,
which can affect all aspects of health. The peer group meets many of these
needs and can be a very positive determinant of good health through
developing productive social relationships. If peer group membership results
in a sense of satisfaction and wellbeing, it can be seen as a buffer against
health problems. A young person may find that their peer group includes
others with whom they can discuss health issues, take on challenges, seek
help for problems if needed and generally be a good support network.
The need for belonging, however, can be very strong in adolescence and
can sometimes overcome other needs, such as safety, resulting in poor health
choices. For example, a young person may chose to partake in an activity that
compromises their health and wellbeing, such as smoking marijuana, in order
to satisfy their need to be an integral part of their peer group, as they believe
the group would not accept them if they did not participate.
CHAPTER 2
37
Figure 2.2
6/11/09 11:12 AM
38
Figure 2.3
Examine further examples of how sociocultural factors such as family and/or peers can have
an influence on a persons health behaviours.
Visit the Reach Out website at <www.reachout.com.au>. Spend some time exploring the site
and then critically analyse how useful it may be for young people to assist them in dealing
with issues, seeking help and making health-enhancing decisions.
Marginalise to regard
a group of people as less
important than others,
treating them differently and
not affording them the same
advantages as others.
6/11/09 11:12 AM
CHAPTER 2
39
Figure 2.4
An example of the
Speeding: no one thinks
big of you campaign
Figure 2.5
6/11/09 11:12 AM
40
Figure 2.6
Explain how you believe cultural expectations are formed and the impact they may have on
an individuals health behaviours.
Justify the following statement: A person who is periodically discriminated against on the
grounds of their culture, beliefs or race is likely to experience poorer health than someone
who has never experienced discrimination.
Socioeconomic factors
Social gradient the term
used when referring to the link
between socioeconomic status
(SES) and health.
Some persons or groups in society may face additional health risks because
of the socioeconomic environment in which they live. Social gradient is
the term used by the World Health Organization when referring to the link
between socioeconomic status (SES) and health. There is a direct correlation
between a persons susceptibility to disease and their social environment in
particular their income, their education and their social status. High income
and social status is linked to good health, whereas low SES is closely tied to
poor health. A persons SES affects their life expectancy and their wellbeing,
and there are a number of reasons for this.
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CHAPTER 2
41
6/11/09 11:12 AM
42
BY MARTIN LAVERTY
6/11/09 11:12 AM
CHAPTER 2
43
Discuss the suggestion by the author that a persons wealth is the most important factor
to their health. Include in your answer whether you believe that some determinants have a
greater impact on an individuals health than others or whether they all have equal influence.
Explain what the author of this article means when he states that we can lower the
incidence of chronic disease by encouraging kids to finish Year 12.
Environmental factors
Peoples health is influenced by the conditions in which they live. In order to
function adequately and to feel safe and happy, we need to have a number of
basic needs met in relation to our physical environment. Safe water; clean
air; healthy workplaces; safe houses, communities and roads; and easy access
to health services all contribute to good health. The government has a large
role to play in providing positive environments for peoples health.
Some environments have limited infrastructure, for example, poor public
transport, limited facilities, few public recreation spaces and poor street
lighting. These may be coupled with high levels of community violence
resulting in people being afraid for their safety. Built-up areas in cities can be
crowded and have greater levels of pollution and a lower quality of air and
water. Environments such as these can hinder a persons health in a number
of ways.
Geographic location can certainly have an impact on a persons health and
their ability to make wise health choices. Those living in areas that are isolated
from major towns can find they have a lack of access to health services and to
people who can provide them with help and guidance about various health
issues. They may have to travel large distances to see a doctor and therefore,
may neglect regular health check-ups such as pap smears, breast checks and
bowel cancer screening. Having no close neighbours may limit social contact
and opportunities for recreation, which are beneficial to health. Food choices
are limited, particularly fresh foods, and some food items may not be available
at all. People who live in rural and remote environments may also be subject
to climatic conditions that can affect their health such as droughts, floods, fires
and dust storms. The negative impact that the drought in rural Australia has
had on peoples emotional health is quite severe, as people experience a loss of
self-worth and feelings of hopelessness when they are unable to earn a living
due to the weather conditions.
Access to health services may also be restricted for those living in urban
areas, due to overcrowding. An increase in the population in some areas due
to more affordable housing has seen increased waiting times to see doctors,
and to have medical procedures and gain referrals to health experts, which
can affect the health of an individual.
The access to health information via technology is an area that can assist
people to make informed health choices. Rural and remote areas of Australia
have been disadvantaged in their access to health services for some time. The
Australian government has made a commitment to deliver affordable online
access to communities in rural and regional Australia, and this may mean that
individuals in these environments will have the opportunity to further their
health knowledge through access to the internet.
6/11/09 11:12 AM
44
The design and development of urban areas in recent years has addressed
some areas of concern regarding physical environments and their influence on
the health of individuals and, in turn, of communities. The provision of bicycle
and walking tracks and better public transport such as T-ways promote better
health and gives people more choices to enable them to make good health
decisions. Governments who include these considerations in their transport
policies are going a long way in combating sedentary lifestyles and maintaining
a healthy environment for people to live in. Cycling and walking tracks and the
use of public transport can decrease air pollution, reduce injury through motor
vehicle accidents, increase exercise levels and increase social cohesion; all of
which can have an impact on the health of individuals.
Various levels of government and a range of health organisations are
also considering how different city environments can encourage people,
particularly young people, to make positive health decisions. Many local
councils provide a range of free youth friendly health services within the
local area, in an attempt to provide positive environments for young people
to meet, socialise and seek advice. The National Youth Mental Health
Foundation (Headspace) has recently set up 30 centres across Australia.
These serve as an entry point for young people to access a broad range of
services that are available in their local community and which address
health issues to do with mental health and substance use.
The council of Sunnyville Shire are proposing the development of a new suburb in their
area. They have called for tenders from local developers and your company has won the
contract. Your team has been given the responsibility of designing an exciting suburb where
people will be keen to live and where healthy lifestyles are supported. In pairs, develop a
proposal for the types of infrastructure (e.g. roads, cycle paths, parks, walkways etc.) and
other facilities (e.g. community health centres, youth drop-in centres) that your company
feels should be included in the new suburb to make the physical environment more
conducive to positive health choices. You must justify your recommendations, being sure to
take into account the influence that environmental factors have on the health of individuals.
6/11/09 11:12 AM
CHAPTER 2
45
By doing this, an individual can tilt the balance in favour of those factors they
can exert some control over and reduce the risk of those determinants over
which they have little or no control.
Figure 2.8
In order to increase a
persons health status
it is important to try to
tip the balance in favour
of modifiable health
determinants
Non-modifiable
health
determinants
Modifiable
health
determinants
6/11/09 11:12 AM
46
Our health potential may be determined by things such as age and genetics,
however, it is possible for an individual to positively adjust their lifestyle
and/or environment to reduce the risk of ill health and to maximise their
health potential. That said, the degree of control that can be exerted over
various determinants differs depending upon the individuals personal
circumstances and the degree to which they are in a position to change their
health outcomes. For example, an adult may be in a better position to alter
socioeconomic factors, such as where they live, the type of employment they
are in or their level of education, than may be possible for a child.
It is important for a person to be aware of the non-modifiable health
determinants that may apply to them so they are able to make informed
decisions about how they can alter their modifiable health determinants to
ensure the best possible health outcomes for their life.
6/11/09 11:12 AM
CHAPTER 2
47
Figure 2.9
Assess whether genetic predisposition to certain diseases for some races is the only
determinant influencing an individuals health or whether other determinants of health,
such as socioeconomic and environmental factors, play a role in the development of disease.
Give suggestions as to what individuals can do to modify the determinants they have little
control over.
Explain how the level of influence of the determinants of health on an individual changes
over time.
6/11/09 11:12 AM
48
6/11/09 11:12 AM
CHAPTER 2
49
Figure 2.10
6/11/09 11:12 AM
50
Figure 2.11
6/11/09 11:12 AM
CHAPTER 2
51
combined efforts of both the individual and the wider community. Viewing
health as a social construct recognises that society has a role to play in the
achievement of good health, and that everyone has a right to good health
despite their social or economic circumstances.
chapter review
Recap
An individuals health is influenced by a range of factors that are commonly referred to
as the determinants of health.
The determinants of health are categorised into four areas: individual factors (e.g.
knowledge and skills, attitudes, genetics), sociocultural factors (e.g. family, peers,
media, religion and culture), socioeconomic factors (e.g. employment, income,
education) and environmental factors (e.g. geographical location, access to health
services and technology).
There is a social gradient in relation to health, which indicates that high income, formal
education and social status are linked to good health, whereas low SES and a lack of
education are closely tied to poor health.
Modifiable health determinants are those that a person can exert some control over,
such as peers and education; whereas non-modifiable health determinants are those that
are not able to be changed or controlled, for example, genetic factors (age and gender),
family history and race.
A person should be aware of the non-modifiable health determinants that may be an
influence on their health status and then assess how they may be able to change their
modifiable health determinants in order to maximise their health.
The level of influence that certain determinants have on a persons health alters
according to their particular stage of life.
6/11/09 11:12 AM
52
Health is socially constructed, that is, it is formed or put together because of social
influences such as culture, religion, media, education, income, environment, family
and friends.
People develop their meanings of health dependant upon their social circumstances,
and this view of health shapes a persons beliefs, behaviours and practices.
There is a strong interrelationship between the determinants of health in shaping
a persons attitudes and behaviours around health.
An individuals health should be the combined responsibility of both the individual and
the community. Everyone has a right to good health despite their social or economic
circumstances.
Current URL
Useful for
www.euro.who.int
Headspace
www.headspace.org.au
Australian Institute of
Health and Welfare
www.aihw.gov.au
Kids Helpline
www.kidshelp.com.au
Exam-style questions
1 Outline how the media can influence the health of individuals.
(3 marks)
(5 marks)
in order to have more control over the influence these determinants have
on their health.
3 Critically analyse how the determinants of health interrelate to affect the
(12 marks)
6/11/09 11:12 AM
Strategies for
promoting health
Enhancing the health of individuals is a positive step to improving the health of a nation.
Governments, organisations, communities and individuals all play a role in promoting healthy
behaviours. Providing effective programs that empower individuals to take positive measures
in improving their health is a key factor in improving overall health levels. Key stakeholders
need to work in partnership to support individuals in adopting positive health behaviours.
Using a variety of strategies to target unhealthy behaviour patterns to bring about positive
change is essential to improve an individuals health.
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54
Enable to provide an
individual with the skills or
opportunity to make decisions.
Empower to give an
individual the knowledge, skills
and understanding to make a
difference.
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56
Explore other settings where health promotion can occur, such as the media. Assess how
these settings enhance an individuals or communitys health.
Critically analyse the statement, Every aspect of society is a setting for health promotion.
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Intervention
level
Intervention strategies
Program sustainability
Effect sustainability
Individual
Organisational
Community
action
Institutional
change
Individuals
Individuals play a significant role in achieving
good health. Changing an individuals healthrelated behaviours such as those related to smoking,
unhealthy eating habits and speeding, will assist
in improving the leading causes of mortality and
morbidity for Australians. It is important to note,
however, that an individuals social, economic and
cultural environments contribute to their health
practices. Individual factors interrelate to impact on a
persons health. While individuals can develop their
knowledge on health issues, which aim to impact
on their behaviour, if an individuals attitude is not
supportive of the new knowledge they have gained,
it is hard for their behaviour to change. For example,
young people learn about the dangers of smoking and
developing lung cancer in the future, however, young
Attitude
Knowledge
Behaviour
Figure 3.2
The healthbehaviour
triangle
6/11/09 11:04 AM
58
girls may think it is cool to smoke and that it can assist them with weight
loss, therefore, their behaviour does not change, despite them knowing that
smoking is bad for their health.
An individuals motivation levels also affect their health choices.
If a person is motivated to reduce their stress levels, then by choosing
to implement effective time-management strategies such as checklists,
completing tasks before due dates and organising relaxation sessions they
will contribute to reducing their stress levels. However, a lack of motivation
can negatively affect an individuals health, for example, a person who is not
motivated to exercise. By sitting on the couch watching television and eating
chips they will put on weight, which can lead to obesity, cardiovascular
disease or diabetes.
While there are external factors that influence an individuals health, there
are certain factors for which, ultimately, the individual is responsible if they
are to improve and promote their health and wellbeing.
For each of the following scenarios explain the actions and responsibilities individuals can
undertake to improve their health and the health of others.
a Samantha is in Year 10 and enjoys going out with friends on the weekend, going to bed
late and sleeping in. She leaves her assessments to the last minute, and she usually
rushes them as they cause her stress. Samantha fights with her parents as they nag her
to stay home more as her schoolwork is suffering.
b Joshua is in Year 12 and works part time. He recently broke up with his girlfriend and
spends his weekend at dance parties to deal with the break-up of his relationship. Joshua
has started to lose weight and become unmotivated, missing some of his shifts at work.
c Matthew is a single father who has two young children. He works two jobs and finds it
easier to buy takeaway food each night than to prepare dinner for his children.
d Mia is married with three children. She works long hours in order to get her work
done. Mia rarely spends time with her family, which causes fights between her and her
husband. She rarely has time to watch her children play sport, which is disheartening
for them.
Analyse the statement, Motivation is all individuals need to improve their health.
Using the healthbehaviour triangle model, provide examples of how these three factors
work to:
a improve the health of an individual
b reduce the health of an individual.
Community groups/schools
Communities play a significant role in supporting individuals to adopt
health-promoting practices and ensure the environment in which people
live is conducive to healthy living. Various community groups work towards
improving the health of society. These include mobile playgroups, church
groups, sporting groups and schools. These community groups can serve many
purposes in supporting and enhancing an individual and their environment.
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Investigate the various community groups within your local area. Outline the services each
of these groups provide. Discuss how these community groups promote health.
Propose strategies that your local community could undertake to meet the health needs of
your community.
Debate the statement: Communities have all the resources needed to improve individuals
health.
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Non-government organisations
Non-government organisations (NGOs) play a key role in promoting health.
Specialised organisations that are independent from the government provide
a greater focus on specific heath issues. Examples of non-government
organisations include the following.
Figure 3.3
The Heart Foundation actively promotes health linked to the heart. They
contribute to the health promotion in the community through their research,
support for health professionals, health promotion campaigns, educating
the public and supporting people with cardiovascular disease. They target
issues linked with cardiovascular disease, such as poor nutrition, lack of
physical activity and smoking, though various health promotion campaigns.
Well-known health promotion campaigns such as the Heart Foundation
Tick, Jump Rope for Heart, Heart Foundation Walking and Heart Week are
effective in promoting a healthy lifestyle.
The foundation has a variety of tools to assist people to improve their
health, such as a website with information on healthy living and on heart
health, community speaking programs, advocating for cardiovascular disease
prevention in the community, a heart health information call centre and
an extensive range of health publications for patients and the general public.
The Heart Foundation works in partnership with a variety of organisations
that assist them in the sponsorship and delivery of health promotion
programs. For example, Tetley is a supporter of the Heart Foundations
Go Red for Women campaign. These strategies and health promotion
programs can enable and empower individuals and the community to
improve their health.
Figure 3.4
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Figure 3.5
Figure 3.6
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62
Create a table of the companies you know that sponsor health-related events organised by
NGOs. Discuss why these companies have chosen to sponsor particular events.
Debate the following statement: Should companies whose products harm an individuals
health be able to sponsor sporting events?
Government
The Australian Government plays a significant role in funding, researching
and promoting good health. It is imperative that governments focus on health
promotion as doing this reduces the burden of health care and services
needed over time and ensures the future of Australias health is in good shape.
Some of the various agencies provided by the government to serve the health
needs of Australia include the following organisations.
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Figure 3.7
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64
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The RTA provides assistance with funding to local councils to ensure roads
are structurally sound for use. They also play a significant role in educating
and equipping skills for individuals to use on the road. Strategies such
as booklets with road rules, brochures relating to drinking driving, car
maintenance and research into road issues such as speeding, fatigue and
overcrowding of cars to inform government policies and laws are some
examples the RTA uses to educate, empower and inform individuals and
communities on road safety. The RTA has developed numerous health
promotion strategies that have had positive impact on road users. These
campaigns include:
No one Thinks Big of Youan anti-speeding message
Paranoiaabout mobile random breath test for drink driving
No Belt No Brainencouraging the use of seat belts
The Brainabout the effect of alcohol and drugs.
The RTA works in partnership with organisations to promote road safety,
for example with the Lions Clubs providing Stop, Revive, Survive stations
during long weekends and school holidays in conjunction with the RTAs
health promotion campaign
Microsleeps, which focuses on
driver fatigue. The RTA works
to educate individuals on the
dangers individuals can face on
the road and ways in which to
reduce these harms to improve
the health of drivers, passengers
and bystanders on and around
the road.
Figure 3.9
Evaluate the statement, There is no more the federal, state and local governments can do
to improve the health of individuals.
Research other government agencies linked to health. How accessible are these agencies for
individuals seeking health assistance?
Create a brochure of all the government health agencies within your local area and the
health services/products they offer.
Discuss the importance of governments and individuals working together to improve the
health of communities.
The RTAs speeding campaign No one Thinks Big of You has been deemed as one of the
most recognisable health promotion programs produced. Investigate the campaign and its
purpose and propose the reasons why this campaign has been so successful.
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International organisations
Global health issues affect everyone, regardless what country a person
lives in. Health varies considerably from country to country. International
collaboration is important to improve Australias health, as Australia is able to
learn from and contribute to international and regional health issues. Working
with health ministers in other countries, and with international organisations
and health and medical institutes enables Australia to set health standards
and structures of support for health promotion. International organisations
can and do assist Australia in developing health policies and resources and in
providing information on how Australias health is progressing in comparison
with the health of other nations.
United Nations
The United Nations (UN) helps millions of people around the world. They
aim to give people a voice to share their struggles and fears. The United
Nations plays a crucial role in assisting countries to address issues that they
cannot resolve on their own. The key focus of the United Nations includes
issues relating to children, education, poverty, peace, health, HIV/AIDS,
human rights, climate change, emergencies, and women. Partnerships with
broadcasting networks; celebrities such as Angelina Jolie, Michael Douglas
and Nicole Kidman; non-government organisations, foundations and United
Nations agencies all help to advocate for those less fortunate in the world.
Extending from the United Nations are the United Nations Systems of
Organisations, which play a significant role in assisting Australia to enhance
its health. Organisations such as the World Health Organization (WHO),
World Bank Group, World Trade Organization (WTO), United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the United
Nations Children Fund (UNICEF) promote sustainable living conditions and
basic human rights for all people. Australia works through this international
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World Bank
The World Bank focuses on the inclusion and sustainability of globalisation
to developing countries. The assistance provided through financial and
technical support enables developing countries to improve the health
and infrastructure of their populations. In order to achieve this, the two
development institutions, the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (IBRD) and the International Development Association (IDA),
assist countries to make investments in education, health, agriculture and
environmental and natural resource management in order to improve the
health of individuals.
While Australia is not a developing country, it does have strong links with
the World Bank and seeks advice on global issues that can affect Australias
public health. For example, refugees coming to Australia from war-torn
countries such as Iran or Iraq, who may have developed mental health issues,
will ultimately affect the health of Australia and the public health care
system. Alternatively, an infectious disease outbreak in a country can affect
a person who has been travelling to that country and once they return to
Australia, can transfer this infectious disease into the Australian community.
Keeping up to date on health issues within the world enables the Australian
Government to plan and implement measures to ensure these issues have
minimal impact on the health of Australians.
Developing countries
those with lower-level
economies whose citizens are
mostly agricultural workers.
Natural resource
management the sustainable
management of Australias
natural resources, such as
our land, water, marine and
biological systems.
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Investigate the various health promotion campaigns or programs one of the international
organisations undertakes. Discuss how this can improve the health of Australia.
Assess the statement: What happens in other parts of the world does not impact on the
health of individuals in Australia.
Assess the statement, Individual organisations alone can improve the health of individuals.
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70
If, as stated in the article, There is nobody who smokes who doesnt know its bad for them.
Nobody is obese, who doesnt know its bad for their health. Discuss why individuals do not
just stop smoking or lose weight.
Explain why unhealthy lifestyles are the most critical problems facing any future Australian
health system.
Propose why strategies targeting individuals, such as fad diets and gym memberships, fail
to bring about positive behaviour change.
Outline the reasons given in the article for why individuals find it hard to change unhealthy
behaviours.
Critically analyse the statement, We like to think of ourselves as healthy active Australians.
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Immunisation to make
immune, especially by
inoculation.
Immunisation
Immunisations are recommended for population groups who are at higher risk
from vaccine-preventable diseases. The government funds some vaccinations
free of charge, such as the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination that
protects young women and girls against most cervical cancers. The Australian
Immunisation Program distributes and administers various immunisations
through states and territories. While immunisation is clearly a preventative
measure and considered a preventative medical approach, it is also
considered a public health measure as it can be administered through public
health programs.
Childhood immunisation
Immunisation is a key preventative approach throughout childhood. The
National Immunisation Program Schedule in 20062007 covered childrens
vaccinations for diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis (whooping cough), polio,
measles, mumps, rubella, meningococcal type C disease, varicella (chicken
pox), pneumococcal disease, hepatitis B and rotavirus. Additionally for
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children living in high-risk areas,
hepatitis A is covered.
Table 3.2 Childhood vaccinations by state and territory, 20062007
NSW
Vic
Qld
WA
General practice
940 229
528 876
675 433
215 650
180 666
65 738
30 698
1 968
2 639 258
46 102
400 437
52 862
17 449
64 488
6 508
587 846
81 743
3 159
57 742
61 397
19 875
475
23 760
51 598
299 841
Hospital
14 140
8 242
25 750
18 729
1 294
155
245
6 200
74 950
5 712
1 589
9 034
3 380
1 825
36
7 353
28 929
68
25 859
333
17
109
26 386
Other
238
20
2 149
128
2 535
Total
1 088 164
942 323
823 038
342 464
268 609
72 876
54 756
67 228
3 659 745
SA
Tas
ACT
Aust (a)
Provider type
NT
(a) Includes Cocos/Keeling Island, Christmas Island, Norfolk Island and unknown; therefore rows do not add to the
Australia column.
Medicare Australia unpublished data
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Explain why the government vaccinates children against each of the diseases or illnesses
listed above.
Using table 3.2, explain why these places have been chosen to administer vaccinations.
Investigate whether you were immunised as a child. Explain why your parents chose or
chose not to immunise you against these childhood illnesses.
An outbreak of measles in
Queensland can be traced back to areas
with low immunisation rates around
the Sunshine Coast. Thats why the
measles outbreak has happenedand
in unvaccinated kids.
We want to keep immunisation
rates really high because some children
cant be protected because they have
disease or illness or problems with
their immune system.
But Australian Vaccination Network, which is against immunisation,
de-fended parents rights.
President Meryl Dorey said parents
who did not vaccinate their child
should still be entitled to claim the
maternity immunisation allowance.
A lot of people start vaccinating
and then their child has a reaction so
they start researching and then stop.
What we are annoyed at is that
parents who get their child vaccinated
are getting a payment from the
Government, she said.
Its a bribe and we dont support
it. Its very hard to get good, objective
advice on both sides of the story.
South Coast mother Karen Nelson
started her children on a vaccination
program but stopped when one
became blind in an eye. She said it was
a personal choice for her family.
I did my own research and my
husband was never vaccinated, she
said. I do get a lot of questions and
remarks when I tell people. Its an
individual choice.
The Daily Telegraph, 12 March 2009
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Outline why health experts are concerned about some potentially deadly illnesses returning
in some areas of NSW.
List the areas where immunisation levels are lowest. Describe the impact this could have on
health in these areas.
Outline the health issues experts are most concerned about for young children.
Discuss why the government has introduced the maternity immunisation allowance for
some families.
Propose why the Eastern Suburbs, a wealthy and highly educated area, has the lowest levels
of immunisation.
Assess the role immunisation plays in enhancing the health of an individual and community.
Debate the following topic: All children should be immunised against childhood diseases.
Adult immunisation
Influenza and pneumococcal vaccines are provided free to all Australians
aged 65 years and over, and Indigenous Australians aged 50 years and over.
These population groups are at greater risk of these illnesses and diseases
due to their reduced immunity. These vaccinations assist in lessening the
severity of the disease or illness. Some workplaces such as schools or
day-care centres offer their staff free vaccinations for influenza, as they are
in an area of high contamination, particularly during winter, and employers
want to minimise the chances of their staff being infected.
Screening
Screening plays a significant role in preventing illness and diseases. Testing
for, or having a procedure to check for, a disease or illness before it occurs
is important in ensuring good health. Screening can also assist people in
the early detection of an illness or disease. There are a variety of screening
services in the community, such as full-body screening, heart screening and
cancer screening. These procedures enable individuals to take greater control
of their health if they are susceptible to certain illnesses and diseases.
National screening programs for breast, cervical and bowel cancers are
conducted to reduce the mortality and morbidity of these cancers. The
Australian Government provides these screening programs free for people
who are in the high-risk target age group for these diseases. For example,
the BreastScreen Australia program provides free mammogram screening to
women aged over 50 years and the National Bowel Cancer Screening Program
offers free screening for men and women with a family history of bowel
cancer. Other health agencies offer screening at a cost, such as screening of
moles for skin cancer.
BreastScreen Australia is jointly funded by federal, state and territory
governments. It aims to reduce mortality and morbidity from breast cancer
by actively recruiting women in the target age group 5069 years who do
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74
Years of screening
Target population
19961997
844 626
51.4
19981999
975 511
55.7
20002001
1 063 585
56.9
20022003
1 118 146
56.2
20042005
1 188 720
56.2
Note: rates are the number of females screened as a percentage of the eligible female population calculated as the
average of the Australian Bureau of Statistics estimated resident population and age-standardised to the Australian
population at 30 June 2001.
AIHW analysis of BreastScreen Australia data
Morbidity rates for breast cancer have increased over the years; discuss how screening has
affected this increase.
Justify why 5069-year-old women should have free breast cancer screening rather than to
other population groups.
Propose ways to encourage more women from the target age group to participate in
BreastScreen Australias screening programs.
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Investigate the various screening processes available to check for illnesses and disease.
Create a poster to advertise the benefits of one of the health screenings available in your
local area.
Examine other health issues that would benefit from free screening programs to enhance
an individuals health.
Health-promoting schools
Health-promoting schools are a key public health approach used in Australia.
The approach focuses on the interaction between health and education sectors
to improve the health of children and young people. It has an organised set of
policies, practices, activities and structures, designed to protect and promote
the health and wellbeing of students, staff and the wider school community
members, while providing consistent messages to school, home and within
the community.
A health-promoting
school encompasses three
Provides safe,
important areas that interrelate
supportive
Addresses the
environments
health and
intrinsically to enhance the
wellbeing of staff
health and learning outcomes
of its community. The three
areas are:
curriculum, teaching and
learning practices
school organisation, ethos
and environment
partnerships and services.
Collaborates
with the local
community
Principles of
Health Promoting
Schools
Integrates
into the schools
ongoing activities
Figure 3.11
Health-promoting schools
follow strategic principles
Promotes health
and wellbeing
of students
Uphold social
justice and
equity concepts
Involves
student participation
and empowerment
Links health and
education issues
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Assess the role school environments play in enhancing the health of individuals.
Propose ways in which your school can enhance partnerships with health agencies in your
local community.
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WorkCover
WorkCover NSW is a statutory authority
that works in partnership with the NSW
community to create safe workplaces,
effective return-to-work procedures
and security for injured workers. They
administer and enforce compliance with
occupational health and safety (OH&S),
injury management, return-to-work and
workers compensation legislation and
manage the workers compensation system.
They have access to all workplaces and are,
therefore, able to target specific issues to
enhance individuals health. WorkCover has
undertaken a number of health promotion
initiatives to improve safety and wellbeing in
the workplace. The Homecoming campaign
uses a television commercial to highlight the
affect of a worker potentially not returning
from work because they might have had an
accident and showing the effect on their
family. The campaign also uses posters to
remind individuals that workplace safety
doesnt just affect those at work.
Other strategies, such as information on
sun safety at work, managing safety risks,
workplace safety summits are effective
methods implemented by WorkCover to
enhance the safety and health of individuals
in the workplace. More information
relating to WorkCover can be found in
Peak Performance 2 HSC PDHPE.
Figure 3.13
Recall all the strategies you know that improve health and safety in the workplace.
Assess the statement, All workplaces have a duty of care to their employees to keep them
safe, regardless of age, gender or nationality.
Investigate a workplace and examine the strategies in place to enhance the health of
individuals. Propose strategies to improve the health of this workplace.
Health promotion strategies aim to improve the health of young people. Using various
health-promotion programs targeting young people, for example, the dark side of tanning.
Assess the effectiveness of these programs in improving the health of young people.
Improving the health of all Australians takes a variety of health promotion approaches.
Propose other actions that may improve the health of all Australians. Justify why you think
these actions would enhance the health of Australians.
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Read the article On a mission to find homes for the needy. Describe why this person is
participating in the City2Surf.
Investigate what community events exist in your local area. Describe how these events meet
the health needs of your community.
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Read the article Planning a Healthier Environment and answer the following questions.
a Outline the groups who are collaborating with each other to create a healthier
environment. Discuss why each group would be a part of this project.
b Describe how this project can improve the health of a community.
c Using the five action areas of the Ottawa Charter, outline the strategies this project will
use. Assess the effectiveness of these strategies in building a healthier environment.
d Propose strategies to enhance the healthy spaces and places concept.
Investigate your schools rules and guidelines for students. For each rule or guideline, how
does it promote health?
Propose new rules that could be added in your school to enhance the health of the school
community.
Visit the NSW Road and Traffic website at <www.rta.nsw.gov.au> and investigate the laws
and guidelines relating to road safety. Assess how effective these laws /guidelines are in
reducing road injuries.
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Compulsory PDHPE lessons that focus on the shortand long-term effects of alcohol on the body.
Healthy Harold vans which visit primary schools
to educate young children about the effects of
alcohol.
Education through schools pastoral care programs
on how to party safely if alcohol is available or how
to enjoy yourself at a party without alcohol.
Information in magazines such as Womans Day and
Mens Health about the impact alcohol can have on
the body.
Information in newsletters and university magazines
on safe drinking levels for alcohol.
Having students practise role-play scenarios
similar to those young people might face around
alcohol, so they can practise their problem solving,
communication and assertiveness skills.
Knowing how and where to access reputable
information relating to alcohol. For example, internet
sites such as the Australian Drug Foundation or local
community health centres.
Undertaking a first-aid course to develop skills to
assist people with alcohol-related injuries.
Creating posters, postcards, coasters, stickers and
wallet cards to educate people on the dangers of
excessive alcohol consumption.
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Imagine you are the Minister for Health. Propose strategies that
could be implemented for your chosen lifestyle health issue to
improve the health of the Australian community.
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Equity
In order for all individuals to achieve good health, access to health care
services and information must be fairly distributed. Ensuring communities
have the necessary infrastructure to provide quality health care for a free
or low cost and have the ability to seek out health services regardless
of age, gender or ethnicity is essential for individuals to achieve good
health. Individuals have the right to good health, and governments need
to ensure that all individuals have access to the same health care services
and treatments. For example, people living in rural communities should
have access to a dietician just as people living in the city do. As certain
communities have higher health inequities than others, additional resources
may be provided to reduce these health inequities. This could be through
an increase of health services such as counsellors or through building more
infrastructure such as nursing homes or hospitals. This would ensure greater
equity of resources to those communities in greatest need. In order to reduce
inequities, individuals should be able participate in the decision-making
process within their community in relation to health needs. Individuals
should be active participants in their own lives, planning for and making
decisions about their own health.
Diversity
Australia continues to grow into a diverse nation. From the physical diversity of
the land to the social diversity of its cultures, Australia needs to consider many
factors when addressing various health issues. Ensuring population groups
within society are not discriminated against in terms of age, gender, sexuality or
location is important in achieving good health for individuals. Providing health
information in various languages, placing health services in places easy to
access by public transport, celebrating various cultures and understanding the
different health issues for the various population groups is essential in ensuring
all individuals have the opportunity to achieve good health.
Supportive environments
Providing environments where people are supported is essential to achieving
good health. Homes, workplaces, schools and communities play a vital role in
ensuring all people, regardless of their background, have the opportunity to
be valued and make positive contributions to society. When the environment
around a person supports positive health habits, it is easier for an individual
to make positive choices. Ensuring environments in which people live
are conducive and supportive for positive health is crucial for improving
the health status of individuals. Celebrating the diversity of a community,
empowering individuals and communities to take action on a health issue
close to their heart and enabling people to improve environments is essential
in achieving good health.
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Investigate the health services in your local area and those in another area about 100 kilometres
away. Compare the health services for each of the areas. Decide if there is a disparity between
them. Propose how the number of services in each area can affect the health of its community.
Discuss the impact bulk billing has on the health of an individual in terms of social justice
principles.
Identify various health inequities in the community and propose strategies that can be
implemented to reduce these inequities
Imagine you are the NSW Minister for Health. You have two applications for a grant of
$100 000. One application is from the inner-city Newtown Council who would like to
build a health centre to cater for mothers with newborn babies. The second application is
from Broken Hill Council, a rural community, who would like to employ another general
practitioner. To whom would you give the grant? Justify your decision.
Investigate various health-promotion programs and identify how the social justice principles
have been applied to promote the health of individuals.
chapter review
Recap
Health promotion focuses on advocating, enabling and empowering individuals to make
improvements to their health.
Homes, schools, workplaces and the media are excellent settings where strategies to
improve health can be implemented.
The promotion of health is everyones responsibility. Individuals, communities,
governments and organisations need to work in partnership to enhance the health
of individuals.
Intersectoral approaches enable a more collaborative approach to ensuring the
environment in which an individual lives, works and participates promotes positive
health behaviours.
There are various approaches and strategies undertaken to improve the health
of individuals, which include lifestyle behavioural changes, preventative medical
approaches and public health approaches:
Using a variety of health promotion strategies throughout a health-promotion program
is the key to effective behaviour change.
The blueprint for health promotion is based on the Ottawa Charter Framework for Health
Promotion. It consists of five action areas:
developing personal skills
creating supportive environments
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Current URL
Useful for
www.aihw.gov.au
www.who.int/en
www.ahpsa.org.au
Australian Government
Department of Health and
Ageing
www.health.gov.au
NSW Health
www.health.nsw.gov.au
WorkCover NSW
www.workcover.nsw.gov.au
Exam-style questions
1 Explain how various settings can be used to improve the health of individuals.
(3 marks)
2 Discuss how the different levels of government take responsibility for and
(5 marks)
(12 marks)
food habits, physical activity, drug use, mental health or road safety, assess
the effectiveness this health-promotion initiative has in improving an
individuals health.
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Preliminary
Core
The body
in motion
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Musculoskeletal
and cardiorespiratory
systems
How do the musculoskeletal and cardiorespiratory systems of the body
influence and respond to movement?
The human body is made up of many complex systems that enable it to function. While it is
possible to study anatomy in isolation, the interrelation of anatomy and physiology
makes it hard to separate the two fields. The interrelationships of the skeletal, muscular,
cardiovascular and respiratory systems are paramount in enabling our bodies to respond and
move effectively. Planned training programs can enhance the capacity of some systems of the
body to influence and respond to movement in an enhanced way.
Sagittal planea vertical plane that divides the body into left and right
parts
Frontal planea vertical plane that divides the body into anterior (front)
and posterior (back) parts
Transverse planea horizontal plane that divides the body into superior
(top) and inferior (bottom) parts; this is also known as a cross-section.
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Figure 4.1
Median
(mid-sagittal)
plane
Transverse plane
a
Frontal section
through torso
b
Transverse section
through torso
(superior view)
c
Median
(mid-sagittal)
section
Skeletal system
Cartilage tough, elastic,
fibrous tissue found in the
body, for example, between
joints, in the nose and in
the ear.
The skeletal system is the framework of the body and is made up of bones,
cartilage, joints and ligaments. The 206 bones in the body enable us to
function each day, giving us body shape. The skeletal system makes up
approximately 20 per cent of our body weight.
Bones perform five main functions in the body:
1 Supportbones provide the framework of the body; they support it and
give the body shape. For example, the vertebrae support the ribs to enable
us to stand.
2 Protectionbones protect vital organs within the body. For example, the
pelvis surrounds the reproductive organs.
3 Movementin conjunction with muscles, bones act as levers to allow the
body to move. For example, the flexion of the knee joint allows us to kick
a ball.
4 Storage of mineralsbones store minerals needed for the functioning of
the body. For example, calcium is stored in bones.
5 Formation of blood cellsthe formation of blood cells occurs in the
cavities of certain bones.
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The unique size and shape of each particular bone enable them to serve
specific functions and needs in the body. Bones can be classified in the
following five ways.
1 Long bonesthese are long in length and elongated in shape. They consist
of two ends and a shaft. They are made up of a hard shell casing (compact
bone) and contain spongy bone on the inside. Examples include the
femur, humerus, radius and ulna.
2 Short bonesthese are cube-like and are mostly made up of spongy bone.
A thin layer of compact bone provides the shape. Examples include the
carpals, metacarpals, tarsals and metatarsals.
3 Flat bonesthese are flat, thin bones that usually protect organs. Examples
include the skull and sternum.
4 Irregular bonesthese are bones that do not fall into one of the above
categories; they are usually complicated in shape. Examples include the
vertebrae and pelvis.
5 Sesamoid bonesthese are bones found in the body where tendons pass
over a joint, for example, in the foot, knee and hand. They aim to protect
the tendon and increase movement.
Long bones are the major bones involved in movement. They are
structured as follows.
Bone shaftthe long narrow part of the bone that is made of mostly
marrow and compact bone
Epiphysisthe head of the bone containing spongy tissue
Periosteumthe thin, fibrous membrane covering the entire surface of
the bone
Figure 4.3
Epiphysial
line
Long bone,
e.g. femur of leg
Proximal
epiphysis
Articular
cartilage
Spongy
bone
Medullary
cavity
Flat bones,
e.g. parietal
bone of skull
Compact
bone
Diaphysis
Short bones,
e.g. carpals of wrist
Irregular bone,
e.g. vertebra
Distal
epiphysis
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Appendicular skeleton
consists of the upper and
lower limbs, shoulder and
hipbones that attach the limbs
to the axial skeleton.
