Etnilised konfliktid.

Pshholoogia vaade
Aune Valk
31.03.2015

Sagedasemad viited
Eriksen, T. H. (2001). Ethnic identity, national identity,
and intergroup conflict: The significance of personal
experiences. In Jussim L., Ashmore, R. D. & Wilder, D.
(Eds.), Social identity and intergroup conflict. (Rutgers
Series on Self and Social Identity, Vol. 3, pp. 42-69).
New York: Oxford University Press.
Tajfel, H. (1982). Social Psychology of Intergroup
Relations. Annual Review of Psychology. Vol. 33: 1-39.

Psychological research in
PLURAL SOCIETIES

acculturation
cultural
preservation

ethnic relations

contactparticipation

conflict and stress

ethnic
attitudes

ethnic
stereotypes

multicultural
ideology

acculturation
strategies
behavioural
changes

ethnocentrism
and prejudices

ethnic
identity

discrimination
mutual adaptation
(Segall et al., 1999)

Ethnic relations
. whenever individuals or groups interact
in terms of their group identifications, we
have an instance of intergroup behavior.
(Sherif, 1966)

Why ethnic relations?

Although contemporary urban ethnicity
cannot be equated with the deeper
attachments and firmer boundaries of less
mobile times and places, the ethnic factors
continue to be significant elements in
most societies (Yinger, 1985).

Groups in ethnic relations

Mobility

Voluntariness of the contact

Voluntary

Involunatry

Sedentary

Ethnocultural groups
(historical minority)

Native population

Mobile
Permanently
Temporarily

Immigrants

Refugees

Sojourners

Asylum appliers

Defining ethnic group

Ethnic group is a group that defines itself as
a group and that shares traditions not
shared with other groups with whom the
group is in contact (De Vos, RomanucciRoss,1982).
Ethnic group is exclusive and ascribed to a
person, i.e. group belonging is only possible
for those who share certain inborn
characteristics (Kellas,1991).

Defining ethnic group

Ethnic group could be seen as historicalcultural group that is characterised by
common biological or linguistic ancestry
(Liebkind,1989).
Ethnic group could be defined as human
population characterised by common
ancestry, culture, myths, historical
memories, that relates itself with a particular
place (homeland) and has ingroup
solidarity (Smith, 1991).

Main traits of ethnic group

Common name;
Myth about common ancestry;
Shared historical memories;
One or more characteristics unique to the
group;
Relationship with a particular place;
In-group solidarity.

Ethnic group is often defined as a

minority group
Yinger (1994): An ethnic group may be
defined as a segment of a larger society
the members of which are thought, by
themselves and others, to have a common
origin and culture, and who participate in
shared activities in which the common
origin and culture are significant
ingredients.

Ethnic/national identity
Ethnic cultural (ethnocultural) identity
Ethnic national (ethnonational) identity
Civic national identity
Civic or state identity

Two opposing theories on

national identity
Primordialist, ethnicist approach
Constructivist approach

Primordialist, genealogist,
ethnicist approach
Herder, followed up by Fichte, Maurras, and
Gobineau.
Identity is initiated by a will to differentiate oneself
from others and that there are objective criteria for
this differentiation e.g. language and culture.
This position is followed by the primordialistic
approach to nations in the 19th century and the
more modern, less radical ethnicist approach in
the 20th century (Armstrong, 1982; Smith, 1991).

Constructivism
Two people are from the same nation when
They share the same culture (system of signs,
ideas, associations, ways of behaviour,
communication) and
They recognise each others belonging (Gellner,
1994).

Nation is politically mature ethnic group

(Connor, 1978).

Constructivism
E. Renan an individual is first of all
rational and moral being and only after
that limited by one or another language, or
is a member of one or another race.
The base of national identity are: the
shared past: heroes, glorious battles,
shared sacrifices; and present feeling of
solidarity and a desire to live together.

Constructivism
Typically, the social construction of an identity
involves a dual process of discovery (or
rediscovery) and creation of such common
[authentic] elements (Kelman, 1997). The social
construction of the identity implies a degree of
arbitrariness and flexibility in the way the identity
is composed (which elements are admitted into it
and which omitted from it), and what its
boundaries are (who is included and who is
excluded). Kelman (2001, p. 194)

Kuidas identiteeti konstrueeritakse?

Eesti nide
EF2: My parents had been deported to
Siberia and therefore their ethnic feelings
were very private and deep. Naturally my
father was angry with this power. But not
with Russians, no. He respected Russians
but was like disappointed in them. We
always had a very Estonian home. As far
as I can remember this sense was
connected to a kind of inner protest,
mutiny...

Eesti nide
We did not have this problem of ethnicity in
our family until the forced collectivisation. It was
really a psychic trauma! From this time on a gap
between Estonians and Russians started to
evolve. (EF1)
All the time we talked at home that Russians
came and what they did then...Always a clear
difference was drawn between us and them;
this boundary has always been stressed in my
family (EM2)

What is the responsibility of academic world in

stidying and talking about ethnic relations?

