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    estudio sobre slos procesos de la etepa moderna

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    24 views34 pages

    Hampson, The Enlightenment, Cap. 6 y 8

    Uploaded by

    perrociego55
    estudio sobre slos procesos de la etepa moderna

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 34
    THE ENLIGHTENMENT + NORMAN HAMPSON > O _BIDLOTECK Sa, g PENGUIN BOOKS | ee Chapter 6 THE INNER VOICE By the 13nhe scene and philosophical speculation of the Enlightenment scemed to have ended in’ an impase. ‘Chane or the blind determinism of mater in regular bat Biles motion, appeared to regulate the operation of the tnivene andthe dein of man. If metphpa speclton had any meaning tall” which the cepts dened =i served merely to open a window onto the Hank wal of nec ‘brian and ingastive age was not likely vo be coment for Jong with ich» prospect, and in response wo the challenge new atudes were evolved that transformed the terme ih ‘which men thought of themselves and ofthe one of the tmiverse. One of the mot signfeane of thee ade, which forms the subject ofthe present chapter, was the acceptance of the hee legitimate ono: of the head. eis imp, from the ouc,orealiz what this new esmpton dad nt imply, To presenta a revoe agsnt an age of aid intl etal seems to me to betray extrocdary insensitivity towards the vigour of eighteenth-entary ie snd the exe. sent oft speculative thooght. What happened was not tat the arse usurped the postion formed agcuped by the scholar, but hat both turned to dhe emotion forthe guidance they ed pryvouly expected oftheir reson,Scatinascame to be accepted asthe source of kind of knowledge to which ineligenceeoald not amie, anda the arbiter of scion. Bat if feng became pilot, reson remained in command, exept fora few exremists whore shipoeeck dscourged inason “he denon of thee spective roles could never be eta. lbhed wit Galt bot hee was no question of he cimina- tion of reason. However deamataly this new atte may 186 tube seemed to challenge the urbait ofthe Elighenment, both grev from a common sock and both were rooted in che same inclectoa ol, Sensational pychology bad always inised that knowledge eame fom the sens, tht the ‘were the winds which alone could dive the ship Forward, even if their ences might overwhelm it. Conversely, the new eit of enbliy, though it emphasized confit and ferent dibarmony in man and uate, remained tue tothe TE. prondnl eed witia which al ‘ania sprains could be econeled. Hn fr as one can ncibe a define wartng pont to 8 change inatitade, the mos: appropriate date would be 174, sehen Rouseau wrots his pice canyon the subject set by the Dijon Academy: Fete th eration ofthe ar and ses 4s conte tthe refinement of mera. In other words, the ‘rescton” against the Enlightenment preceded mom of the inajr works of the Enlightenment fl in fc, che next teeny years ssw 2 dialogue between Rouse and his fpponcasin France, with Kins of «new outook in England, fh 2s Bake’ Philosophie Engr na the Oni of ou Hess Of the Suline andthe Beau 1736) and Sterae’s Sentinel Journey (1768). ‘The torch was then passed to Germany where 4 natonal rary revival at fe invoked the authority of French rebel rh as Diderot and Rossa, inthe nruggle to fice itelf fom the domination of French clase, The todal and politea climate across the Rhine may have con trbuted to give the ensuing Sm and Drang ovement Shri note of anarchic protest which was unique to Germany nd soon ed Goethe and Seiler to break aay. By the dine ofthe Freach Revolution the cult of snailty had spread ver iuch of westem Enrope. In France sone there were seventy edons of Rouseatt Nowrelle Halse between 1751 nd 1785. The new emphasis on simpliciy, fedling and the furl vires appeared fa all Kinds of places, fom Court thio at Verses tothe Lyra Ballad of Wordrworth and 387 Coleridge in 1798. Ite philosophical implications were the sobjee of Kant hrce Critiue (1781-90. Itis imposible in a geural survey ofthis kind evento ty to convey the scope and billance of what is sometins refered to as prevomanizim,Fecling is indvial and each of the waite with whom we ate now concerned wat intensely aware of his own individuality, Ashe himself would have een theft to aprec, Rouseau demands a place of his own. Thote is something absurd: about any stempe to imprion within a “tend” che man whose autobiography begins tee my own heart and Tknow men. Lam diferendy smade from any of those [have seen. I date 0 belive that { am difezent from any man who