Axial skeleton
The axial skeleton provides the central structure (or long axis) of the skeletal
system as shown in figure 4.4. Many of the bones in the axial skeleton do not
move, or move only minimally. They provide the main structure of the overall
skeleton, and the core stability of the axial skeleton allows the bones of the
joined appendicular skeleton (especially the long bones) to move efficiently,
with both parts of the skeleton relying on the muscles that are attached to
perform their appropriate function of either supporting stability or driving
the movement.
The axial skeleton includes the cranium, vertebral column and rib cage.
Cranium (skull)
The cranium is the most complex bony structure in the body. It is formed by
two sets of bones the cranial bones and the facial bonesnumbering 22 in
total. The cranium bones protect the brain and organs for hearing. The facial
bones form the structure of the face and cavities for the bodys senses. The
skull is classified as a flat bone.
Vertebral column (spine)
The spine is also called the backbone of the human skeleton. It protects the
spinal cord and connects the skull to the pelvis. Its 26 irregular bones (fused
bones are counted as one) are classified into five sections.
Cervical vertebraethe seven vertebrae of the neck
Thoracic vertebraethe next 12 vertebrae
Lumbar vertebraethe five vertebrae supporting the lower back
Sacrumthe five fused vertebrae that connect to the pelvis
Coccyxthe four fused vertebrae, also known as the tailbone
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Frontal bone
Cranium
(skull)
Thoracic
cage
95
Parietal bone
Zygomatic bone
Temporal bone
Maxilla
Occipital bone
Mandible (jawbone)
Pectoral
girdle
CHAPTER 4
Mandible
Clavicle
Clavicle
Scapula
Scapula
(shoulder blade)
Sternum
(breastbone)
Ribs
Humerus
Costal
cartilages
Spinal column
Os coxae
Pelvic girdle
Ulna
Pelvis (hipbone)
Radius
Coccyx (tailbone)
Carpus
(wrist bones)
Metacarpal
bones
Phalanges
Femur (thighbone)
Patella (kneecap)
Tarsus
(anklebones)
Metatarsal
bones
Calcaneus
Phalanges
a
Anterior view
Rib cage
The sternum and 12 pairs of ribs make up the rib cage. All ribs attach to the
posterior part of the vertebrae. Ribs provide protection around the heart and
lungs. Ribs are classified as flat bones and are structured as follows.
b
Posterior view
Figure 4.4
The first seven ribs are joined directly to the sternum by cartilage.
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The remaining five ribs are indirectly attached to the sternum; they
actually join onto each other.
Ribs 11 and 12 are known as floating ribs, as they are only attached
posteriorly.
Shoulder girdle
The shoulder girdle consists of two bones: the clavicle (also known as the
collarbone) and scapula (also known as the shoulder blade). The clavicle is
classified as a long bone. The scapula is classified as a flat bone. These bones
and surrounding muscles form the shoulder girdle. The appendicular skeleton
is attached to the axial skeleton when the clavicle attaches itself to the
sternum and the scapula attaches to the vertebrae. The shoulder girdle:
provides attachment points for the upper limbs
provides the upper limbs with flexibility and mobility not possible at any
other place in the body.
Upper limbs
Thirty bones comprise the upper limbs, also known as the arm, forearm and
hand. The humerus, a long bone, makes up the arm segment of the upper
limb. The ulna and radius make up the forearm segment of the upper arm.
The ulna and humerus are responsible for the elbow joint.
The radius and carpals are responsible for the hand joint; therefore, when
the radius moves, the hand moves as well.
Carpals are classified as short bones. Eight carpals connected by ligaments
make up the wrist and five metacarpals (long bones) form the palm of the
hand. The carpals, metacarpals and phalanges (fingers) make up the entire
hand segment of the upper limb.
Pelvic girdle (hip)
The pelvic girdle connects the lower limbs to the axial skeleton. It acts as a
transfer point for weight from the upper body to the lower limbs and, as a
result, plays a key role in movement.
The pelvic girdle is secured to the axial skeleton by some of the strongest
ligaments in the body.
Lower limbs
Three segments make up the lower limb: the thigh, leg and foot. Because they
carry the weight of the body when standing, the lower limb bones are thicker
and stronger than bones of the upper limb. The femur, a long bone, makes up
the thigh, and is the largest and strongest bone in the body.
The tibia and fibula make up the leg segment of the lower limb. The tibia
joins with the femur to form the knee joint, while the fibula stabilises the
ankle joint.
The tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges make up the foot segment of the
lower limb. The foot supports and propels our body forward when we move.
Seven tarsals make up the foot. The metatarsals are made up of five small long
bones. In each foot, the toes are made up of 14 phalanges.
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Identify the type and location of major bones involved in figure 4.5 below.
Figure 4.5
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Suggest why the type of bones involved in the exercises are structurally suited to the
movement.
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a
Fibrous Suture
Figure 4.6
Types of joints
b
Cartilaginous Cartilage
c
Synovial
Synovial joints
Most joints in the body are classified as synovial joints. Synovial joints have
common structural features that enable them to move freely. These include:
synovial cavitya space where two bones meet
synovial fluida rich viscous fluid that acts as lubrication to the bones in
the synovial cavity. It also plays a role in the cleanup of tissue debris from
daily wear and tear on the joint
articular cartilagecovers the end of the bones, provides cushioning and
reduces friction between the bones in the joint
joint capsuleencloses the cavity and keeps the fluid contained
fibrous capsuleencloses the bones, tissues and fluid
synovial membranesecretes the fluid into the joint
meniscuscartilage that grows inwards from the joint capsules to absorb
shock, reduce pressure and enhance stability.
Tendons, ligaments and bursae complement synovial joints to ensure
they are stable. While each of these fibres enhances the stability of the joint,
their function is quite different. Tendons join muscle to bone, which enables
Figure 4.7
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99
Figure 4.8
4 BALL-AND-SOCKET JOINT
one bone has a smooth
head that fits into the cup-like
structure of another.
Example: the humerus fits into
the shoulder socket
2 GLIDING/PLANE JOINT
usually flat and allows
small gliding movements.
Example: joints between
the vertebrae
5 HINGE JOINTone
bone has a convex surface
that fits into a concave of
another. Movement usually
occurs in only one plane.
Example: bending and
straightening at the elbow
3 SADDLE JOINT
shaped like a saddle,
concave in one direction
and convex in the other.
Example: the carpals at
the base of the thumb
6 CONDYLOID/ELLIPSOIDAL JOINT
an oval convex surface where
one bone slides over or fits into a
similar-shaped bone.
Example: carpals in the hand
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Joint actions
Figure 4.9
a Cervical flexion
b Elbow flexion
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Figure 4.10
a Cervical extension
b Elbow extension
Shoulder hyperextension
Hip circumduction
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Shoulder abduction
Shoulder adduction
Dorsi flexion
Plantar flexion
Supination
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Pronation
Spinal rotation
Inversion
Eversion
Elevation
Depression
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In pairs, complete the following skills and identify the joint actions that occur throughout
the movement.
a Sitting on a chair
b Bowling a cricket ball
c Jumping over a hurdle
d Kicking a soccer ball
e Hitting a tennis ball with a racquet
f Writing on a page
g Forming a forward roll
Location
Joint actions(s)
Humerus
Clavicle
Tibia
Tarsals
Phalanges
Vertebrae
Cranium
Ulna
Femur
Scapula
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Examine figure 4.24 below. Identify the major joint actions involved at each of the three
stages of the movements.
a
Figure 4.24
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a Snatch
b Dumbell throw and
acceleration
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Bone
Tendon
Blood vessel
Perimysium
Endomysium
(between fibres)
Endomysium
Fascicle
(wrapped by
perimysium)
Muscle fibre
cell
Deltoids
Sternocleidomastoid
Trapezius
Triceps
Extends the forearm
at the elbow and
straightens arm
Latissimus dorsi
Pulls the shoulders
back; extends and
rotates and lowers
arms
Rotates, elevates
and retracts
shoulder blades
Pectoralis major
Draws arm in towards
body and rotates
upper arm inward
Biceps brachii
Erector spinae
(sacrospinalis)
Elevates and
straightens
the spine
Internal and
external obliques
Flexes the
forearm at the
elbow and turns
the palm upward
Rectus abdominis
Flexes the spine
and supports
posture
Gluteus
medius
Rotates the
thigh when
walking
Quadriceps
A group of four
muscles that flex
and extend the
knee and hip
Gluteus maximus
Straightens the hip
by pulling the thigh
back when walking
or running
Achilles tendon
(no movement function)
Gastrocnemius
Soleus
Aids forward
propulsion when
walking or running
Tibialis anterior
Supports the arch
of the foot when
running
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Shoulder joint
Scapula
Biceps
brachii
Figure 4.27
Research how actin and myosin enable muscles to contract during movement.
Participate in the sample gym exercises shown in figure 4.28 on the following page.
For each exercise, use a table like the one below to identify the muscles involved, the
location and points of origin and insertion.
Exercise
Muscles
Location
Point of origin
Point of insertion
Bicep curl
Dumbell deep squat
Bench press
Lateral pull down
Lunge walk
Sit-up
Dumbell upright row
Prone alternating
reverse fly
Leg press calf raise
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Bicep curl
Bench press
Lat pulldown
Lunge walk
Sit-up
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Muscle bres
Two types of muscle fibres are responsible for the speed of muscle
contractions: slow twitch (type 1) and fast twitch (type 2). While each fibre
is unique in its ability to contract, every one contains a combination of both
types of fibres. Success in some sports is assisted by the dominant fibre type
that an individual may possess.
Slow twitch (type 1) fibres contain large amounts of myoglobin,
mitochondria and blood capillaries. These fibres are more efficient than fast
twitch at using oxygen to generate the bodys fuel adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) for muscle contractions of a continuous period. They work slower and
therefore take longer to fatigue. These muscle fibres are beneficial to people
involved in long-distance endurance events such as marathons, triathlons and
ocean swims.
Fast twitch (type 2) fibres do not use oxygen to create fuel and therefore
are best used for short bursts of speed and strength. They produce the same
amount of force as slow twitch fibres, but over a shorter period of time,
and fatigue quickly. These muscle fibres are beneficial to people involved
in events requiring short bursts of speed and power such as weightlifting,
sprinting and shot put. Sliding filament theory is the process where the
muscles contract the filaments both type 1 and 2 fibres overlap each other
to cause muscles to contract therefore causing movement.
Muscle relationships
Action movement produced
by a muscle.
Figure 4.29
Muscle relationships in
elbow extension and flexion
Origins
Scapula
Triceps brachii
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109
Isometric contraction
This is the process where the muscle contracts and no movement is produced.
The length of the muscle stays the same.
Examples of isometric contractions include the triceps and pectoral
muscles when holding a starting position for a push-up.
In completing a rock climb, isometric contractions will be used during
periods where the climber is holding on to the rock wall while deciding
where to move next.
Isotonic contraction
This is the process where the muscle contracts, producing enough force to
move an object. The muscle shortens and maintains its tension throughout the
whole movement. There are two types of isotonic contractions.
Concentric contractionwhen the muscle shortens as it contracts. For
example, the pectoral muscles when completing the pushing-up phase of a
push-up.
Eccentric contractionwhen the muscle lengthens as it contracts. For
example, the pectoral muscles when completing the lowering phase of a
push-up.
Figure 4.30
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Participate in a circuit. For each exercise, identify the agonist and antagonist muscle(s) and
type of contraction.
Station
Agonist
Antagonist
Type of contraction
Heel flicks
Push-ups
Plank
Skipping
Tricep dip
Upper cuts
V sit
Lunges
Tricep push-ups
2
Analyse selected movements from a sport to determine the different types of muscle
contractions that are evident.
A plyometric exercise, such as the vertical leap, involves performing an eccentric contraction
of a muscle group immediately followed by a powerful concentric contraction of the same
muscle group. Explain why this process enhances the capacity to generate power.
Respiratory system
The respiratory system is responsible for the transfer of oxygen from the air
to the blood, and for the disposal of the waste product carbon dioxide. A
vital element for life, the respiratory system works in conjunction with the
cardiovascular system to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide around the
body. While the body can do without food for a few days, the body cannot
survive after a few minutes without oxygen.
The availability of oxygen, its delivery to working muscles and the removal
of waste products are essential for enabling repeated movements.
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111
Structure
Function
Nose
Nasal cavity
Situated in the nose, and contains hairs that filter and clean foreign objects when entering the body. Incoming air is
warmed as it passes through the nasal cavity
Pharynx
Also called the throat; connects the nasal cavity and mouth to the larynx. It is a pathway for both food and air
Larynx
Responsible for ensuring food and air go into the proper channels. When food is in the pharynx, the epiglottis closes
the inlet to the larynx. Also known as the voice box, the larynx contains the vocal cords that vibrate to produce
sounds as air rushes upwards from the lungs
Trachea
Commonly called the windpipe; is very flexible and mobile. Cilia lining the trachea expel dust and other foreign
particles towards the pharynx. The trachea divides into two bronchi; one each, into the left and right lung respectively.
Bronchi
Once inside the lung, bronchi divide further into smaller bronchioles; this is often referred to as the respiratory tree.
At the ends of the bronchioles, tiny air sacs called alveoli exist.
Alveoli
The chambers where gas exchange occurs. These grape-like structures account for most volume in the lungs and
provide a large surface for gas exchange
Lungs
Enclose the structures of the body responsible for gas exchange, i.e. bronchioles and alveoli. The lungs are mainly
air spaces where internal gas exchange occurs
The epiglottis sits above the larynx and, when a person is eating, it prevents
Epiglottis an elastic cartilage
that opens to allow air into the
food from entering the trachea. As the air travels down the trachea, it splits
trachea and closes when food
into two airways called primary bronchi; one to the right lung and one to
goes to the oesophagus.
the left lung. The bronchus divides into smaller branches called bronchioles.
Bronchioles contain small sacks called alveoli. It is here, at the alveoli,
that oxygen and carbon dioxide exchanges into and out of the blood
Figure 4.31
through capillaries. An average adults lung contains approximately
The respiratory system
600 million alveoli.
During this process, deoxygenated
blood has travelled through the
right side of the heart to the lung for
disposal of carbon dioxide. In the
lungs, the blood picks up oxygen, and
the oxygenated blood is returned to
Nasal cavity
the heart through the left side. It is
Pharynx
then sent out to the rest of the body
Epiglottis
to enable the functioning of muscles,
Larynx
tissues and organs.
Esophagus
Carbon dioxide follows the same
path as air when it is breathed out
of the body. A sheet of muscles that
Left lung
lies across the chest, the diaphragm,
Left primary bronchus
contracts to draw oxygen into the
lungs and relaxes to pump carbon
Secondary bronchus
dioxide out of the lungs.
Tertiary bronchus
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112
Lung function
The act of breathing is known as pulmonary ventilation. It is a mechanical
process that relies on pressure changes occurring in the thoracic cavity. When
the volume and pressure in the lungs changes, the flow of gases must equalise
this pressure.
There are two phases involved in pulmonary ventilation.
Figure 4.32
Inspiration (inhaling) is the process of breathing air into the lungs. The
diaphragm is the most important muscle in the process of inspiration.
This thin dome-shaped muscle attaches to the lower ribs and is controlled
by the bodys nerves. When the diaphragm and intercostal muscles
contract, the ribs lift, causing the lungs to expand. This increase in lung
size lowers the air pressure in the alveoli. As a result, air from a highpressure region such as outside the body, quickly flows through the
respiratory tract and into the lungs.
Expiration (exhaling) is the process of breathing air out of the lungs. When
the diaphragm relaxes, the rib cage resumes its normal position and the
lungs retract. This compression of the lungs forces carbon dioxide to flow
out of the lungs. During normal expiration, no muscular effort is required
as the walls are elastic and return to their normal position after expanding
during inspiration.
During exercise, the process of inspiration calls upon
neighbouring muscles to assist in the expansion of the lungs.
These muscles collectively assist the diaphragm in increasing the
volume in which air can be breathed in. The expiration process
becomes more active during exercise. The abdominal muscles
assist with expiration as they push the diaphragm up and the ribs
are pulled down, resulting in an increase of exhaled gases.
Exchange of gases
Expiration
The amount and type of gases at any one place, both in the
atmosphere and body, varies. Gas in the atmosphere consists
mostly of oxygen and nitrogen, whereas gases in the lungs consist
of carbon dioxide and water vapour.
As a result of the variance in gas types, oxygen exchange occurs
in the lungs because of the high levels of carbon dioxide and low
levels of oxygen.
When we take a breath of air, it follows the respiratory
pathways into the lungs. The exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide between the air and the blood occurs in the lungs. This
process is known as external respiration.
There is also a variance of gases between the capillaries and
tissue cells. Tissue cells use oxygen frequently, and for each
volume of oxygen they use, they produce the same amount of
carbon dioxide. As a result of the lack of oxygen in the tissue and
abundance of oxygen in the capillaries, oxygen moves quickly
from the capillaries into the tissue and carbon dioxide moves
quickly from the tissue into the capillaries and veins. This process
is known as internal respiration. Carbon dioxide in the blood
vessels returns to the lungs for external respiration.
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113
Bronchiole
Pumonary arteriole
Pumonary venule
Alveoli
Capillary network
around alveolus
Alveolar sac
Figure 4.33
Hyperventilation an
abnormal increase in depth
and rate of breathing.
Hypoventilation abnormally
slow and shallow breathing.
Investigate how an illness such as influenza (or even the common cold) can affect the
respiratory system.
Undertake a series of physical activities. Start with a low intensity activity such as walking
and slowly progress to a high intensity activity such as continuous skipping with a rope.
Explain how varying the intensity of physical activity impacts on breathing patterns.
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Circulatory system
Figure 4.34
Components of blood
Blood plays a vital role in the bodys
ability to breathe, break down nutrients
for energy, eliminate waste, and maintain
the bodys temperature and water balance.
Blood is the only fluid tissue in the body.
Blood is red in colour, due to the presence
of haemoglobin, but the shade varies
depending on the amount of oxygen
present in blood. The more oxygen that
is present, the brighter the shade of red,
the less oxygen that is present, the darker
the shade of red. Blood carries out three
main functions.
1 Distribution
of gases such as oxygen and carbon
dioxide around the body
transportation of waste products
from cells to excretory sites
transportation of hormones around
the body.
2 Regulation
maintaining core body temperature
maintaining normal acidity or
alkaline (pH) in body tissue
maintaining adequate fluid levels in
the blood.
3 Protection
preventing blood loss through clot
formation
preventing infection through
antibodies and white blood cells.
Haemoglobin red blood
cells, responsible for carrying
oxygen around the body.
Blood is made up of four components that all play a key role in the
functioning of the body.
Red blood cells (erythrocytes) are responsible for transporting oxygen and
carbon dioxide around the body. They pick up oxygen from the lungs and
transport it around the body to muscles, tissues and organs, where it is
exchanged for carbon dioxide. They then transport the carbon dioxide back
to the lungs and the exchange occurs again. They contain iron and protein.
6/11/09 11:07 AM
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115
White blood cells (leukocytes) are responsible for fighting infections. They
attack and destroy germs and infections as they enter the body. When the
body has an infection, the number of white blood cells increases in order
to fight it.
Platelets are the blood-clotting agencies that help stop bleeding. When we
cut ourselves or break a blood vessel, platelets stick to the damaged blood
vessel to block the blood flow.
Blood plasma is the liquid part of blood that transports materials such
as blood cells, nutrients, hormones and gases around the body. It is
predominately water and contains mainly oxygen.
The soft tissue inside bones (called marrow) makes red blood cells, white
blood cells and platelets.
Participating in aerobic-based activities over time can increase blood
volume and therefore, increase the amount of red blood cells in the body.
This can enhance the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood and enables more
efficient participation in aerobic-based activities by being able to exercise
at a higher intensity and for longer. A lack of oxygen in body tissues is
called hypoxia.
Figure 4.35
The heart
Aorta
Left
pulmonary
artery
Left
pulmonary
veins
Left atrium
Bicuspid
(mitral)
valve
Left ventricle
Myocardium
6/11/09 11:07 AM
116
pulmonary artery (the only artery in the body that carries deoxygenated
blood) to the lungs. Once in the lungs, the blood exchanges the carbon
dioxide for oxygen and the cycle starts again. The coronary artery supplies
blood to the heart muscle.
In addition to these features, the heart also contains the myocardium,
which is the cardiac muscle that is striated, and an involuntary muscle of
the body, the pericardium, which is the double wall sac of the heart, and the
septumthe thick wall that divides the two ventricles.
Regularly participating in aerobic-based activities will cause the left
ventricle to respond by becoming slightly larger and capable of contracting
more strongly. This has the effect of being able to deliver blood more
efficiently to working muscles because the left ventricle is able to become
fuller and disperse blood to the body more powerfully. The effect of this is
increased aerobic efficiency.
In order for blood to be transported around the body, pathways must exist
to ensure that the flow of blood reaches all body parts effectively. These
pathways are tubes known as blood vessels and, for the most efficient
movement, it is important that they are as open as possible and not blocked
by the build-up of plaque or other agents. Blockages are often caused by
behaviours such as eating a high-fat diet.
The blood vessels in our bodies form a closed circuit that starts and ends
at the heart. There are three types of blood vessels.
1 Arteriesthese are large vessels with thick, muscular walls; they transport
oxygen-rich blood away from the heart.
2 Capillariesthe smallest blood vessels in the body; they have thin walls
that allow the exchange of materials between blood and tissue fluid.
Capillaries connect arteries to veins.
3 Veinswith slightly thinner walls than arteries, veins are responsible for
transporting carbon dioxide (deoxygenated blood) back to the heart via
the lungs.
Figure 4.36
a Arteries b Veins
c Capillaries
6/11/09 11:08 AM
CHAPTER 4
117
Pulmonary circuit
O2
CO2
Pulmonary
capillaries
CO2
O2
Pulmonary
arteries
Pulmonary
veins
Superior
vena cava
Branches of
aortic arch
Right
atrium
Left
atrium
Tricuspid
valve
Left
ventricle
Right
ventricle
Descending
aorta
Systemic
circuit
Inferior
vena cava
Systemic
capillaries
O2
CO2
Oxygen-poor
CO2-rich
blood
Oxygen-rich
CO2-poor
blood
Figure 4.37
6/11/09 11:08 AM
118
Heart rate
The thick muscular walls of the two lower chambers of the heart (ventricles),
contract to squeeze blood into the arteries. The upper chambers of the heart
(atrium) are the holding spots for blood. A heartbeat has two main phases:
diastoleas the heart relaxes and refills with blood; and systolethe
contraction that forces blood around the body. During exercise, stress or
excitement, the heart rate increases because a higher volume of blood is
needed throughout the body. The heart rate is controlled by the medulla in
the brain. It sends electrical impulses along nerves to set an average resting
heart rate. The hypothalamus or hormones such as adrenaline can speed up a
persons average heart rate and override the normal heart rhythm.
A persons resting heart rate (RHR) is usually determined first thing in
the morning. At rest, the adult heart usually beats between 6080 beats per
minute. The higher the level of a persons fitness, the lower their resting heart
rate will be. This is because the heart of a fit person is able to effectively
pump out more blood using fewer contractions.
Taking a persons pulse will give an indication of how hard their heart is
working. The carotid artery (in the neck) and the radial artery (in the wrist)
are two common sites used to take a persons pulse.
Figure 4.38
Systolic pressure
(upper reading)
180
Diastolic pressure
(lower reading)
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
AWAKE
ASLEEP
20
0
Noon
Midnight
Noon
In pairs, take each others pulse at both the carotid artery and radial artery.
Blood pressure
When your heart beats, it pumps blood around the body to give it the energy,
oxygen and nutritional requirements it needs. As the blood moves through the
body, it pushes against the sides of the blood vessels. Blood pressure is the
strength of this push against the sides of the arteries.
6/11/09 11:08 AM
CHAPTER 4
119
Sphygmomanometer a
pressure gauge for measuring
blood pressure.
1 Have the person who is getting their blood pressure taken sit in a chair
with their arm resting on a table.
2 Ask the person to place their palm facing upwards on the table, with
elbow slightly bent.
3 Wrap the inflatable cuff around the persons upper limb just below the
armpit. (This works best if there is no clothing on the upper limb.)
4 Locate the brachial pulse on the inside of the elbow.
5 Place the ear tips of the stethoscope in your ears.
6 Place the chest piece of stethoscope under the cuff on the inside of the
elbow, on the brachial pulse.
7 Slowly squeeze the rubber pump to inflate the cuff to 170200 mm.Hg.
Be mindful so that the inflated cuff does not hurt the person.
8 Once the cuff is inflated, slowly turn the valve on the rubber pump
and listen closely for the first pumping sound you hear. Take note of
where the mercury is on the measuring chart. This is the systolic
reading.
9 Continue listening carefully until you hear the last sound. Take note
of where the mercury is on the measuring tape. This is the diastolic
reading.
10 Record the systolic reading over the diastolic reading.
11 Slowly expel all the air from the cuff and remove it from the person.
6/11/09 11:08 AM
120
Discuss the impact high and low blood pressure has on the body.
chapter review
Recap
Systems of the body work together to allow the body to move. The systems primarily
responsible for movement are the skeletal, muscular, circulatory and respiratory
systems.
The skeletal system has 206 bones. Bones can be classified as long, short, flat or
irregular. Directional terms are used to assist in locating bones.
The skeletal system is grouped into two categories: the axial skeleton and the
appendicular skeleton.
Joints occur where two or more bones meet. Joints are classified three ways: fibrous,
cartilaginous and synovial. Synovial joints are the most common joints in the body and
are classified as gliding/plane, hinge, pivot, condyloid/ellipsoidal, saddle and ball-andsocket joints.
Joints produce various actions, which can be described as opposite or contrasting
movements.
The muscular system has approximately 640 muscles that can be categorised into three
types: smooth, cardiac and skeletal. When a muscle attaches to a stationary bone in a
joint action, this is called the origin. The muscle that attaches to the bone moving in
the joint action is called the insertion.
Muscles work in groups to produce movement. These are referred to as agonist and
antagonist muscles that are supported by stabilisers or fixators. There are three types of
muscle contractions: isometric, concentric and eccentric.
The respiratory system is responsible for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
around the body. Lungs allow breathing to occur in two ways: inspiration and expiration.
The exchange of oxygen into tissues is achieved through the capillaries, as is the
exchange of carbon dioxide from tissues into the blood stream.
6/11/09 11:08 AM
CHAPTER 4
The heart is a cardiac muscle that is divided into four chambers. The left side of the
heart pumps oxygenated blood into the body, whereas the right side of the heart pumps
deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
Current URL
Useful for
Inner Body
www.innerbody.com/image/skelfov.html
Information on the
skeletal system
www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/MedEd/GrossAnatomy/
dissector/mml/mmlregn.htm
Information on the
muscular system
www.fi.edu/learn/heart/index.html
Information on the
circulatory system
BBC UK
www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/pe/appliedanatomy/
1_anatomy_respiratorysys_rev1.shtml
Information on the
respiratory system
http://health.howstuffworks.com/body-systems-channel.htm
Information on all
systems of the body
chapter review
The circulatory system transports oxygen, nutrients and waste products around the body.
It contains three major parts: blood, blood vessels and the heart.
121
Exam-style questions
1 Explain the way bones are classified and describe the different kinds
(3 marks)
of bones.
2 Discuss the role blood plays in the body.
3 Examine how exercise affects the circulatory and respiratory systems.
(5 marks)
(12 marks)
6/11/09 11:08 AM
Physical fitness,
training and movement
Health-related components
of physical tness
Health-related components of physical fitness are related to a persons ability
to perform vigorous daily activities, while preventing chronic disease. People
with a high level of fitness will be less fatigued when performing general
tasks such as cleaning, gardening, grocery shopping and walking up stairs.
Research has illustrated that people who participate in activities to improve
their cardiorespiratory endurance, strength, muscle endurance and flexibility
and who have optimal body composition are at a lower risk of developing
heart disease, high blood pressure, diabetes, cancer, insomnia, depression and
osteoporosis. Regular physical activity can contribute to a healthy lifestyle by
increasing your energy levels and social, physical and psychological wellbeing.
Cardiorespiratory endurance
Cardiorespiratory
endurance is the ability to
perform strenuous exercise
for a sustained time without
fatigue.
6/11/09 11:20 AM
CHAPTER 5
123
Figure 5.1
6/11/09 11:20 AM
124
basketball, should have their VO2 max results expressed in relative units
(relative to body mass) mL/kg/min-1.
Three tests: the Astrand submaximal, Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery and
Coopers 12 minute run are now presented in detail.
1 Prior to the start of the test, which will be conducted on a stationary bike,
weigh the person, take their resting heart rate (ideally using a heart-rate
monitor) and adjust the seat height (leg extended when in the lowest pedal
position). Record the results of their weight and heart rate.
2 Have the person warm up for 23 minutes.
3 Participants remain seated throughout the test. The suggested workload
for females is 450 kilopond metres (kpm) or 75 watts (W) for females and
600 kpm (100 watts) for males at 50 revolutions per minute (rpm). Record
heart rate and workload at the completion of each minute throughout
the test. (Trained participants may want to start at a workload that is
25 watts higher.)
4 Aim for >128 bpm at the end of 2 minutes. If the participant comes under
this figure, increase the workload by 150 kpm or 25 watts.
5 The test should run for a minimum of 6 minutes. Steady state is achieved
if there are less than 5 beats between minutes 5 and 6otherwise you need
to continue until steady state HR has been achieved.
6 Cool down for several minutes.
Table 5.1
Correction factors for
age and maxHR
Age
15+
20+
25+
35+
40+
45+
50+
6/11/09 11:20 AM
600 (100 W)
kpm/min-1
900 (150 W)
kpm/min-1
1200 (200 W)
kpm/min-1
CHAPTER 5
125
600 (100 W)
kpm/min-1
900 (150 W)
kpm/min-1
1200 (200 W)
kpm/min-1
120
3.5
4.8
120
3.4
4.1
4.8
121
3.4
4.7
121
3.3
4.0
4.8
122
3.4
4.6
122
3.2
3.9
4.7
123
3.4
4.6
123
3.1
3.9
4.6
124
3.3
4.5
6.0
124
3.1
3.8
4.5
125
3.2
4.4
5.9
125
3.0
3.7
4.4
126
3.2
4.4
5.8
126
3.0
3.6
4.3
127
3.1
4.3
5.7
127
2.9
3.5
4.2
128
3.1
4.2
5.6
128
2.8
3.5
4.2
129
3.0
4.2
5.6
129
2.8
3.4
4.1
130
3.0
4.1
5.5
130
2.7
3.4
4.0
131
2.9
4.0
5.4
131
2.7
3.4
4.0
132
2.9
4.0
5.3
132
2.7
3.3
3.9
133
2.8
3.9
5.3
133
2.6
3.2
3.8
134
2.8
3.9
5.2
134
2.6
3.2
3.8
135
2.8
3.8
5.1
135
2.6
3.1
3.7
136
2.7
3.8
5.0
136
2.5
3.1
3.6
137
2.7
3.7
5.0
137
2.5
3.0
3.6
138
2.7
3.7
4.9
138
2.4
3.0
3.5
139
2.6
3.6
4.8
139
2.4
2.9
3.5
140
2.6
3.6
4.8
140
2.4
2.8
3.4
141
2.6
3.5
4.7
141
2.3
2.8
3.4
142
2.5
3.5
4.6
142
2.3
2.8
3.3
143
2.5
3.4
4.6
143
2.2
2.7
3.3
144
2.5
3.4
4.5
144
2.2
2.7
3.2
145
2.4
3.4
4.5
145
2.2
2.7
3.2
146
2.4
3.3
4.4
146
2.2
2.6
3.2
147
2.4
3.3
4.4
147
2.1
2.6
3.1
148
2.3
3.2
4.3
148
2.1
2.6
3.1
149
2.3
3.2
4.3
149
2.1
2.6
3.0
150
2.3
3.2
4.2
150
2.0
2.5
3.0
151
2.3
3.1
4.2
151
2.0
2.5
3.0
152
2.3
3.1
4.1
152
2.0
2.5
2.9
153
2.2
3.0
4.1
153
2.0
2.4
2.9
154
2.2
3.0
4.0
154
2.0
2.4
2.8
155
2.2
3.0
4.0
155
1.9
2.4
2.8
156
2.2
2.9
4.0
156
1.9
2.3
2.8
157
2.1
2.9
3.9
157
1.9
2.3
2.7
158
2.1
2.9
3.9
158
1.8
2.3
2.7
159
2.1
2.8
3.8
159
1.8
2.2
2.7
160
2.1
2.8
3.8
160
1.8
2.2
2.6
161
2.0
2.8
3.7
161
1.8
2.2
2.6
126
2.0
2.8
3.7
126
1.8
2.2
2.6
163
2.0
2.8
3.7
163
1.7
2.2
2.6
164
2.0
2.7
3.6
164
1.7
2.1
2.5
165
2.0
2.7
3.6
165
1.7
2.1
2.5
166
1.9
2.7
3.6
166
1.7
2.1
2.5
167
1.9
2.6
3.5
167
1.6
2.1
2.4
168
1.9
2.6
3.5
168
1.6
2.0
2.4
169
1.9
2.6
3.5
169
1.6
2.0
2.4
170
1.8
2.6
3.4
170
1.6
2.0
2.4
6/11/09 11:20 AM
126
Table 5.4
Ratings for aerobic
capacity
Age 16 boys
Age 16 girls
>54.6
>44.4
Good
49.854.5
40.844.3
Average
44.949.7
37.140.7
Fair
40.144.8
33.537.0
Poor
<40
<33.5
Excellent
Figure 5.2
5m
20 m
Start & finish
2 Students run 20 metres forward, pivot at a line (or marker) in time with
the beep from the CD and run 20 metres back to the start before the next
audio beep.
3 During their 10 seconds of active recovery they continue jogging to (and
around) the next marker and back to the start line.
4 On the next beep, they repeat another up-and-back shuttle.
5 The speed of the audio beeps corresponding to the shuttle run gradually
increases throughout the test while the 10-second recovery interval
remains consistent throughout the test.
6 The test continues until the student either has missed two beeps at the
finish marker or is unable to get to the start marker in time for the
next beep.
Table 5.5
Examples of elite
athlete target
results in the Yo-Yo
Intermittent
Recovery test
As this stage, there is no normative data for school students using this test.
However, to give you some indication of performance, table 5.5 reports test
values that have been recorded for athletes from different sporting groups.
Athletic group
1722.5
1518.7
1721
NRL players
2024
6/11/09 11:20 AM
CHAPTER 5
127
sheet, record each time a student has completed one lap by crossing off the
relevant lap number.
3 When the whistle signals the completion of the test (after 12 minutes),
students walk to the closest marker so the distance achieved in the final
lap can be calculated and recorded.
4 Calculate the distance covered in 12 minutes. Refer to table 5.6 to
determine the estimated max VO2 from the distance covered during the
test and refer to table 5.7 to determine your rating.
Distance
mL/kg/min
Distance
mL/kg/min
1600 m
28.2
2900 m
51.8
1700 m
30.0
3000 m
53.5
1800 m
31.9
3100 m
55.3
1900 m
33.8
3200 m
57.0
2000 m
35.7
3300 m
58.7
2100 m
37.5
3400 m
60.5
2200 m
39.2
3500 m
62.3
2300 m
41.0
3600 m
64.0
2400 m
42.7
3700 m
65.8
2500 m
44.6
3800 m
67.5
2600 m
46.4
3900 m
69.2
2700 m
48.2
4000 m
71.0
2800 m
50.0
Table 5.6
Estimated VO2 max
from distance run in
12 minutes
Rating
Gender
1319
2029
5059
60+
Male
<2.09
<1.96
<1.90
<1.83
<1.66
<1.40
Female
<1.61
<1.54
<1.53
<1.43
<1.35
<1.26
Male
2.092.20
1.962.11
1.902.10
1.832.00
1.661.87
1.401.65
Female
1.611.90
1.541.79
1.531.70
1.431.58
1.351.49
1.261.39
Male
2.212.52
2.122.40
2.112.34
2.012.24
1.882.10
1.661.94
Female
1.912.08
1.801.97
1.711.90
1.591.79
1.501.70
1.401.58
Male
2.532.77
2.412.64
2.352.52
2.252.47
2.112.32
1.952.13
Female
2.092.30
1.982.16
1.912.08
1.802.00
1.711.90
1.591.76
Male
2.783.00
2.652.84
2.532.73
2.482.66
2.332.55
2.142.50
Female
2.312.43
2.172.34
2.092.24
2.012.16
1.912.10
1.771.90
Male
>3.01
>2.85
>2.74
>2.67
>2.56
>2.51
Female
>2.44
>2.35
>2.25
>2.17
>2.11
>1.91
Very poor
Poor
Fair
Good
Excellent
Superior
6/11/09 11:20 AM
128
Explain why the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery test, Coopers 12 minute run and Astrand
submaximal test are all referred to as estimated VO2 max tests.
Why are the results of aerobic tests expressed as VO2 max in relative terms?
Evaluate the different cardiorespiratory endurance test protocols mentioned in this section in
relation to:
a their strengths and weaknesses
b their suitability for different population groups.
How would you rate your aerobic capacity? What does this result actually mean?
Muscular strength
Strength the maximal force
that can be generated in one
repetition of a movement.
Figure 5.3
Muscular strength is
needed to lift an extremely
heavy weight successfully,
as shown by Australias
Damon Kelly
6/11/09 11:20 AM
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
Stage 5
Stage 6
Stage 7
Once the highest stage has been determined, refer to table 5.6
to see your rating. Elite athletes should be aiming at stage 6 or 7.