Why we stress group

differences?

Reaction to external attitudes and threats

Minorities lack a given social status and

therefore tend to stress and enhance the
importance of the ethnic aspect of social
categorisation (Garza & Herringer, 1987)
The phenomenon of over-identification with a
minority group may be a reaction to external
threats and an attempt to defend the integrity of
identity (Liebkind, 1986; Weinreich, 1989).

Distinctiveness draws upon the capacity of

the mind to construe representations of
social reality in contrasts rather than in
differences of degree. To perceive
contrasts is to let the perspective of
difference in one dimension overshadow
the perspective similarity in many others
(Lange, Westin, 1985: 19)

2 main outcomes of social

categorisations
Homogeneous attitude and behaviour
towards outgroups
Seeing outgroup as homogeneous: In this
process members of the outgroup become
undifferentiated items in a unified social
category (Tajfel, 1981, 1982)

How to study: theoretical approaches (Ward,

Leong,2006)
Groups
Directions of
research

Dominant ethnic groups

Non-dominant ethnic groups

Social psychology:
studies on group
relations

Integrated threat theory

(Stephan; Stephan, 2000):
real and symbolic threat,
ethnic disturbance,
stereotypes.

Social Identity Theory (Tafjel

1981)

Instrumental group conflict

model (Esses et al 1998,
2001): stress over
resources+relevant outgroup

Contact hypothesis(Allport, 1964)

Common ingroup identity theory (Gaertner et al 1996)
Cross-cultural
psychology

Interactive acculturation model

(Bourhis et al 1997)

Model of acculturation
strategies (Berry, 1997 jt)

In addition
Ethnocentrism hypothesis (Sumner, 1906;
LeVine & Campbell, 1972)
Realistic Group Conflict Theory: zero-sum
hypothesis (Campbell, 1965)
Model of identity motives (Vignoles et al 2006)
Optimal distinctiveness theory (Brewer, 1991)
Cultural similarity or global status hierarchy
across groups (Ward, Leong 2006)
Multicultural hypothesis (Berry, 2006)

 Hypothesis of ethnolinguistic vitality

(Fishman, 1974, Giles, Bourhis, Taylor,
1977)
BII bicultural identity integration (BenetMartinez et al, 2002)

Social Identity Theory

people engage in positive group
distinctiveness in order to protect,
enhance, or achieve a positive social
identity (Tajfel, 1982, p. 24)

In addition to positive self-esteem,

categorization supports
Justification of discrimination
Simple explanations
___________________________________
Tafjel: Conceptions of outgroup are generated in their
social and historical contexts and then transmitted to
individual members of groups and widely shared through
a variety of channels of social influence. Outgroup
conceptions have at least 3 functions:
* Justification of actions planned or committed againts
outgroups
* Perception of social causality, especially as it related to
large-scale distressing events (inflation, unemployment,
lost war) whose complexity needs to be reduced
* Positive differentiation

Main statements of the theory

For integroup discrimination minimal group
differences are sufficient
Intergroup behaviour is aimed in achieving
biggest difference between the groups
Attitudes and behaviour are related to the
(perceived) legitimacy of the boundaries
Overcoming boundaries
Individual strategies
Collective strategies

Minimal group paradigm

Minimal differences are enough for
creating groups
No need for personal benefit
Relevant is common fate later
connection to group members

Group belonging more important

than individual differences

In case of intergroup discrimination:

the aim is max intergoup difference
Experiments show:
Max joint profit independent of group
membership did not affect sharing of
resources
Max profit for ingroup affected the distribution
of rewards
The clearest effect: attempt to achieve max
difference between the group even at a price
of sacrifising other objective advantages

Illegitimate difference causes

integroup hostility
High threat caused by the outgroups
defence of illegitimate differentials, both
the higher and the lower status groups
showed marked outgroup discrimination;
the lower status group actually reversed
the pattern of ingroup derogation which it
had shown in the low threat condition.
(Brown, Ross)

The kind of discrimination depends

on the boundaries between the
groups
In the no-exit integroup situations there is
also stronger intergroup discrimination in
the case of property for power (i.e.
property which can be used for increasing
the effective exercise of power over
another group) than in the case of
property for use (i.e. property acquired
for direct use by its owners).

Social strategies for changing

categorization
Collective strategies (determined by difficulty
to access the outgroup or strong internal
pressures to preserve ingroup ID or both)
Social creativity:
Change of the group for comparison
Changing the aspect of comparison/ meaning or value
of the aspect

Social competition = ethnic conflict

Individual strategies
Changing group

Can be explained by SIT?