exists If arm no beter, st feat Tam not the same.” We exanot linger over what ws ‘most individ, and perhaps most valable about the mien of the period. Nor isi my intention to write leary hitory that would bring out che ways in which they influenced exch other My sim isto re-create the iatllectual climate in which they lived and to which they conbuted by the manner of Irving and writing. Inevitably, this implies Coneentesdon on ‘hat wat common rather than on what was wnigue ad sks reducing them al to 2 universal medioerty. A second difcalty is o communicate theough resonable prose the ferce insight of pasionate intuition, Emotional ‘writing was characterise ofall the men with whom we are here concemed, whatever their sujet, An earnest, somewhat tombe tone and a peachane fer prophetic densncnton sppcar in elvis’ De Papi (2738). D'Holbach’s Spd ta nature (70) end somewhat acongroously for werk cof materials determinism, with what one can only describe 2 hymn in praise of nature: ‘Comte back, eansway chil come bck to natre. She wil console you, she wil dive fom your hear the fers tha confound you, the anxiety that torments you, the pasions chat unsettle You the hated that ‘keeps you from the men you shuld love Restored to nate 188 a THe rw vores to humanity, to yourself, scater flowers along the road of life... HF che rationalists could we language of this kind, mor pot = and moe moving ~elotience wa ni to be expected from the devotees of feeling. Rowseaa described himself as intoxicated with vietse’and Byron wrote of bit: “His love was paion’s enone: ~ asa ree ‘On ie by lighaing, with ethereal ane Kindle he wat and bated (One cannot analyse writers of this kind without analysing much of the life out of them. As Wordsworth wrote in the Lyris Ballads We murder w dice ‘OF Rousseau in particular, but aso ofthe Goethe of Werther and the Schiller of the Roléer, one can only say that the reader who does not fel the point can never hope to under stand it. This may be true ofall art, bu it is true of the Nowelle Héloe in a way that does not apply to Tom Jones, My ambition, inthis chapter, isnot to imitate the resonance of thee silenced voices but eo tempt the reader to seek it for birnelE In one seme, the new tend of ides re drctly fom the Gillsionment of the Eligenmee abou the provided ore nt ich re fh os on dh, Pope expreed iy “bade SelClove and Sova be te sae, Terra taming ck owed ae Chon see ratte a Etlefeld and of man ara erent torn beren dhry and adr. Huns ius Conrng Nee elgon publi in 179 afer hi dey te Chest Denes whosfin Thewbelecats.tcwsedand poled ‘8 perpen wat i Kiled agin al Bvng, Centr 18 ee fe ie ae en a roe eee oe tos fore then eres Poe rel ween mtn oe earn Reena ete gen ems ee Diderot’s Neveu de Rameau, probably written between 176t Seip om eran sa pee rn a Se sirhoiy nde erin dno Delage enitbowenbe a hiss ability to live amicably with problems which he did not fers Seer eee ‘So gn ty ie efine crete rere So acter eerient rm Seiler never iaet = Such moral agnosticism was completely lento the tem of Rousseau, whos evol agains is ites stepa _—ses—d from moral proges. He was led on to postlate a new kind ‘of conflict, Berween the demands of an increasingly uneqeal and sophisticated society and the natual insnet of is members As the gap between the two widened, the chances 190 ‘of the individoal nding his own fulfilment in what the com- munity regarded as its collective interest became more and more remots. Even if theoretically posible, such a hypottical Coincidence seemed 10 him too flimsy 2 foundation for hhoman morality. At the turning point in the Nowell “lol, when Jolie announces to ber lover, Saint Preux, that fhe has married the Baron de Wolimar in deference to her father's wishes, and intends to be futhfol 10 her husband, Rousseau makes her challenge, head-on, the belief of the Enlightenment that recognition of che long-term identity of personal and collective interest woold sufice to guarantee the Fight action ofthe reasonable man. 1 infer the bean of vr fom a conception of order, nd is met fioen the general cle. But of what weigh i thar aginst my per= sonal ines and at boom, which concens me more, tat should ehicve happins atthe expense of the test of roankind or tha he ‘st of makin shold achieve is hapinest at wy expense? far of| ‘Shame or pnishentpevens may acting badly fo my peronal gin, The ony to conceal my ev deds, Vite wil have nothing with ‘which to eprosch me, ad fam cash in he acy, chey wil ons, icy wel to doin Sparta, not the crime ba the cece, ‘Rousseau