CHAPTER 5
129
Table 5.8
Ratings for the
7-stage abdominal
strength test
Stage
Variation
Rating
Fingertips
Poor
Elbows
Fair
Abdomen
Fair
Chest
Average
Shoulders
Good
6&7
Weights
Excellent
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
Stage 5
Stage 6
Stage 7
6/11/09 11:20 AM
130
Handgrip dynamometer
Rating
Excellent
MALES
Non-dominant
Dominant
FEMALES
Non-dominant
Dominant
>57
>61
>36
>40
Good
5156
5560
3136
3540
Average
4550
4954
2530
2934
Fair
3944
4347
1924
2327
Poor
<39
<43
<19
<23
Identify five specific sporting situations where strength levels are important for success.
Investigate the influence of age and gender on strength levels. What implications does this
have for performance?
Evaluate your own strength levels. Relate your results to your normal weekly activities.
Assume you are the coach of a sprinter and have access to a gym. Outline the tests you
would use to assess your athletes strength. Indicate what these test results actually tell you
and how they can help in designing your athletes training program.
Muscular endurance
Muscular endurance the
ability to generate force over a
period of time.
Muscular endurance is the ability to exert force and continue it for some
time. Athletes such as marathon runners, triathletes, soccer players, football
players, basketball players and swimmers all possess high levels of muscle
endurance. Long-distance runners need a significant amount of muscular
endurance but relatively little muscle strength.
Having high levels of muscular endurance makes it easier to perform
everyday tasks, improves posture and can reduce the instance of back
pain. Muscle endurance training programs involve many repetitions at
a light load.
6/11/09 11:20 AM
CHAPTER 5
131
Rating
Time
Excellent
50 seconds or more
Good
3040 seconds
Average
2030 seconds
Fair
1120 seconds
Poor
10 seconds or less
Muscular endurance is
required in gymnastics
Figure 5.7
Push-up test
The push-up test assesses muscle endurance of the chest, shoulder and triceps
muscles. Start in a push-up position with weight on the hands and toes, as
shown in figure 5.8. The subjects hands should be just wider than shoulderwidth apart and their back and legs will be kept straight at all times. Lower
the body to the floor until the elbows are at 90 degrees. Push back up to the
start position. This is one repetition. Repeat as many repetitions as possible.
Figure 5.8
Rating
Age 1619
males
Age 1619
females
>56
>35
Good
3556
2135
Average
1934
1120
Fair
1118
610
Poor
<11
<6
Excellent
Correct push-up
6/11/09 11:20 AM
132
Explain the difference between muscular strength and muscular endurance. Give two
examples of each.
Compare your results on the two muscular endurance tests. What impact would this have on
your daily tasks and sports performance?
Find and describe two other tests that could be used to assess muscular endurance.
Flexibility
Flexibility the ability to move
a muscle through a complete
range of motion.
Figure 5.9
Static flexibility
demonstrated with
the splits and dynamic
flexibility exhibited by
hurdlers
Flexibility is the ability to bend and stretch to execute the full movement at
a joint. The body can be flexible in one joint but tight in another joint, or it
can be flexible in one movement of a joint but not in all movements of that
joint. For example, if you can do a front split, you may not be able to do a side
split as this uses the joint in a different way. Ideally, you want to be flexible
enough to perform your daily tasks with ease. If these tasks include specific
sporting activities there will be a need for greater flexibility at different joints.
A greater range of movement also enhances your capacity to develop force.
Figure 5.9 demonstrates the two types of flexibilitystatic and dynamic.
Testing flexibility
There are two types of flexibility testsdirect tests that involve measuring
the range of movement (ROM) at specific joints using a goniometer with the
score being expressed in degrees, for example, the active knee extension test;
6/11/09 11:20 AM
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133
Insert 05020, 21
Figure 5.10
Table 5.12 Ratings for the sit and reach test, measurements in centimetres
Rating
Excellent
16-year-old females
Left leg
Right leg
Both legs
16-year-old males
Left leg
Right leg
Both legs
24+
24+
23+
23+
23+
22+
Good
2223
2223
2223
2122
2122
2021
Average
2122
2122
2021
2021
2021
1920
Fair
2021
2021
19
1920
1920
18
Poor
19 or less
19 or less
18 or less
18 or less
18 or less
17 or less
Figure 5.11
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134
3 Repeat the procedure with the left shoulder. Scoring can be simply a yes
or no, if the fingers touched. For those whose fingers do not meet, you
can measure the distance between fingertips so students can see if they
improve with training. Partners then swap over.
If fingers can touch, this indicates good shoulder flexibility, while a
distance of more than 5 centimetres between fingertips indicates poor
shoulder flexibility.
Figure 5.12
Discuss your own flexibility results in relation to the sports you play.
Body composition
Body composition is the percentage of bone, muscle (and
organs) and fat in ones body. Two people of the same
height and weight can look quite different if they have
different amounts of body fat and muscle mass. The
person with the greater muscle mass and lower body fat
will have a higher resting metabolic rate. Body fat is the
main component of body composition that is monitored,
and it can have a detrimental effect on our wellbeing
and performance. Having a high body fat percentage
particularly around the abdomencan increase the
likelihood of heart disease, stroke and type 2 diabetes.
Conversely, when body fat levels become too low, the
immune system can be compromised. From a performance
aspect, a high level of body fat is generally detrimental as
it is considered dead weight and will lower an athletes
power-to-weight ratio. Very low body fat percentages are
generally found in body builders, triathletes and cyclists.
High body fat percentages are not usually found in athletes
except for the likes of sumo wrestlers.
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135
mass (kg)
height (m2)
60 (kg)
1.7 x 1.7 (m2)
60 (kg)
2.89 (m2)
Table 5.13
BMI categories
for adults
BMI categories
Score
Underweight
<18.5
Normal weight
18.524.9
Overweight
2530
Obesity
>30
BMI = 20.8
Waist-to-hip ratio
Calculating a persons waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) indicates how much
body fat they are carrying around their abdomen compared to their hips.
Increased body fat around the abdomen increases the risk of heart disease,
stroke and type 2 diabetes. Instructions are as follows.
1 Take a waist measurement at the level of the narrowest point between the
lowest rib and the hips (iliac crest).
2 If there is no obvious narrowing then the measurement is taken at the
mid-way between the two points.
3 Take the measurement at the end of a normal expiration, with the arms
relaxed at the sides.
4 Then take the hip measurement at the
Ratings
level of the greatest protrusion of the
Low risk
buttocks. The person stands with
feet together and gluteal muscles relaxed.
Table 5.14
Ratings for WHR in
adults
Males
Females
<0.85
<0.72
>0.9
>0.8
6/11/09 11:20 AM
136
3 The thumb and forefinger are used to lift the skin and body fat away from
the muscle.
4 Measurements should be taken by the same tester on each occasion, at the
following areas:
tricepsthis is a vertical fold at the posterior midline of the upper arm
subscapularthis is a diagonal fold 2 centimetres below the shoulder
blade
bicepswith the arm in anatomical position, where the arms hang by
your side and your palms face forwards, a vertical fold is taken at the
midpoint of the front of the upper arm (between the bony tip of the
shoulder and the elbow joint)
suprailiacthis measurement is taken as a diagonal fold at the front of
the hip bone
abdominalthis is a vertical fold taken 5 centimetres to the right of the
centre of the belly button
front thighthis vertical measurement is taken halfway between the
knee cap and the top of the thigh (the inguinal crease)
medial calfthe vertical fold is taken on the medial side (the inside)
of the calf at the maximum circumference.
Body fat
Body fat can be estimated from skinfold measurements or from analysing
bioelectric impedance. The bioelectrical impedance analysis relies on
the resistance of an electrical flow through the body to estimate body fat
percentage, fat free mass and total body water percentages.
The ideal body fat percentage varies between males and females and by
age. As a guide to maintain good health, women should not be leaner then
12 per cent body fat and men 5 per cent body fat. The healthy average is more
like 22 per cent to 25 per cent for women and 16 per cent to 20 per cent for
men. For men over 25 per cent and women over 32 per cent body fat, there is
a higher occurrence of illness and disease.
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3 Subtract this number from your original weight, for example, 95 minus
21.85 equals 73.15.
4 Divide this resulting number by either 0.77 for women or 0.84 for men.
In our case, dividing 73.15 by 0.84 equals 87.1 kilograms.
Expressed as a formula, calculations for the above example are:
95 (95 x 0.23)/0.845 = 73.15/0.84 = 87.1
Optimum weight = 87.1 kg
Evaluate the different body composition measurements outlined in this section in relation to:
a their strengths and weaknesses
b their suitability for different population groups.
Explain how you could reduce the measurement error in any of the body composition tests.
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138
Evaluate the selection of tests included in this talent identification process. Would you make
any modifications? If so, what would you delete or add?
Before submitting your results, identify the fitness components where you believe you
performed well. What have you based your answer on?
Skill-related components
of physical tness
Having a range of skill components is critical to being able to execute a skill
successfully. If an athlete exhibits the qualities needed for their chosen sport,
they have a significantly better chance of success than if they did not possess
these qualities.
Power
Power the ability to generate
force as quickly as possible.
Figure 5.13
Powera combination of
strength and speed
Testing power
Power can be assessed using tests such as jumps for height,
jumps for distance and throws for distance. Anaerobic power
can also be assessed by performing a maximal 10-second bike
test that measures peak power and total work. The following
are two examples of power tests that can be conducted in class.
Vertical jump
The vertical jump test measures leg power and is used by a
number of different sports. Equipment may include a jump
mat, tape measure and a marked wall or a vertec (a piece of
equipment used to measure jump height). Instructions are
as follows.
1 Assuming that you will use a marked wall, the students will
stand side on to the wall and using their dominant arm they
will reach up as high as possible to have their reach height
recorded. (Their feet must be kept flat on the ground.)
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Rating
Males
Females
>70
>60
Good
5670
4660
Average
4155
3145
Fair
3140
2130
Poor
<30
<20
Excellent
Figure 5.14
Vertical jump
Table 5.16
Ratings for backward overhead throw
Rating
Males
Females
Fair
<11.4 m
<6.6 m
Average
11.412.6 m
6.69.0 m
Good
12.716.2 m
9.12.0 m
>16.2 m
>12.0 m
Excellent
Figure 5.15
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140
Speed
Speed is the pace at which an athlete performs a task using any part of their
body. This can be a sprinter moving their legs or a cricket bowler using
their arms.
Figure 5.16
Testing speed
Ideally, speed tests are conducted using electronic
timing lights to increase accuracy and reliability.
However, if this equipment is unavailable, you
can use a stopwatch. For straight-line speed in
team sports, measurements over 1040 metres are
commonly used with splits taken at each 10-metre
interval. To remove the additional component of
reaction time, it is best to have the student start
when they are ready rather than responding to a
signal. Flying 30-metre times can be calculated by
subtracting the time to complete the first 10 metres
from the 40-metre time. Students should have at
least a 5-minute recovery between trials and take the
quickest times from the two trials.
Table 5.17 Ratings for 10 metres and 40 metres sprint, measurements in seconds
Rating
10-METRE SPRINT
Males, age 1517
Females, age 1517
Excellent
40-METRE SPRINT
Males, age 1517
Females, age 1517
<1.77
<1.90
<5.49
<5.89
Good
1.781.88
1.911.98
5.495.79
5.906.19
Average
1.891.99
1.992.08
5.806.10
6.706.50
Fair
2.002.10
2.082.18
6.116.41
6.516.81
Poor
>2.11
>2.19
>6.41
>6.81
Agility
Agility is the ability to
change direction rapidly with
minimal loss of speed or
balance.
Agility can be described as the ability to change pace and direction quickly
and efficiently. This involves balance, coordination and speed. A soccer
player who is dribbling the ball downfield must sidestep to manoeuvre around
opposing players. Their success at such a task can be attributed to their agility.
Other examples of sports that require agility include skiing, wrestling, squash
and most team sports.
Testing agility
When selecting an agility test to include in any fitness assessment, it is
important to consider specificity. Tests vary from 10 metres with one change
of direction to tests involving numerous changes of direction over a distance
of 60 metres (or more). Aspects of interest within the test may include change
of direction involving swerving; turning at 90 degrees; turning at 180 degrees;
turning left or right; running with a ball, racquet or stick; and getting up and
6/11/09 11:20 AM
down off the ground. The more of these aspects that are
included in the one test the more difficult it is to isolate
specific strengths and areas for improvement. For this
reason, the 5-0-5 agility test is often the test of choice.
CHAPTER 5
141
Figure 5.17
Rating
Excellent
10 m
5m
<2.33
<2.66
Good
2.342.50
2.672.87
Average
2.512.67
2.883.08
Fair
2.683.84
3.093.29
Poor
>3.85
>3.30
(1)
(3)
(2)
Figure 5.18
Choose two sports that demonstrate a need for agility. Outline why agility is important for
success in those sports.
Suggest activities that could be included in training to improve your speed and agility.
Identify three aspects of daily life where speed and agility would be beneficial.
Coordination
Coordination is the athletes ability to use their physical fitness to combine
all aspects of a skill to execute the skill successfully. A tennis player must
coordinate different skills to complete a powerful and successful first serve,
as does a basketball player going in for a lay up with defenders in the key.
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142
Figure 5.19
Testing coordination
Coordination tests are generally not included in fitness
test batteries for athletes. However, a coordination test,
such as the one described below, is sometimes included
when assessing overall fitness and skill development.
Table 5.19
Rating for alternate
hand wall toss test
Rating
Excellent
Catches
>35
Good
3035
Average
2029
Fair
1519
Poor
<15
Figure 5.20
Balance
Balance is the state of equilibrium that results in an equal
distribution of weight, which keeps an athletes desired
posture and composure. Balance is needed by gymnasts
to perform a beam or floor routine, and by divers a
10-metre platform dive.
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Testing balance
The stork balance stand test requires the students to balance for as
long as possible on the ball of one foot while the other foot is placed
against the inside of their knee (see figure 5. 21). The hands must
remain on hips at all times. The stopwatch starts when the heel lifts
off the ground and it is stopped when any of the following events
occur: the support foot moves (e.g. hops); the foot loses contact
with the knee of the support leg; the heel touches the ground; or the
hands are lifted off the hips. Record the best of three trials.
Table 5.20
Ratings for stork balance stand test, measurement in seconds
Rating
Time
Excellent
>50 or more
Good
4050
Average
2539
Fair
1024
Poor
<10 or less
Figure 5.21
Reaction time
Describe two situations in (a) daily life and (b) sport where balance is important.
Describe two situations in (a) daily life and (b) sport where reaction time is important.
Select one sport and discuss how power, speed, agility, coordination, balance and reaction
time are linked to performance.
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144
1 Three marker cones are set up 6.4 metres apart in a straight line. The
student stands at the middle marker facing the tester.
2 The tester holds a stopwatch in the air and suddenly points left or right as
they simultaneously start the stopwatch.
3 The student responds by running to that marker as
Males
Females
quickly as possible. The watch is stopped as the
student passes the marker.
1.3 or less
1.6 or less
4 The student has 10 trials in random order, with
1.351.6
1.651.9
5 trials in each direction. The rest interval between
trials is 2030 seconds, while the interval between
1.652.4
1.952.55
ready and the signal should be 0.52 seconds.
2.452.7
2.62.85
Average all trials and compare them to the ratings
in table 5.21.
2.75 or more
2.9 or more
Table 5.21
Ratings for Nelson
choice reaction time,
measurements in
seconds
Ratings
Excellent
Good
Average
Fair
Poor
Complete the Fitness Profile worksheet, which appears on the Student CD-ROM. Review
your ratings for each test completed.
Analyse your results for the five health-related fitness components.
If your results were to stay the same over the next five years, discuss the impact/influence
this would have on your lifestyle.
Examine your results for the skill-related fitness components. Describe situations where
each component is important.
Discuss the aspects of your fitness profile that youd like to change over the next 12 months.
Suggest how this might be achieved.
NBA draft
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Evaluate the fitness components that are important in the following sports drafts:
a AFL
b NBA.
Identify the fitness components that are included in each sports testing regime
Are there any fitness components you listed in your answer to question 1 that are not
included in the listed tests for that sport? If so, what tests would you include?
Choose another sport and indicate what tests you would include in its fitness assessment.
Justify your selection.
FITT principle
Following the FITT principle (Frequency, Intensity, Time and Type) will assist
you in planning a training session or writing a fitness program. Manipulating
the various components within the FITT principle allows a gradual progression
and overload, so you are more likely to achieve your goals.
Frequency
Frequency refers to how often something is done. For aerobic training, aim for
three to six sessions per week, whereas resistance training may be prescribed
for two to three times per week.
Intensity
Intensity generally refers to how hard you are working. This can be measured
by a percentage of your maximum heart rate, for example, 75 per cent maxHR.
It can also be measured by a percentage of your maximum effort. In the gym,
this might be 60 per cent 1RM for a bench press (60 per cent of the load you
could lift for one repetition) or on the track, it may be 85 per cent of your
400-metres run pace. For example, if your personal best for 400 metres is
60 seconds, then you may run intervals at 69 seconds in training. MaxHR can
be estimated by subtracting the persons age from 220. Table 5.22 outlines
the different training zones that can be used. T15 predominantly works the
aerobic energy system, while the T6 zone works the anaerobic energy system.
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146
Training
zone
maxHR
%
Perceived
exertion
Blood lactate
(Mm)
Predominant
energy system
Lactate transition
zones
T6
NA
Maximum exertion
NA
anaerobic
T5
>92%
Very hard
>6.0
aerobic
>VO2 max
T4
9092%
Hard
4.06.0
aerobic
LT2**
T3
8590%
Somewhat hard
3.04.0
aerobic
T2
7585%
Light
2.03.0
aerobic
T1
6075%
Very light
<2.0
aerobic
LT1*
*LT1 refers to the lactate threshold where lactate levels are just above resting levels. Sometimes referred to as
aerobic threshold.
**LT2 is where lactate accumulation is greater than lactate clearance. Also referred to as the anaerobic threshold.
Time
Time or volume relates to how long or how much and can be measured by
time (45-minute run), distance (20-kilometre bike ride) or number of sets or
repetitions (26 sets in the gym).
Continuous training
exercising non-stop for a
minimum of 20 minutes up to
several hours.
Type
FITT principles
Aerobic training
Anaerobic training
Resistance training
Frequency
Intensity
7585% maxHR
Time
5 x 20 m
5 x 40 m
3 x 60 m
Type
Cyclingcontinuous
Sprintingintervals
8 strength exercises
Compare the relative importance of aerobic and anaerobic training to success in the
following sports:
a diving
c gymnastics
b water polo
d soccer.
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CHAPTER 5
Select a sport of your choice and design (a) an aerobic training session and (b) an anaerobic
training session using the FITT principle.
Examine a training session for health-related fitness compared to a fitness training session
for sports performance.
Compare the heart rate graphs for a 20-year-old athlete during two different training
sessions (see figures 5.22 and 5.23).
a Calculate their maximum heart rate, 75 per cent maxHR and 90 per cent maxHR.
b Estimate the amount of training time they would have spent below 75 per cent maxHR,
between 7590 per cent maxHR and above 90 per cent maxHR for each training session.
c What does monitoring the athletes heart rate during the two sessions tell the coach
about the intensity of these two training sessions?
147
HR (bpm)
220
220
200
200
180
180
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80
60
60
40
40
20
20
211 bpm
0
0:00:00
0:05:00
Time: 0:00:00
204 bpm
0:10:00
205 bpm
0:15:00
0:20:00
151 bpm
0:25:00
0:30:00
190 bpm
0:35:00
0
0:40:00
Time
HR:212 bpm
6/11/09 11:20 AM
HR (bpm)
200
200
180
180
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80
60
60
40
40
20
20
176 bpm
0
0:00:00
179 bpm
162 bpm
HR (bpm)
148
147 bpm
0
0:00:00
0:30:00
0:20:00
0:40:00
Time
Time: 0:21:35
HR:184 bpm
Figure 5.23
Immediate physiological
responses to training
Heart rate
Cardiovascular drift
when cardiac output is kept
constant in the latter parts
of prolonged exercise and is
achieved by a slight increase
in heart rate as stroke volume
slightly decreases even though
workload stays the same.
Resting heart rate (HR) varies among individuals depending on their fitness
levelan elite endurance athlete may have a resting heart rate as low as
28 bpm, while an unfit sedentary persons can be as high as 100 bpm. On
average, an adults resting heart rate will be 7075 bpm. Just before we begin
to train, our heart rate will rise in anticipation so our true resting heart rate
should be taken first thing in the morning. During maximal exercise, there
is a linear increase in heart rate corresponding to the increase in exercise
demands, until you reach your maximum heart rate. This pattern occurs for
both trained and untrained participants. However, at any given submaximal
workload, the untrained person will have the higher heart rate. The trained
participant will have a sharp increase in heart rate at the beginning of
exercise, which will then plateau when they reach steady state during
submaximal exercise. During prolonged exercise at a constant workload, the
heart rate will shift from the steady state upwards due to cardiovascular drift.
When undertaking resistance training, there is an increase in heart rate the
more repetitions that are performed. The cardiorespiratory fitness level of a
person will determine how quickly the heart rate returns to resting levels after
exercisethe fitter you are, the quicker you recover. Initially there is a large
drop for both trained and untrained individuals.
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Ventilation rate
Ventilation rate refers to the movement of air into (inspiration) and out of
(expiration) the lungs and is more commonly known as breathing. At rest, the
average person will perform 12 breaths of approximately 500 millilitres each
minute resulting in a ventilation rate of 6 litres/minute. Similar to heart rate,
there is an anticipatory rise in ventilation rate as we begin exercising. Once
exercise actually commences, there is a second rise in ventilation rate as the
rate and depth of breathing increases. This increased ventilation corresponds
with increased oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production. It has
been suggested that, during maximal exercise, the main influence on minute
ventilation is the need to remove carbon dioxide rather than the need for
oxygen. For this reason, ventilation rate does not limit a persons aerobic
capacity. Maximal minute ventilation rates can reach 130 and 170 litres/
minute for untrained and trained participants. Figure 5.24 illustrates the
ventilatory response to light, moderate and heavy exercise. As can be seen in
the graph, once exercise ceases there is an initial rapid decline followed by a
gradual return to resting ventilation rates.
Figure 5.24
Pulmonary ventilation (L/min)
Start
Ventilatory response to
light, moderate and heavy
exercise
Stop
120
Heavy
100
80
Moderate
60
Light
40
20
Exercise
0
2
Time (min)
Stroke volume
Stroke volume (SV) refers to the amount of blood pumped from the heart
(left ventricle) per beat. Resting stroke volume values are approximately
5060 millilitres for untrained participants and 80110 millilitres for trained
participants. These values then increase during exercise to approximately
100120 millilitres for untrained, and up to 200 millilitres for trained
participants. It is thought that maximal stroke volume occurs at a work
intensity corresponding to 4060 per cent maximal and then plateaus as
exercise intensity increases. The large difference in maximal stroke volume
amounts between trained and untrained individuals is a major contributing
factor to aerobic endurance. Increased stroke volume is due to the left
ventricle holding more blood and a stronger contraction, then emptying
more blood per beat. There is virtually no change from resting levels when
performing resistance training. Women will tend to have a slightly lower
stroke volume than men.
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150
Cardiac output
Cardiac output (Q) refers to the amount of blood pumped from the left
ventricle each minute. It can be calculated as:
Q (L/min) = SV (mL) x HR (bpm)
Cardiac output under resting conditions is similar for trained and
untrained individuals, and is approximately 56 litres. There is a sharp
increase in cardiac output as exercise commences, and this continues to
increase as workload increases in order to meet the exercising muscles
demands for more oxygen. Interestingly, cardiac output is similar for trained
and untrained individuals at submaximal workloads. This is because
the trained person will have a higher stroke volume and lower heart rate
compared to the untrained individual, who will have the higher heart rate
and lower stroke volume. For example:
An untrained participant at 50 per cent maximal effort has a heart rate
of 140 and a stroke volume of 100 millilitres. Their cardiac output is
140 x 100 = 14 L/min.
A trained participant at 50 per cent maximal effort has a heart rate of
100 and a stroke volume of 140 millilitres. Their cardiac output is
100 x 140 = 14 L/min.
The main difference between trained and untrained individuals is
their maximal cardiac output. Trained athletes have recorded maximal
cardiac outputs of 40 litres compared to untrained individuals who average
20 litres. Women will tend to have a slightly lower cardiac output than
men have.
Figure 5.25
Distribution of cardiac
output at rest and during
maximal exercise
Other
(600 mL) 10%
Skin
(500 mL) 9%
Splanchnic
(1400 mL) 24%
Other
(~100 mL) 1%
Skin
(600 mL) 2%
Cerebral
(900 mL) 3%
Coronary muscle
(1000 mL) 4%
Renal
(1100 mL) 19%
Skeletal muscle
(1200 mL) 21%
Coronary muscle
(250 mL) 4%
Renal
(250 mL) 1%
Cerebral
(750 mL) 13%
Skeletal muscle
(22,000 mL) 88%
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Figure 5.25 illustrates the distribution of cardiac output at rest and during
maximal exercise. We see in this example that cardiac output rose from
5.8 litres at rest to 25 litres during maximal exercise. The main change has
been the redistribution of blood from the various body organs to the skeletal
muscles, which now receive 88 per cent of cardiac output (compared to 21
per cent at rest) in an attempt to meet the muscles demand for oxygen. As a
thermoregulatory measure (in other words, to keep the body cool), there is an
increase in blood flow to the skin during maximal exercise.
Lactate levels
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% VO2 max
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152
Table 5.24
Summary of
physiological
responses at rest
and during maximal
exercise
Male, age 30
Heart rate (bpm)
AT REST
untrained
trained
MAXIMAL EXERCISE
untrained
trained
72
40
190
190
5070
80110
100120
Up to 200
56
56
20
40
130
170
12
12
10
20
In pairs, using heart-rate monitors or manual methods, take your partners heart rate every
2 minutes while they complete the following exercises. Then change roles and repeat.
a 10-minute continuous run
b Five x 30-second shuttles, aiming at as many shuttles as possible in each 30 seconds,
with 90-second recovery between each work interval.
c Mini soccer (5 vs. 5) for 10 minutes.
In addition, take a heart rate reading 2 minutes after each activity finishes.
Describe your breathing before, during and after the various activities.
Suggest what the lactate graph would look like for the three different activities.
chapter review
Recap
Cardiorespiratory endurance refers to the circulatory and respiratory systems ability
to supply oxygen to the body and remove carbon dioxide and waste products during
sustained exercise. Having a good cardiorespiratory endurance will lower your chance of
suffering from heart disease, blood pressure problems and other health problems. A high
level of cardiorespiratory endurance is also beneficial in sports such as cross-country
running, triathlon, road cycling, race walking and various team sports.
Muscular strength is the ability to produce force against resistance. This is often
measured by how much you can lift in one repetition. Strength training can improve our
metabolism and our posture and it provides better bone strength to assist in guarding
against osteoporosis. Sports such as weightlifting, gymnastics and rugby require a high
degree of strength for successful performance.
6/11/09 11:21 AM
CHAPTER 5
Flexibility is the ability to bend and stretch to execute the full movement of a joint. Ideally,
you want to be flexible enough to perform your daily tasks with ease. If these tasks
include specific sporting activities, there will be a need for greater flexibility at different
joints. A greater range of movement enhances the capacity to develop force.
Body composition is the percentage of bone, muscle, organs and fat in ones body. Body fat
is the main component of body composition that is monitored and it can have a detrimental
effect on our wellbeing and performance. Having a high body fat percentageparticularly
around the abdomencan increase the likelihood of heart disease, stroke and type 2
diabetes. When body fat levels become too low, the immune system can be compromised.
A range of skill-related fitness components (power, speed, agility, coordination, balance
and reaction time) is critical to be able to execute a skill successfully. If an athlete exhibits
the qualities needed for their chosen sport, they have a significantly better chance of
success than if they did not possess these qualities.
Testing fitness components is a key to any training program. Providing a choice of tests is
appropriate and if they are administered correctly, benefits include identifying strengths
and weaknesses; identifying any imbalances in flexibility or strength; and monitoring
progression.
chapter review
Muscular endurance is the ability to exert force and continue it for some time. Athletes
such as marathon runners, triathletes, soccer players, football players, basketball players
and swimmers all possess high levels of muscle endurance. Having high levels of
muscular endurance makes it easier to perform everyday tasks, improves posture and can
reduce the instance of back pain.
153
Aerobic training specifically aims at enabling you to use your aerobic energy system more
effectively. This will result in you being able to exercise for longer without fatiguing, as
well as being able to recover more quickly during rest periods. Anaerobic fitness, on the
other hand, refers to your ability to perform short high-intensity efforts using the anaerobic
energy system.
Following the FITT principle (Frequency, Intensity, Time and Type) will assist you in
planning a training session or writing a fitness program. Manipulating the various
components within the FITT principle allows a gradual progression and overload, so you
are more likely to achieve your goals.
Current URL
Useful for
www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv
2/bhcsite.nsf/pages/bmi4child
Sports coach
www.brianmac.co.uk
www.topendsports.com
ExRx.net (exercise
prescription on the net)
www.exrx.net/Testing.html
dartfish
www.dartfish.tv
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154
Exam-style questions
1 The following graph shows the lactate response during a 1500-metre race.
16
Series 1
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1
10
11
12
13
14
15
a Identify the stage of the race that corresponds with the runners anaerobic threshold.
b Explain why there was an increase in lactate levels towards the end of the race.
c Discuss the type of recovery strategy you would recommend to assist the removal
of lactic acid.
d Describe the heart-rate response during the race.
(5 marks)
chapter review
2 The following components have been identified as being important for tennis
performance. Outline one test for each component that you would recommend be
included in a tennis players fitness-testing schedule.
a aerobic fitness
b agility
c flexibility
d power
e coordination
(5 marks)
3 Using the FITT principle, design a one-week training program for a person
in their late twenties, who has not done any exercise since school.
(10 marks)
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Biomechanical
principles
and movement
How do biomechanical principles influence movement?
Biomechanics combines the study of biology and mechanics to explain how the body functions
as a machine. An understanding of biomechanics allows us to answer many questions about
how people move. For example, what technique will enable a hockey player to shoot a ball at
maximum velocity and how do we learn to produce that technique? Or how might catching a
cricket ball cause injury to the hands and how do we prevent this? This chapter will introduce
you to a few of the more important concepts in biomechanics and how they can be applied to
human movement.
Motion
Being able to describe exactly what movements occur is essential before we
can begin to understand what movements athletes should be performing.
We can describe movement by specifying where an object is located, how fast
it is moving in a particular direction, and how quickly the speed is changing.
For example, we might analyse a tennis stroke by describing the part of the
court from which the tennis ball was hit, which direction it travelled, how
fast it moved, how the speed of movement changed during flight, and where
the ball landed in the opponents court. Once we know exactly how the stroke
was performed, then we can start to think about how this might be improved.
The ball might be struck faster to beat an opponent or more slowly to land
closer to the net; it might be hit with spin to change the balls flight through
the air; or it might be sent in a particular direction away from the opponent.
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illustrates the position of a netball player, playing centre, as she moves about
the court during a game. At any given point in time, her displacement can be
described by measuring how far she is from the centre circle in metres. The
distance this player ran can be measured by following the path created by her
displacement during the game. As you can see, centres run a great distance
around the court, often travelling more than 8 kilometres during a match.
Figure 6.1
Displacement of a
netball player
Direction of play
Movement
Challenging/Defending
Netball
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Figure 6.3
a Displacement
Displacement (m)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
10
10
10
Time (s)
Velocity (m/s)
b Velocity
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
4
Time (s)
c Acceleration
Acceleration (m/s/s)
15
10
5
0
2
5
10
Time (s)
displacement during this race, together with his velocity and acceleration
that we will discuss in later sections. Only a single dimension is necessary to
understand this movement as he does not move from side to side, and vertical
movements do not affect his time to cover the distance. From figure 6.3a, we
can see that at time zero (when the gun went off), Bolt had a displacement of
zero metres because he was still at the start line. Two seconds after the start,
he had a displacement of 11 metres in front of the start line; at four seconds
his displacement was 33 metres; and so on, until he reached the finish line
(100 metres) at 9.69 seconds.
The netball displacement illustrated in figure 6.1 is an example of a
two-dimensional measurement. The figure enables us to visualise how much
the player moves forward and back, as well as left and right on the court.
At any particular point in time, we can describe her position by stating how
many metres she is located in front or behind the centre circle, and how far
to the left or right. Figure 6.4 is also a two-dimensional diagram that shows
the side view of a gymnast performing a handstand. Using the vertical and
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158
0.3 m
Vertical axis
1.5 m
horizontal axes on the diagram, we can locate any part of the body
by describing how far that body part is located from the vertical and
horizontal axes. For example, the ankle is located 1.5 metres above
the horizontal axis and 0.3 metres in front of the vertical axes. The
hands, however, are 0 metres from the horizontal axis, but 0.25
metres in front of the vertical axes. Using diagrams like this enables
us to quantify exactly what position the body is adopting at any
instant in time. Specialist computer software allows sport scientists to
analyse video images to determine exactly where each body segment
is located in each frame of the video, and to track the movements of
those body segments over time.
Some movements need three dimensions to be described
accurately. For example, if you wished to describe the movement of a
hiker crossing the Blue Mountains, then you would need to consider
changes in height, as well as movements north/south and east/west,
if you were to understand the path they took. Similarly, to fully
understand the movement of the tennis ball described earlier, we
would need to consider how high the ball travelled, as well as what
position it was forwards/backwards and left/right.
Horizontal axis
Figure 6.4
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speed = distance
time
=
100 m
47.05 s
= 2.13 m/s
When an object is moving at high speed, it does not take as much time
to cover a specified distance as would a slower moving object. A tennis ball
struck at high speed will not give your opponent much time to prepare to hit
the ball back. Similarly, a rugby league player running at high speed leaves
less time for opponents to intercept before he reaches the try line. Rearranging
the speed equation demonstrates this point by showing us that:
time = distance
speed
The term velocity is often considered to have the same meaning as speed,
but in mechanical terms, it is calculated using the formula:
velocity = change in displacement
time
While the calculation for velocity is almost the same as for speed, the
difference is the same as that between displacement and distance. Speed is
calculated from the distance covered, no matter what path that distance takes.
Velocity, however, uses the displacement of an object and, therefore, considers
only the absolute difference between the starting and finishing positions,
not the actual distance covered. We will usually use the terms speed and
velocity interchangeably. We are usually more interested in speed, but the
mathematics of what we measure might give velocity instead. From now on,
we will simply use the term velocity, knowing that occasionally we really
mean speed instead.
The winner of a running race should always be the person with the
smallest time to complete the race. That is, the person with the highest
velocity over the race distance will win. We need to be careful about this
statement, however, because our formula for calculating velocity gives only
the average velocity throughout the entire period analysed. Usain Bolts
record time for 100 metres was 9.69 seconds, giving an average velocity of
10.32 m/s. From figure 6.3b, however, we can see that his velocity peaked at
more than 12 m/s. There obviously had to be some time at the beginning of
the race when his velocity built up from zero, reducing his average to 10.32.
The winner of a race is not necessarily the person with the highest maximum
velocity, but is the person with the highest average velocity over the entire
race. This average velocity contains a reaction time at the beginning of
each race when the speed is zero, before the athlete starts to move. Reducing
this reaction time can have a large effect on race time without requiring any
increase in running speed.
If we want to understand how velocity is changing during a race, then we
need to consider the instantaneous velocity of an athlete. Figure 6.3b is a graph
of instantaneous velocity, showing us how the velocity continuously changed
during the race. From this graph, we can see that Bolts speed was initially
zero at the beginning of the race, and then gradually rose up to a peak of about
12.5 m/s. Interestingly, this graph also shows his speed was decreasing rapidly
towards the end of the race as he started to celebrate his win. At the time, this
Instantaneous velocity
the velocity of an object at
a specific instance in time.
Instantaneous velocity can
change within the period used
to calculate average speed.
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160
led commentators to speculate that a time of 9.5 seconds was within reach had
he been pushed for the entire race. These comments were supported by his
subsequent world record of 9.58 seconds at the 2009 World Championships.
Obtain the times measured for running 400 metres in the previous section on displacement
and distance. Use the total time of the run to calculate the average velocity of running.
Using the times measured every 40 metres around the track, calculate the velocity within
each 40-metre interval. Plot a graph of velocity versus time.
Describe how velocity varied within the 400-metre run. Did it remain constant, or was one
portion of the race faster than other portions? Explain why runners may or may not wish to
run at a constant velocity.
Mark out a distance of 20 metres and measure how long it takes to run this distance from a
standing start.
a Calculate the average velocity for this run.
b How do you think the maximum running speed would compare to this average value?
c Suggest how you might be able to measure maximum running speed.
Explain why the runner who can run the fastest may not always win a race. Hint: consider
why 100-metre sprinters do not also win marathon races.
Acceleration
Acceleration the rate of
change in velocity. This is a
similar concept to velocity
itself. While velocity tells us
how quickly an object changes
its position, acceleration tells
us how quickly it changes
velocity.
12.5 m/s 0
4s
3.125 m/s2
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very quickly and still have zero acceleration. Zero acceleration just means that
velocity is not changing; it does not tell you what that velocity is.
Figure 6.3c shows a peak acceleration much higher than the 3.125 m/s2 we
calculated earlier for average acceleration. This is because, as with velocity,
there was a period before Bolt started to move when his acceleration was
zero. His peak acceleration occurred just after he commenced moving, while
his feet were still in contact with the starting blocks giving a large force to
accelerate him forward. After leaving the blocks, he continued to accelerate
until reaching top speed, but the faster he went the more difficult it was to
keep accelerating. His acceleration therefore declined after the initial peak.
The average acceleration, 3.125 m/s2, is the average of all acceleration values
in the period from zero to four seconds.
At around 4.4 seconds, Bolts velocity reached a maximum point when it
was no longer increasing. At this time, we see the instantaneous acceleration
was zero; that is, velocity was not changing at this point. After this time,
the acceleration was often negative. When a person is moving forward
with positive velocity, negative acceleration implies that their velocity
is decreasing, so they were slowing down. The small burst of positive
acceleration between 7.1 and 8.3 seconds meant that Bolts velocity increased
again for a time, but there was quite a rapid slowing after this, indicated by
the large magnitude of negative acceleration.
Have a look at the acceleration graph in figure 6.3c. Explain what is happening at the times
when acceleration is greatest, when acceleration is negative, and during the period from
56 seconds when acceleration is approximately zero.
Explain why rapid acceleration is much more important for a 100-metre sprinter than it is for
an 800-metre runner.
A tennis ball being struck by a racquet experiences much higher acceleration than does a
space rocket during lift off. Explain how the rocket can achieve such high velocity when it
has less acceleration.
Momentum
Once an object starts to move, it has a tendency to keep on moving. This
property of objects is known as momentum. Momentum may be calculated
using the formula:
momentum = mass x velocity
For example, a discus with a mass of 2 kilograms and a velocity of 20 m/s will
have a momentum of 40 kg m/s. The faster an object moves, or the more mass
possessed by that object, the greater the momentum.
Objects possessing a large amount of momentum can be very difficult to
stop moving. Some rugby players who have a large mass, and who can run
very fast, become very difficult to stop as they charge towards the try line.
Smaller players have less mass, and hence they must run more quickly to
generate the same momentum. If a player does not have as much momentum,
they become easier to stop in a tackle. Smaller players must rely more
Momentum sometimes
defined as the quantity
of motion. Momentum is
calculated from the mass of
an object multiplied by its
velocity.
Mass measured in kilograms,
mass refers to the amount
of matter in your body. It
can affect the motion of an
object. We must always be
very careful to define mass
differently from weight.
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162
A golf ball can travel at speeds up to about 50 m/s, while a cricket ball rarely travels faster
than 40 m/s. Find out the mass of these two ball types and estimate the momentum of each
ball travelling at these speeds.
Measure the mass and maximum running speed of your class members. Calculate the peak
momentum for each person and discuss the implications for rugby tackling.
Experiment with throwing and catching balls with different masses and speeds (for example,
a ping-pong ball, tennis ball, basketball and a medicine ball). Discuss the effect of
momentum on the difficulty of catching each ball.
Centre of gravity
Gravity exerts a force on our body that pulls us down towards the Earth. This
will be discussed in much more detail later on in the Force section. Gravity
acts on all parts of our body, in proportion to the weight of each body part.
Therefore, gravity exerts a larger force on our head than it does on our fingers,
because of the larger weight of the head.
Our centre of gravity is a spot within the body where gravity is balanced
above, below and on either side. For objects with symmetrical distribution
of weight, such as a ball or wooden ruler, the centre of gravity is right in the
middle of the object. Most objects, however, have one end that is heavier
than the other, so the centre of gravity will be located closer towards the
heavy end. For all objects, regardless of weight distribution, the centre of
6/11/09 11:13 AM
gravity is the balance point of that object. For example, you can balance a
30-centimetre ruler on your finger at the 15-centimetre mark, the middle of
the ruler. If you place an eraser on one end of the ruler, however, this moves
the centre of gravity towards that end, and you need to slide the ruler along
your finger to find the balance point. Humans have more weight in their head
and chest than they do in their feet. Therefore, the centre of gravity is slightly
higher than half the height, usually about 5560 per cent of standing height.
This will vary somewhat between individuals, depending on factors such as
leg length, upper body development, and the distribution of muscle and fat
within the body. Because we are fairly symmetrical left to right, the centre of
gravity is in the midline of our body when viewed from the front.
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163
Figure 6.5
Figure 6.6
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164
Obtain a number of different sporting implements, such as hockey sticks, tennis racquets and
so on, and balance them to locate their centre of gravity.
Obtain some photographs of sportspeople. Try to find photos where the person is adopting
an interesting posture, such as a swim start, a high jumper crossing the bar or a dancer
performing an arabesque. For each photo, estimate the location of the centre of gravity.
Balance a Barbie doll or a similar toy figure on your hand and locate its centre of gravity.
Explain why the location of Barbies centre of gravity may not be in exactly the same place
as yours. Consider such factors as body composition, leg length compared to body, and the
relative size of different body parts.
Line of gravity
The line of gravity can be imagined as a line drawn vertically downwards
from your centre of gravity. When we come to consider factors affecting
the stability of the body, an important consideration will be where this line
of gravity touches the ground. As illustrated in figure 6.7, you can usually
imagine this as a line down from the pelvis, unless the body is in quite an
extreme posture.
Base of support
Figure 6.7
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165
Figure 6.8
Figure 6.9
balance retained
balance precarious
balance lost
Several approaches may be used to increase the stability of the body. First
of all, a larger base of support will increase stability. This is because more
movement is allowed before the line of gravity gets close to the edge of the
base of support. Lowering your body will also increase stability. With a lower
centre of gravity, the body can tilt more from side to side without the line
of gravity passing outside the base of support. Finally, increased mass will
increase stability. A larger mass tends to remain steadier and requires more
force to be accelerated. This point is explained later in the section Applying
force to an object.
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166
Available
range of motion for
line of gravity
Total base of support
Figure 6.10
Discuss why your feelings of stability change when you stand on one leg instead of two,
when you close your eyes or when you lift your heel off the ground.
Sketch a view from above of an elderly person using a walking frame and identify the base
of support for the person. Explain why the walking frame provides more stability than the
use of a walking stick or no aid at all.
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Fluid mechanics
Flotation
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167
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168
relatively dense and tend to sink. Muscle tissue has a very similar density to
water. Consequently, heavily muscled people do not necessarily sink more
easily than the rest of us; the percentage of fat in the body has a much larger
effect on whether you float or sink.
Explain why keeping more of your body underwater will increase the size of the buoyant
force acting on the body.
Imagine a man who has exhaled all his air and is standing on a set of scales underwater.
Would the reading on the scales be more, less or the same as when he is on land? Why?
In the previous question, the man had exhaled all his air. What effect would having a lung
full of air have on the scale reading?
Imagine two people with equal body weight, but one person has a larger percentage of fat
in their body than the other. If these people were standing on the scales underwater, which
person would record the largest reading and why? (Note: this technique is sometimes used
in laboratories by exercise scientists and nutritionists to estimate a persons body fat.)
Explain why children are less likely to perform a successful back float if trying to lift their face
clear of the water.
Centre of buoyancy
Centre of buoyancy the
point in the body where the
amount of volume under the
water is equally distributed
on either side. The centre of
buoyancy tends to be higher in
your body than the centre of
gravity, because of the effects
of dense legs at one end and
low-density lungs towards the
other end.
Centre of gravity is the balance point of the body, where weight is equally
distributed on either side. We use this point to illustrate the force of gravity
(i.e. weight) on diagrams of the body. A concept related to this is the centre
of buoyancy. This is the point where all the volume of the body underwater
is distributed evenly on each side. Because the buoyant force is caused by the
volume of water displaced, the centre of buoyancy becomes the point where
the buoyant force is located as shown in figure 6.12.
The centre of gravity is usually located slightly lower in the body (i.e.
closer to the feet) than is the centre of buoyancy, as you can see in figure
6.12c. This is because the lungs are in the top half of the body, displacing a
relatively large volume compared to weight (i.e. low density), while the legs
are relatively dense because of their strong bone structure. This means that
there is more volume per unit weight in the upper part of the body, and less
volume for a given weight in the lower part.
When a body is suspended in water, it will rotate until the centre of
buoyancy and the centre of gravity are aligned, one above the other. You can
imagine this effect by looking at figure 6.12c and imagining a cutout figure of
the body. Pull downwards on the centre of gravity, and upwards on the centre
of buoyancy, and the body will rotate. Once the two points are aligned as in
figure 6.13, the two forces will hold the body in that position.
Because the centre of buoyancy is higher in the body than the centre of
gravity, the legs usually sink when people try to float on their back. There
are several strategies that swimming teachers use to help people float more
horizontally. One approach is to have the swimmer bend their knees, as
shown in figure 6.13a. This moves the centre of gravity up towards the
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Buoyant force
Weight
force
b
Buoyant force
Weight
force
c
Buoyant force
Weight
force
Figure 6.13
Take a photocopy of figure 6.12c, cut out the figure and attach some cotton to the points where
gravity and buoyancy act on the body (try to attach the cotton right at the tip of each arrow).
Pull on the cotton in the direction of the two forces and explain what happens to the figure.
Repeat the above experiment using figure 6.13a, where the buoyant force and weight
forces are aligned above one another. Now what happens when you pull on the two pieces
of cotton?
Use figure 6.13b to explain why lifting the hands clear of the water will shift the centre of
buoyancy towards the feet.
We have explained that most people have their centre of buoyancy higher in the body than
their centre of gravity, so that it is difficult to float horizontally. In relation to buoyancy,
explain the benefit kicking the legs gives while swimming freestyle or backstroke.
Fluid resistance
In the field of biomechanics, air is also considered to be a fluid, like water.
Water is much more dense than air and, therefore, has a greater effect on our
movements, but the same principles can be applied to examine the effect of
these fluids on movement. When we move through a fluid (air or water), we
have to push that fluid aside as we move through it. This creates resistance on
the body that tends to slow our movements. This is often called a drag force.
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170
Figure 6.14
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the size of the cavity and reducing the form drag (figure 6.14a). This tapered
shape is typical of all objects required to travel at high speed with low fluid
resistance as shown in figure 6.15.
The amount of form drag can change depending on how the fluid flows
past the object. Sometimes a slightly rougher surface on an object can reduce
form drag by helping the fluid to stay close to the object as it flows around,
and thus diminishes the amount of cavitation. Figure 6.16 illustrates the
effects of dimples pressed into the surface of a golf ball. When air flows past
a smooth ball, it tends to keep moving in a straight line (laminar flow) and
thus creates a large air pocket at the back. The effect of dimples is to trip
the air as it moves past so that it starts to move in different directions in a
chaotic fashion (turbulent flow). Because the air is already changing direction
through its turbulent flow, it does not tend to remain travelling in a straight
line and can change direction to fill up the cavity at the rear of the ball. This
reduces the amount of form drag.
The effect of smoothness on fluid resistance can be confusing to us because
roughening an object will always increase the amount of surface drag, but
can sometimes reduce the amount of form drag, if it substantially reduces
the amount of cavitation. Dimples reduce the amount of air resistance on a
golf ball only because the resulting reduction in form drag is greater than the
increase in surface drag.
Turbulent
boundary layer
Separation
Smooth
sphere
Thick wake =
large form drag
Golf ball
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171
Figure 6.15
Separation
Thin wake =
small form drag
Laminar
boundary layer
Figure 6.16 Dimples reduce a golf balls form drag by reducing the amount of cavitation behind the ball
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172
Figure 6.17
The world record for a marathon (42.195 kilometres) was set by Haile Gebrselassie at the
Berlin marathon in a time just under 2 hours and 4 minutes. The record for the 4000-metre
individual pursuit in cycling was set in Beijing by Steven Burke in a time of 4 minutes and 21
seconds. Calculate the average velocity of the two athletes. Use this velocity to estimate the
relative difference in air resistance expected if the only difference between the events was
the velocity (fluid resistance is proportional to the square of velocity). Explain why cyclists
spend so much more effort on reducing air resistance than do runners.
Discuss why marathon runners dont wear skin-tight clothing to gain even slight benefits in
reducing their air resistance. Hint: this answer has nothing to do with mechanics, but deals
with the physiology of running.
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Force
A force pushes or pulls an object, tending to make it change its position.
Forces are often applied through direct contact, when one object pushes
against another. If you squeeze a cricket ball, for example, a force is applied
to the ball because your fingers cannot pass through the ball. The contact
force exists between the hand and the ball to keep the ball and fingers from
merging. Direct contact between objects is not required for all forces, however.
Gravity is a force of attraction between any two objects, and the gravity we
experience on Earth is the pull of our body towards the Earth. No contact is
required, because gravity still exists when we jump into the air.
Forces are measured using units called Newtons (N). While these units are
not in common usage in the community, we can imagine how big they are by
considering that a force of 10 Newtons is about the amount of force required
to lift a mass of 1 kilogram. In this section we will investigate how the body
generates forces to move objects, including itself, and what effect forces can
have when applied to the body.
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173
Figure 6.18
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174
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175
Basketball shoes produce high friction on a wooden floor, but not so much
on grass. In contrast, football boots produce relatively high friction on grass,
but can be very slippery when walking on concrete. Hiking boots may not be
perfect on any surface, but are designed to provide reasonable friction across a
range of different ground surfaces.
Producing large friction forces, therefore, requires you to have two surfaces
in contact that produce high friction properties, and for you to hold the two
surfaces together with a large amount of force. For example, if you want
to hold onto a tennis racquet without it slipping from your hand, then you
need to squeeze hard with your fingers to apply a force holding the hand
in contact with the racquet. You also need to make sure the handle of the
racquet is not slippery against your hand. This can be done by taping the
grip with appropriate material that doesnt slip, making sure your hand isnt
wet from sweat which makes the grip more slippery, or by applying some
other material, such as rosin powder between the grip and your hand. There
are products available that can be sprayed onto the grip surface to maximise
friction and, therefore, control.
Use the concept of momentum to explain how a large force is applied to a football when
it is kicked.
Do you think you could apply more force to a volleyball by throwing it, or by performing
a serve? Hint: which action feels like there is more force applied to your hand?
Many sporting implements like cricket bats and hockey sticks can be chosen with different
masses. Use the concept of momentum to explain why a larger mass might be able to
impart more force onto a ball.
Still thinking about momentum, and remembering that momentum is mass times velocity,
discuss why a stick with more mass will not always apply a larger force.
Obtain a collection of different shoe types such as a tennis shoe, dress shoe, football boot
and so on; a mass of at least 2 kilograms that can be placed in the shoes; and a spring
balance that can be attached to the shoes by hooking through the laces. Try dragging the
shoes across a range of different surfaces (e.g. wood, grass, concrete) and measure how
much force is required to drag each shoe/surface combination. Discuss why more force is
required in different circumstances.
Repeat the previous experiment with more or less weight in the shoes. Explain why the
amount of friction varies. Note: I have deliberately used the word weight in this question
why?
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176
Impulse calculated as
force multiplied by time.
For example, a force of 100
Newtons applied for a time of
2 seconds produces an impulse
of 200 N s.
When a moving object, such as a ball, hits your body, it applies a force to
your body. The amount of force applied depends on the momentum of the
moving object and on the amount of time over which the force is applied. The
product of force and time is called impulse. When a moving object hits your
body and comes to a halt, the impulse (Newton seconds, or N s) required to
halt the object is equal to the momentum (kg m/s) of that object. For example,
a ball of mass 0.5 kilograms travelling at 20 m/s will have a momentum of 10
kg m/s, so an impulse of 10 N s must be applied to halt the ball. This impulse
of 10 N s could be produced by a force of 10 Newtons applied for 1 second, or
equally by a force of 100 Newtons applied for only 0.1 seconds. In both cases,
the impulse is the same, and so the ball will be brought to a halt completely,
but the amount of force involved is very different. A force of 100 Newtons is
obviously more difficult to control and more likely to cause an injury.
Successful control of collisions with the body, therefore, requires the
body to increase the duration of time over which the force is applied. When
catching a cricket ball, for example, players keep their fingers, wrists and
arms relatively loose before impact so that the hands move backwards at
impact, increasing the duration of impact. This can greatly reduce the force
of impact compared to a stiff-armed catch, reducing the force against the
hand and reducing the likelihood of the ball bouncing straight back out of
the hands. Baseball catchers achieve the same effect using a large padded
glove. When the ball contacts the glove the padding compresses, bringing
the ball to a halt more gradually and, therefore, reducing the average amount
of force required to generate the required impulse. This same principle can
be applied whenever padding is used to reduce impact injuries. High-jump
landing mats, running shoes and bicycle helmets are all designed to compress
on impact, increasing the deceleration time and thus reducing the amount
of force required. The foam in bicycle helmets allows this compression, and
is therefore the most important component of a helmet. The hard plastic
shell over a helmet provides some protection for the foam and gives a more
attractive appearance, but does not directly affect the safety performance
because it does not compress.
With a partner, throw and catch a basketball and a medicine ball at different speeds. Take
note of the amount your hands move while you are catching the two balls at different
speeds. Discuss why the amount of hand movement differs.
Try to find places where you can drop from a height of about 1 metre and land onto
concrete, grass and a jumping matt. Take note of the feeling as you land in each case.
Discuss how much force your body must absorb in each case and why. Note: if your body
drops the same height onto each surface, then your momentum at the time of impact should
be the same in each case.
What movements did you perform with your legs as you dropped onto concrete in the
previous question? Why was this movement useful?
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177
= 1000 588 N
60 kg
= 412 N
60 kg
= 6.9 m/s2
The following illustration shows us two ways in which body mass
influences our acceleration while jumping. Firstly, a larger mass means
increased inertia, resulting in a smaller acceleration for any given force. The
second point compounds this, because a larger mass means that more weight
is pulling the body downwards. This means that not only would there be less
acceleration for a given amount of force, but there would also be less total
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178
Weight = 588 N
Force = 1000 N
Figure 6.19
Figure 6.20
6/11/09 11:14 AM
Only forces coming from outside a body are able to cause acceleration
of that body. For example, you can squeeze your fist as tight as you like,
but it will not propel you anywhere. Only when your hand pushes against
some external object, and that object pushes back against your hand through
Newtons third law, can we produce acceleration. The diagrams we draw to
analyse movement therefore only ever show forces coming from outside the
body. Our muscles initiate much of the force that causes us to move, but only
when the muscles push our limbs against some external object can they be
effective in causing acceleration.
Once an external force is applied to an object, then acceleration occurs in
the direction of that applied force. If a sprinter needs to accelerate forward
at the beginning of a race, then he must push backwards against the ground,
so that the ground will push him forward. Sprinters lean forward so they can
better direct the forces backward against the ground. Similarly, if a shot putter
needs to direct his put higher into the air to increase the flight distance, then
he needs to get his shoulder below the shot so that extending his arm will
direct it upward as well as forwards. The use of diagrams can be invaluable in
imagining what direction forces need to be applied for effective performance
in any sport. By illustrating all the forces acting on an object, you can then
visualise the acceleration that would result from those forces.
Newtons laws tell us about acceleration. His second law tells us how
much acceleration will occur as a result of a force being applied. The total
velocity change in response to an applied force, however, is determined by
how long the acceleration continues, as well as by how much acceleration
there is. The longer a force is applied, the longer the body will spend
accelerating and, therefore, the more the total velocity will change. We have
already considered the effect of force and time multiplied together, and called
this impulse. Impulse is not only important for stopping moving objects, but
also for increasing speed, if that is desired. The greater the combination of
force and time, the more momentum, and hence velocity, will increase.
When children first learn to
perform a shot put, they stand
in one position and forcefully
extend the knees and elbows to
put the shot forward and upward.
This technique produces large
acceleration of the put, but there
is a limit to the amount of time
the force can be applied because
the arm very quickly reaches
full extension and the put leaves
the hand. The next stage of the
technique involves performers
starting at the very back of the
circle and gliding forward to the
front before release (figure 6.21).
This technique allows force to be
applied to the put for a longer time,
increasing the impulse applied
to the shot, and consequently
CHAPTER 6
179
Figure 6.21
6/11/09 11:14 AM
180
resulting in a higher release velocity. Many modern shot putters now use
a rotational technique, like a discus wind up, where the body spins prior
to release, allowing even more time for force to be applied and, therefore,
producing an even greater impulse.
During a shot put, the athlete commences at the very back of the circle and
glides towards the front as he accelerates the shot. The dotted line illustrates
the path taken by the shot before release. By increasing the time over which
force is applied, a greater impulse can be applied to the shot, resulting in a
higher release velocity.
The above acceleration would be present only while the balls were
in contact with the bat or club. If you said that the table-tennis
ball had higher acceleration, why then would it not necessarily fly
through the air further than a golf ball? Hint: consider forces acting
on the ball during flight.
You can throw a cricket ball much faster than you could propel it
by striking it like a volleyball serve. Use the concept of impulse
to explain why the larger force from striking does not necessarily
result in larger velocity.
Use Newtons second law of motion to explain why all objects would
fall with the same acceleration due to gravity, regardless of their
weight, if we ignore the effects of air resistance.
Use Newtons second law once again to explain why air resistance
seems to have more effect on objects such as feathers and table
tennis balls.
a Use Newtons third law of motion to explain why catching a
fast-moving ball can cause pain.
b Use the concept of momentum to explain why a ball that has
a larger mass, or one that is moving faster, will cause more pain
to your hand.
c Use the concept of impulse to explain why a harder ball will
cause more pain to your hand. Hint: compare the time taken
for a softer ball to come to a halt.
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181
chapter review
Recap
Displacement, velocity and acceleration can be used to describe the position of an object,
how fast its position is changing and how quickly the speed is changing.
Momentum is the product of mass times velocity. An object with more momentum will
be more difficult to stop moving.
Adopting a stable posture requires the centre of gravity to be located above the base of
support. Increasing stability involves strategies to ensure that the line of gravity does not
move outside this base.
Bodies immersed in water experience an upwards force called buoyancy that is
proportional to the weight of water displaced by the bodys volume underwater.
Adopting a horizontal floating position requires the centre of gravity and centre of
buoyancy to be aligned at the same location in the body.
Objects moving through air or water experience a fluid resistance force that increases
with the square of velocity. Faster moving objects therefore have much more fluid
resistance than do slower objects.
Different causes of fluid resistance are surface drag, caused by the amount of surface
area and the smoothness of the object; form drag, caused by the shape of the object
and its frontal area; and wave drag, caused by movements of the object at the interface
between two different fluids (for example, water and air).
Weight and mass are quite different concepts. Weight is the force of gravity measured
in Newtons. Mass is a measure of a bodys inertia, determined by the amount of matter
packed into the body and expressed in kilograms.
The body can apply force to other objects through weight, by contracting the muscles,
or by using momentum.
When moving objects collide with the body (or vice versa), enough force needs to
be applied over the time of contact in order to remove the momentum of the object.
Applying force over a longer time allows momentum to be removed without requiring
as much force to be applied.
Newtons laws of motion describe how an object will respond when a force is applied by
telling us whether velocity changes, what the size of the acceleration will be, and how
forces will be returned from one object to another.
6/11/09 11:14 AM
182
Current URL
Useful for
www.coachesinfo.com
BioLab
www.biolab.org.uk
www.usfca.edu/ess/tis
Exam-style questions
chapter review
1 View the velocitytime graph in figure 6.3 and answer the following questions:
(1 mark)
(1 mark)
What was the average acceleration from time zero up until maximum
velocity?
(2 marks)
Describe how velocity was changing over the last second of the race.
(2 marks)
2 Describe the strategies that people use to hold a stable, balanced position.
For example, how they hold a balance position during a gymnastics routine.
(4 marks)
3 Explain why people do not always float in a horizontal position, and what
(4 marks)
(2 marks)
5 What is Newtons second law of motion? Use this law to explain why it
would be difficult to play table tennis with a normal tennis ball while still
using a table tennis bat.
(4 marks)
6/11/09 11:14 AM
Preliminary
Options
6/11/09 11:15 AM
6/11/09 11:15 AM
First aid
The term first aid refers to the giving of aid or assistance to someone in need, when you
are the first person on the scene of an accident or urgent medical situation. While the
majority of people go about their daily routine without disruption, health emergencies can
occur without warning. Having fundamental first aid knowledge and skills can go a long way
towards assisting in an emergency and could mean the difference between life and death
for the people involved. This chapter will provide an overview of vital first aid information
and will consider some ethical questions that should be taken into account concerning the
administration of first aid.
Situational analysis
In order to be effective in an emergency, it is critical that the first aider
conducts a thorough analysis of the situation before starting any first aid
measures. The purpose of a situational analysis is to provide an overview
of the emergency so the first aider can make the best decisions to assist the
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186
Figure 7.1
casualty and ensure that no further harm occurs to the victim, any bystanders
or themself. A situational analysis should take no more than a few minutes
and can be conducted through observation and questioning. Things to
consider when conducting a situational analysis include:
What has occurred and is a risk of further danger?
What can be done to make the situation safer?
Is anyones life in immediate danger?
Are the casualties contained in one place or spread out over a larger area?
How many people appear injured and/or ill and what is the severity of
their injuries or illnesses?
Are there other people who may be able to assist?
How can emergency services be contacted, who will contact them and
how far away are they?
What first aid equipment (if any) is available?
During the situational analysis, the first aider should arrange for medical
and/or emergency assistance. Emergency services personnel are specially
trained for these situations and therefore, it is essential that they attend the
scene as quickly as possible. The first aider should phone 000 or, if 000 does
not work from a mobile phone, try 112 or direct someone else to do this.
It is important that the caller provide clear and detailed information about
the situation.
DRABCD
The DRABCD acronym stands for:
Assessment an evaluation
of the situation.
D
R
A
B
C
D
Danger
Response
Airway
Breathing
Circulation
Defibrillation
The DRABCD Action Plan assists the first aider to be confident in their
assessment of the situation. By following the steps highlighted by each letter
of the plan, the first aider can make informed decisions about resuscitation,
serious injury treatment and treatment of other injuries and/or conditions.
Danger
In many emergencies, there is a degree of danger. This danger can be to
the patient, the bystanders and/or to the person administering the first aid.
Before any first aid treatment is given, it is vitally important that the first
6/11/09 11:15 AM
First aid
aider check for any danger associated with the emergency and ensure that the
environment is safe before proceeding. Danger can take the form of traffic,
body fluids, poisons, gas leaks, live electrical wires, fire, overhanging debris,
unstable surfaces, aggressive bystanders, animals and/or flammable materials.
The first aider should be on the look out for ways to remove any current
danger and to prevent new dangers from occurring. As far as possible, the
casualty should not be removed from their position unless there is immediate
danger. A first aider should not make decisions that put themself or others
at risk and, if they believe that the situation cannot be altered to reduce any
potential danger, it is best to wait for emergency personnel to arrive.
Danger may also come from the casualty. They may be aggressive,
uncooperative, scared or under the influence of drugs. The first aider should
not attempt to administer first aid until they are confident it is safe to approach
the patient. Talking calmly to the injured or ill person to provide reassurance
and establish a rapport can help make them easier to approach and assist.
Response
When it is established that there is no danger, assessment of the patient can
begin. The first step is to determine whether the person is conscious. This can
be done by checking for a response to questions such as: Can you hear me?
What is your name? In conjunction with these questions, it is wise to gently
touch the person on the hands and ask them to squeeze your hands if they can
hear you (touch and talk), as with some conditions or injuries a person may be
conscious but unable to speak.
If the person responds, this means they are conscious. It is then important
to treat and manage any injuries that may need attention, to seek medical
assistance, and to reassure the person and monitor them for shock or lapses
into unconsciousness. A conscious patient should be turned onto their side
in the recovery position. This will provide a clear airway and stop them from
swallowing vomit or other foreign material.
No response means that the person is unconscious, which is a potentially
life-threatening situation. The first aider should ensure that medical assistance
has been called and continue following the steps of the DRABCD Action Plan.
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187
Figure 7.2
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188
Figure 7.3
Figure 7.4
Airway
Unconsciousness may mean that a persons supply of oxygen
has been impaired in some way. To allow an unconscious
person to breathe and improve their chance of survival, it is
vital that a clear airway is maintained. Blockages to the airway
can be caused by foreign materials such as vomit, mouth
guards, false teeth, food or seaweed, or by physical reponses
such as swelling or the tongue falling back over the airway.
The first aider should check for foreign materials in the
airway and, if they are present, remove them by turning the
patient into the recovery position (supporting the head and
neck) and clearing the foreign material with their fingers. If
no foreign material can be seen, the airway can be opened by
gently tilting the casualtys head back, while supporting the
forehead and jaw. This simple action can bring the tongue
away from the back of the throat and may be all that is
required to ensure the airway is clear.
Breathing
When the airway is clear, it is necessary to check for breathing. To do this the
first aider should look, listen and feel for no more than 10 seconds.
Listen and feel for sounds of air from the patients mouth and/or nose.
Look and feel for movement of the chest.
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First aid
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) involves simulating the actions of the
heartbeat and breathing when the casualty is unable to do this for themself.
The technique combines pushing down on the lower half of the casualtys
sternum to compress their chest and inflating their lungs by breathing into
their mouth. Further details of CPR are given in the Crisis
management section of this chapter. By performing CPR, the
first aider can either restart the normal action of the heart or
maintain sufficient circulation to keep oxygen moving to the
brain until medical help is available. Research purports that,
if CPR is begun within four minutes of the heart stopping,
oxygenation of the vital organs is maintained.
Defibrillation
Medical studies have shown that the chances of survival for
a casualty whose heart has stopped are greatly increased if
defibrillation occurs within 8 to 12 minutes of cardiac arrest.
A disturbance of the electrical activity in the hearts ventricular
muscle can cause fibrillation. This means the heart quivers
rather than beats which stops blood from being pumped
around the body. This can cause cardiac arrest. A defibrillator
delivers an electric shock to the heart muscle, which may
restore the normal heart rhythm. Ambulances and hospitals
have defibrillators; however, easy-to-use defibrillators with
voice prompts, called an automated external defibrillator
(AED), have been developed for use in the home or workplace
and on the sports field. This means a first aider may have
quick access to defibrillation, especially if emergency services
have a delayed response time.
189
An automated external
defibrillator
WARNING
Do not use a defibrillator:
on a person under 12 years old
in a moving vehicle.
Before defibrillationmove:
casualty if touching metal fixture
or lying in water
oxygen away from casualty
mobile phones/two-way radios
2 metres away.
CHAPTER 7
Outline the reasons for a situational analysis and include what the
first aider may need to take into account in an emergency.
Figure 7.6
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190
STOP
The DRABCD Action Plan outlines the essential steps to be followed to assess
a critically ill or injured casualty. Once you have established that a person is
conscious and not suffering from a life-threatening condition, it is important
to prevent further harm from occurring and to treat any less severe injuries
or problems. The STOP plan is another series of steps that can be followed to
assess, treat and manage non-life-threatening injuries or illnesses.
Stop the patient from moving and ensure they are comfortable.
This may include stopping any activity and having them sit or
lie down.
MedicAlert bracelet a
bracelet worn by people with
a medical condition, allergy
or taking certain medications
to inform others of these
conditions/illnesses.
EpiPen an auto-injector
of adrenalin, which is used
to treat anaphylactic shock.
A person diagnosed with
anaphylaxis will carry an
EpiPen.
Crisis management
A crisis is a major event that has the potential for harm to those involved.
A crisis usually occurs unexpectedly and is often characterised by important
decisions having to be made in a short time period. Crisis management is
the attempt to eliminate or reduce danger and preserve life in a crisis. A
number of first aid skills and techniques are important to have in order to
deal proficiently with a crisis.
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is required in a crisis if it has been
determined that there are no signs of life in the casualty. CPR involves the
following steps:
1 Kneel beside the patient and give 30 compressions to the chest. This is
done by locating the persons sternum and placing one of your hands on
the lower section with the heel of your other hand on top. The first aider
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First aid
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191
Figure 7.7
Age group
Head tilt
Type of breath
Baby
No head tilt
A small puff
2 fingers only to a
depth of 2 cm
Child
(18 years)
Half a breath
from the lungs
Adult
Full breath
from the lungs
2 hands to a depth of
one third of the chest
Figure 7.8
If there are two first aiders available to perform CPR, frequent rotation of
the person administering CPR can lessen fatigue. The first aiders should try
to swap every two minutes aiming for a smooth changeover that results in
minimum disruption to the CPR procedure. Once CPR has commenced, the
first aider should only stop under the following circumstances:
the casualty shows signs of life
qualified help arrives
the first aider is physically unable to continue.
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192
Bleeding
Blood has a number of essential roles in the body such as transporting oxygen,
hormones and nutrients; maintaining body temperature; removing toxins and
waste products and transporting antibodies to protect against disease. Blood
is, therefore, crucial for correct body functioning. Bleeding results in a loss of
blood from the blood vessels (capillaries, veins or arteries) and, if untreated,
can lead to lead to shock, collapse and possibly death. In a crisis management
situation, all bleeding should be viewed as life threatening and treated
accordingly.
The DRABCD Action Plan should be applied to assess the casualty. If there
are no signs of life, CPR takes priority over any bleeding injuries. The first
aider should always wear gloves when treating a bleeding patient. The most
effective first aid for external bleeding is pressure and elevation (to restrict
and slow blood flow and encourage clotting). The recommended treatment is
outlined in the following steps:
1 Apply direct, firm and sustained pressure to the wound with a pad. If
this becomes blood soaked, another pad should be applied over the first.
If there is an object embedded in the wound, indirect pressure should be
applied to the area around the object. DO NOT remove the object.
2 Lie the casualty down to restrict movement and elevate the bleeding part.
3 Maintain pressure on the pad.
4 Reassure the patient and monitor for shock until medical assistance arrives.
If the patient becomes unconscious, follow the DRABCD Action Plan.
If bleeding does not stop, the first aider can also apply pressure with their
hand to a pressure point, for example, in the groin or inside the elbow. A
tourniquet should never be applied.
Bleeding may also occur internally. This type of bleeding is often difficult
to recognise but can be very dangerous for the casualty. Internal bleeding
requires urgent hospitalisation. Some signs of internal bleeding may be shock,
tenderness, swelling, abdominal pain, and coughing up or vomiting blood.
Shock
Shock is the bodys response to trauma, which may be caused by severe
bleeding, burns, infection, vomiting or diarrhoea, multiple fractures, heart
attack or allergic reactions. Essentially, it is a failure of the circulatory system
to do its job, resulting in a lack of oxygen to the bodys tissues. Shock can be
life threatening and the first aider should be watch constantly for any signs
that the patient is going into shock.
Table 7.2 Signs and symptoms of shock
Signs of shock
Symptoms of shock
Faintness or dizziness
Confusion or anxiety
Shortness of breath
Vomiting or nausea
Feeling cold
Restlessness
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193
The DRABCD Action Plan should be used to assess the casualty and any
severe bleeding needs to be controlled. A handy acronym to use to manage
shock is the four Rs:
R
R
Ring 000.
R
R
Rest the patient, preferably with their head down and their feet up
(except when there are fractures or spinal injuries).
Rug them up, to maintain their body heat. For example, cover them
with a blanket and ensure they are comfortable.
The first aider should continue to observe the patient and maintain a clear
airway. The onset of shock can be a delayed reaction, so the casualty needs to
be monitored carefully even after their injuries or condition have been treated.
On a manikin, practise CPR, concentrating on accurate hand placement for the compressions,
and a good mouth and nose seal for the breaths.
In pairs, work on a manikin to rehearse an efficient swap from one CPR operator to another.
Identify the priorities for treatment at the scene of an emergency, and explain why certain
injuries and illnesses take precedence over others.
Demonstrate the correct treatment for a person with a bleeding wound caused by a sharp
object embedded in their upper leg.
Paraplegia/quadriplegia
damage to a persons spinal
cord that results in the
inability to move the limbs
below the damage. Paraplegia
refers to two limbs (legs) and
quadriplegia refers to four
limbs (legs and arms).
Immobilisation reducing a
patients movement as much
as possible to reduce the risk
of further injury.
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194
Call 000
Call 000
DRABCD
DRABCD
Medical referral
While first aid in an emergency is vital, a first aiders skills can only assist
up to a point, and part of crisis management involves referring the patient to
trained professionals for further medical assistance. The first step in medical
referral is when the first aider calls 000. The first aider should remain with
the casualty until medical help arrives and monitor the patient for signs of life
and possible shock. Medical personnel may ask the first aider for information
about what has occurred and the first aid treatment that has taken place.
They may also require the first aider to remain at the scene and further assist
in managing the crisis.
Medical referral is also wise with less serious injuries or medical
conditions. While a person may seem to have recovered after basic first aid
treatment, they could have other problems and/or injuries that are not easy
to see and diagnose. Any open wound is at risk of infection and referral to a
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195
medical practitioner can lessen the likelihood of this occurring. A person who
has been unconscious for any amount of time, no matter how short, should
always be referred to a health-care professional.
Because of that lucid interval, doctors always tell patients who seem OK
after a brain injury to have someone
keep a close eye on them, in case symptoms emerge.
Symptomsheadache; loss of consciousness; vomiting; problems seeing, speaking or moving; confusion;
drainage of a clear fluid from the
nose or mouthappear after enough
pressure builds in the skull. By then its
an emergency.
Once you have more swelling, it
causes more trauma which causes more
swelling, said Dr. Edward Aulisi,
neurosurgery chief at Washington Hospital Center in the nations capital. Its
a vicious cycle because everythings inside a closed space.
Pressure can force the brain downward to press on the brain stem that
controls breathing and other vital func-
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196
In a group, demonstrate how you would support the head, neck and body of a person you
suspected had spinal injuries.
Imagine you are the only person capable of administering first aid at the scene of a car
crash. You are with your best friend. The casualties are a family of four. In what order would
you treat the following casualties and how could your friend help? You must be able to
justify your answers.
a Casualty 1the 16-year-old son, conscious but complaining of abdominal pain and
dizziness
b Casualty 2the mother, conscious but not speaking and has a deformed and painful arm
c Casualty 3the 10-year-old daughter, screaming loudly and has a few scratches on
her face
d Casualty 4the father, who is unconscious
In a group, examine a variety of different methods for moving casualties from dangerous
situations. Practise these methods, alternating the person whose role it is to be in charge
of the move.
Management of injuries
Cuts and lacerations
Cuts and lacerations are classified as open wounds and generally involve
bleeding. A cut is caused by something sharp, such as a knife or piece of glass
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197
coming into contact with the skin. A laceration is a tear injury of the skin
and is caused by something jagged like barbed wire or machinery. Cuts and
lacerations can cause injury to the skin and underlying tissues.
Table 7.4 Signs, symptoms and primary management of cuts and lacerations
Primary management
Bleeding
DRABCD
Pain
Control bleeding
Swelling
Shock
Fractures
A break to any part of a bone is known as a fracture. Fractures can be caused
by either direct or indirect force. For example, a snowboarder falls over and
extends their arm to break the fall and, as a result, breaks their collarbone
(indirect) or a batter in softball misses the ball, which then hits their arm,
breaking the radius (direct).