mast have been moved indeed if even the standards of Spacta were to be rejected. ‘Whether socal tity was an inadequate guarantee of moral ction, ot whether the long-term self-interest ofthe individal ‘was not necessarily identical with the welfare of the come ‘munity and with civil law, in ether ease the rationalise etic Cf the philosopher whom Julie denounced as “dangerous easoncs” seemed to have fllen apat in thee hands. If they ‘were not to retam, shameficed and hypocritical, to a Church, in whose dogma and revelation they could not believe, they kad to provide themselves with an alternative guide to ation and anew meansof grappling wth problems which empiricism seemed mecely to have explained away. 9 “Thece was surprising conn, fran age which s generally repuded a oe of ressn" that the inlet was a Mant and Gllible instrument forthe exploration of human experience and a treacherous guide to the saloon of mora! problems ‘This atitude war cleaey defined by Marivaux a his nove, LaVie de Martane (1736-41), ‘Thereisno way of communicating comet impresion of peoples 2 et dcr not wen pole to mes I kaow he pope wi ‘whom Iie moch betes thn Toul define them. they ate ene tien beings 0 complied and sn peelydfned it my dough confess inage ay oon a it Estas on ther; U don't ow how {0 approach them to expren what hey ae. They ae in me, bat not scesible to me... There seem t0 mea thotsind oceion when sy oul knows mote thant can ll and bass pre of is own which Bef sopcior vo my everyday oe. seen © me oo tht men are far supetice wall he books they write, achltinam’s dost omnicef ron wer to taken up, in one way or another, by writersof very diferent stool: Maaane Beal tthe ton: “So fram com ‘cemmed, believe that only feling can give ws reliable informa tion about ourselves and that we must not pot too much rust in what our minds twist o theie own convenience, for they sem t0 me great dreamers’ This attude beeame the theme ‘of many a moral sermon. Diderot claimed, ‘Tei wrong to attribute the eximes of men to cheie pasion its thee se Jodgements that are at fault. The psione always inspire us tightly, for they inspire us only withthe dese for happiness. tis the mind that misleads us and makes us take fle roads” The Christian, Burke, concurred: ‘Men often ace sight from their felings, who afterwards reson but ill on them from principle’ Parson Steme applied the same judgement to hime self. ‘Tan safely say for myself, Iwas never able to conquer any one single bad sensation in my beart so decisively as by besting up a¢ fit as I could for some kindly and. gentle sensation to fight it upon its own ground,” The French 192 snbeli, Chamfort towards the nd ofthe cenary,expesed {os sila viewpoine inthe preado-amthropologied terms that Routes hd popularized. in the present at of rocey, dan secms to me to Be more coerpted by his reaton han By Fis pusions. His pons (1 nean thre which apperain to primitive man} have precrved, within the social oer, hate Ever fagtens of nar sil emi” Madame Rola, nthe SNgsbiogranby which the wrote while awaiting execution in 1793, den parle! wit the physical wens. “The human tn isnot eld to perceive [ical question] nthe eat Tight of demonstrable proof, But what does proof mater to the sensve soul? Te feling not enough? sing plays the ‘se port in ethics tha motion dors in pin” “Ths supeority ofthe inte power wis not confined to ethics. Even st soree of eat the imagination was ele to be quicker and bolder n perexpion thin plodding reson ‘One would scarcely expeet to find it pres sng, and Iyrally to, in L'lomne maine, but la Metre chimed that ic wat sper o reno a ore of ies in both the scenes an the ats "By ies tering brs the co skeleton of Reason takes on pink and living fe’ Burke hammered Thome the sme mesnge in hs ny on che Sublime andthe Beautfl ‘Whapr fms te soul inward on el tend to concent it foes to Bo reser and ong of cece. “Whenever he wisdom of ot Crestor ined th we dl be std why ing, ine cc oh dig {ote Langan peau peiton fo ren; bt ede iat pen and prope te prevents snipe] Be ender Sndng, nd ever Be wil whch sng pon Ge se and imginton, optvae the sal bef the dang esdy fiero jot wh hem ot pp hem. From Germany, Hamann, the ‘Magas ofthe Now’, gave Tis rypic ase: “Thinking, (ecing and ndersanding all depend onthe heart and fie enthusiasm and operon 195 not merely clsim some indulgence but ate a yeast necesaty to 2 the sul fermenting towards the heroism of philosophy.” Rivatol brought the qsestion down to earth again with the precise economy ofclanical Preach prose. "If