Fractures can be classified in the following ways:
completethe bone is broken
completely into two or more
parts
incompletethe bone bends
and splinters on one side but
does not break right through
(also known as a greenstick
fracture and very common
in children)
comminutedthe bone is
broken into many pieces
closedthe broken bone does
not pierce the skin
openthe broken bone
protrudes though the skin
complicatedwhen the
broken bone damages a major
nerve, organ or blood vessel,
for example, a broken rib
punctures a lung.
Complete
Closed
Comminuted
Open
Figure 7.9
Types of fractures
Incomplete / Greenstick
Complicated
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198
Primary management
DRABCD
Deformity
Swelling
A breaking noise
Figure 7.10
Dislocations
A dislocation can occur when extreme force is placed on the ligaments
around a joint, causing the ends of the two connected bones of the joint to
separate. Dislocations are extremely painful and can result in damage to the
surrounding ligaments, tissues, nerves and blood vessels.
Table 7.6 Signs, symptoms and primary management of dislocations
Primary management
DRABCD
Swelling
Difficulty using or moving the joint normally
Do not attempt to put the dislocation joint back into place (reduce
the dislocation)
Loss of power
Monitor for signs of loss of circulation in the limb below the joint
Seek medical attention
If in doubt, a dislocation should be managed as a fracture
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199
with blood vessels, but tend not to be dangerous. Internal head injuries,
however, may lead to death or permanent brain damage and, therefore, require
urgent medical attention. Concussion is a temporary loss or altered state of
consciousness, which can occur following a blow to the head. Concussion
should also be treated seriously, as there may be the possibility of internal
damage. Although someone who has experienced concussion may seem to
recover quickly, they should be monitored carefully for some time after
the concussion.
Table 7.7 Signs, symptoms and primary management of head injuries and concussion
Primary management
Unconsciousness
Varying levels of consciousness
Drowsiness, confusion or vagueness
Slurred speech
Agitation or irritability
Wounds to the head, face and neck
Vomiting and/or nausea
Bleeding or fluid discharge from ears, nose or mouth
Difference in size or shape of pupils
Blurred vision
Loss of memory
Abnormal responses to commands or touch
Unable to coordinate movement of limbs
Seizures
DRABCD
Support head and neck
If they are unconscious, place the patient in the recovery position
If they are conscious, place them in a comfortable position with
the head and shoulders slightly raised
Control bleeding (do not apply pressure if a skull fracture is
suspected), and treat any other injuries
If there is blood or fluid coming from the ears, a sterile pad should
be placed over the ear and, if possible, lie the patient on their
injured side so the fluid can drain out
Reassure the patient
Monitor for signs of life and shock
Ensure medical assistance is on its way
Eye injuries
The eye is a very delicate part of the body and, because of its nature, it is
very easily damaged. Eye injuries can range from minor irritations such as
dirt, eyelashes or small foreign objects in the eye to more major issues such
as penetrating eye injuries and burns. Eye injuries can cause damage to the
cornea of the eye, which may affect sight, and corneal injuries are very prone
to infection. The risk of infection when treating eye injuries can be reduced by
wearing gloves and using sterile dressings.
Table 7.8 Signs, symptoms and primary management of eye injuries
Primary management
DRABCD
Calm and reassure the patient
Support the patients head
Encourage the patient to not rub or move the eyes
Flush the eye with clean, cool flowing water for up to 20 minutes
Cover the eye with a sterile pad
Do not attempt to remove any large or embedded objectspad
around the eye
Seek medial attention
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Nasal injuries
Nasal injuries are quite common, as the nose has very little structural support
and occupies a very prominent place on the face. The most typical nasal
injury is a blockage, which is usually caused by young children putting
foreign objects into their nose and which can then become lodged there
causing discomfort, pain and breathing difficulty. Removal of these objects
requires expert medical attention. Other common nasal injuries are bleeding
and broken noses. As the nose is close to other important structures, initially
any nose injury should be treated as a head injury and a search made for any
other facial damage.
Table 7.9 Signs, symptoms and primary management of nasal injuries
Primary management
Bleeding
DRABCD
Tell the patient to breathe through their mouth and to try not to sniff or blow their nose
Swelling
Bruising
Instability of the nose bones
Pinch the soft part of the patients nose together between the fingers and hold for
10 minutes (do not do this for a broken nose)
Deformity
Facial lacerations
Seek medical assistance for a broken nose, or if bleeding from the nose does not stop
Burn injuries
Burns are common injuries and can be caused by an array of substances
and external sources such as chemicals, friction, electricity, radiation,
water, steam, and extreme hot and cold temperatures. The severity of a burn
depends upon its extent, which parts of the body are burnt, the burns depth
and the age of the patient. If a burn is larger than a 20-cent piece, it will
generally require medical attention. Severe burns can result in a number of
complications such as shock, infection, breathing difficulties and swelling
that may cut off circulation.
Figure 7.11
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Burns are classified according to the depth of the burn and the tissues
affected.
Superficial burnsdamage to the top layer of skin, for example, sunburn.
The burn site will be red and painful.
Partial thickness burnsdamage to the first and second skin layers plus
the underlying tissues. The burn site is very painful and will be red,
blistered, peeling and swollen. There may be clear or yellow fluid leaking
from the site.
Full thickness burnsdamage to the first and second layers of skin plus
underlying tissues, muscle, bone and organs. The burn site is white or
charred and there may be exposed fatty tissue, muscle or bone. As the
nerve endings are generally destroyed, there tends to be little or no pain at
the site; however, the surrounding areas may be very painful.
The main aims of burn injury management are to stop the burning process,
to cool the burn to provide relief and to cover the burn to reduce the risk of
infection.
Table 7.10 Managing burns
Primary management
DRABCD
DO NOT:
Instruct the person to stop, cover, drop and roll if there are flames present
Immediately cool the burn under running water for at least 20 minutes
If possible, remove jewellery or other constrictive items from the burn area
Give alcohol
Teeth injuries
Injuries to teeth are relatively common, particularly in children, teenagers and
athletes. Any injuries to the teeth should be referred to a dentist as quickly
as possible to increase the chance of any damaged teeth being saved. Teeth
injuries from sport can be easily prevented by the use of a well-fitted mouth
guard. The first aider should also be alert to possible head injuries that may
result from a blow to the mouth.
Table 7.11 Signs, symptoms and primary management of teeth injuries
Primary management
Bleeding
DRABCD
Lacerated mouth
Ensure a clear airway is maintained, as teeth may be knocked down the patients throat
Broken teeth
Gently clean any dirt from the tooth using the patients own saliva, milk or a sterile
saline solution
If possible, replace the tooth in the socket and ask the patient to hold it in place
If it is not possible to replace the tooth, wrap it in clean plastic and store in milk or a
sterile saline solution
Take the tooth and the patient immediately to a dentist
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Electrocution
Table 7.12
Signs, symptoms and
primary management
of electrocution
Primary management
No signs of life
Burns on the skin, commonly the
hands or feet
Power lines, electrical cables or
electrical equipment near the victim
Check for danger and ensure that any power source is disconnected before
approaching the casualty
Remove the casualty from the electrical supply without directly touching them
DRABCD
Cool any burnt areas under cool running water
Cover burns with non-adhesive sterile dressings
Monitor for signs of life and shock
Call for urgent medical attention
Chest injuries
Table 7.13
Signs, symptoms and
primary management
of chest injuries
The chest contains the essential organs of the heart, lungs and major blood
vessels and, while they are somewhat protected by surrounding bone structures,
these organs are very vulnerable. Chest injuries can be caused by blows, falls,
crushing, stabbing or shooting and include a range of injuries from simple
bruising to damage that affects breathing and circulation. Types of chest injuries
include fractured ribs, flail chest (floating ribs), penetrating chest wounds and
lung collapse. Treatment for all chest injuries should focus on seeking medical
assistance and on keeping the patient as comfortable as possible.
Primary management
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Abdominal injuries
The abdomen houses a number of important body organs. As there is
no protective bone structure around the abdomen, these organs can be
easily injured. Complications that may arise with abdominal injuries are
extensive internal bleeding and infection, therefore, it is essential with any
abdominal injury that urgent medical attention is sought.
Table 7.14 Signs, symptoms and primary management of abdominal injuries
Primary management
Pain
DRABCD
Unnatural paleness
Cold, clammy skin
Lay the casualty on their back with the knees slightly raised and
supported
Nausea or vomiting
External bleeding
DO NOT:
Shock
Possible unconsciousness
One of your friends is playing hockey and has forgotten to wear her mouthguard. She is hit
in the mouth with a stick and when you run up to her you discover her top lip is bleeding
and a tooth has been knocked out.
You are a member of the local bushfire brigade involved in a controlled burn of a fire trail.
One of your workmates gets too close to the burn-off and their clothes catch on fire. They are
starting to panic and run around.
Your little brother is having a birthday party and the guests are playing stuck in the mud in
the back yard. One of the boys falls and hits his head on the concrete path. He is lying on the
floor in a semi-conscious state.
A snowboarder puts out her left arm to break a fall. Once she is on the ground, she
complains of severe pain to the shoulder and is holding her arm still and close to her body.
A middle-aged man has fallen down a set of stairs in a shopping centre. He is holding one
side of his chest and complaining of pain that worsens when he coughs and breathes. He is
anxious and very pale.
The First XV rugby team are playing in their opening match of the season and one of
the players emerges from a tackle complaining of pain in the shoulder area. On closer
observation, the shoulder is deformed and swollen and there is a loss of power in the
shoulder and arm.
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A heart attack occurs when there is a lack of oxygen to the heart, usually
caused by a blockage in one of the arteries. This lack of oxygen causes damage
to the heart muscle and, if not rectified, may cause the heart to stop beating.
This is obviously a life-threatening situation and immediate action should
be taken.
Primary management
Have the casualty stop what they are doing and rest
DRABCD
Nausea or vomiting
Sweating
Dizziness or light-headedness
Anxiety and/or confusion
Stroke
A stroke occurs when there is a lack of oxygen to the
brain, usually due to a blockage or rupture of one of
the blood vessels. When blood flow to a part of the
brain is cut off, that part can no longer get the oxygen
it needs and the brain cells in that area die, causing
permanent brain damage. While many people
recover fully from a stroke, it is still a life-threatening
emergency. The National Stroke Foundation
encourages people to be aware of the FAST test to
check whether a person is suffering from a stroke.
Figure 7.12
Facial
Check their face. Has their mouth drooped?
Arm
Can they lift both arms?
Speech
Is their speech slurred? Do they understand you?
Time
Time is critical. If you see any of these signs, call 000 now!
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Primary management
DRABCD
FAST test
Call 000
An unexpected fall
Difficulty swallowing
Severe and abrupt headache
Drowsiness
Diabetes
For our body to work properly, it needs to be able to
convert the sugar from food (glucose) into energy. A
hormone called insulin, which is produced in the pancreas,
plays an essential role in this conversion. In people with
diabetes, insulin is no longer produced by the body or is
not produced in adequate amounts to do its job. If glucose
is not converted to energy, sugar builds up in the blood and
the cells do not receive the energy they need. There are
three types of diabetes, described as follows:
Figure 7.13
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Primary management
Hypoglycaemia
Hypoglycaemia
Weakness, dizziness,
light-headedness
Tingling or numbness
around the lips and fingers
Headache
Hunger
Shaking
Confusion or aggression
Sweating
Unconsciousness
Lack of concentration
If conscious:
If unconscious:
DRABCD
Hyperglycaemia
Hyperglycaemia
Call 000
Give nothing
by mouth
Excessive thirst
Rapid pulse
If conscious:
If unconscious:
Frequent urination
DRABCD
Tiredness
Blurred vision
Unconsciousness
Give nothing
by mouth
Call 000
Epilepsy
Seizure a fit or convulsion.
Primary management
A sudden cry
DRABCD
Place in the recovery position
Reassurance
Jerky, spasmodic
muscular movements
Frothing at the mouth
Loss of control of
bladder or bowel
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Asthma
Asthma is a chronic inflammation and narrowing of the airways. The
bronchioles (small air passages) contract and, therefore, restrict the amount
of oxygen exchanged within the lungs. The narrowing of the airways leaves
people with a tight chest, breathlessness and wheezing. Many factors can
trigger an asthma attack including allergies, respiratory infections, exercise,
emotions, smoke and/or a change of seasons.
Table 7.19 Signs, symptoms and primary management of asthma
Primary management
DRABCD
Figure 7.14
Anaphylaxis
Anaphylaxis is a severe and sudden allergic reaction. It can occur when a
susceptible person is exposed to an allergen such as a food, certain drugs or
an insect sting. Reactions usually begin within minutes of exposure and can
progress rapidly. Anaphylaxis is potentially life threatening as it can result in
blockage of the airway and always requires an emergency response. Prompt
treatment with injected adrenalin is required to halt progression of the allergic
reaction and can be life saving.
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Figure 7.15
How to administer an
Epipen in the case of an
anaphylactic reaction
Primary management
DRABCD
Call 000
If the patient has an emergency action plan
for anaphylaxisfollow it
Administer EpiPen or EpiPen Jnr
at once
If the patient is conscious, help them into a
position that makes breathing easiest
If the patient is unconscious, place them in
recovery position and monitor signs of life
Poisoning
A poison is any substance that harms body tissues when it is used in the
wrong way, by the wrong person and/or in the wrong amount. Some poisons
are harmful in small amounts, while others require larger amounts to be
poisonous. Most environments house a number of poisonous substances,
which are often not stored correctly, allowing easy access. Simple measures
such as storing poisons in a locked cupboard, disposing of medications
appropriately, buying products with child-resistant lids, reading instructions
on medications, and wearing protective clothing when working with
chemicals can go a long way to preventing poisoning.
Table 7.21
Signs, symptoms and primary management of poisoning
Primary management
These will differ depending on the type of poison but may include:
Abdominal pain
Burns
Headache
Nausea or vomiting
Drowsiness
Difficulty breathing
Blurred vision
Bite or injection marks
Smell of fumes
Odours on the breath
Burning pain in mouth, throat and stomach
Seizures
Sudden collapses
Unconsciousness
Open chemical or medication containers near the patient
DRABCD
Call 000
Try to establish what the poison was
Call 13 11 26
Do not induce vomiting (ingested poison)
Do not give anything by mouth (ingested poison)
Wipe obvious contamination away from the mouth and nose
(ingested poison)
Ask the patient to remove any contaminated clothing
(absorbed poison)
Flood the skin with cool, running water (absorbed poison)
Move the person to fresh air, or open any windows (inhaled
poisons)
Loosen tight clothing (inhaled poisons)
Reassure the person
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Figure 7.16
A Pressure Immobilisation
Bandage can help to slow
the flow of venom around
the body
Table 7.22 Signs, symptoms and primary management of bites and stings
Blurred vision
Headache
Muscle weakness
Drowsiness
Pain or tightness in chest
Difficulty breathing
Unconsciousness
Primary management
Bites or stings that cause red, hot,
itchy symptoms
bee
mosquito
wasp
ant
tick
sea urchin
sting ray
stone fish
bullrout
snake
funnel web spider
blue ring octopus
cone shell
allergic reactions
box jellyfishdouse liberally with vinegar
nettle
jelly fish
centipede
scorpion
redback and other spiders
Treatment:
DRABCD
Ask the patient not to move
Remove sting, creature or tentacles
Apply cold or ice packs to the site
Reassure patient
Monitor them for shock and/or
allergic reactions
Call 000 for redback spider bites
flat head
leatherjacket
crown-of-thorns starfish
Treatment:
DRABCD
Lie or sit the patient down
Extract barb if possible
Apply a hot pack to the site or
immerse the bite area in hot water
Reassure the patient
Monitor for shock and/or allergic
reactions
Call 000 especially for stone fish and
sting rays
Treatment:
DRABCD
Lie or sit the patient down
Pressure Immobilisation Bandage
(PIB)
Ensure the casualty does not move
Reassure the patient
Monitor for shock and/or allergic
reactions
Call 000
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Hyperthermia overheating
of the body causing the core
body temperature to rise.
Primary management
Heat exhaustion
Heat exhaustion
Fatigue
Thirst
Headache
Nausea and vomiting
Cool by fanning
Heatstroke
DRABCD
Move casualty to a cool environment
Moisten the skin
Fan repeatedly
Apply wrapped ice packs to neck, groin and
armpits
If conscious, give fluids to drink
Call 000 for urgent medical attention
Seizures
Unconsciousness
Hypothermia sub-normal
body temperature that
causes a drop in core body
temperature.
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Primary management
DRABCD
Maximum shivering
Pale, cool skin
Poor coordination
Slurred speech
Consciousness impaired
Call 000 and stay with the person till help arrives
DO NOT
Give alcohol
It is a common myth that treatment for an epileptic seizure is to force something into
the persons mouth to stop them from swallowing their tongue. Explain why this is not a
sensible course of action and then describe the best management for this medical condition.
Critically analyse the use of a Pressure Immobilisation Bandage in the treatment of bites or
stings from snakes, cone shell, blue-ringed octopus and funnel web spiders.
Prepare a mind map that clearly shows the different management for various bites and stings.
Explain why a first aider should not put a hypothermia patient in a hot bath or close to an
open fire to restore their body temperature.
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In light of these first aid principles, there are number of things the
individual should consider before, during and after the administration of
first aid.
Physical environment
As already mentioned in this chapter, the safety of the first aider, the victim
and any bystanders is of paramount importance in a first aid situation. The
physical environment can pose a number of threats to safety, and the first
aider should analyse the various safety issues associated with common
physical environments to enable the formulation of protective strategies.
Traffic accidents
Traffic accidents are a dynamic environment; danger, in the form of oncoming
cars, fire, chemicals, unstable trees or powerlines and damaged vehicles, is
always present. The first aider needs to look for ways that the traffic accident
site can be made safe for all involved and ensure that no further accidents
occur. Things that can be done to reduce danger include:
Ensuring any assisting cars are parked safely off the road with hazard
lights on.
Setting up warnings for oncoming cars a fair distance from the accident, in
both directions, by, for example, asking a bystander to warn cars to slow
down or placing warning markers on the road.
Using headlights to illuminate the accident area.
Turning off the ignition of any cars involved in the accident, applying the
handbrake and, if on a slope, chocking the wheels of the vehicles.
Stopping people from smoking at the scene.
Not moving victims from the scene unless they are in immediate danger.
Checking around the accident site for victims who may have been thrown
from the vehicle/s.
Avoiding any wires or power lines.
Treating any injuries, giving priority to unconscious and bleeding
casualties
Calling emergency services.
Water environment
Water environments have a number of inherent risks and every year there
are several cases of a rescuer drowning while trying to save someone else.
The personal safety of the first aider is paramount, and assessing a water
environment should always involve considering ways to get a person to safety
without the rescuer actually entering the water. If the casualty is conscious,
the first aider can first talk to the person and encourage them to move to
safety. Reaching out to the casualty with a broom, branch or other rigid item
may be a way of pulling them to safety. It may also be possible to throw the
casualty some sort of floatation device such as a ball, body board or Esky, or
a rope to tow them in. If the casualty is too far away for these methods to be
useful, it may be necessary to wade, swim or row out to them. Care should
always be taken when approaching a casualty in the water, as they will be
panicking and may pull the rescuer under if they get too close. The first aider
should try to reassure the person and, in the first instance, use a towel or rope
to tow them back to shore rather than making physical contact with them.
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If the casualty is unconscious, the first aider should use the DRABCD
Action Plan and get the person to shore as quickly as possible. Deep-water
resuscitation is an advanced skill that should not be attempted by an
untrained person.
Electricity
Any first aid situation where electricity is involved is considered extremely
dangerous and could be fatal. The first step in making the environment safe
would be to turn the electricity off at the mains, if possible. The first aider
should try to remove the casualty from the electrical supply without directly
touching them, for example, by using dry clothes to drag them, or a wooden
stick to push them away from the source of the electricity. If the casualty is
in contact with high-voltage power lines, under no circumstances should the
first aider approach the victim. The job of the first aider in this circumstance
would be to keep bystanders at least 6 metres away from any live materials.
HIV/AIDS
The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is found in blood and body fluids
and weakens the immune system of the infected person, causing them to
become more susceptible to different infections and illnesses. Transmission of
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214
HIV can occur through numerous means, including infected blood being
passed to another person via a cut on the skin. There is no evidence that HIV
can be spread through saliva. HIV can cause Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome (AIDS), which is the development of life-threatening diseases
due to the breakdown of the bodys immune system. There is no cure for
HIV/AIDS, although there are treatments available to slow down the HIV
and damage to the immune system.
Under the headings of reach, throw, tow, wade and row, identify ways that a first aider could
assist a conscious but injured person in a water environment.
Explain the procedures that should be taken to prevent contamination through body fluids
when administering first aid.
The safety of the first aider is paramount and outweighs treatment of the casualty. Justify
this statement.
Legal implications
In our increasingly litigious society, people can be reluctant to provide
assistance in an emergency. However, gaining an understanding of the
various pieces of legislation that are in place in relation to administering
first aid can allay some fears. Citizens have no legal obligation to assist
someone in an emergency and cannot be held accountable if they choose
not to help. However, many states and territories in Australia have in place
regulations that provide some measure of protection for the public from
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216
If a case like the one in the article was successful, predict the implications it may have on the
general publics willingness to administer first aid in an emergency.
Moral obligations
Legally there is no obligation for an everyday citizen to stop and render
assistance in the event of an emergency; however, many people would see
it as their moral obligation to help someone in difficulty. Duty of care
refers to the duty by one person to another to act in a certain way. Due to
the knowledge and skill a first aider may have in relation to first aid, they
have a duty of care towards any casualties in an emergency. The first aider
also has a duty of care to exercise reasonable care and skill when providing
treatment. There is an additional duty of care, which is to continue
administering first aid once started until someone more qualified takes
over or the first aider is no longer physically able to continue. A first aider
also has a duty of care to themself to ensure that they are not at risk when
providing first aid treatment.
Society values responsible citizenship and there are many ways that a
person can exhibit these qualities in relation to first aid. A responsible citizen
undertakes first aid training in order to obtain the skills and knowledge
necessary to administer first aid if required and, in doing so, shows care and
concern for their fellow citizens. A responsible citizen may also carry first
aid equipment and supplies with them when travelling and may volunteer
to be the point of contact for first aid in their workplace or sporting club. A
responsible citizen will also seek professional help for a casualty as soon as
possible in any emergency.
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The types of responses that may occur include fatigue, disturbed sleep,
restlessness, mood changes, anxiousness, withdrawal, poor concentration
and recurrent thoughts about the event. The person may also feel emotions
such as guilt, sadness, fear or anger. These reactions may last a few days or
weeks and are part of the healing process. The first aider
can address these feelings and reactions with the help
of family and friends, and by employing a number of
coping strategies such as:
acknowledging that the event was distressing
confronting what happened by talking about it and
expressing their feelings
endeavouring to return to a normal daily routine
getting plenty of rest
participating in regular exercise
using relaxation methods such as meditation or yoga
avoiding the excessive use of drugs or alcohol.
Debriefing
Sometimes it may be necessary for the first aider to be involved in a debriefing
session after an emergency or traumatic event. This can be informal in nature
and may involve talking with people who were present at the scene or with
empathetic others. Debriefing can also be more formal and may be organised
by the persons workplace using an external facilitator. Debriefing sessions
generally involve talking about the event, asking questions, expressing
concerns and discussing the individuals needs. Involvement in a debriefing
session allows the first aider to put the event into perspective and experience
closure, making it easier to move on and resume their normal life.
Figure 7.17
Counselling
Most first aiders who have experienced a traumatic or emergency event will
recover on their own in a few weeks with the support and encouragement of
others. However, some people may find they cannot move past the experience
and that their life is being adversely affected. Normal physical and emotional
reactions to stress can give way to more serious effects such as severe sleep
problems, depression, feeling on edge, constantly reliving the experience
and losing touch with reality. People should consider seeking professional
assistance if they:
do not start to feel better after three weeks
are feeling anxious or distressed all the time
are thinking of hurting themself or others
are unable to respond emotionally to others
find their reactions are interfering with their day-to-day life
are using drugs, alcohol or gambling as a coping mechanism.
There are many people and resources in the community that can be
accessed to gain help. These include speaking to a local general practitioner,
the local community health centre or contacting mental health professionals
such as counsellors, psychiatrists, psychologists and social workers. The
Australian Psychological Society has a free referral service which can be
contacted on 1800 333 497.
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Conduct a class debate around the legal and moral dilemmas associated with providing
first aid.
Speak to a friend or parent about the provisions for first aid in their workplace. Make an
assessment of these based on the Occupational Health and Safety Regulation 2001 and its
requirements for employers with regard to first aid.
Research the local area and identify sources of support that are available for first aiders after
they have been involved in an emergency.
Recommend some strategies that can be employed to assist a person in making informed
decisions relying on commonsense, rather than heroics, in emergencies.
chapter review
Recap
A situational analysis can assist the first aider to assess an emergency and make
informed decisions about treatment priorities.
The DRABCD Action Plan is a useful assessment tool to be used when dealing with any
serious injuries, medical conditions and emergencies.
The STOP plan is a series of steps that can be followed to assess, treat and manage
injuries or illnesses that are not life threatening.
In a crisis, a first aider should be aware of the importance of being able to quickly
administer CPR, if necessary, and of the critical nature of bleeding, shock and spinal
injuries.
A casualty should only be moved if they are in danger of further injury.
A first aider needs to be able to recognise the signs and symptoms of the major types
of injuries and medical conditions so they can decide upon the best way to manage
the casualty.
An unconscious person should always be placed in the recovery position and monitored
for signs of life, which include breathing, movement and responsiveness.
Shock can occur after any emergency and, if left untreated, can be life threatening.
When administering first aid, it is important to analyse the safety issues that may
be associated with various physical environments such as traffic accidents, water
environments and electricity. The first aiders number one priority should be to do no
harm to themself, the casualty or any bystanders.
A number of legal and moral dilemmas may arise when a person is considering whether
to administer first aid. Common sense should always prevail when making decisions.
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Organisation
Current URL
Useful for
The Australian
Resuscitation Council
www.resus.org.au
St John Ambulance
Australia
www.stjohn.org.au
www.redcross.org.au
Australian Stroke
Foundation
www.strokefoundation.com.au
Asthma Foundation
NSW
www.asthmansw.org.au
Diabetes Australia
www.diabetesaustralia.com.au
www.royallifesaving.com.au
Hepatitis Australia
www.hepatitisaustralia.com
Anaphylaxis Australia
www.allergyfacts.org.au
chapter review
219
Exam-style questions
1 Describe the signs, symptoms and management of a head injury.
(3 marks)
(5 marks)
(12 marks)
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Composition
and performance
Manipulate to change or
alter in some way.
Space
Space refers to where the body moves in a particular area. It is a crucial
element to be considered when composing movement sequences, routines
and game strategies. The size or shape of a space and the amount of people
inhabiting it can affect the way movement occurs within it. For example,
the movement of an athlete performing a routine on a trampoline will be
quite different to the movement of a number of players on a hockey field, and
different again to that of a large dance troupe performing their finale on stage.
There are different types of space:
Performance spacethe area in which a performance or movement activity
occurs, for example, a stage, a gymnastics mat or a playing court/field.
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Figure 8.1
SPACE
(when)
musical
applications
duration
momentum
pace
(where)
direction
level
dimension
patterns and
formations
The elements of
composition are the
building blocks of all
movement
RELATIONSHIPS
(with whom or what)
people
apparatus and
equipment
formations
(team/partner)
and positions
THE
ELEMENTS
OF
COMPOSITION
DYNAMICS
(how)
force
flow
Figure 8.2
Direction
We use direction as a component of the space around us every day, whether
by walking down the school corridor or mowing the lawn. This is the path
you take to move from one area of space to another. Direction can be as simple
as forwards and backwards, however, it also includes sideways, diagonal, up
and down, zigzag and circular movements. Direction is generally determined
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222
Figure 8.3
by the way the body is facing when it moves or the body part that leads the
movement. For example, forward movement occurs when the body is facing
forwards and the front of the body leads the movement. In most movement
mediums, a variety of different directions are combined in order to best use
the performance and general space.
Direction, when applied to composition,
usually serves a specific purpose. A
choreographer composing a dance or
cheerleading routine will make use of different
directions to add to the aesthetic value of a
performance. Combining different directions
within a performance can also add to its
complexity. A dance routine that uses only
forwards and backwards directions is less
difficult to perform than one that incorporates
circular and zigzag movements. Direction
changes during a performance will also add
to its intricacy and appeal. Certain skills
within a performance may have more impact
for the audience when viewed from different
directions. For example, an arabesque is more
effective when viewed from the side rather than
the front; therefore, a performer may change
their direction in relation to the audience
before executing this skill.
A performer can apply can directional change to use a performance space
to their benefit. For example, a rhythmic gymnast will cover the whole area of
the designated mat space by using directional changes. This gives them more
room to perform the skills required in their routine, makes the routine more
visually interesting to the audience and may allow more complex skills to
be incorporated.
Direction can be used to communicate a message to the audience via the
visual medium. An example is that moving backwards generally indicates
retreat, while forward movement can suggest a chase; spinning can suggest
confusion and jumping up can convey excitement.
Within the games movement medium, direction has a more functional
purpose. In team sports, the direction of movement is often determined by
the aim of the game, which may be to move in the direction of the goal area
in order to score. A player chooses the direction they move with a particular
purpose in mind, such as to outmanoeuvre the opposition. To do this, a
hockey player may dodge in a zigzag direction, while a touch player may
perform a dummy pass by moving sideways to confuse the opposition.
Level
The term level refers to the height at which movement occurs. A number
of different levels can be used within space: they can be applied to the
individual and the height of their movement within their personal space,
and to groups and the height of their movements within the general and
performance space. Level can also refer to the use of floor space and air
space by equipment or people. In all movement mediums, three levels are
used to varying degrees. These are:
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Figure 8.4
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224
Dimensions
Dimension is a measure of spatial extent. It refers to the amount of
performance space that is available to be used, and can refer to an individual
and the extent of their movement within the general space. The dimensions
of a space include its:
height
width
depth
Dimension is an important aspect of composition, as the size of a space
will determine the type of activity that can occur within it, and the skills and
movement patterns that may be included in a performance or game.
Someone who is composing a dance or gymnastics routine must be very
familiar with the dimensions of the performance space they have to work
in. This will determine the number and type of skills used, the directions in
which the performers can move, and how many performers can fit within
the space to have the most effect. In gymnastics, points will be deducted if a
gymnast moves outside the allocated performance space, so it is critical that
the gymnast has an intimate knowledge of the areas dimensions. Part of the
impact of a mass dance performance, such as the Rock Eisteddfod Challenge,
is large numbers of dancers on stage moving together. A choreographer needs
to know how many dancers will fill out the performance space without it
looking too crowded or too empty.
Sometimes a performance will need to be altered if the performance space
changes. For example, a jazz dance group may have developed a routine that
they perform in their dance studio. The routine is designed to fit within the
dimensions of the studio space. However, if they are then asked to perform at
a shopping centre to promote the group, they may need to alter their routine
to fit the area provided for the performance. If the space is smaller, it may
mean a change in the range of movements included in the dance or in where
dancers can move to within the space. Alternatively, if the space is larger,
the dancers may need to incorporate stronger moves and to produce more
movement around the performance space.
The dimensions of a court or field can affect the rules of the game played
within that space. Consider the differences in rules from field to indoor
hockey or soccer, and how the skills of those games need to be modified to
best fit the change in space from a larger outdoor field to a smaller indoor
area. The rules of half-court basketball change from that of a full-court
basketball game to account for the smaller space in which the players move.
Many sports have modified versions for younger players, for example Kanga
cricket and Tee-Ball. A common denominator in all these modified games is
that the dimensions of the playing area and goals are reduced to accommodate
the size of the players and their less developed skill levels.
Coaches and tacticians can use court or field dimensions to gain advantage
in play. They may choose to use only a particular part of the playing area
during the game in order to put pressure on the opposition, for example, using
a half-court press in basketball or they may position their players in certain
areas of the court to maximise their strengths, for example, using 6-2 offensive
formation in volleyball.
An individual performer or athlete needs to consider dimension in relation
to their personal space and their movement in the space around them.
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3m
9m
radius
Centre line
Minimum 36 m to maximum 44 m
Minimum 18 m
to maximum 22 m
2.19 m
14.63 m
55 m
3.66 m
22.9 m
Figure 8.5
Proprioception an
awareness of where the body
is in space, and the capacity of
the body to determine where
all of its parts are positioned
at any given time.
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226
Explain the movement changes that would need to occur in a game of netball if it was
played on a court with dimensions similar to a badminton court.
Using the bush dance the Heel and Toe Polka, investigate how different levels can be used
when performing the dance to make it more visually appealing.
6/11/09 11:18 AM
basketball is a formation, as are the short corner in hockey and the free kick
in soccer. Coaches will often change the formations of players during a game
in order to disrupt the pace of the other team or to counteract strategies the
opposition is using.
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Figure 8.6
FLOOR PATTERNS
Spiral
Straight
Curved
Combinations
of pathways
Zigzag
FORMATIONS
Single line
Double lines
Spokes of
a wheel
Geometric
shapes
Circle
Figure 8.7
Attacking team
Ball
Defending team
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228
In a small group, select a message you wish to convey through dance, for example,
community. Propose different floor and air patterns that could be used by the performers to
relay this message to the audience.
Dynamics
Figure 8.8
Dynamics refer to how the body moves. They relate to the quality of
movement and the muscular tension used to create a movement. The
dynamics of movement are concerned with energy and how a performer
or athlete expresses the meaning or purpose of their movement. This is the
element that gives movement its expressiveness. When people
describe a movement or movement sequence as strong, flowing,
explosive, smooth or weak they are commenting on the dynamics
of that movement and how the components of force and flow are
being used to give the movement interest and appeal. Performers
and athletes can alter the dynamics of the skill or movement
sequence they are undertaking to achieve specific purposes.
Force
Force has to do with the intensity of energy that is exerted,
expended or released in a movement. The amount of force will
affect the quality and substance of any given movement. Force
exists on a continuum that ranges from strong to gentle, and can
be generated by the performer or athlete themself or as a reaction
to something external such as a beat board in gymnastics. Some
skills require a greater amount of force than others, in order to be
successful. For example, a gymnast will not be able to complete
a handspring unless they exert a large amount of force in their
takeoff, and a batter in baseball will not achieve a home run
unless they hit the ball with strong force. Conversely, much less
force is required to successfully putt a golf ball or complete a drop
shot in badminton. Skills that require large amounts of force will
often be referred to as strong, powerful, explosive or forceful;
whereas skills that require less amounts of force may be referred
to as delicate, light, soft, gentle or precise.
An athlete or performer needs to be able to control the amount
of force they apply in different situations. This can be a challenge
when learning new skills. As a person becomes more skilled, they
will have more control over the force they use and can turn this
to their benefit. For example, a skilled baseball player is able to
choose whether they bunt or hit the ball, depending upon the state
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Flow
Flow relates to the movement of the body or an object through space and time.
Effective movement skills and patterns are based on a persons ability to use
their whole body skilfully and on the way their force is controlled or released.
The two most commonly used words to describe flow are bound and free.
Bound flow relates to the performer controlling the energy of the movement.
A movement is said to be bound if it can be stopped or restrained at any time
without difficulty; for example, changing direction in a dance or pausing in
a shape during a gymnastics routine. Bound flow does not necessarily mean
that the movement stops altogether but it often involves a change of pace and
energy. Often when an athlete or performer is learning a new skill, they will
need to stop and start the movement until they gain mastery. Bound flow is an
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230
Aesthetically pleasing
when something is pleasing
to look at; it has a sense of
flow and balance.
integral part of game play, where an athlete needs to be able to stop and start
regularly when avoiding their opponent, looking for a pass, setting up a play
or shooting a goal.
In free flow, the movement tends to be uninterrupted. The person may
not be totally in control of the energy of the movement and it is not easy to
stop. This use of energy requires the performer or athlete to take some risks.
Free flow tends to be the realm of the more skilled performer, as they are at
the autonomous stage of skill acquisition and can perform in a more flowing
manner instead of having to think about engaging their skills. Free flow is
often seen in activities where improvisation is called for, such as dance.
Flow can be used to describe continuity of movement, where the actions
of the performer or athlete seem smooth and effortless and, as a result, are
aesthetically pleasing. An example of this is linking together a series of
skills into a movement sequence such as in aerobics or gymnastics, and then
performing this sequence as a continuous motion. Flow is also necessary
between various body parts in order for an athlete or performer to execute a
skill such as throwing, kicking or hitting with ease and efficiency.
Musical applications
Many movement mediums such as dance, synchronised swimming,
gymnastics (artistic and rhythmic), ice dancing, aerobics and cheerleading are
directly tied to music. The musical accompaniment determines many aspects
of the movement including timing, duration and speed. There are a number of
musical applications in relation to time and rhythm to be familiar with.
Beata beat occurs at regular intervals, such as marked by the clapping
of hands or the beat of a drum, and is the steady pulse that can be heard
in a lot of music. A beat can be regular or irregular, which indicates
unpredictability. Beats in music are generally organised into patterns or
phrases known as bars.
Bar or measurethis is a specific number of beats or counts arranged in
a group. There can be two, three or four beats in a bar that make up the
rhythm of the music. The first beat is usually the strongest.
Metreis the arrangement of the rhythms of a particular musical piece
in a repetitive pattern of strong and weak beats. It is a very useful way
to organise music as it sets up an underlying pattern in the pulse of the
music, for example, strongweakweakstrongweakweak. It establishes
regularity in timing.
Accentis an aspect of rhythm and refers to the emphasis placed on a
particular beat in a bar. Placing an accent on a beat means that one note
lasts for a different amount of time to the other notes surrounding it. The
accent is usually placed at the beginning of the bar but may occur on
any beat.
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Waltz
Time
Pattern
2
4
1 &
>
1 &
>
1
>
1
>
3
4
4
4
1
>
1
>
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Table 8.1
Various music
patterns
Accent
Tempo
Fast
Moderate
Duration
Duration can mean the length of time required to complete a particular
movement, and the length of time in which an activity is performed.