there exited on arth a species superior to man, he would sometimes admire cour instinct but ofenscor ot reason.” ‘When Rouscay, made himself the most fervent and cloquent spokesman of this inner voice of consience ot imagination, st opposed to what Keats sis later to deseibe 2s “consecative-fesoning’, hie war therefore ncither an criginal nor at lated voice. What dsinguished him was not merely the pasion of hs advocacy or the persuaivenes of his Iyrial prose, but the insitent vigour with which he examined the problem fom every angle Fac from being the prophet of bind emotional, ras hi cone o acon: ‘modate both heart snd head that made it dificult for im t9 arzive at any fixed conchsion, Inthe Nowelle Hote in Panicular, he was writing at a novelit rather than as Philosopher, and the coaficsing views of his characters prob- ably reflect states of his own mind which he was under no obligation to reduce toa single sytem. Pat of the dif sr fs» le cnn wih te “hort sea sometimes 9 the conscience and sometimes t0 physical pasion, and “reaso’ representing either mechanical erpice- jam ora kindof disinterested “super-ego’. Rouseau’s sat point wa 2 blunt denial of Condes claim that reflection ‘was itself 2 form of sensation. “Perception is feling; com parson sjodgement Judgement and feng ate not the ame thing” Rouse, ike Kant, abo sw that perception alone could confer no tease of obligation towards action that was rot dieeted to persanal advantage. On ths iste, the ero main characters of the Nowele Hilo, Suit Preux and Jali, sre inagreement. God ‘has given us eon to know the good, conscience to love i nd freedom to choot it. "Conscience docs not tellus the ruth about objects but the rule of cur Be, dukes; oct not el us whist we most chink but what we snus dos it des not teach us ight reasoning bt right actions “The problem wa the coc identi othe goal which onsince would provide the fore 19 pure. Sometimes Rowers made consicne the attr, well a he maine spring of action: "Whatever fl tobe right i right What ther I feckto be wrong, wrong. The conience is the Bese ofall cast. Reason deeives ut ony to0 often and we HMke acquired the right 10 rect it ony coo well, but conscience never deceives Jus 3 fe, however, he sisted fn the need to contol the wayward pomptings of he heart by th cool judgement of reson, “Our heat deceiver sina thousand ways and i motives of sexon a always supe, bat reson purrs only wha is goods rules are sr, clear, cauyinexeaton, and it never fs il except inthe kind of eels speculation for which tis not designe” On could inuliply comple ofthe aioe ad naam and Roose’ ‘own atémps fo recone the ro ate not very ef: My rule to trot scotiment rather than reason i confmed bY Fenon itl? Daspit these cbcutes of Rootes thought eling— his gener postion emerges ily clearly. Emil obsrva- tion of exiting society and neither dhe slagon to mon problems nora sense of obliga Gon mien o deve ust duckarge enweleome dic, To Iknow what we should do we mst eons the nee ight’, reaver ev some, sc the innate papigle of jonice and ‘es addr ns Ge. Moral jdgement, th hee words, Sbakepeae by Geman writs, withthe eacendnes of Burke, in his Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of our Hess of the Sublime and the Beautiful (2756), adopted a somewhat similar viewpoint. "Besides the ideas, with their annexed pains and pleasures, which are presented by the sense, the mind of ‘man poseses a sort of creative power ofits own.’ Burke's argument had particular reference to literature: “The ine uence of mos things on our passions is not so much from. the things themselves, as from our opinions concerning them; and these again depend tery much on the opinions of other men, conveyed for the mest part by words only.” One may therefore be affected by a dexcripion of something of which ‘one has no persona expetience, and word: may he combined to create asocistons chat do not exist in nate. “The eeuth is all verbal description, merely as naked description, though never so exact, conveys 30 poor and insufficient an ides ofthe thing described, that it could scarcely have the smallest effect, if the speaker did not callin to his aid those modes of speech that mark a strong and lively feclng in himuelf. Then, by the contagion of our passions, we catch a fre alresdy kindled in ‘another, which probably might never have been stuck out by the object desribed. Lessing's Leon (1766) also reafirmed the privileged status of poetry, 2s compared with painting and sculpture, and Lessing, lie Bure, stressed the evocative