In movement mediums where a performance is accompanied by music,
the duration of the routine is determined by the length of the track. In
trampolining, all routines are restricted to 10 bounces but the duration of
the routine will vary depending upon the complexity of the skills included.
Skills that involve many twists and turns will take longer to execute than
simpler skills and, therefore, extend the performance time. In many games,
the duration of activity is predetermined, such as four 15-minute quarters
in netball or two 40-minute halves in rugby. However, other sports are not
restricted by a time limit and the duration of play may be fairly short, or
extended, depending upon the skill of the players and how many points are
scored; for example, in volleyball, tennis or table tennis. Coaches and players
can attempt to manipulate the use of time in some game situations by calling
time outs to slow down a game when losing or by speeding up the game play
with distance throws when winning.
Some skills have a finite range of duration. For example, a gymnast can only
be airborne when performing a leap or somersault for so long. Conversely, other
sports can continue until the person decides to stop, for example, swimming
laps. The rules of a game can determine the duration of a movement or the
positioning of the players. For example, in handball and netball, a player must
play the ball within three seconds; and in basketball, there is a 3-second limit
in the key for offensive players. The duration of a performance or movement
can give it meaning or make it more or less effective. A golfer who is trying to
putt their ball may not be successful if they have to rush the shot, for example.
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232
Momentum
Momentum refers to the velocity at which a movement is performed and
the mass that drives the movement. It is closely linked with acceleration
(speed gain) and deceleration (speed loss) of movement. The performance
speed of a particular movement will be determined by the movement. If it
is not performed at the necessary velocity, it may affect outcome, success or
safety of the movement. For example, a sprinter needs to accelerate quickly
to complete their race in the minimum amount of time, an ice skater doing a
number of turns will need to gradually slow down to move onto the next skill
in their routine and an athlete who is trying a new skill may find it beneficial
to start slowly and gradually increase the speed of the movement over time.
It is quite common for the speed in movement to alter during a
performance or game. This indicates that the performer or athlete has control
over their performance. In dance, changes in speed and momentum can
complement a story or create a feeling. Increasing or decreasing the speed
of play in a game can be a useful strategy to confuse the opponent and
potentially lead them to make mistakes. In field athletics, a hammer thrower
needs to increase the speed of their turn so they can throw with the most
momentum, and a gymnast will constantly increase and decrease their speed
in a routine depending upon the skills they are performing.
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into normal game play and their skills become externally paced, as they are
affected by the speed and direction of the ball and by the positioning of other
players. Many external factors will impinge on the execution of the skills
of the game and there is often pressure to perform quickly. Most sports that
require a high level of externally paced movement, such as basketball, soccer
or hockey, will still have some room for self-paced skills to be used; and
within these games, athletes can have some control over the timing of their
movements, such as making decisions about when to pass or when to move.
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Figure 8.10
Jogging is a self-paced
movement, whereas
sprinting is externally
paced
Distinguish between self-paced and externally paced movement, and comment on the
effects of these for composition of movement.
Fast
SMALL
BIG
Slow
WIDE
BIG
Fast
Fast
and
slow
Fast
SMALL
BIG
Medium
Slow
and fast
THIN
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234
Timing
Time is an ordering force in all movement mediums, and correct timing is
critical for the performance of most skills and movements. If the timing of
movement is wrong, it can detract from the performance and can mean that a
play is missed or an opponent allowed to score. When movement sequences
are designed to be accompanied by music, it is glaringly obvious when the
performer is out of time with the music and this negatively affects the visual
impact of the performance. Choreographers will often choose the speed of the
music to suit the ability of their performers so it is easier for them to stay in
time. Some activities, such as aerobics and synchronised swimming, diving or
trampolining, require the performer to be in time with other performers and
this takes a lot of time and practice to perfect. Timing can be used in different
combinations to create intricate visual effects such as including a hesitation
during a performance followed by a quick movement, which can surprise
the audience.
Timing is critical in many sports. An athlete needs to be able to assess the
best moment to pass the ball to their teammate or to shoot for a goal. It is also
essential for the correct performance of some skills, such as timing the swing
of the bat in softball to connect with the pitched ball, or the combination of
timing and rhythm in a hurdles race. Timing can be manipulated in some
games by modifying the equipment used, for example, the use of low-bounce
balls in tennis means the balls are slower in flight and, therefore, the game can
be slowed down.
Relationships
When applied to physical activity, the term relationships refers to who or
what the body moves with. Relationship is the connection between people
and things, such as the performer with other people, with the performance
space, with sound and visual images or with the equipment and apparatus.
An awareness of the importance of relationships in all movement mediums
is encouraged; and the more understanding of relationships a performer
has, the more efficient and effective they will become in their movement.
Relationships, in a movement context, can change depending upon what is
intended by the particular movement being performed.
Other people
The relationships a performer or athlete develops with other people can
greatly enhance a performance or outcome. Alternatively, they can have a
negative impact upon the performance. In all relationships with other people,
communication is a key component. It can be verbal, such as a player calling
for the ball or letting other members of the team know that a defender is
approaching, or non-verbal including gestures, hand movements or facial
expressions. A non-verbal example would be the signals passed between the
bowler and wicket keeper in cricket. There are a variety of people that an
athlete or performer can form a relationship with.
Team memberssuccessful teams have a shared understanding of their
purpose along with an appreciation of their role in that team, and the
roles of other team members. Effective teamwork involves trust and
communication. As relationships develop between team members, each
one knows how they contribute to plays and manoeuvres. They are well
6/11/09 11:18 AM
aware of the positioning of their teammates and they know they can rely
on them to be in the right place at the right time to receive a pass, block
an opponent or make a space on the field or court to gain advantage. Often
a team will practise set plays or movement sequences to be implemented
during the game. If something changes during play to alter a strategy, a
team with good relationships will be able to adapt easily and quickly
communicate with each other to put another tactic into place.
Opponentsa player needs to be able to read their opponents well.
An understanding of body movements will help a person to anticipate
what their opponent is going to do next. Studying the plays and
skills of the opponent away from the game can help a player to learn
common patterns and strategies of the other team, assisting them to put
countermeasures in place.
Performersrelationships between performers in dance, aerobics and
gymnastics are clearly defined. The moves and routines are choreographed
and there tend to be no surprises. However, there is still the expectation
that the other members of the group will be in the position they are
meant to be in, at the time they are meant to be there. In ballroom and
Latin dancing, the relationships are very clear: with one
person leading the dance and the other following. Often
the relationships between performers in group routines are
developed using different techniques, such as everyone moving
in unison (at the same time), groups working in contrast
(performing movements that have opposite qualities like fast
and slow), or groups moving in canon (performing the same
movement at different times).
Partnersoften in dance, ice-skating and aerobics, a performer
will have to work closely with a partner. The relationship
between partners is an intimate one, as each partner relies
on the other to perform the movements or skills to the best
of their ability. A large amount of trust is required, as in
many sequences one partner is required to lift, catch or hold
the other. This trust can be developed through practice and
communication. The relationship that forms between partners
can also assist in conveying a desired message through the
movement medium. For example, a dance couple who have
formed a strong relationship will easily communicate the
passion and story of the bullfight while dancing the Paso Doble.
The audiencein order to convey the story or message
of a performance, it is vital that the performers form a
connection with the audience. The choreographer may begin
this relationship with the way they link various movement
sequences and the type of music they use. Performers can then
continue to form links with their audience by their proximity,
eye contact, through subtle or obvious gestures and even by the
clothing or costumes they wear. In other movement mediums, a
relationship with the audience may be formed simply because
the athlete is from the same country as some members of the
audience, such as at the Olympic or Commonwealth Games,
or because the audience supports the team they are watching,
such as AFL teams who represent a town or region.
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Figure 8.11
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236
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237
partner make up the whole, and each is essential to the other and the overall
routine. Ice skaters will work together and use various combinations of space
and time, such as unison, mirroring, shadowing, echoing and supporting, to
form relationships with each other in the performance of their dance. The
skaters may not be touching in some parts of the dance but, by simply skating
in unison next to each other, they make their relationship very clear and this
adds meaning to their performance.
Figure 8.12
Centre third
Goal third
WA
GD
WD
GA
GS
GK
GK
GS
GA
WD
GD
WA
Analyse the purpose of various group formations within different movement mediums.
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Visual
Kinaesthetic
Auditory
STIMULUS
Ideational
Tactile
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240
Wakakirri Festival a
national performing and
visual arts festival for primary
schools that challenges
students to create a story,
make an impact and share
it with Australia. Wakakirri
means to describe the process
of storytelling through dance.
Figure 8.14
Exploring variations
It is said that variety is the spice of life and this is true in movement
composition. When creating movement sequences and routines, a skilled
choreographer will continually look out for how they can vary their
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Improvising
To improvise means to perform or compose something without preparation
or a set of rules to follow. Improvised movement tends to be spontaneous and
can lead to the invention of new practices and the creation of unique and
innovative movement designs. When they are new to movement composition,
an individual can be very set in their approach and tend to follow recognised
ways of doing things. As they become more comfortable with the process of
creating movement, they are less inhibited and will more readily experiment
with different concepts of space, shape, time and energy. Similarly, a
performer may be less inclined to branch away from established routines,
steps and skill combinations when they are first involved in a particular
movement medium. However, as they become more skilled they may feel
comfortable using a range of options that best suit the situation. Although
improvisation allows a performer to move away from the normal conventions
of their movement medium, it is still important for their movements to flow
and connect to one another if they are going to have the desired impact.
The term improvisation is most commonly associated with modern
dance; however, it simply means changing movement to meet the need of the
moment. This can happen on the sports field as easily as on the dancefloor.
An athlete may need to improvise in order to make a play work. For example,
the team may have practised a set play developed by their coach but on the
field the opposition may do something to stop the play from going according
to plan and players are then required to improvise a variation to make their
movement successful.
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242
Select a movement medium and list all the locomotor, non-locomotor and manipulative
skills that are specific and particular to it.
Design and practise an offensive play in the goal third of a netball court. Examine how
changing just one part of that play, for example, the direction the ball is passed or the
positioning of one of the players varies the play.
Describe the factors that may need to be present for a performer to feel comfortable in using
improvisation in their movement medium.
Each movement medium has its own rules and conventions, and these
determine how the elements of composition are applied to the process of
combining and arranging movement. Gymnastics, dance, aerobics and games
all have their individual styles that refer to features or characteristics such as
technique, rules, movements and objectives. While these movement mediums
are quite different in many ways and require variations in the application of
the elements of composition, they all involve the body moving in some way
to achieve a desired outcome.
Gymnastics
Gymnastics is an all-encompassing term for a number of different forms of
the sport. These include:
Artisticusing the floor and a variety of apparatus.
Rhythmiccombining gymnastic skills with equipment such as ribbons,
balls and clubs.
Trampoline sportsusing the double mini and large trampoline.
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Dance
Dance has many different styles and forms which can be grouped in the
following ways:
Traditional, cultural or ceremonialthese dances reflect the culture and
stories from where they originated, for example, folk dance, square dance,
bush dance and traditional Indigenous dance.
Socialdances that have the purpose of socialisation and are usually
performed with partners or in groups, for example, ballroom dancing,
Latin dance and hip-hop.
Performancedances that require a high-skill level and are often performed
for an audience, for example, jazz and classical ballet and modern dance.
These groups are certainly not definitive, and many additional styles
of dancing have emerged over recent years such as Bollywood dance and
krumping. The rules and conventions of dance are very particular to the style
of dance. Performance dance and some forms of social dance are generally
Figure 8.15
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244
Aerobics
Aerobics is the performance of a series of movement sequences to music. It
includes general aerobics classes for fitness and fun along with competitive
aerobics. The purpose and structure of the movement skills and elements
in these styles differ accordingly. A competitive aerobics routine contains
compulsory moves, set timings and strict attention to technical detail, yet a
performer can still use the elements of composition in different ways to create
a distinctive and individual routine.
There are many styles of non-competitive aerobics classes including step,
combat, pump, jam and attack. These styles cater for different ages, fitness
levels, abilities and needs. As a result, movement skills will be incorporated
and elements of composition applied according to the particular need for
which the class is meeting. Music is an important component of both forms
of aerobics and is used to develop movements and sequences.
Games
Games are somewhat different to other movement mediums as they have
specific rules that determine what is performed, how it is performed, and
where and how it occurs. These rules affect how the elements of composition
are applied to the game. It is sometimes difficult for an athlete to move from
one sport to another because, while the skills they have may be transferable,
the rules and conventions of movement that apply to one sport may not
apply to another. For example, a basketball player may have trouble if they
start to play netball and will need to reconsider aspects of movement such as
dimension (they are now restricted in their movement around the court) and
force (they cannot throw over a third).
Sequencing
Movement phrases a
number of related skills or
actions.
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Figure 8.16
Examples of movement
sequences
SEQUENCE 2
Repeat
Repeat
Squats x 6
Jumping jacks x 16
Repeat
Repeat
These two separate movement sequences can be repeated individually or joined together
to form a full routine
Transitions
Earlier in this chapter, the importance of flow, rhythm and continuity within
a performance was discussed. Transitions are the joining of movement
skills, phrases and sequences to make a whole and give performances
connectedness. A transition in a movement composition is often determined
by physical necessity, that is, by the need to turn around to complete the next
move. However, a performance would look unusual if the performer stopped
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every time they needed to change direction, use a different skill or move from
one level to another. This would detract from the performance and would not
seem smooth or logical.
Transitions are an integral component of the composition, yet are very often
neglected or put in as an afterthought. The use of transitions contributes to the
flow of movement and, to be most effective, a transition needs to be seamless and
appear to be part of the movement itself. The size and complexity of a transition
is generally determined by the context in which it occurs, and it should only last
as long as it takes to fulfil its function. It can be a jump, a turn or a leap, a change
in music or music tempo, or a change in possession of the ball.
Repetition
Repetition means doing the same thing over again. In relation to the process
of arranging movement, it involves combining a number of skills into a
movement phrase and then repeating that phrase within a dance or routine.
Repetition in different movement mediums serves a number of purposes.
It can assist an individual to learn a new skill or sequence.
It can help to develop fitness levels. For example, a soccer coach may
put together a short movement sequence that involves running, passing,
dribbling and shooting, and then have the players repeat this a number of
times in a training session.
It can add focus to a performance. For example, a folk dance may have a
chorus that includes a small movement sequence that is repeated a number
of times throughout the dance.
It can add meaning to a performance, when a particular skill or movement
is emphasised through repetition to get a point across.
Most movement mediums involve some sort of repetition; however, it is
important not to include too much repetition. In dance, skating, aerobics and
gymnastics, the overuse of repetition can make a performance tedious and the
audience can lose interest. Repetition in games strategies and tactics may make
plays predictable and eliminate the element of surprise for the other team.
Variation
Variation is the way various movements are combined and arranged. It adds
interest and keeps the motivation levels of the performers and audience high.
Performances with little variation can become boring to watch, yet too much
variety can be confusing and distracting. Music is a good way to incorporate
variety into the composition of a routine. By selecting music that has a number
of different tempos within it, the composer can then combine different skills
within the routine to link with the music.
In some movement mediums, such as gymnastics and trampolining, there
may be little opportunity for variation in the arrangement of movement skills,
as they include routines or exercises that are compulsory. These are generally
balanced with the opportunity for performers to develop an optional routine
that allows them to show their individual style and flair.
Coaches can include variation in their training sessions by arranging
skills practices in different ways and by designing numerous arrangements of
players and movements when teaching strategies. By varying skills and play
combinations, they are providing more options for when the players are in
game situations.
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Compare the rules and conventions of a dance style such as krumping to those of ballroom
dance. Discuss the implications of changing the rules and conventions of one dance style to
reflect those of the other.
For each of the movement mediums, describe different ways that you might vary the known
movements and combinations, for example, in an aerobics routine changing a series of
grapevine steps performed in a straight line to an L shape.
Ways of appraising
Performance can be appraised in a number of different ways, each with its
own benefits and drawbacks.
1 Observing
Observing is a common form of appraisal and often occurs informally
for example, a coach may observe a set play being performed during a game
and at half-time will talk to the players about how the play affected the
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game, giving suggestions for how the play can be improved next time.
Observation can be objective or subjective. When using objective observation,
a non-biased assessment will be made of the performance against set criteria.
The inclusion of criteria means that the observation is based on facts rather
than on thoughts or opinions, and is taken from an artistic perspective that
involves a degree of critical analysis and evaluation.
There are levels of objectivity in appraisal. Measures like how fast, how
high, how many and how long allow little room for debate, whereas checklists
and rating scales that indicate what an observer should be looking for are less
objective. The use of criteria provides a means to decide why a performance
Figure 8.17
An example of marking
criteria
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2 Analysing
Analysing involves examining the technical aspects of the performance,
scoring them and comparing the scores to others. A common form of analysis
is the use of statistics to appraise individuals or teams in a game situation.
Statistics relating to different aspects of the game, such as the number of
lineouts won in rugby union, the number of successful blocks in volleyball
or the shooting average of individual players in basketball, are collated and
then used to appraise the performance. Statistical feedback can be used to
develop different tactics and strategies or to focus on a skill a player may need
to work on.
Other forms of appraisal through analysis include norm ratings, where
an individuals score on a test is compared to the standard of large groups
of others who have taken the same test, for example, maxVO2 testing or the
Harvard Step Test. Percentile rankings are also used in sport and games. An
actual performance score is taken and compared with that of others taking
the same test. If the person scores in the 70th percentile, this means that they
have scored or performed better than 70 per cent of people who participated
in the test. Norm reference testing in sport may be used for team selection or
talent identification.
3 Experiencing
Experiencing is a very valuable method of appraisal for both performers
and external observers. The more time an individual can spend looking at
different performances, applying the judging criteria and discussing their
ideas with others, the better they will become at critical analysis. Group
discussion of the application of criteria can lead to high levels of consistency
in judgment and greater objectivity in appraisal. Judges who are new to
appraisal in a particular movement medium can gain experience in judging
by watching a variety of performances from beginners to advanced. As a
performer becomes more experienced in their ability to perform a particular
skill or movement sequence, they will find they can use this experience to
make their own judgments in relation to their performance.
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Elements of composition
The elements of composition are an integral component of movement
development and should enhance the quality of a performance. Therefore,
they have an important role to play in the appraisal process. Each element
should be looked at in relation to the movement medium, and questions
raised about how well the element was applied to the performance.
For example:
Spacewas all the available space used to the best advantage? Did the use
of patterns and formations add to the appeal of the performance? How well
did the players draw out their opponents to create space?
Dynamicswas the player able to control their shots? Did the performance
flow smoothly? Was the takeoff from the floor explosive?
Timing and rhythmwas the performance of the correct duration?
Were the performers in time with the music? Was variety added to the
performance, with changes in tempo and accent?
Relationshipsdid the positioning of players allow the set play to be
carried out? Did the performers establish a positive relationship with the
audience? Did the performers use of equipment or props blend in with the
movement being performed?
Many of the movement mediums have great scope for creativity and
innovation in their composition and performance. Part of appraisal is to
determine how well these aspects have been incorporated and whether
their use has enhanced the aesthetics and interest of the performance for the
audience. In competitive aerobics and some forms of dance and gymnastics,
creativity is actually a component of the judging criteria. In the Rock
Eisteddfod Challenge, innovation and originality contribute to eight of a
possible twenty marks school groups can receive in the area of Concept and
Interpretation. In sports such as gymnastics, dance, diving and trampolining,
being innovative in the performance of skills can add to the degree of
difficulty of a routine and, therefore, make the performer more competitive.
If an athlete is innovative enough to create a skill that has never been
performed before, it will often be named after them. For example, the beam
skill the Phillips is named after American gymnast Kristie Phillips.
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1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
Music
Innovation
Total out of 20
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
____________
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
Choreography
Skill
Total out of 20
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
____________
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
Lighting
Hair and make-up
Total out of 20
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
____________
Performance elements
Presentation and teamwork
Drama
Visual
Production elements
Set design and staging
Costumes
Enhancement
Each score box MUST have only ONE whole number circled AND scores MUST reflect comments given.
Positive and constructive comments should be written in all areas wherever possible.
The judges MUST add their own scores, which will then be checked by the independent scorer.
Score reassessment MUST have a written reason AND be initialled by the independent scorer.
Sub-total
Sub-total
Sub-total
____________
____________
____________
Total
__________
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Arrangement of movement
The way movement is arranged is an essential aspect of appraisal. The
importance of sequencing and the placement of transitions were highlighted
earlier in this chapter as critical elements in ensuring the overall smoothness,
continuity and flow of a performance.
Looking at movement patterns in games can assist in appraisal and
analysis by identifying weak spots and deciding which arrangement of
movements resulted in the best and most successful strategies.
Achievement of purpose
When we discussed the process of creating movement, we identified that all
movement compositions need a purpose. When making an appraisal, we also
make a judgment about whether or not the performance achieved its purpose.
In some movement mediums, the purpose of the performance is very clear-cut
and, therefore, easy to appraise. For example, the purpose of the game of AFL
is to score the most goals, and the team with the greatest amount of points at
the end of the game is deemed successful.
In dance, rhythmic gymnastics and ice-skating, the purpose of the
performance may be less obvious and, therefore, it is up to the performers to
clearly communicate their message and/or story through their movements,
music and use of props. A performance that leaves the audience wondering
what its point was may not be appraised as highly as one that captures
audience understanding throughout.
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Movement medium
Gymnastics
Features that judges may look for when appraising gymnastics routines and passes include:
Formdoes the skill look as it is meant to look (e.g. back straight not arched); skill control?
Amplitudeincludes height, length, flexibility
Body stretch and extension
Landingsmust be solid; deductions are made for not maintaining balance and also for moving outside
the area of competition
Separationthere is a minimum degree of separation of the legs in skills like leaps and straddles
Precision of timing and rhythm
Falling and droppingmarks are deducted for falling off a piece of apparatus or for dropping equipment
Inclusion of all compulsory elements or skills
Composition of the routine
Degree of difficulty of skills
Skill executionincludes style, technique and creativity.
Dance
There are various criteria for dance, dependent upon the style; however, in general, judges need to
look for:
Use of the elements of composition
Technical competenceshowing technical skill in performing the moves, coordination
Communicationwith the audience, with a partner and showing stage presence
Choice of musicappropriateness, timing
Achievement of purpose
Inclusion of compulsory elements
Production elementsset design, staging, lighting, costumes.
Aerobics
Games
The judging of games is regularly done through objective means, for example, collection and analysis of
statistics. However, criteria for subjectively appraising games includes:
Skill executionhow well does the athlete perform general skills such as running, dodging,
weaving, passing?
Communication
Teamwork
Game techniquehow well does the athlete perform skills specific to the game?
Physical fitness.
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DEDUCTIONS
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
PIKE POSITION
Angle upper
body/thighs
Elements/phases
without twist
Multiple somersaults
with twist in at least
two phases
Vertical jumps
Straddle jump
Figure 8.18
Examples of trampoline
deductions
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chapter review
Recap
There are four elements of composition, which are the building blocks of all movement.
These are space, dynamics, time and rhythm, and relationships.
Space refers to where we move. It incorporates personal space, general space and
performance space and has a number of components that are particular to it, including
direction, level, dimensions, patterns and formations.
Dynamics refer to how we move and this is the element that gives movement its
expressiveness. Dynamics include force, which is the intensity of the release of
energy in movement and its control; and flow, which is concerned with continuity
of movement.
Time and rhythm refer to when we move and impact upon the quality, flow and precision
of movement. Time and rhythm include the components of beat, tempo and accent as
they apply to music along with duration, momentum, self-paced versus externally paced
movement and timing.
An awareness of relationships in all movement mediums is important, as relationships
can help a performance convey a message or assist a group to achieve their movement
goals more successfully. There can be relationships between people, with apparatus or
equipment, and those connected with team formations and positional play.
When using the elements of composition to compose movement, an individual must
define the purpose of the movement and establish the motivating factors behind the
movement. Obscurity of purpose can result in a failure to achieve the desired outcome
of a performance.
The ability to improvise within a movement medium can greatly enhance performance.
When combining and arranging movement, a composer should consider how the
different parts can be best put together to make a whole. This involves looking at
different movement phrases and how these can be connected into sequences. Repetition
and variety should be used in balance when developing movement sequences and
performances.
Appraisal is an integral component of movement composition and is an effective
evaluation and feedback tool. Appraisal can be subjective (an aesthetic perspective)
or objective (an artistic perspective).
In order to be consistent and fair in appraisal, a set of criteria should be developed
specific to the movement medium and the styles of movement within that medium.
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Current URL
Useful for
Gymnastics Australia
www.gymnastics.org.au
www.sportaerobics-nac.com/affiliates.htm
Wakakirri National
Performing Arts Festival
for primary schools
www.wakakirri.com
Exam-style questions
1 Outline the differences between subjective and objective forms of appraisal.
(2 marks)
(6 marks)
(12 marks)
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Fitness choices
Exercise has different meanings to different people, and individuals have varying fitness
needs, so it is important that a wide range of fitness choices is available. People need to be
able to access the types of activities that will help them best meet their own needs.
Personal goals and commitments, financial capacity, geographic location and general
health and wellbeing are just some of the factors that can influence the fitness choices people
make. This chapter will feature a series of Fitness Profiles that provide a snapshot of real
peoples lives and highlight their varying fitness needs.
Meanings of exercise
Exercise as a form of physical activity
For some people, the thought of exercise stirs up an array of negative
emotions. They recall feelings of pain and fatigue brought on by a sense
of obligation to get fit. They hear the overzealous parent, coach or trainer
pushing them physically beyond their comfort zone, and they sense the
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258
discomfort of their body temperature rising. While they labour under the
weight of sweat-soaked clothes, they anticipate the stiff and sore muscles they
will experience for days after the torture is over.
For many others, their memories of physically demanding exercise bring
a sense of satisfaction; a recollection of establishing challenging goals and
successfully achieving them; a reminder of the camaraderie developed with
friends as they encourage each other to keep going through the pain; and that
satisfying feeling of being at ones physical peak.
There are other people who view exercise as simply a means to an end: an
activity that can be undertaken regularly and moderately to maximise their
health and wellbeing. Clearly, exercise means different things to different
people. So what exactly is exercise?
As mentioned, exercise involves participating regularly in a structured
activity or series of activities to improve fitness. It implies the presence of a
basic plan involving a series of physical activities that have been organised to
help achieve a set purpose, which is usually fitness related.
An example can be seen in applying the FITT principle, where the
purpose or goal is to reduce body fat levels and the plan is to achieve this by
exercising using the following plan.
F
I
T
T
Frequency
Intensity
Time
Minimum 30 minutes
Type
Physical activity is currently used as the overarching term that includes all
movement-related activities that have a physical dimension. Physical activity
can include everything from an adult walking their dog or children playing a
game of hide and seek, through to an elite athlete training and competing in
their chosen sport.
Exercise is a form of physical activity and, therefore, fits along the physical
activity spectrum. A defining feature of where different activities might fit
best along the physical activity spectrum is in the purpose of the activity.
As an example, one person may go for a walk because it is a nice day and
they have some free time available. This would be considered recreational
activity. Another person may be taking part in a structured program to lose
body fat, which involves regular sessions of walking for specified distance in
a set time. This would be considered exercise.
Both people are walking, but the different purpose and the level of
structure distinguishes recreational activity from exercise.
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Figure 9.1
SPORT
Competition
Recovery
programs
EXERCISE
ACTIVE
RECREATION
PLAY
Frisbee
Fishing
Strength-training
programs
Cardiovascular
fitness
programs
Fat-loss programs
Sport-specific training
Reflect on the nature of your own physical activity participation. Where do you sit on the
physical activity spectrum?
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260
Table 9.1
Snapshotchanging
attitudes to fitness
Era
1970s
1980s
What do people want to be fit for ? Fit for life? Fit for health? Fit for
pregnancy? Fit for competitive sport? Fit for a sculpted physical appearance?
Fit for the sake of it? Each of these is a valid reason for aspiring to be fit
and, throughout a persons life cycle, more than one of these reasons may
motivate them.
Attitudes to fitness are heavily influenced by advances in research,
enhanced technology and cultural trends. Perhaps the most dominant attitude
to fitness in recent years has been the notion that fitness can look and be quite
different for different people. Stereotypical body images for males and females
that sought to define being fit have become increasingly outdated and
irrelevant. No longer is the gym-sculpted muscular look the only image
to satisfy the criteria of being fit.
In fact, an almost unwavering value associated with fitness is its role in
promoting good health. There has been ongoing community concern about
the obesity epidemic. The SPANS found that approximately 25 per cent of
15- and 16-year-old students were overweight or obese and the Australian
Bureau of Statistics found that 54 per cent of Australian adults, in 2004,
were overweight or obese. In addition, only half the population meet the
recommended level of 30 minutes of physical activity on most days of the
week. Additional concerns have been raised about the costs to individuals
and the community resulting from chronic health conditions, which have
physical inactivity and obesity as underlying risk factors. Chronic conditions
such as heart disease, stroke and cancer cost in excess of $10 billion
nationally each year, and obesity costs are approximately $5 billion. Add
to these concerns the fact that Australia has an ageing population, and it
becomes clear why governments, commercial organisations, communities and
individuals have increasingly framed their attitudes of exercise and fitness
around the fit for health perspective.
Prevailing attitude
Features
Enduring image
Arnold Schwarzenegger
in the movie, Pumping Iron
Personal training
Active living
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Figure 9.2
Incidental physical
activity unplanned movement
that occurs normally within
an everyday lifestyle, such as
walking to the bus stop instead
of driving, or using the stairs
instead of an elevator.
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262
Fitness proleSusan
Susan is 43 years old, married and the mother of three
children under five years old. She works part time at a
public hospital.
I migrated from the north of England about 15 years ago
and the biggest impact on my approach to fitness has been
the weather. In England, I found myself needing to exercise
indoors if I wanted to do it with any sort of regularity
throughout the year. As a result, I mostly went to the gym.
I really had to force myself to go to the gym because I have
never particularly enjoyed it.
Since Ive moved to Australia, my personal exercise has
mainly been unstructured outdoor activities like walking.
The weather is so nice and there are so many beautiful
places to walk; it is just an enjoyable way to get and
stay fit.
Also, since the children have been born Ive really
needed to be flexible with my commitment to exercise and
so walking is a great option for me.
I have been really fortunate to connect with some of
the local mums and we often go walking together for about
an hour or so twice a week. We tried getting a personal
trainer for a small group of us but in the end, we decided
walking was ideal for us. It is flexible, a really good
workout and we can talk the whole time we are walking.
Assess the extent to which the financial costs associated with the health consequences of
physical inactivity motivate governments to invest in promoting fitness and physical activity.
Predict the likely outcomes that will result from the work being done by PCAL.
Fitness as a commodity
In 2009, Business Review Weekly identified the fitness industry as earning
$1215 billion per year in Australia, with that figure expected to be $60
billion per year in 2012.
The fitness industry employs large numbers of people. Fitness Australia,
the peak body for the fitness industry, has over 20 000 registered exercise
professionals. Money in the fitness industry is generated through a wide
range of commercial transactions related to aspects such as employment,
gymnasium memberships, fitness equipment, training services, fitness
clothing and nutritional supplements.
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time poor
to lose
weight
motivational
support
REASONS
to access
knowledge and
expertise
Figure 9.4
Evaluate the potential to profit financially from investing in the fitness industry.
Discuss why people are prepared to pay to access fitness products, services and facilities.
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Swimming
Swimming is a low-impact activity in which individuals benefit from the
buoyancy of the water. Swimming requires a fairly high degree of skill and the
level of skill can be a factor influencing the amount of energy burned during
exercise. An inefficient swimmer is likely to burn up more energy and swim
less distance than a more skilled swimmer.
Some evidence suggests that swimming is a less effective form of exercise
for reducing fat than running or cycling possibly because of buoyancy-related
factors, the performance benefits of slightly higher levels of body fat for
endurance swimming performance, and/or the cooling effect of being in
the water.
Cycling
Cycling is a low-impact form of exercise that promotes excellent gains in
cardiorespiratory fitness and muscular endurance. Cycling on the road adds
a potentially dangerous dimension, with the increased risk of road-related
injuries from collisions or falls. Using a stationary bike allows for controlled
measures of time, distance and speed; while avoiding collisions or falls as
well as potentially performance-compromising factors such as wind, rain
and sun.
Weight-training programs
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Fitness choices
Component of fitness
Load
Repetitions
Rate of movement
Muscular strength
26
Slow to moderate
Power
210
Fast
Muscular endurance
1525
Moderate
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265
Table 9.3
Basic principles
of weight-training
programs
Fitness proleMichael
Michael is 42 years old and is married with one child.
He has a demanding corporate job based in the city.
I played a lot of team sports as a kid, soccer and cricket
mostly, but when I left school I found myself drawn to the
attraction that individual fitness activities offer. I found that
I enjoyed swimming laps for exercise but it was cycling that
really enthused me.
I began doing long rides on weekends and found that, apart
from the physical health benefits, it was really therapeutic
from a mental health perspective. It really relaxed me to be
able to take my mind off everything else and just focus on the
ride; and there are some absolutely beautiful places to cycle.
I soon started riding to university each day and also set up a
stationary bike in my house that I could use for my cycling hit
on days of inclement weather when I didnt want to ride outside.
Ive done a few corporate rides and charity events but the
prospect of racing competitively has never held any appeal.
Mostly I ride to work and back each day. I get the physical and
mental health benefits and it is also quicker in peak hour than
public transport or driving.
I aim to do at least four rides each week.
Tai Chi
Tai Chi comes from Chinese culture and is often observed being practiced in
local parks by devotees. Tai Chi has its origins as a form of developing combat
and self-defence skills, although equally it has been used for centuries as a
way of promoting general health, fitness and wellbeing.
Tai Chi is characterised by controlled, gentle and tranquil movements
designed to foster harmony in mind and body as well as improve movement,
flexibility and mental alertness. There is an ancient Chinese saying: Whoever
practices Tai Chi regularly will, in time, gain the suppleness of a child, the
strength of a lion, and the peace of mind of a sage.
Pilates/yoga
Pilates involves completing a sequence of movements in a highly controlled
fashion. Through Pilates, a greater understanding of the bodys ideal position
during movement is developed, together with improved core body strength.
Pilates movements can isolate muscle groups for the purpose of strengthening
weak muscles and/or lengthening tight, bulky muscles. The aim is to create
balance within the body.
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Figure 9.6
Holistic approach in
addition to placing our
focus on the physical
dimensions of health, we also
emphasise mental, emotional
and sometimes spiritual
dimensions with a view to
supporting and aligning the
dimensions of the whole
person.
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Figure 9.7
Pump/step/spin classes
A key strategy of any commercial gymnasium is to continually update the
program of classes they offer. This demonstrates their currency with the latest
research and trends in fitness, helps to keep members motivated and enthused
by offering new classes, and enables the gymnasium to meet the varying needs
of their members.
Major fitness-class categories that have been added to gymnasium
timetables in recent years include:
Pumpthis is weight training, using barbells and dumbbells, performed to
music. The class promotes improvement in the areas of muscular strength,
muscular endurance, muscle tone and cardiorespiratory fitness.
Stepthis class involves choreographed movements, which involve
stepping in various directions (up down, back, forward and across) to the
beat of music.
Spinthis involves group fitness, where participants exercise on a
stationary bike to the sounds of inspiring music. The class leader may
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Circuit training
Circuit training involves completing a number of
different exercises one after the other, with little
or no break in between. The intent is to provide a
cardiorespiratory workout with some gains in muscle
tone and muscular strength and endurance.
Figure 9.8
Identify fitness classes that would best meet your needs and interests. Justify your selections.
Compare costs for participating in individual fitness activities with costs for participating in
group-fitness activities.
Propose reasons, other than cost, which might influence people to choose either individual
or group fitness activities in preference to other fitness activities.
Investigate sources you could access to provide you with valid and reliable information
about a selected activity.
Team games
Team games appeal to many people because they are based on the principle
of working collectively to achieve a common goal. Many team games are
inculcated in people from a very young age, and games culture becomes
ingrained in the social and cultural background in which people exist.
Team games also offer an added social dimension, because of the sheer
number of people involved and because people to want to debrief with one
another after a hard training session or competitive match. Team games are
resource-efficient because they provide exercise opportunities for a reasonable
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Pregnant women
Exercise is beneficial for pregnant women; it can improve posture, lower
body-fat gains, provide stress relief and better sleep, and enhance preparation
for the physical demands of motherhood.
Pregnant women should consult with their doctor, physiotherapist
and/or health-care professional prior to commencing an exercise program,
and it is advisable if they already currently exercise regularly that the
nature and extent of their existing program should be discussed. For women
with hypertension, heart disease, multiple foetuses or those who have an
increased risk of premature labour, it may be best to avoid exercise during
pregnancy.
Common elements to consider for pregnant women exercising include:
remain well hydrated and avoid overheating
select low- to moderate-intensity exercise, especially during the later stages
of the pregnancy
restrict high-impact activities and contact sports
have at least two rest days per week and do not exercise on a particular
day if not feeling well or not feeling like it.
Children
Children are not little adults and the structure of an exercise plan should
reflect this. Children tend to come from a low knowledge and skill base and
they are experiencing consistent growth with periodic rapid bursts of growth.
These factors dictate that the exercise focus for children needs to be on skill
development, variety, enjoyment, participation and good health.
It is generally considered inappropriate for high-intensity exercise and
excessive specialised activities to be imposed on children because they are
not ready to cope physically or emotionally with these demands.
Children can be particularly susceptible to overuse injuries, such as
stress fractures, which can be caused by repetitive actions placing stress and
subsequent wear and tear on bones, muscles and joint components such
as cartilage, ligaments and tendons. Thermoregulation is another major
consideration for children when they are exercising, because children do not
have a fully developed cooling system and, therefore, they are less efficient at
losing heat through sweating.
Shorter-duration activities, lower intensities, appropriate clothing and
regular breaks for water are important strategies to incorporate when
children exercise.
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The aged
In some respects, the aged have similar exercise needs to children but for
different reasons. Whereas exercise modifications for children stem largely
from under-development of their physical capabilities, the aged need to
manage exercise because their bodies may now be less able to cope with some
challenging activities.