character of postr, ‘which left room for the creative imagination ofthe reader develop its gw response. The demand for a new approach to poetry, and hence for a new kind of poetry, wa first satigied in Germany, especially by the lyrical poetry of Goethe. lts triumph in England may perhaps be dated from the appeacance of the Rime ofthe Ancyent Marinee in 3798 Ik was eft to Kant to deaw philosophical conclusions from the change in atsiude towards aesthetic experience. In his Critique of judgement (1790) he suggested that the aesthetic 204 Hose offered a kind of bridge between the worldof phenomena and the nouneval self, Is material was finite, but aesthetic judgement itself was ofa diferent order from ordinary sense impresions, zeferring to a higher order of being “Imagina- tion, 2 productive fculy, is powerfl to crate, asie were, nother nature out ofthe matter which actual nature supplis, By its aid, when ordinary experience becomes commonplace, ‘we frame 10 ourilver new world which, though subjected to laws analogous to those of the natural world, ye is con- stcueted on principles that occupy 2 higher place in our ‘The changed conception of the nature of aesthetic ex- perience made it posible to discriminate sharply berween the Sublime and the beautifil. The latter was what as bar rmonious, 2 source of immediate pleasure, The sublime, how ever, wile azo giving pleasure, defied rales of proportion and invariably catred with it an element of tervor. Burke linked the sublime with the sase of self-preservaton, arising from the ida of psin and danger. For him, in consequence, it was ‘the strongest emotion which the mind is capable of feeling’. Helvétius emphasized the univeesality of the sublime, its appeal to humanity 2s 2 whole, whereas harmony of proportion, on which beauty zelied, wat 2 matter of local convention. But Hlelvéius too, when he came to give a specific ilasration. of the sublime, described sea, night, tempest and lightning in a masive accumulation of what he called "seeret terror’ ‘The pursuit of the sublime in nature is not one theme but the key to many atisades. At its simplest it points merely to a proference for a differencing of senery, Rowseit's taste ‘was to bocome 36 general that iis dificle 6 remember how revolutionary it wat atthe time. "No flat country, however beausifal it may be, ever appeated 10 10 me. [need torrents, rocks, is, dark woods, mountain, ough tacks to climb ap and down, presipices by my side to give me a nie fright! 205 Dchind this change of taste lay a new atitode, which sw in nature not a demonstration of order but an invitation to reverence. “From the jorbiding mountala Fuga” wrote Goethe's Werther, “sroxs the bern plain untrodden by the foot of man, to the end of the unboun eas, he spi ofthe Eremal Crestor can be felt rejoicing over every gran of duse™ Jn other words, the gratification of a sense of the sublime fnvolved both solitude, and the Kind of country that was untouched by man, if not actu fim. The Alps, in Fact, ee one of the symptoms, if not the causes, of the breach berween Diderot and Rousseas, two men who had so much in common, Foe Diderot, «picture of high mountain, ancient forets and immense ruins evoked episodes of elas or religious history. ‘The tar of an invisible torrent ld him to speculate on buses ‘alamites. Everything in nature wae referred to maninsocety, “Man is bom for society... puta man ina fore and he will become ferocious,’ For Rousenu, man only rached his highest insighss when alone and humbled by the savage fore: of tare, Both were alike in thi search for naturel spotanciy, Bue what tmed the one towards scey drove the oer into solicade, Communion withthe soblime in nature led lo toa new conception of religion, which again separated Rouseat and his followers from the materialist and the philosophical Desc Rousseau was no inclined to panthcism and it would be dif ‘ult to define the connexion which he thought to ext be, ‘ween nature and God. To some extent it was a negative ones nature implied the absence of human soccry and of books, both of which Rousseau asocited with artical. feetnce 421 merecleveméss, Alon, in congenl ata suroundings ‘he wat mos awate of his own individuality and of tat ine voice which he bcicved tobe attaned to God. Thit emotional communion, with a deity who was formless but fl, who spoke in tems of flings of guile and virtue rathes thea 206 t through awarencss of logic and order, set Rousseau apart in aye, though hs own wtngs were vo make conve ll Fen snd Eupe fer Alooph poet