The natural loss of strength and flexibility that occurs after middle age can
mean that older people need to perform movements at a slower rate and at a
reduced intensity. Exercise that requires fast or intense movement can place
the aged at heightened risk of tears, sprains and strains, as well as injuries
from falls. Many older people have reduced bone density and so consistent
participation in high-impact exercises can place them at greater risk of bone
injuries such as fractures.
In addition, the duration and intensity of endurance activities need to be
carefully monitored because of the stress that these activities can place on the
circulatory system when they are performed too long or too hard.
Group fitness activities that have either emerged, or have grown significantly
in popularity, in recent years include dragon boat racing and outdoor group
fitness activities such as Boot Camp.
Dragon boat racing came to prominence when Hong Kong held an
international race festival in 1976. Dragon boat racing started out with slow
growth in Australia, but participation
numbers have grown noticeably.
Dragon boat racing is now the fastest
growing water sport in Australia.
Dragon boat crews are made up of
22 people and dragon boat racing is an
attractive team-building activity for many
organisations. A key factor in successful
dragon boat racing is paddle cohesiveness
among the entire crew. Communication,
cooperation and commitment among
the entire team are critical to successful
performance.
Dragon boat racing can be physically
demanding at a competitive level and
helps develop muscular endurance, core
strength and cardiorespiratory fitness.
Boot Camp has been a highly successful initiative introduced by the
commercial gymnasium chain Fitness First. Boot Camp is a four-week training
program based loosely on military-style training principles. It is conducted
completely outdoors, encourages a strong team focus and establishes goals to
be achieved and periodic assessments of progress.
The principles of Boot Camp are replicated in a number of other fitness
service providers. For example, Step into Life is an organisation that sells
franchises to trainers. The Step into Life training model also involves group
fitness activities being held outdoors in community spaces, such as parks
and beaches. Participants all wear the Step into Life training apparel that
symbolises the sense of team within the group that is training.
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Figure 9.10
Copy and complete Table 9.4 as you participate in selected individual and group fitness
activities throughout this topic.
Table 9.4 Comparative summary of various forms of fitness activities
Activity
Benefits
Where
available?
Cost
Time
commitment
Further
information
Personal
reflections
Power walking/running
Swimming
Cycling
Weight training
Tai chi
Pilates/yoga
Emerging individual fitness
activities
Aerobics/ aquarobics
Pump/step/spin classes
Circuit training
Team games
Exercise for specific groups
e.g. pregnant women, children,
the aged
Emerging group fitness activities
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Do you prefer individual or group fitness activities? Explain the reasons for your preference.
Predict individual and group fitness activities that could become significant in the next
10 years.
Fitness ProleDaniel
Daniel is a 47-year-old sales manager. He has been the
sole parent to his two children aged 11 and 13 years,
since his wife died three years ago.
I was never particularly into sport or fitness growing
up. Even as a young adult, it was not a priority for me.
It wasnt until my wife died that I became really quite
serious about getting fit and staying fit.
The motivation for me was the fear that being
unhealthy might cause something to happen to me, which
would leave me unable to look after my two children. As a
sole parent, that became a major issue for me. I decided
to do all that I could to ensure my own good health.
I eat well, do not drink or smoke and I follow the
recommended physical activity guidelines. I exercise
34 times per week doing mainly aerobic-type activities
for about 30 minutes. I exercise at home in the evenings
because it doesnt cost anything and I need to be at home
in the evenings when the kids are doing their homework
and going to bed.
Figure 9.11
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Community facilities
Community facilities play a significant role in
providing equitable access to exercise facilities. In
many cases, community facilities are provided and
maintained by local councils. Community groups,
charities and sporting associations also sometimes
provide and/or maintain exercise facilities. Examples
of ways that community facilities are used for
exercise include:
Halls belonging to churches, schools and local
councils being hired out for a low fee to groups
wanting to conduct activities such as karate
classes, Pilates and yoga.
Tennis courts being provided and maintained by
the local council on land they own. Hiring fees
are usually quite reasonable.
Public golf courses being leased to a club, which is managed by a
committee. The golf club can have members and allocate specific times
for member-only competitions, but is also obliged to have significant times
set aside during the week for the course to be used by the public. Some
public golf courses also build in tracks surrounding the course for walking
and running.
Local councils providing exercise equipment along routes commonly used
for walking and jogging
Local and state governments developing bushwalking paths through forests
and other natural environments.
Figure 9.12
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membership after she became terminally ill and was no longer able to
exercise.
Despite being told it would be done,
the fortnightly payments of $33.95
continued to be deducted from their
bank account, he said.
His wife, Maxine, passed away in
March, but the payments continued
despite a number of phone calls, he
said.
When she was ill it was bad
enough ... but Fitness First knew she
was dead, the personal trainer even
came to the funeral, said Mr Lewiss
daughter, Fiona.
Mr Lewis said: They do a direct
debit out of the account and with
the banks youre not allowed to cancel
the account, its got to be cancelled
by the provider, so theyve got you
really.
The payments finally ceased about
six weeks after his wife died, Mr Lewis
said.
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Estimate how often you would need to attend a fitness centre to feel as though you were
receiving value for money.
Identify reasons why fitness centres might want to lock you in for a fixed term of
membership.
Outline strategies that can help you enter into a fitness centre contract fully informed.
Exercise clubs
Exercise clubs are usually built around like-minded people joining to form
a club based on a shared interest in a particular form of exercise. Running
clubs, walking clubs, cycling clubs and triathlon clubs are quite common.
While exercise clubs usually have one specific activity at their core, related
dimensions may include priorities that are socially based, training based and/
or competition based.
Generally speaking, many exercise clubs have suffered a drop in
membership numbers in recent years. There seems to be an overall trend for
people to want more flexibility and to feel less able to commit to the regular
participation that clubs often require. In addition, people do not always want
to follow the rigid rules and traditions that are sometimes part of clubs.
Other explanations include the possibility that, in recent years, the
worklife balance has shifted for many Australians to the point where
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Cultural groups
Acknowledging that sport and exercise have strong social and cultural factors
underpinning them helps us to understand the reasons why cultural groups
can demonstrate stronger affiliations to particular forms of exercise and have
proportionally greater participation rates.
Australia has a generally warm climate and according to the Australian
Bureau of Statistics, 83 per cent of Australians, in 2008, lived within 50
kilometres of the coast. It is no surprise then that large numbers of Australians
use swimming as a form of exercise. Other water-based forms of exercise, such
as canoeing and surfing, also have higher participation rates in Australia than
in most other countries.
There is evidence to suggest that cultural approaches to exercise and sports
participation continue when people migrate to Australia. For example, Pacific
Islander peoples have proportionally high rates of participation in the rugby
codes, while gymnastics participation rates are proportionally higher among
Australians with an eastern European family background.
In many cases, participating in forms of exercise and sport in Australia that
are similar to those in the home country provides a feeling of connection, both
to the home country and with other migrants from that country.
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Propose ways that exercise clubs can turn around the trend of
losing members.
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278
Promotional techniques
The fitness industry has been known to prey on the insecurities of its potential
clients. Promises of amazing results achieved in ridiculously short time frames
appeal to many people. Despite most people understanding at a cognitive level
that fitness gains are experienced gradually over a sustained period of regular
physical effort, there is a small part of many people that wants to believe that a
product or service exists that can provide instant results.
The fitness industry uses strategies that have proven successful in other
commercial industries. Some examples of these strategies include:
Figure 9.14
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onsite during the time that they work out, usually between 9 am and 12 pm,
this niche market has provided a significant revenue stream for gyms at a time
of the day when previously they were often unused.
Outline ways that you could improve your capacity to make informed decisions about fitness
products and services.
Rank the five fitness-advertising strategies and promotions that you believe would be most
effective. Justify your rankings.
Explain why providing a childcare service has been important both for fitness centres and
for parents.
Accuracy of information
There is a basic expectation that information provided to consumers will be
accurate. This expectation is enshrined in legislation and supported in NSW
by the Office of Fair Trading, which safeguards the rights of consumers and
advises businesses on fair and ethical trading.
All consumers are protected from false and misleading advertising under
the Commonwealth Trade Practices Act 1974 and NSW Fair Trading Act
1987. Under these Acts, consumers have the legal right to receive accurate
information about products and services they want to purchase without being
lied to or misled.
A number of relevant industry-related mechanisms are also in place that
promote the provision of accurate information, such as self-regulation through
the Advertising Standards Bureau and the Fitness Australia Code of Ethics.
The Fitness Australia Code of Ethics provides explicit guidance around
advertising under its Professional Integrity section, as shown below.
Fitness professionals may advertise in connection with their professional
practice if the advertising is not false, not misleading or deceptive or likely to
mislead or deceive, is not vulgar or sensational, and does not claim or imply
superiority of the fitness professional over any or all other fitness professionals.
The advertisement for the fitness professional may contain a statement of the
areas of expertise in practice.
Ethics of advertising
Ethics are important in any industry. However, it would be naive to assume
that all or even most commercial organisations always advertise ethically.
In the fitness industry, some gymnasiums have been in the media and in
the courts over difficulties that some people have experienced with their
membership and unethical promotion tactics.
Problems have included significant penalty costs incurred when ending
long-term gym membership contracts, particularly when the penalty was not
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Self-regulation the
process by which industries,
organisations or individuals
commit to meeting a set of
agreed standards or codes. It
is not a legislative requirement
but rather an acknowledgment
that behaviours identified
in the standards or code
represent good practice and
behaviours that fall outside
these should be avoided.
Case report
Advertiser
Product
Type of advertisement
Nature of complaint
Date of determination
DETERMINATION
The complaint
Comments made by the complainants in relation to this
advertisement include the following:
I find the advertisement highly objectionable
because it refers to mans genitals in a demeaning and
deprecatory manner in a public forum and also flaunts a
discrimination for membership of this organisation on the
basis of gender.
The arbitrary and flippant reference to male genitalia
is personally offensive to me and is potentially degrading
towards men in general.
The determination
www.advertisingstandardsbureau.com.au
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Convenience of use
Convenience can be a double-edged sword. On the one hand, having fitness
facilities and services conveniently located takes away a significant barrier.
On the other hand, when things are very convenient there is potential to take
them for granted and not access them adequately.
How many people have signed up for fitness centre memberships
and rarely used them? Many of these people continue to maintain their
membership under the misguided belief that eventually they will find the
time or the motivation to use the centre sufficiently.
Similarly, how many people have purchased fitness equipment for their
home only to have it remain in the garage or under the bed? Council clean-ups
often include rarely-used fitness equipment left on the side of the road to be
picked up, recycled or disposed of.
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Cost
Local councils and higher levels of government subsidising costs of
developing and maintaining exercise facilities is one strategy that can work.
For example, building skateboarding facilities in community parks is a
relatively cheap way of providing an exercise option that will be freely used
by large numbers of young people.
Some exercise options, such as skiing, are inherently costly and some are
run as a commercial enterprise. As such, these options will cost money to
be involved in. It is important, however, that communities have a range of
options at their disposal, at least some of which cost little or nothing to do.
Figure 9.15
Our feelings about fitness and exercise are developed over time and they are
influenced by a range of sources. A critical influence is our early experience
with fitness and exercise. Having positive experiences increases the likelihood
of ongoing participation. Negative experiences reduce that likelihood.
For some people, their first exposure to the concept of fitness may have
been completing a battery of fitness tests in PDHPE. While this could be a
positive experience for those who performed well in the tests or found the
tests to be a source of motivation, others may have felt humiliated or been
demoralised by failing in front of their peers. These early feelings can be
perpetuated and, in the case of negative feelings, be very difficult to change.
The concept of exercise has become associated with undertaking physical
exertion and experiencing related pain and fatigue in pursuit of fitness.
Some people are inspired by this concept, whereas others find it unpleasant.
This has led to the promotion of physical activity as the dominant concept in
improving health.
Fitness and exercise are still clearly linked,
however, the term physical activity implies
potential for the activity to be undertaken at a
lower level of intensity, for it to be an enjoyable
experience, and for the intended outcome to be
enhanced health and wellbeing, not necessarily
enhancing fitness.
Exercise as a priority
When we place a high priority on something,
we usually make adequate time for it. If we
truly value fitness, we will find the time and
opportunities to exercise. Perhaps the most
effective strategy for prioritising exercise is to
use a diary. By timetabling regular commitments
to exercise into your diary, you are more likely
to follow through on your commitments.
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Fitness ProleVeronica
Veronica is 78 years old, married, with three adult
children and six grandchildren.
I have always been active and tennis is the
sport I have played consistently since I was a
child. I met my husband at a tennis tournament in
the 1950s and played midweek social tennis with
a group of local mothers while we were raising
our children in the 1970s and 1980s. The children
are grown up now but most of the original mums
still play todayevery Wednesday.
I had my first hip replacement in 1995 and the
doctor suggested swimming was good for the
rehabilitation process. I had never really been
into swimming but I followed the doctors advice
and I quite enjoyed it. When I had my other hip
replaced in 1999, I began swimming again and
I have kept it upevery Friday. A friend from
tennis and I catch the train to the pool, we swim
for an hour and then catch the train home again.
Tennis on Wednesday and swimming on
Friday works out really well from a family point of
view because my husband plays golf on both of
those days.
Figure 9.16
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284
Fitness ProleJosh
Josh is 22 years old and single. He finished his HSC in
2006 and works as an apprentice electrician.
Ive always played lots of sport. At school, sport and
exercise were always organised for you. You didnt have
to do anything, it just happened. I also did lots of sports
outside of school.
Since Ive left school Ive kept up nearly all of my
sports. I surf twice a week and I also play tennis, golf and
Oztag competitively each week. I just cant sit still and do
nothingI get bored. Even when I am at home not doing
anything special I still kick a ball around with my brother
or look for something active to do.
It can be hard to fit everything in with work and
socialising but mostly I manage. When I first left school
I did some tennis coaching but I gave that up when my
fulltime job became more demanding.
Having a drivers licence has made it easier to keep
playing sport because everything I play is fairly local
so I can just jump in the car and be there within 5 or
10 minutes.
Figure 9.17
chapter review
Recap
Exercise involves participating regularly in a structured activity or series of activities for a
sustained period of time, which can improve fitness.
Early experiences with exercise and fitness can influence our feelings about fitness in the
long term, positively or negatively.
Peoples attitudes to fitness change over time and are influenced by transition stages
throughout life.
The fitness industry is expected to earn $60 billion per year by 2012.
For some people, exercise is preferred as a solo pursuit in which ever-increasing goals
are set and a program of exercise undertaken to achieve these goals. For others, the
social dimension and commitment to a team that exercise can have carries a high
priority and, therefore, group fitness activities and team-based games hold appeal.
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Different fitness activities emerge or regenerate from time to time. Their increase in
popularity can increasingly be linked to globalisation and the ease of communication
possible in an era of pay TV, the internet and people becoming more globally connected.
Stand up paddle surfing and Pilates are two examples of this.
Useful strategies to help navigate through the maze of fitness advertising and promotion
include critical literacy, questioning, checking credentials and seeking references from
reliable sources.
Common strategies used to advertise and promote fitness products, services and
facilities include offering free trials, offering a free fitness assessment, using existing
members to attract family and friends to join up and using celebrity role models.
Legislation, self-regulation and industry codes of ethics are approaches used to help
ensure that information provided to consumers is accurate, and that the product or
service provided is safe and of suitable quality.
Making exercise a priority increases the likelihood that people will, in fact, exercise and
improve their fitness.
Current URL
Useful for
Fitness Australia
www.fia.org.au
www.pcal.nsw.gov.au
www.advertisingstandards
bureau.com.au
Exam-style questions
1 Discuss how attitudes to fitness have changed over time.
(4 marks)
2 Design a profile of someone who would have their fitness needs suitably
(4 marks)
met by Pilates.
3 Analyse ways that fitness product and service providers advertise to
potential clients.
(12 marks)
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10
Outdoor
recreation
Figure 10.1
People participate in
outdoor recreation for
a variety of reasons
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Stress management/relaxation
Stress is a normal and natural part of everyday life; simply learning
to live, getting an education and obtaining a job is stressful. This
level of stress can increase dramatically when you add other issues
such as conflicting relationships, financial difficulty, overcrowding
or urban noise into the equation. If levels of stress become high
and remain unresolved for an extended period, this can result in a
variety of stress-related illnesses such as heartburn, hypertension
and heart disease.
Outdoor recreation offers a range of ways to relax and reduce
stress levels. What makes outdoor recreation such a great tool
for alleviating stress and relaxing is that many outdoor pursuits
can be undertaken by people of all ages and at all levels of ability. If we take
surfing as an example, we often see teenagers surfing alongside retirees in
the morning; then in the evening whilst watching the television we often see
professional surfers competing on huge waves at the world championships.
Figure 10.2
Figure 10.3
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Social interaction
Figure 10.4
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Planning skills
Ensuring maximum fun and safety in outdoor recreation requires some degree
of planning. Whether this is quickly checking your tyre pressure and brakes
before a 30-minute bike ride or the years of planning needed to climb Mount
Everest, the degree of planning is likely to play an important role in the
success of the activity.
Environment planning
The environment plays an important part in outdoor recreation and knowing
how to plan a recreational activity considering all environmental factors is
an important skill in the outdoors. Without this, the enjoyment and safety of
the activity can be compromised. Important environmental factors to consider
prior to partaking in outdoor recreation include:
Weatherchecking up-to-date weather forecasts prior to, and, if necessary,
during, an activity is an important consideration. During overnight camps,
think about getting weather forecasts twice a day, in the morning and
evening. This way you have more notice if bad weather is on the way and
can make appropriate arrangements. In countries like Australia, its not
only the cold and wet weather forecasts that you need to consider, but hot
and dry forecasts should also be treated with caution.
Venuematching the skill level of the group with the venue, by planning
exactly where to go walking, camping, riding or climbing is also an
important consideration. By selecting an appropriate venue, a group leader
can help ensure that some group members are not out of their depth while
others are still challenged.
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Identifying any possible escape routes, should the activity need to be cut
short for any reason, or if a group member becomes ill and needs to be
evacuated.
Identifying which phone numbers should be carried on the trip such as:
local police, hospital, national park offices, home contact numbers for all
group members, equipment rental company and transport company. In
addition, at what times will you contact outside people?
Reconnoitering of the route by at least one group member prior to the trip.
Developing a risk management plan is also an important step in any
emergency management planning. A risk management plan helps to identify
any potential risks as well as actions or precautions to minimise the risks.
A partly completed risk management plan for an overnight bushwalk can be
seen below.
RISK MANAGEMENT PLAN
Leader
John Smith
Activity
Bushwalking
Contact number
04 2222 8888
Location
Total number
of people
Aim of activity
Experience of
participants
Medical conditions
of participants
Medications
carried
Ventolin inhaler
Method of
communication
RISKS
DANGERS
People: attributes
people bring to an
activity e.g. skills,
fitness, health, fears
Asthma attack
Carry inhaler
Equipment:
resources that
impact on the
activity: clothing,
tents, lights,
vehicles, etc.
Inappropriate clothing,
e.g. too much
Inappropriate shoes
Environment:
factors that impact
on the activity:
weather, terrain,
water,
snow/ice, etc.
Hot conditions
Ensure all members carry 3 litres of water and that they drink frequently
Exposed cliffs
Monitor everyone and ensure that all members are at least 2 body lengths
back from the cliff edge
River crossing
(will not be attempted
if flooded)
Swimming
Others
???
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Food
How many meals will I need? For example, 2 breakfasts, 3 lunches,
2 dinners, 4 snack meals.
Will all the food have to be carried? If so, consider lightweight alternatives,
e.g. dehydrated food, 2-minute noodles etc.
Does the food require water to be cooked and will water be available?
How far do you have to carry it?
How is the food packaged and can I leave some of the packaging at home?
(Remember you will have to carry out all rubbish.)
How nutritious is the food?
Is anyone in the group allergic to any foods, e.g. nut allergies. If so, all
nut products should be left at home.
How easy is the food to cook, and how long does it take to cook? The correct
cooking utensils and the right amount of fuel will need to be carried.
Water
How much do I usually drink?
How hot will it be? Extra water will be required in hot weather.
How hard will I be exerting myself? (Extra water will be required if you are
working hard.)
How far or long before water will be available?
Will the water be safe to drink, or do I need to treat it or boil it?
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Table 10.1
Suggested equipment
needed for an
overnight trip
The outer layeris a waterproof and windproof shell. A outer layer made
of Gore-Tex (or similar fabric) will also allow the moisture that is being
wicked away from your body by the inner and middle layers to escape.
Using a combination of these layers, it is possible to stay warm and dry in
all conditions in Australia.
Clothing
Personal equipment
Group equipment
Beanie
Wide-brimmed sun hat
Thermal gloves
Thermal tops x 2
Thermal pants x 2
Fleece or woollen jumper
Track or trekking pants
Waterproof jacket
Socks
Shorts (quick drying material)
T-shirt x 2 (quick drying material)
Underwear
Waterproof over-pants
Shoes or boots
Sleeping bag
Sleeping mat
Head lamp
Sunscreen
Water bottles (3 litres)
Toiletries
Snacks
Eating utensils
Whistle
Compass
Pack and liner bag
Camera
Gaiters (optional)
Develop checklist of personal and group equipment needed and discuss how the equipment
will be dividing between four group members.
Taking into consideration the stove you will be carrying and the cooking utensils you have,
create a menu for the trip. Then use the internet to find out prices and calculate how much
the food will cost per person.
Using the internet, research the various types of tents available and explain what tent would
be perfect for the trip.
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Campsite selection
Camping in a wilderness setting can be an amazing experience for some
people and a daunting prospect for others. To ensure you get the most out
of a camping experience, it is worthwhile spending time selecting the most
appropriate site to pitch a tent. This valuable investment can not only make
the camping experience more enjoyable for everyone, but it will also make the
experience safer and have less of an impact on the environment.
The initial planning can start at home prior to your trip. This is a good
time to research possible sites, as well as nearby alternatives in case the
scheduled campsite is unavailable. It is also a time to find the answers to
questions such as: Do you need to book or is a permit required to camp there?
Are there any fire restrictions? Is there water available at the campsite? What
is the weather forecast? Is there any specific local information that you need
to be aware of? Information like this can usually be found in guidebooks, on
websites, or in information centres.
Environmental considerationsfire
Is a total fire ban in place?
Is a campfire really necessary?
Is there a plentiful supply of fallen wood?
Have you avoided breaking branches from a standing
tree (as wildlife makes use of them)?
Is there an existing fireplace or fire scar that you
can use?
Will the fire always be attended?
Can the fire be put out quickly if the need arises?
Is the camp fire at least 10 metres from tents (as sparks
can travel a long way)?
When you leave the site, have you remembered that a
fire is only considered out if the ashes are cool to touch?
Environmental considerationshygiene
If toilet facilities are not available, have you assigned a
private toilet area?
Is the private toilet area 50 metres away from any
watercourse and downwind from the campsite?
If washing facilities are not available, have you assigned
a washing area for cleaning cooking equipment?
Is the washing area 50 metres from a watercourse?
When you leave, have you carried all rubbish with you
out of the campsite?
Have you left the area cleaner than you found it?
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Conservation skills
As more and more Australians are heading into the outdoors for recreation,
leisure and sport, we are running the risk of loving our natural areas to
death. To avoid this and to reduce the impact users have on the environment,
several educational programs and camping practices and procedures have
been introduced. Leave no trace camping and minimal impact practices are
two of the most well known of these.
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Respect wildlife
All animals, to some extent, are affected by people visiting their habitats.
Some flee their homes; others are attracted by new sounds and food. Users
of the recreational area must consider this and plan to minimise their impact
and respect wildlife.
Be considerate of your hosts and other visitors
When we use recreational areas, we must consider and respect the rights of
the traditional landowners as well as share the areas with many other users.
Being considerate of these groups enables everyone to enjoy the outdoors.
Describe the procedures you would go through when camping near a stream to maintain the
purity levels of the water in the stream.
Discuss your response if you were out camping with your friends and they wanted to dig
trenches around your tent to stop the rain getting under it.
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Always remember
Be courteous to others
Ethical issues
Simply being in the wilderness has an effect on the environment of that
natural setting. Bushwalking might mean crushing small saplings; mountain
biking around muddy patches could widen the track; rock climbing means
you could leave chalk on a rock face and four-wheel driving could leave deep
wheel ruts in a wet field. These are all examples of harming the environment.
From one persons point of view, they may be able to justify their behaviour
based on a particular situation; from another persons point of view, this type
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Outdoor recreation
of behaviour may be wrong in any situation. These ethical issues are just a
few examples of the many in outdoor recreation. For example, how can we
justify the costs of the development of alpine roads, electrical infrastructure,
chair-lift installation, lift passes, the impact on a fragile environment and the
initial outlay of personal clothing and equipment for
the human pleasure of simply skiing down a snow-covered slope?
When peoples values and beliefs are compared, debate often arises. These
valuable discussions are interesting, as they enable people to hear a variety of
points of view and to develop and justify their own well thought-out ethical
stance on the topic.
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Table 10.2
A variety of ethical
issues in outdoor
recreation
Issue
Navigational skills
The ability to accurately read maps and navigate using a compass are
important foundational skills for many outdoor activities. Whether it is
planning an extended mountain bike ride, sailing to a remote island or even
driving to the trail head the night before you start bushwalking, the ability to
Figure 10.5
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298
navigate can not only save you time, but it is also an important safety skill in
outdoor recreation.
The map (or maps) you bring with you on any trip in the outdoors should
match the journey that you have planned. The type of map(s) you will need
will depend on the type of trip you are going on. For a long-distance cycletouring adventure, a road map may be appropriate; while for a sea-kayaking
trip around Jervis Bay, nautical maps will be required. For many journeys in
the outdoors, you will need topographic maps.
A distinctive characteristic of a topographic map is that the shape of the
Earths surface is shown by contour lines. These contour lines are imaginary
lines that join points of equal elevation on the surface of the land above or
below the mean sea level. Contour lines enable the three-dimensional terrain
to be represented on a two-dimensional piece of paper. They make it possible
to identify the height of mountains, depths of the ocean bottom and steepness
of slopes. An example of how contour lines work can be seen in figure 10.6.
Topographic map a
detailed and accurate graphic
representation of cultural and
natural features on the ground.
Contour lines lines that join
points of equal elevation.
200
40 0
200 300
50 0
60 0
400
500
600
600
30 0
600
60 0
600
500
400
300
200
600
600
500
500
400
400
300
300
200
200
100
Figure 10.6
100
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60
Spur
What it actually
looks like
299
Table 10.3
The five main features
shown by contour
lines on topographic
maps
570
Hill, knoll or
mountain top
When standing
on it
600
Feature
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Spur
Spur
570
57
60
Gully or valley
Valley
560
Saddle
590
Converging
contours
forming cliff
60 0
57
Cliffs
Figure 10.7
The legend on an
Australian topographic map
20
0
350
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300
Grid references
A grid reference states a unique position on a map. A four-figure grid
reference is used to identify which grid square a feature is located in. A
six-figure grid reference is used to locate more specifically the feature to an
accuracy of one tenth of the grid interval.
To work out a four-figure grid reference, you need to know the eastings
and northings on the map. Remember, the eastings are located on the top and/
or bottom of the map, while the northings are located on the sides. The first
two numbers of the grid reference refer to the easting (the vertical line) to the
left of the point of interest. The second two numbers refer to the northing (the
horizontal grid line) below the point of interest. For example, Spot Height 345
in the middle map of figure 10.9 is located at grid reference 91 66. Remember
to always read the eastings first, then the northings.
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30N
0
60 30
W W
30S
60S
Prime meridian
Figure 10.9
60N
60N
30N
30 60
E E
60 30
W W
30 60
E E
30S
60S
EARTHS GRID
LONGITUDE
LATITUDE
68
67
345
66
66
90
91
92
93
94
95
9
8
4 Figure - 91 66
5
4
3
2
1
0
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Map reading
Figure 10.10
Corroboree
Flat
342
226
29
254
200
k
re
Eu
28
377
Ca
Cree
276
pt
ain
27
ur
Sp
358
0
30
Clarke Saddle
Reynolds Saddle
26
300
405
423
25
04
05
06
07
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What is the approximate height of the knoll (or hills) at grid reference?
a GR 045 256
b GR 050 291.
Magnetic compasses
A magnetic compass and a map are designed to complement each other.
While they are both useful tools on their own, when matched together they
can be extremely valuable, even life saving.
While there are numerous types of compasses, they all rely on the
principle that a magnetised needle will point towards the magnetic North
Pole. The most common type of compass for bushwalking is known as a
baseplate compass. Baseplate compasses, like the one shown below, have a
transparent base with a direction of travel arrow and orienting lines marked
on a rotating housing, which enables it to be used as a protractor to record
line of site bearings, to measure grid bearings, or to orientate a map.
To orientate a map with the ground, place the compass on it so that the
side edges of the baseplate are parallel with the vertical longitudinal lines
(or eastings). Turn the rotating housing so that zero is in line with the index
pointer, then rotate the map, with the compass sitting on top of it, until the
red magnetic needle points to whatever the magnetic declination is in that
locationapproximately 12 degrees in NSW. Now the map will actually be
pointing north and features on the map will correspond with the ground.
60
10 0
80
Baseplate
12
0
40
20
180
Orienting arrow
20 0
340
360
Orienting lines
160
22
20
Compass housing
with degree dial
0
14
24
260
280
30
Direction of
travel arrow
Figure 10.11
Magnetic needle
Index line
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Grid bearing
To take a grid bearing, place a compass on a map with the long edge of the
compass along the desired line of travel. Ensure that the direction of travel
arrow is parallel to your desired line of travel and pointing the way you wish
to go as shown in figure 10.12.
Figure 10.12
Starting
point
0
30 0
280
32
24
0
34
26
309
220
360
200
20
40
180
S
0
16
60
80
E
10 0
120
140
Then turn the rotation housing until the orienting arrow points towards
north on the map. The orienting lines in the housing should be parallel
to the vertical longitudinal lines (or eastings). The number on the rotating
housing that is at the index pointer shows the grid bearing. Finally, you need
to adjust the grid bearing to allow for the magnetic declination, shown in the
declination diagram. If magnetic north is left of map north, add the degrees
of the declination to your compass bearing. If magnetic north is right of map
north (as it is in NSW), subtract the degrees of the declination from your
map heading.
Figure 10.13
340
309
360
20
40
30
280
80
W
260
10 0
24
12
0
160
0
14
180
20 0
22
Bearing
60
32
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340
360
305
20
40
24
12
0
10 0
260
Magnetic bearing
80
280
30
60
32
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0
14
160
180
20 0
22
Figure 10.15
Measuring distance
Measuring the distance to be covered on the map is
difficult to do precisely; however, there are a number
of ways to estimate the distance to be covered. One of
the most popular ways is to use a piece of string. Place
one end of the string at the starting point on the map.
Then carefully lay the string out along the intended
route, following the curves of the route as closely as
possible. When the destination is reached, simply mark
the finishing point on the string, straighten the string out
and measure it against the map scale.
340
360
20
40
30
60
32
24
12
0
10 0
260
80
280
0
14
160
180
20 0
22
School
School
My house
My house
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306
Figure 10.17
Walking speed
Southern
Cross
Coal Sack
Achernar
Small Magnetic
Cloud
South
Natural navigation
Besides using a compass for navigation, it is also possible to find directions
using other means, including the stars and the Sun.
The stars in the southern hemisphere can easily be used to find an
approximate location of the South Pole. The first step involves locating the
Southern Cross. Once you have done this, there are three similar ways to
locate the South Celestial Pole and subsequently, the South Pole. It is worth
understanding all three ways, as debate on how to do it often arises around
campfires. Use figure 10.17 to explore each method.
The first way involves extending the long axis of the Southern Cross from
the bottom star four and a half times. This will give you the approximate
location of the South Celestial Pole. From there simply drop a straight line
down to the horizon to locate the South Pole.
The second way to locate the South Pole using the Southern Cross is
to extend the long axis of the cross below the cross. Then draw another
imaginary line starting half-way between the two pointer stars and at 90
degrees to a line joining the pointer stars together. Where the first and second
lines cross is, again, roughly the South Celestial Pole.
The last way to find the South Pole using the Southern Cross is to draw
a straight line between the bottom star in the cross and Achernar (the ninth
brightest star in the whole sky).The South Celestial Pole is approximately
half-way along this line.
The Sun can also be used to locate a bearing. All you need is an analogue
watch (or a drawing of the face of watch with the correct time on it) and,
using the Sun, you will be able to locate north. All you need to do is point the
12 oclock mark to where the Sun is. Then north lies half-way between the
hour hand and the 12 oclock mark. (Note that this only works in the southern
hemisphere).
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Figure 10.18
North is halfway between
the 12 and the hour hand
N
Sun
Point 12
to the sun
12
9
3
6
Thermoregulation
Thermoregulation refers to the human bodys ability to keep its core temperature
within certain boundaries. In normal environments, this temperature is
approximately 37 degrees Celsius; however, in hot or cold weather and with
exercise or illness, this temperature can change. If the bodys temperature
increases or decreases by even a few degrees, serious illness, or worse, can occur.
Heat-induced illness is called hyperthermia, and illness brought about by a drop
in the bodys temperature is called hypothermia. For a full description of these
conditions, please refer to chapter 7.
In the outdoor environment, it is important to be aware of these conditions
and to take precautions to prevent them from happening. Precautions include
wearing the appropriate clothing, staying hydrated, and keeping an eye on
each other for signs and symptoms so they can be treated early.
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Table 10.4
Signs, symptoms and
primary management
of snake bites
Snake bite
Australia has many different types of poisonous snakes. Although some
snake bites can be fatal, the number of people who actually die from them is
relatively low, especially if they receive the correct first aid.
As mentioned in chapter 7, the signs and symptoms of a snake bite will
vary depending on the type of snake and the amount of venom injected.
However, in Australia the treatment remains the same until experienced
medical help is found. An overview of the signs and symptoms can be seen
below. The table also outlines any possible considerations you may make in
a wilderness setting.
Treatment
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Bushfire procedures
It is generally considered unwise to go bushwalking on extreme or even
high bushfire warning days, and it is certainly not wise to go into an area
where bushfires are burning nearby. If, however, you find yourself caught in a
bushfire, the NSW Fire Brigades recommend the following procedures:
Seek shelter in your vehicle or a large body of waterbut never climb into
any type of water tank.
Never run uphill to escape a fire (bushfires spread more quickly uphill).
Try to find an open space such as a previously burnt-out area or rocky
ground, or clear litter away from around you and shelter behind your
backpack or a fallen log.
Stay low to the ground for fresh air and cover up exposed skin for
protection from radiant heat.
Never attempt to run through a bushfire unless it is small with flames less
than 1 metre in height (this should only be done as a last resort).
Use your mobile phone or CB radio (if working) to dial triple zero (000) to
notify the emergency services and the National Parks and Wildlife Service
of your situation and location.
Remember when camping to notify the National Parks and Wildlife Service
rangers of your location and obey fire restrictions.
Flooded rivers
When you are out in the wilderness, you will generally have an idea of whether
the rivers are going to be flooded, as it will be raining or may have just finished
raining. However, sometimes it is possible that a rainstorm has passed upstream
from you and that a river you planned on crossing may now be flooded.
If you come across a flooded river, you need to ask yourself if you really
need to cross it and put yourself and your group in danger. Would it be better
to walk out another way, cross in another place, or even wait until the river
levels drop? Surely it would be better to be hungry and late rather than put
yourself in danger.
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Imagine you are on a day walk in the Blue Mountains and you become lost. Describe how
you would build a shelter using natural materials.
Discuss various prevention strategies you could use to avoid becoming lost on a day walk.
Canoeing
Abseiling
Forward stroke
Site selection
Reverse stroke
Anchor selection
Sweep stroke
Linking of anchors
Draw stroke
Knot tying:
Sculling strokes
Emergency stop
J stroke or rudder
Self rescue
T Rescue
Italian hitch
double fisherman
tape knot
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Leadership styles
Whenever there is a group situation, there is a need for leadership. Whether
it is a captain of a sporting team, a principal of a school, a prime minister of a
country or an organiser on a weekend bushwalking trip, a good leader makes
a significant difference to the wellbeing of the group and the outcome of the
task. All leaders, including the ones listed above, have different styles and
ways of achieving their goals. A good leader will not only be able to identify
their natural leadership style, but also be able to modify their style to suit the
situation. Given the fact that the outdoors is a dynamic environment where a
situation can change quickly, the ability of a leader to modify and adjust their
style is even more important.
The four main leadership styles identified in outdoor recreation are:
Democratic
Democratic leadership is generally considered the most effective leadership
style. Democratic leaders offer advice and guidance to the group members.
They also listen to their group members and encourage their input when
group decisions are being made. Individuals in a democratically led group
often feel important and valued, resulting in increased motivation levels.
A weakness of democratic leadership is that it takes time to make
decisions, and input from inexperienced group members can be incorrect.
In addition, conflict may arise when different points of view are aired.
Laissez-faire
A laissez-faire leadership style is characterised by a very casual leader who
is often disorganised and leaves decisions to chance. This style can promote
leadership opportunities for group members, as they may feel forced to take
charge. This leadership style may be effective when group members are
skilled in the area of expertise; however, it often leads to poorly defined roles
and lack of motivation. It can also result in a dangerous situation developing,
as there may be a lack of guidance when required, for example, at the top of a
cliff or when crossing a river.
Autocratic
Autocratic leaders provide clear instructions for their group members, telling
them what needs to be done, when it should be done, and how it should be
done. With autocratic leaders, there is a clear distinction between leaders and
followers. These leaders make decisions independently of the group, often
allowing little or no input from the group. This style of leadership is often
required in potentially dangerous situations, where accurate decisions need to
made, and made quickly.
In an autocratically led group, members may feel as though the leader is
bossy or controlling, and that thoughts and input from other are not wanted.
This could possibly lead to frustration and conflict.
Strategic non-intervention
Strategic non-interventional leaders actively observe their group members
and step in when dangerous situations or valuable learning opportunities
arise.