conform to the religions observance of the county fs which fe found hinslt he was epal ofall dogma, much of wich he regarded with contep, a8 conttry to reson Enotonl Debm of ths ind tack rot move aly i Germany tan in ance, where Roman Cathe dog snd Se enwenched postion of the Church neourged more rem aiGndes once side Rowsea’s elon wih Sou Calis and vaguely Prost oven ad mock to commend ito German Protestant, brought upon nz tnd Wolf Altiooph hs poychlopalappeeach was alo gtr diet, Kat ac, tok up «potion very dose {thar of Rouscas: the whole purpos of eigioa war moa ston and man aa whol fee word agent which iped thereon of oii, For Kaman Rouress, Ci inigy bad-+ pany symbole valoe a the mesenger of doe oh esr othe yo Govpel, which nehe cold scepe Nata lion veyed to each man all that | ae es to is moral dary. Chach membechip might help to Tinores he spc itn tr lense tbs Tepentoo rial civerted men fom tht bate fort thuere the mor law, which they would Sod ia thet own Bears if they were eet find teal Another consequence ofthe chang inthe iat f opinion tras s mote etal an psionae sppoach towards pels Erbin otf ey nn 4s being in.confict ith bis environment implied"that the cool el cn the Inia and is society was suggested tat society must be changed to make it worthy of 207 the individoal, and not vice versa. At the same time beliein an tnderlying natural or providential harmony encouraged all to regatd such 2 restoration of former concord as theoretically posible, Theory could appesr to be Blowing th revolution, but in practice, none ofthe writes wi dre concerned conidered hinnelf tobe mnuch ofa adc ll accepted the sts giana policl fc, and in the lt reso, All were more concemed eo help the individos ind he inner Bulitin the sation ofthe nde en contemporary society was inseparable from the cal of primi The best- known example of this is Rouseaus lament for the lot vees cof natral” society and his long search forthe way bac ~ an anticipation, in terme of humanity at a whole, of what ‘Wordsworth wa later to fel about his own lif © joy! that in ove embers Is something that doth lve, “hat Nature ye remembers ‘What asso five In ths ntance at let, Rouse wat merely emphasing 2 pnt of view shared by mos of hit contemporsies. At soe Eine or another, mos ofthe poi wets of the century Sreedhar hasan society hed degenested fom the bracing ‘Mrornfr of primitive naturel lery vo. ste of opie ‘ated endrvenente palit author and ei conveaton, ‘Ascaty 73, ink Lees pret tan Menten tered ofthe barren ler who avette the Roman Enpite "Thee prope cnmo cual baled bras, thy we Ty oreo, ae te at part sujet to abit les they hve les haul ber tvkich 99 mach in conformity with fenton humanity ahd Tete’ Hevea eh proved sense barometer othe linat of opinion, however contary say kev Be 0 208 fis own way of life and to his foemal philosophical beliefs, In Beep developeds horouglyRouseauit defence ofthe axed democratic andteligeetvrtef the Spartansepub- TE hy become more clized adonsimpeteepebly oe Heche: Beit were and evn tht Tove of Uber =” hac afc Formation every soley, acoring to ‘pe parce station in which finds oly advances more Egil towacds davery? Dept eds to depopo- icon revtion to babar and s new revelation ofthe ‘enel ye. Although Hobach dd aoeadop hs istic Teoma syste del ate, his repadaton of con Eany soc was ss violent a hat of Rousea “The ‘refotery se war ofthe sovereign guns the community SAF of each metber agai he te Man i wicked, not ‘because he is born wicked, but because he is: aan eae rye he 1s eulaved” As 3 mateals, dHolbacs ‘ths were ataran: Verte what ely and consitnly eet Boman beings living in oer” Logi, the com= sana nest shoul therefoe have determined the valut nda But @'olbach wos too mod the man of i So subse oo totais seniment. Hi coneepton Facer ave Hina sandacd of values eternal Soe) 50 hae be cold complain cat in contemporary sony "he ty inkl fete erin a na’ Dis Sol ax Vayge de Bogan, writen 172 sho nor plied before is dexth, was plowphical iry-ale thiol on the reaction of te explores, Doopinvile, co his Siecvey of Taian society, Bouse Rue ad ual feds Fst impeesion of Tai sa new Garden of Ede, {thought companons agreed ia egding tele estoms Stes ope aie geile ipubes of an instinct hat The word vets when wd by eigtenherairy vec a 3 pelea contest, virtalyuntaulabe pbes simplicy,sf Pegemamene and above al tke eae's wig subednation of ik eval intrest tote oma god, 209 5 nlibe because es ot yet dpenrted fat tenon Ue them, Die promt Tainan early Fede prsily bea tas coro aur has ee Exrope inh ans tat oil prc ened a poe Inns rather han ciel ventions For Moray and Ronee, such ‘natural soy epee See communismand th abeace of pinecones ohn ‘The nepatv side ofthis tate of mindisto bere sa ing that polite society in Buoy had scined took nae motional vacnam. As Werther putt, We slog fone colored ul thei noting It “tore edna on’ were to be fOand only in the wneud ag powelexresion tthe ame elng. Gens inngued by thecal” Rouseau'savatene of confit betwen th ind { Sods, hi chatpionship of the forme and ae hae a | finite socty ors beer adated vo hom pga | Heelota and dignity, were therefore stude tha he With macy contemporary ste Fs psc cay of oh rete Giliadon a inevitable ure of med cong fon. He developed this argument at greater leg by Discus a Vor kes fumes oP ed at formes (738) which described he dow proce o See aon and incloded bis fomoum hoaa, Jad the idea of encouing 2 féld and saying ison ot found people simple enough to belene Kin nerfed founder of civil society.’ With the self-delusion of the émigré, Roosean found hi Tah in his native cyte Gog touch of his subsoquent poll wring wats cece nd fever terms of it Mabel view of Ccran dere His Let 3 lent sures space (998), which seh Ns beach wi he psp wed @ Alembar gest I ~S l THs mE vorcn det Genevan culture would benefit fiom the establishment ofa theatre, asthe pretext fora eulogy of Swiss imliiy In which Sparta washld upatan example for Geneva, slthovgh Rousseau was relitic enough to admit that his fellos, countrymen bad pechape not vert enough for their gils to -—rt—t—“—™sh continuedo develop the same themes: the inevitable confice Derween the natwal iasincts of the individual and a society 4s artificial as that of France, and the possibility of at ease reducing this tension in the cae of a mall and celatively ‘uncorrupted socicty which would take Sparta for its model, ‘The conflict which Rouseay and his contemporaries deplored was confict of moral valyes, aot primarily one cof material interests, Helvétivs, itis true, referred to "an stemal seed of hatted berween the great and the small” and Rousseau denounced the dangers of great wealth and great poverty, which be believed to be inseparable. But for sll of them, what mattered most was mot so much the standard of living asthe moral quality ofa sci, as determined by the ‘moral values of its individual members. Rousseau insted that the exentil diference between men and animals wos ‘man's fice will a expresed in positive choice Jule, at the and of the Nowelle Héoie, “does not study any more, she docs not read any more, she cw’. Tn this respes, the contrat between Rousseau and the young Goethe i particdlily sting. Werther’s only positive act is self-destruction, Whereas the entre taining of Emile has the making of °° ~ rational moral choices as is essential object. All the wees 23 present under consideration applied to politics what Burke ‘wrote about learning, “The elevation of the mind ought to be the principal end of all our studies, which if they do notin ome measure effect, they are of very litle service to Us" ‘Theis criterion of political motaiey was the interest of the community asa whole but, lke d'Holbac, they meant what ‘was “really” wefil, aot what was merely of mateal advan. tage om dis pont ofvew, the individual found hi few. dom in purposive moral ation and the moral wear ofr sockty ata whole was the eesion by which sijoecre individual aandards could be judged. Ths moran as what Rousea intended tobe the ena rae sovemmen, Da cont sca), whatever ce been fercson ay ave read into te Rosny fond eam of the idea society compensation for dhe joe communion whch 0 toupinsaly Seay se Bek Personal ie. His cizes entered to's socal eet gh the cranes of mariage. "Wk al ny ees 00d hes endve was eanited as “the tol seam Sch member, with al his eigks, tothe commie nn whole Society now poses one Sel inthe fae, el cman. When ald upon to execs poled gee sch cz hood think only in terms of whos he et tobe the well ofthe community ats whale in aes communal iter and would at once sete te na oxinon 2 he expeeion of his own wil! News Bey sacl bed as ot ggg ta swe Poll anembls operted or could be made gee vat eying, for the eeaton of theese CE ee eseblih the terms on which poll comers ead stengthen nd give ect the litle mon eh i its etsy, inted of frucring and ponereag eo seemed to him to be almost universally the case. cs ui views on police seem to have ben very ie Fo ine | esental objective wat moral action by the individedl. The

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