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This style of leadership, if used correctly, can promote group decision making,
teamwork and leadership within the group. If, however, the leader delays in
stepping in, or does not identify the need to step in, a dangerous situation
can arise.
Explain an appropriate leadership style for a group of friends heading out on an overnight
bushwalk.
Describe four situations that could arise on a cross-country ski trip where a schoolteacher
may use a different leadership style for each situation.
Discuss what type of leader you think you naturally areand describe why you think this.
Stage 1: forming
During this initial stage, individuals gather for the first time to form a group.
People are generally trying to be accepted by others in the group and avoid
controversy or conflict. Serious issues are often avoided and people tend to
concentrate on routine things such as deciding who does what and when.
This is generally a comfortable stage to be in.
Stage 2: storming
During the second stage of group development, individuals begin questioning
one another as important issues start to be addressed. Some people in the
group may lose patience and minor confrontations usually arise. These often
relate to the workings of the group itself, or to roles and responsibilities
within the group. Some people believe it is good to air their thoughts, while
others may suppress them, however, they may still be there under the surface.
Stage 3: norming
As the second stage progresses, certain rules for the group become established
and the roles and responsibilities within the group become clearer. People in
the group learn to understand each other and appreciate each others skills,
and they begin to feel part of a cohesive, effective group.
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Stage 4: performing
This stage occurs after a group has been together for a while, but not all
groups get to this stage. During this stage, everyone knows each other well
enough to be able to work together. They trust each other and can change roles
and responsibilities almost seamlessly. This cohesiveness allows the group to
direct all its focus towards achieving the task.
Stage 5: adjourning
The final stage of group development is about completion and disengagement
from the task and the group itself. This is where the group un-forms and the
group members go their separate ways and move on.
Figure 10.19
Conflict resolution
With an understanding of group dynamics and of how groups form, it is
possible to see that an important and healthy part of group development is
conflict. Knowing and understanding that conflict happens, means that group
leaders and group members can be aware of it and can put procedures in
place to resolve any conflict quickly. This enables the group to move on
and become more effective.
Team building
Teamwork is a large component of outdoor recreation, and being able to build
effective teams successfully and quickly is an important skill that outdoor
leaders and group members should work towards attaining. It is a skill that
can be constantly refined and perfected as every group situation is different.
Cooperation
The ability to cooperate within a team setting is a skill that does not just
happen, it is learnt and requires practice. It involves knowing how to
communicate tactfully, knowing when to offer suggestions and when to listen
to others. It also requires that members support group decisions, even if they
are not in total agreement with them.
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Discuss why the extra obstacles were included to make the trek harder for the players
what benefit would this have had?
Participating in adventure training activities, like walking the Kokoda Trail, has certain risks,
for example, sprained ankles, malaria, and so on. Debate whether elite sporting teams
should face these risks prior to a long seasonis adventure training worth the risks?
Using the stages of group dynamics, outline a series of situations that may have occurred
on the Kokoda Trail with the Hawthorn players.
Facilitation skills
Group work plays an important part in many outdoor recreational activities,
and being able to facilitate a group experience is an important skill that group
leaders and members should have. A good facilitator will be able to enhance
the effectiveness of a group by developing the processes that groups go
through. This typically includes improving how a group identifies and solves
problems, as well as how a group makes decisions. A good facilitator will
have excellent communication and decision-making skills and have a flexible
approach when dealing with groups.
Communication skills
Good communication involves being able to effectively transfer thoughts,
opinions and information between group members and to other people.
This may sound easy, but like all skills, excellent communication
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Decision making
Encountering problems is, for many people, often an enjoyable part of many
outdoor activities. For others, the decision-making process surrounding
problems can be quite daunting. However, it need not be if you follow certain
steps. The steps involved in the decision-making process are:
1 Identify the exact problem and when it needs to be solved, i.e. is it
important and/or urgent.
2 Gather all the information and facts associated with the problem.
3 Brainstorm possible solutions.
4 Consider and compare the advantages and disadvantages of each solution.
5 Select the best solution.
6 Explain the decision to all involved, and implement it.
7 Reflect on the process afterwards and identify what can be learnt from it.
Flexibility
Being flexible in the outdoors does not just involve altering plans if weather
conditions change, or if a group member becomes ill. It also involves
flexibility on the leaders part to select appropriate group management styles
and approaches. For example, a leader might decide before they meet a
group to take a democratic approach to leadership, however, when the leader
realises that the group is extremely confident and capable they might be
flexible and decide to take a strategic non-intervention approach.
Discuss how poor communication could affect the outcomes of a overnight canoeing trip
give four examples. Outline how good communication would reduce these problems.
Describe how each step of the decision-making process can be applied to a group of novice
bushwalkers who are crossing a waist-deep river.
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Participant readiness
Ensuring that a participant is ready to undertake various outdoor activities
is an important ethical decision that group leaders and individual group
members need to consider. Taking a direct approach and forcing people to do
activities that they may not wish to do can result in negative consequences.
However, giving group members the opportunity to challenge themselves
by letting them decide whether they participate in various activities or not
can be beneficial as it gives the individuals ownership of their decision and
responsibility of their actions.
Another important consideration when looking at participant readiness is
selecting an appropriate activity for that participant. That means considering
the age, fitness, prior expertise and maturity levels of all group participants
when deciding which type of recreational activity is going to be performed,
and where the activity should be conducted. Matching these skills with an
appropriate activity is vital if a safe and enjoyable, yet challenging experience
is to be had.
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy is commonly referred to as the belief in ones capabilities to
achieve a goal or an outcome. For example, a person who cannot ride a horse
would probably have a poor self-efficacy with regard to horse riding. A person
who is a competent rider and who knows that they are skilled in this area
would have a high self-efficacy with regards to horse riding.
A well-planned and directed outdoor recreation experience, with a strong
leader, will have a positive effect on a persons self-efficacy.
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chapter review
Recap
Outdoor recreation can be defined as a wide range of leisure, sport or recreational
activities that are undertaken outside.
People participate in outdoor recreation for a number of different reasons. These can
include, but are not limited to, stress management and relaxation, enjoyment, the
challenge and excitement offered, social interaction, appreciation of the environment or
for health and fitness reasons.
In order to participate safely in various outdoor pursuits, people need to realise
that a number of skills are needed. These include sport-specific skills like kayaking
strokes and map reading, as well as overarching environmental and emergency
management skills.
The environment plays an important part in any outdoor activity. The venue should match
the skill level of the group, and the weather should be monitored before and during
any trip.
A risk management plan should be developed before any trip, as it can help in identifying
any potential risks as well as any actions or precautions that could be taken to minimise
the risks.
The clothing used in outdoor pursuits should follow the three-layer system, as this will
allow for maximum heat retention and cooling efficiency. The system involves a base
layer to wick moisture away from your skin, a middle layer to capture the heat from your
body, and an outer layer to stop the wind and rain.
Leave no trace camping and minimal impact procedures are two educational programs
that have been introduced to help preserve the environment from people who participate
in outdoor recreation.
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Finding your way in a wilderness setting involves both compass- and map-reading
skills. Using a topographic map, one should know how to read grid references, take grid
bearings and identify land features. Using a compass, one should know how to orientate
a map, take a grid bearing and follow a bearing.
Understanding what to do if you are lost, caught in a bushfire or stuck in a thunder storm
is an essential emergency management skill that everyone who participates in outdoor
recreation should know.
Many factors affect the success of a group participating in outdoor recreation. Knowing
and understanding these factors can help to control them and potentially influence the
success of the group.
Current URL
Useful for
www.outdoorcouncil.asn.au
www.lnt.org.au
www.oric.org.au
Wilderdom
www.wilderdom.com
Exam-style questions
Imagine you and three of your friends are about to embark on a three-day walk along
a remote section of the NSW South Coast. As leader of the group, you need to:
1 Outline three specific procedures that you will adopt to help protect the
(3 marks)
2 Identify five possible risks you may encounter during your journey and
(5 marks)
3 Identify and discuss four potential situations you may encounter on the
(12 marks)
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Suggested answers
CHAPTER 1
1 To outline means to sketch the concept in general terms or to indicate its main features.
(4 marks)
2 To explain means to relate cause and effect, to make the relationships between things
(6 marks)
3 To identify means to recognise and name. To investigate means to plan, inquire into
and draw conclusions about. Your answer could include the following:
Choose one health issue relating to young people from the list provided.
List a number of risk and protective behaviours that are related this health
issue. You can find the risk and protective behaviours for each health issue in
this chapter but the lists provided are not definitive. Try to come up with other
behaviours for this issue.
Look at the relationship between the different risk and protective behaviours. If a
person is able to include more protective behaviours in their lives in relation to
this health issue, does that counteract the risk behaviours and vice versa?
Provide an example to show your understanding. For example, concerning mental
health, if a young person is feeling depressed and isolated and is beginning to
engage in risky activities or thinking about self-harm (risk behaviours), the risk can
be reduced if they:
are aware of places they can go to seek help and to talk
have supportive friends and family
can possibly write about their feelings and emotions
have some good coping skills such as problem solving (protective behaviours).
Alternatively, a young persons coping skills could be poor and they do not have
a support network, which increases the impact that risk behaviours can have on
the persons health and wellbeing.
(10 marks)
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Suggested answers
321
CHAPTER 2
1 To outline means to sketch the concept in general terms or to indicate its main
(3 marks)
To answer this question, you need to address two determinants only. The proposed
suggestions will be dependent upon the determinants chosen, but could include
things such as:
Family historywhile family history is a non-modifiable determinant, if a person
is aware of diseases in their family, they can take measures to lessen their risk of
suffering from these diseases. For example, in relation to cardiovascular disease,
they could monitor blood pressure, eat a healthy diet, participate in regular
physical activity; in relation to breast cancer they could conduct regular breast
self-examinations and have mammograms; in relation to diabetes they could eat
a healthy diet, get regular physical activity and monitor their weight.
Mediato modify this determinant, you could deconstruct health messages from
the media, make sure you are an informed and intelligent consumer, improve
health-literacy levels and know the criteria for evaluating health-related websites
and their information.
Genderto modify this determinant, make sure you are aware of the diseases and
illnesses that are common to each gender and their risk factors and put in place
behaviours to lessen these risk factors.
Access to health servicesyou could research health services that are available
in your area and find out how to avail yourself of them; and/or research different
health-related services available online.
Individual knowledge and skillsfor this determinant, you could seek advice from
teachers and other adults for information on various coping skills, and practise
skills such as problem solving and conflict resolution with friends and family to
make these skills easier to use when needed.
(5 marks)
draw out and relate implications. To do this critically, you need to add a degree
or level of depth, knowledge and understanding or questioning to your analysis.
Your answer could include each of the health determinants that needs to be
addressedindividual factors, sociocultural factors, socioeconomic factors
and environmental factors and examples of how each determinant impacts
on the health status of young people specifically from low-SES backgrounds.
Individualattitudes around health may be poor, knowledge and understanding
may be low due to interrelating factors of education.
Socioculturalfamily and peers may not value a healthy lifestyle, if this is so,
they are more likely to believe misinformation from media, and possibly have
low health literacy.
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(12 marks)
CHAPTER 3
1 In order to answer this question you should consider:
(3 marks)
The federal government is responsible for the health of Australia through the
provision of health services and health care and by regulating health products.
The federal government is responsible for allocating funding for preventative and
curative treatment. Establishing policies, such as OH&S, which protect workers
safety; anti-discrimination laws; labelling of food content on food products; and
displaying the effects of smoking on cigarette packaging are some measures the
federal government uses to take responsibility for the health of its people. The
federal government faces many challenges in ensuring all people have the same
access to health care and health services. It is responsible for ensuring equity of
resources and funding.
6/11/09 11:26 AM
Suggested answers
323
The state government has a responsibility to ensure parks, roads and schools
enable positive health behaviours. Maintaining roads to ensure they are
roadworthy for drivers and pedestrians is a responsibility of the state government.
Implementing laws and actions to combat speeding, such as impounding P-plate
cars for those drivers exceeding the speed limit by 30 kilometres per hour is a
way the state government takes responsibility for an individuals health. Another
strategy is changing laws to combat drunkenness and violence through the
implementation of 2 am curfews at certain venues that assists in preventing
drunken violence.
Local governments take responsibility for their local communities by addressing
the various health needs and issues, and by implementing programs and events
to enable and empower individuals. Events such as Battle of the Bands at Ryde
during Youth Week celebrations allow young people to come together in a drugfree environment to play music and feel connected. Providing activities for people
from non-English speaking backgrounds creates a sense of community for those
new to the area.
While the various governments are responsible for the health of the populace
through the development of policies and environments conducive to positive
health, individuals also play a role in adopting these measures to enhance their
own health.
(5 marks)
3 In order to answer this question, you should discuss concepts such personal skills,
6/11/09 11:26 AM
324
(12 marks)
CHAPTER 4
1 In order to answer this question you need to consider the following:
Bones can be classified based on their shape and size. There are five ways to
classify bones.
Bones that are elongated and long in length are called long bones. They are
made of compact bone and contain spongy tissue on the inside; for example,
the humerus.
Bones that are cube-like and mostly made of spongy tissue are short bones.
A thin layer of compact bone, which gives them shape, covers them. The tarsals
are an example.
Flat bones are usually thin, flat and protect organs; for example, the skull.
Bones that are usually complicated in shape and do not belong to one of the
other categories are called irregular bones; for example, vertebrae.
Bones found in the body where tendons pass over a joint; for example, in the
foot, knee and hand are sesamoid bones.
(3 marks)
Blood plays a vital role in the efficient functioning of the body. Four components:
red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma make up blood.
6/11/09 11:26 AM
Suggested answers
325
Red blood cells are responsible for transporting oxygen around the body. They
pick up oxygen from the lungs and transport the oxygen through red blood cells to
various body tissues. If red blood cells did not carry the oxygen to working tissues,
these tissues would die and the body would stop functioning. Red blood cells are
also responsible for carrying waste products such as carbon dioxide to the lungs
for waste disposal. If these waste products are not expelled from the body, the
body would not be as efficient. If you participate in aerobic-based activities over
time, this can increase blood volume and therefore increase the amount of red
blood cells in the body. This can enhance the oxygen-carrying capacity of
the blood.
White blood cells are responsible for fighting infections. They attack and destroy
germs and infections in the body. If white blood cells were not present in the body,
infections would damage the body and make it less effective.
Platelets are the clotting agents for the blood. When a blood vessel is broken,
platelets prevent excess bleeding as they stick to the damaged tissue. If platelets
were not present in the blood, uncontrollable bleeding would occur.
(5 marks)
(12 marks)
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CHAPTER 5
1 Lactate response during a 1500-metre race:
a 1200 metres
b There is less oxygen available for the muscles; a reliance on anaerobic energy
sources for the sprint to the finish; and lactate is not being removed at the same
rate it was produced.
c An appropriate stategy would be active recovery consisting of jogging (as it uses
the same muscles) at a lower intensity to assist blood flow and removal of lactate.
d Heart rate will be elevated prior to the race, in anticipation. There will be a sharp
rise in heart rate during the early stages of the race. There will then be a more
gradual but linear rise in HR approaching maxHR by the end of the race.
(5 marks)
(5 marks)
3 The one-week training program using the FITT principle would need:
(10 marks)
CHAPTER 6
1 a 12.8 m/s
b 4.3 s
(1 mark)
(1 mark)
c 3.0 m/s2
(2 marks)
(2 marks)
2 Centre of gravity must be located above the base of support in order to be stable.
(4 marks)
6/11/09 11:26 AM
Suggested answers
327
3 The legs are relatively dense because of their bone structure, while the rest of the body
has relatively low density due to its air-filled lungs. Therefore, the centre of
buoyancy is located more towards the head than is the centre of gravity.
When suspended in water, the body is pulled up by the buoyant force and down
by the weight force, and rotates until the two forces are aligned one above the
other. Achieving a horizontal float requires the two forces to be at the same
location between the head and toes.
Bending the knees and raising the arms will move the centre of gravity up towards
the centre of buoyancy.
Lifting the hands out of the water will move the centre of buoyancy down towards
the centre of gravity.
(4 marks)
(2 marks)
force is proportional to the force applied and inversely proportional to the mass
of the object. A tennis ball has a much greater mass than a table-tennis ball.
Therefore, the tennis ball must be hit with more force to achieve an equal
acceleration to the table-tennis balls. A large tennis racquet has a larger mass,
and also moves at a higher velocity because of its longer handle length. The mass
and velocity of the racquet therefore give it more momentum, which can be used
to impart a large force onto the ball.
(4 marks)
CHAPTER 7
1 To describe means to provide the characteristics and features of a head injury and
(3 marks)
2 The term distinguish asks you to note the differences between hyperglycaemia
and hypoglycaemia. You then need to make clear or plain (clarify) the management
of each condition. You answer should include the following:
Hypoglycaemia is a medical emergency that arises when a diabetics blood sugar
levels become too low. It is generally caused by missing meals, eating too many
carbohydrate-rich foods, overly strenuous exercise and/or drinking alcohol.
Hyperglycaemia is a medical emergency that arises when a diabetics blood
sugar levels become too high. It can be caused by sickness, infections, too many
carbohydrate-rich foods and/or not enough insulin.
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328
Management for hypoglycaemia involves getting the persons blood sugar levels
up by giving them a quick source of carbohydrate, such as jelly beans, followed by
a longer acting carbohydrate. The person should be monitored and reassured. If
unconscious, follow DRABCD.
Management for hyperglycaemia involves assisting the person to administer
insulin or other medication, giving them sugar-free drinks and seeking medical
assistance if necessary. If unconscious, follow DRABCD.
(5 marks)
3 To explain means to discuss why and how. Your answer should include the following:
(12 marks)
CHAPTER 8
1 To outline means to sketch the concept in general terms or to indicate its main features.
(2 marks)
2 To explain means to relate cause and effect, and tell how. Your answer could include:
(6 marks)
6/11/09 11:26 AM
Suggested answers
329
draw out and relate implications. To do this critically, you need to add a degree or
level of depth, knowledge and understanding or questioning to your analysis.
Your answer should identify your movement medium clearly, relate all your
examples back to that medium, and cover each element of composition and its
component parts.
Spaceanalyse how the use of direction, level, dimensions and patterns/
formations can be used in your chosen medium and give relevant examples.
Dynamicsanalyse how force and flow apply to you medium and give relevant
examples.
Time and rhythmanalyse how beat, tempo and accent, duration, momentum,
pacing and timing can be used in your chosen medium and give relevant
examples.
Relationshipsanalyse the relationships that are evident in your chosen medium
(other people, apparatus or equipment, formations and positions) and give
relevant examples.
In order to make your answer a critical analysis, you need to also provide
information about the impact the manipulation of these elements has on
movement composition and performance in the chosen medium.
(12 marks)
CHAPTER 9
1 Attitudes to fitness are heavily influenced by advances in research, enhanced
(4 marks)
(4 marks)
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330
Having existing members encourage friends and family to join the gym is a costeffective strategy that can be winwin. The member receives a reward in the form
of a reduced cost of their membership and they also have someone to exercise
with. The gym benefits from getting a new member.
Celebrity role models are renowned for being a deciding factor in people choosing
to spend money on their own fitness and to spend it on a particular product or service.
(12 marks)
CHAPTER 10
1 To outline means to sketch the concept in general terms or to indicate its main features.
(3 marks)
2 To identify means to list the risks and to explain means to provide reasons how or why.
(5 marks)
3 To identify and discuss means to list and describe in detail. Your answer should include
the following:
Democratic leadershipgenerally considered the most effective leadership,
although it can be time consuming.
Laissez-faire leadershipa casual leadership style, but can be effective when
group members are skilled.
Autocratic leadershipcan be beneficial in potentially dangerous situations when
strong leadership is needed.
Strategic non-intervention leadershipthe leader observes from a distance
and steps in when valuable learning experiences occur, or when dangerous
situations arise.
(12 marks)
6/11/09 11:26 AM
Glossary
331
Glossary
Abstinence
Acceleration
Acceleration due
to gravity
Actin
Action
Adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) is the chemical compound found in the body that produces energy.
Adrenalin
is a hormone that increases the bodys heart rate and blood pressure. It is
manufactured by the body but can also be produced synthetically.
Advocate
Aesthetically pleasing
Agility
is the ability to change direction rapidly with minimal loss of speed or balance.
Airway
is the means by which the body gets air into the lungs. The airways consist of
the mouth, nose, throat and the bronchial tubes that lead to the lungs.
Anatomical position
is a reference point within the body that is used to describe and locate
body parts.
Anatomy
Appendicular skeleton
consists of the upper and lower limbs, shoulder and hipbones that attach
the limbs to the axial skeleton.
Archimedes Principle
says that the size of the buoyant force is equal to the weight of water
displaced by the body. This means that to maximise the buoyant force,
as much of the body as possible should be kept below water.
Assessment
Average acceleration
Average velocity
Axes
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332
Axial skeleton
consists of the skull, vertebral column and rib cage; it forms the long axis of
the body.
Binge drinking
Body fluids
include blood, saliva, mucus, vomit, urine, tears, sweat, semen, vaginal fluid.
Buoyancy
Bystander
Cardiorespiratory
endurance
Cardiovascular drift
happens when cardiac output is kept constant in the latter parts of prolonged
exercise and is achieved by a slight increase in heart rate as stroke volume
slightly decreases even though workload stays the same.
Cartilage
is a tough, elastic, fibrous tissue found in the body; for example, between
joints, in the nose and in the ear.
Cavitation
is resistance caused by an air pocket behind the object being sucked along in
its wake. This same effect also occurs in water, where fluid is dragged along
behind an object.
Centre of buoyancy
is the point in the body where the amount of volume under the water is
equally distributed on either side. The centre of buoyancy tends to be higher
in your body than the centre of gravity, because of the effects of dense legs at
one end and low-density lungs towards the other end.
Centre of gravity
is the point at which the weight of a body is balanced above, below and on
either side.
Chlamydia
Compact bone
Conscious
Consequences
Construct
Context
Continuous training
Contour lines
Conventions
Criteria
Debilitating
Demeanour
6/11/09 11:26 AM
Glossary
333
Density
is calculated from the mass of an object divided by its volume. Water has a
density of 1 kg/L because 1 litre of water has a mass of 1 kg. If an object is
less dense than water then it will float, as the weight of water displaced will
be greater than body weight; meaning the buoyant force will be larger than
body weight. An object denser than water will sink because the buoyant force
will be less than body weight.
Detrimental
Developing countries
are those with lower-level economies whose citizens are mostly agricultural
workers.
Diabetic coma
is where a diabetic is unconscious due to blood sugar levels being too low or
too high.
Displacement
Distance
Drag
Drink walking
is walking whilst drunk. Drink walkers are likely to stagger onto the road, not
use pedestrian crossings, and may fall asleep or lay down on the road. These
factors increase their risk of being hit by cars and seriously injured or killed.
Dynamic
Elevate
Emergency
Emergency services
Empower
Enable
Epiglottis
is an elastic cartilage that opens to allow air into the trachea and closes when
food goes to the oesophagus.
EpiPen
Ethics
Execution
Exercise
Explicit
Flexibility
Fluid resistance
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334
Form drag
is determined by the size and shape of an object. Objects with lower form
drag have a narrower profile and a tapered shape at the back.
Friction
is a force present between two objects that are sliding past, or tending to slide
past each other. Friction acts in the direction opposite to the movement of the
objects, tending to oppose the movement.
Frontal area
Game strategies
Haemoglobin
are red blood cells, responsible for carrying oxygen around the body.
Health behaviour
Health-enhancing
behaviours
Health promotion
interventions
HIV
Holistic
refers to viewing health as something that involves the whole person (mind,
body and spirit) rather than just looking at an illness or disease.
Holistic approach
Homogenous
Hyperventilation
Hypoventilation
Hypoxia
Immobilisation
Immunisation
Implication
Implicit
Impulse
Incidental physical
activity
Inertia
Infrastructure
is the basic framework of a community; the roads, railways, schools and other
permanent structures.
6/11/09 11:26 AM
Glossary
335
Instantaneous velocity
Intercostal
Interrelated
Interval training
Intricacy
Intrinsic reasons
Joint
Kilopond
Laminar flow
is fluid travelling in straight lines, like flat sheets. Laminar flow of a fluid will
result in that fluid tending to remain travelling in a straight line as it passes
an object, potentially increasing the size of the air pocket behind the object.
Lifestyle
Line of gravity
Manipulation
Marginalise
Mass
Mastery
Mediate
MedicAlert bracelet
Medullary cavity
Melanoma
Mitochondria
is a cell that is responsible for breaking down nutrients to create energy for cells.
Modifiable
Momentum
Mood disorders
6/11/09 11:26 AM
336
Morbidity rates
Mortality rates
Movement medium
Movement phrases
Muscular endurance
Myofilament
is the term for the chains of (primarily) actin and myosin that pack a muscle
fibre.
Myoglobin
Myology
Myosin
is a protein that forms the thick myofilaments of muscle and binds with actin
for muscle contraction.
Natural resource
management
Newton
(also known as the law of inertia) states that a body will maintain a state
of rest or constant velocity in a straight line unless acted on by an unbalanced
external force.
is the law of reaction. When one object exerts a force on a second, another
force is applied back onto the first object, which is equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction to the original force. This law is often stated as every
action has an equal and opposite reaction.
Outdoor recreation
Overuse injuries
occur when repetitive actions place undue stress on muscles, bones and
joints.
Paraplegia/
quadriplegia
Phillips, the
Physical activity
Physiology
Potential
6/11/09 11:26 AM
Glossary
337
Power
Priorities
are the most important or urgent tasks. In a first aid situation, setting
priorities refers to deciding which condition is most in need of treatment.
Proprioception
is an awareness of where the body is in space, and the capacity of the body
to determine where all of its parts are positioned at any given time.
Quadriplegia/
paraplegia
Reinforce
means to strengthen.
Relative
Repetition
Rescue breaths
means breathing for a non-breathing person by blowing air into their mouth
or nose.
RM
stands for Repetition Maximum, which refers to the heaviest load that can
be lifted once.
Rules
Scale
Seizure
Self-regulation
Sense of self
Signs of life
is the process where the thin muscle filaments slide over the thick muscle
filaments to contract.
Social cohesion
is the things that bond people within a society; including tolerance, social
equality and fairness.
Social gradient
is the term used when referring to the link between socioeconomic status
(SES) and health.
Socioeconomic status
(SES)
Speed
Sphygmomanometer
Spongy bone
is the internal layer of tissue within a bone that usually looks like a sponge.
Steady state
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338
Sternum
Stigmatise
Strength
Surface drag
Thermoregulation
refers to the body processes through which heat is gained and lost so as to
maintain the ideal body temperature of approximately 37 degrees Celsius.
Topographic map
Trait
Turbulent flow
Velocity
VO2 max
is the maximum amount of oxygen in millilitres one can use in one minute,
per kilogram of body weight.
Wakakirri Festival
is a national performing and visual arts festival for primary schools that
challenges students to create a story, make an impact and share it with
Australia. Wakakirri means to describe the process of storytelling through
dance.
Wave drag
is produced when an object moves near the boundary between two different
types of fluid (e.g. water and air).
Weight
Wellbeing
Wheels user
6/11/09 11:26 AM
Acknowledgments
339
Acknowledgments
The authors and publisher would like to gratefully acknowledge the following
for permission to reproduce copyright material.
Photographs
Australian Associated Press/AP/AFP/Valerie Hache, 156; Getty Images/
Carl de Souza, 171 centre, /Jon Gray, 261 top left, /Jeff Gross, 142 top, /
Sajjad Hussain, 243 left, /JupiterImages, 166, 173 both, 288, /Manchan, 209, /
Marvin E Newman, 171 right, /Purestock, 10 bottom, /Brian Skerry, 171 left,
iStockphoto/Abejon Photography, 261 bottom left, /akurtz, 77, /allgord, 268, /
Keith Binns, 266, /claylib, 262, /elkor, 221 left, /forgiss, 287 bottom, /Liv FriisLarsen, 205 bottom, /Anton Gvozdikov, 286, /Kevin Jay, 284, /killerb10, 272, /
Rich Legg, 261, top right, /LisaFX Photographic Designs, 217, /Juan Monimo,
283, /monkeybusinessimages, 278, /Perderk, 17 bottom, /POBox, 265, /Daniel
Silva, 243 right, /splain2me, 205 top, /Sportstock, 313; /Alexander Yakovlev,
142 bottom; Laerdal Pty Ltd, 189 top; Long Reef Golf Club, 273; Newspix/Kym
Smith, 66; Photolibrary, 276, /Alamy Images 282, /Buzz Pictures Ltd, 287 top,
/Erik Isaksen, 235 bottom /Stock4B, 222; Peter Richardson, 297; Shutterstock/
Wolfgang Amri, 233 left, /Olga Besnard, 235 top, /Hannahmariah, 228 bottom,
/Alexander Kalina, 221 right, /Kzenon, 37, /Andre Nantel, 270, /Pete Niesen,
233 right, /Orange Line Media, 11 bottom, 54, /Kristian Sekulic, 11 top, /
Marek Slusarczyk, 10 top, /Tracey Whiteside, 38; Sport the Library/AAP
image, 128, /Delly Carr, 131 top, /B. Crockford, 138, /Jeff Crow, 132 right, 221
centre, /Lucie Di Paolo, 134, /Chris Elfes, 228 top, /Carlos Furtado, 141, /
Icon Sports Media, 223, /Tony McDonough, 132 left, /Photosport, 229, /Press
Sports, 140, /Tom Putt, 123, /Steve Robertson/ASP Australasia, 267, /Clifford
White, 261 bottom right.
Other material
Extract from website, The Advertising Standards Bureau, 280; article, Brain
injury victims can seem ok, symptoms delayed, The Associated Press,
19 March 2009, 195; images reproduced with permission of the Asthma
Foundation New South Wales, 60 bottom, 207; performance scoresheet,
Auscheer, 248; article, Talent hunt for next generation of Olympians goes
online, Ausport, 29 April 2009, 137; advertisement, Give your kids the run
around, used by permission of the Australian Government, 63; table data
from the Australian Institute of Health & Wellbeing, 8, 13 both, 14 top, 16
both, 17 top, 27 top, 71, 74; logo, The Black Dog Institute, 61 top; screenshot,
Kids Helpline, Boystown, 47; logo, Cancer Council New South Wales, 61
bottom; cartoon, CartoonStock.com, 50; Triple Zero logo, Commonwealth
Attorney Generals Department, 186; images adapted with permission,
Copyright Commonwealth of Australia Geoscience Australia, 2005,
299, 300, 302; sections from the Bushwalkers Code, The Confederation
of Bushwalking Clubs NSW Inc. 2004, 2956; health promotion posters,
Department of Health & Ageing, 21, 39 bottom; data adapted from Eriksen et
al, 2009, American Journal of Physics, 77 (3): 224-228, American Institute
of Physics/Hans Eriksen, University of Oslo, Norway, 157 all; text extract,
Fitness Australia Code of Ethics, 279; screenshot, Fitness First, 271; diagram
6/11/09 11:26 AM
340
adapted from The Health Promoting Schools Association, 76; logo, The
Heart Foundation, 60 top; article: Affluence at the heart of long life by
Martin Laverty, The Australian, 4 April 2009, 42; article: Trainer steers trek
to triumph; Hawthorn members walk Kokoda track, by Cameron Leslie,
The Chronicle, 30 September 2008, 314; article: Planning a Healthier
Environment, by Anne Moroney, Australasian Leisure Management
Magazine, January/February edition, 823; image and text reproduced with
permission from The National Stroke Foundation, 204; graphs adapted
from The NSW Centre for Road Safety, 15 all; graphs adapted from The
NSW Department of Health, 14 bottom, 64, 208; graph from The Human
Body, edited by Ruth ORourke et al, 2007, Dorling Kindersley UK, 118;
table, Health Promotion International Vol 19, No 1, 123-130, March 2004,
Oxford University Press, 57; poster, Michael Jennings, Origin representative.
Poster created to promote the importance of testicular self-examination
among young men as part of looking after their reproductive and sexual
health. Developed by Penrith Panthers (penrithpanthers.com.au), Andrology
Australia (andrologyaustralia.org) and Family Planning NSW (fpnsw.org.au),
27 bottom; article: On a mission to find the needy, by Heather Quinlan, The
Sun-Herald, 27 July 2008, 80; article: Fitness first: your stories, by Arjun
Ramachandran and Erik Jensen, The Sydney Morning Herald, 7 August 2008,
2745; campaign image, Road Safety Marketing, Road Traffic Authority NSW,
39 top, 65; article: Recapturing the active Australian, by Julie Robotham,
The Sydney Morning Herald, 21 February 2009, 69; article: Deadly danger of
dismissing shots, by Kate Sikora and Clementine Cuneo, The Daily Telegraph,
12 March 2009, 72; illustration, South Australian Metropolitan Fire Service,
200; text extract, St Johns Australia, Australian First Aid, 2006, 189 bottom;
Visualcoaching Pro software <www.visualcoaching.com>, 97 both, 100 all,
101 all, 102 all, 104, 107, 109, 131 centre and bottom; screenshot, Wakakirri
Performing and Visual Arts Festival, 240; graph adapted from Wilmore and
Costill, Physiology of Sport and Exercise, 2nd Edition, 1999, Human Kinetics,
149.
While every care has been taken to trace and acknowledge copyright, the
publishers tender their apologies for any accidental infringement where
copyright has proved untraceable. They would be pleased to come to a
suitable arrangement with the rightful owner in each case.
6/11/09 11:26 AM
Index
341
Index
7-stage abdominal test 1289
abdominal injuries 203
acceleration 1601
due to gravity 1734
actin 104
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) 108
administering first aid, see also first aid
infection control and protection
21314
legal and moral dilemmas 21416
physical environment 21213
support following first aid 21617
adolescence 1819, see also health of
young people
adrenalin 207
advertising and fitness 27780
Advertising Standards Bureau (ASB) 280
advocacy 53
aerobic
fitness, see cardiorespiratory
endurance
training 1458
aerobics 244, 253, 267
agility 1401
airway 188
alcohol consumption
and abuse 845
and health of young people 4850
alternate hand wall toss test 142
anaerobic training 1458
anaphylaxis 2078
anatomical position 91
anatomy 91
apparatus and equipment 236
appendicular skeleton 946
appraising composing and performing
24754
aquarobics 267
Archimedes Principle 167
arm over and under test 1334
arteries 116
asthma 21, 207
Asthma Foundation NSW 60
Astrand submaximal test 124
Australian Government Department of
Health and Ageing 62
Australian Institute of Health and
Welfare (AIHW) 8, 1213
axial skeleton 945
balance 1423
and stability 1626
base of support 1646
bearings 3045
biomechanical principles
balance and stability 1626
fluid mechanics 16772
force 17380
motion 15562
bites and stings 209
Black Dog Institute 61
bleeding 192
blood pressure 11819, see also
haemoglobin
body
composition 1347
fat 136
fluids 187
image 234
mass index (BMI) 135
Boot Camp 2701
bowel cancer 745
brain injuries 195
breast cancer 734
breathing 188
buoyancy 167
burn injuries 2001
bushfire procedures 309
camping 293
cancer
bowel 745
breast 734
cervical 75
capillaries 116
cardiac output 1501
cardiopulmonary resuscitation 18991
cardiorespiratory endurance 1207
cardiovascular drift 148
cartilage 92
cavitation 170
centre
of buoyancy 1689
of gravity 1623
cervical cancer 75
chest injuries 202
circuit training 268
circulatory system 11420
cognitive dimension of health 46
community
action 80
facilities 273
groups 589
health services 81
compact bone 93
compasses, see magnetic compasses
composition and performance
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342
6/11/09 11:26 AM
Index
and environmental factors 434
influences, see health determinants
and the media 3940
nature of 67
and outdoor recreation 2889
perceptions of 811
and physical fitness 12038
potential 7
services 81
as a social construct 1011, 4851
and social responsibility 834
health determinants
environmental factors 434
individual factors 326
individual responsibilities 501
interrelationships of 489
modifiable and non-modifiable 456
sociocultural factors 3640
socioeconomic factors 402
through different life stages 467
health-enhancing behaviours 367
health of young people
and alcohol consumption 4850
health status and behaviours 1230
perceptions of their health 8
sexual 17, 267
health promotion
approaches and strategies 6877
definition of 535
interventions 567
Ottawa Charter 7885
responsibilities for 5668
in schools 756
settings for 556
and social justice 856
heart
attack 204
rate 118, 148
structure and function 11517
Heart Foundation 60
heatstroke 210
hepatitis B and C 214
HIV/AIDS 13, 21314
hyperglycaemia 206
hyperthermia 21011
hyperventilation 113
hypoglycaemia 206
hypothermia 21011
hypoventilation 113
hypoxia 115
illnesses, see diseases
immunisations 713
improvising 241
impulse 176
incidental physical activity 261
Indigenous Australians and health 501
inertia 177
343
6/11/09 11:26 AM
344
6/11/09 11:26 AM
Index
sexual health
protective and risk behaviours 28
of young people 17, 267
shock 1923
shoulder girdle 96
signs of life 188
sit and reach test 133
skeletal system 92104
skeleton 95
skills
conservation 2947
emergency management 3079
facilitation 31415
navigational 297307
physical fitness 13844
specific outdoor recreation 310
skinfolds 1356
skull (cranium) 94
sliding filament theory 108
snake bites 308
social
constructs of health 1011
dimensions of health 46
gradient 40
justice 856
responsibility for health 834
sociocultural factors and health 3640
socioeconomic status (SES) 402
space 21927
SPANS 14
speed 140, 15860
sphygmomanometer 119
spin classes 2678
spinal injuries 193
spongy bone 93
stability, see balance and stability
standing backward overhead throw 139
steady state 148
step classes 2678
sternum 93, 189
stigmatise 9
stings, see bites and stings
STOP 190
strength, see muscular strength
stress management 287
stroke 2045
volume (SV) 149
sum of seven skinfolds 1356
surface drag 170
swimming 264
synovial joints 989
systemic circulation 11617
systems
circulatory 11420
muscular 10410
respiratory 11013
skeletal 92104
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