Qualitative studies indicate that language learning by the Russianspeaking population might mean for Estonians not so much national
security but a so-called new ideological loyaltythe adoption of the
liberal-emancipatory mentality that has come to predominate. For
Russian-speaking Estonians, the language requirement, combined
with the individualistic-liberal pathos dominating the Estonian public
sphere, may raise a dilemma, as highlighted by David Laitin (1998):
whether to conform to the language requirement, thus giving rise to
competition within the group, or to reject it and convert ones
linguistic distinction into a collective resource that would enable one
to restore ones self-esteem and to demand special treatment.
(Vihalemm, Masso, 2007)
Laitin, David, D. Identity in Formation: The Russian-Speaking
Populations in the Near Abroad. Ithaca, NY and London: Cornell
University Press, 1998.

Managing ID in low status groups.

Social competition (borders between the
groups are insurmountable and
illegitimate):
Explaining riots in South Africa: school system encouraged
competitiveness (achievement oriented attitutes) while
society was segregated

Justifying, blaming: Finding responsibility

for the social discrepancies in an external
locus of control i.e. in the social system
at large.

SIT: later developments and

criticism
SIT valid only if identity is salient
In addition to self-esteem there are other
motives that explain why people maintain
their low status identity
More integroup comparison leads to better
self-esteem, not vice versa;
As a rule people prefer ingroup preference
not ourgroup derogation;

SIT: later developments and

criticism
For comparison one chooses groups of
moderate similarity;
Self-esteem and self-enhancement are
related in majority not minority groups;
Low-status group members compare
themselves with their group, their groups
present with its past.

Eriksen:

Challenges of ethnic relations in Estonia

Estonian reality is bilcultural not multicultural, two
cultures (not just historical interests and state
politics) are seen as opposite
Lack of tolerance is not considered a problem
Positive Estonian-Russian identity is not common
State identity is highly related to Estonian ethnic
identity, it is difficult to become an Estonian
Integration is seen as assimilation

(2) Hoiakud teise (eesti - vene)

rahvuse suhtes (Integratsiooni monitooring
2008)

Trjuv hoiak

Vahepealne Avatud hoiak

Tallinn (E)

49%

31%

20%

Ida-Viru (E)

22%

59%

19%

Muu-Eesti (E) 33%

43%

24%

Tallinn (V)

9%

40%

50%

Ida-Viru (V)

5%

28%

67%

Muu-Eesti (V) 4%

17%

79%

Eestlaste kitumine ja elulaad on

(Integratsiooni monitooring 2008)

Mitte-eestlaste kitumine ja elulaad

on (Integratsiooni monitooring 2008)

Konfliktide ennetamine ja
lahendamine: 3 teed ja 3 hpoteesi
Identiteet (kattusid, individualiseerimine); vastastikune koost
ja kontaktid
multiculturalism hypothesis: when individuals and societies are
confident in, and feel secure about their own cultural identities
and their place in the larger society, more positive mutual
attitudes will result; in contrast, when these identities are
threatened, mutual hostility will result (Berry)
integration hypothesis: there will be more successful
psychological and social outcomes for individuals and societies
when strategies and policies that support double cultural
engagement (i.e., with both the heritage and national cultures)
are pursued (Berry)
contact hypothesis: greater contact between cultural groups will
lead to more positive mutual regard, under most contact
circumstances (Allport)

I Identiteedi tee (Valk et al 2011)

Etniline identiteet Eestis

Riigiidentiteet Eestis
Eestlasi 958;
Vhemusi: 620, sh venelasi 377 (61%), eestivenelasi 213 (34%)

Estonian national identity among

Estonians

I like to say that I am from Estonia/ of Estonian background.

There is nothing to be proud of in Estonian history. (R)
I am proud that Estonia is known as a successful small country.
For me it is / it would be important to be an Estonian citizen.
I am really satisfied with the achievements of Estonia and
Estonian people.
Seeing the Estonian flag, I have often felt proud.
I do not usually celebrate Estonian national holidays and do not
miss them either.(R)
I feel connected to everybody who speaks Estonian.
I like being both an Estonian and a European./ I like being
related to both Estonia and Europe. (Russian version)
I do not feel deep connection to Estonian land and nature. (R)
_____________________________________
Mean score: 1,2 (scale -2 to 2), all items describe national pride

Estonian national identity among

Russians

Estonia could be more open to other cultures.

In my opinion only ethnic Estonians should live in Estonia.(R)
It does not disturb me that people of different ethnic origins live in Estonia.
An opportunity to belong to several cultures at the same time makes one's
life richer.
A person may belong simultaneously to different ethnic groups.
I like being related to both Estonia and Europe.
In Estonia one should respect different views about history.
In my opinion someone cannot be simultaneously a representative of
Estonian and of some other culture. (R)
I am really satisfied with the achievements of Estonia and Estonian
people.
I am proud that Estonia is known as a successful small country.
_____________________________
Mean score: 0,92 (scale -2 to 2); 8 items descibe multicultural national
identity, 2 items national pride

MC hpotees Eestis: Etnilise uhkuse seosed

riigiuhkuse ja mitmekultuurilise identiteediga
Venelane
Riigiuhkusega
0,04
Mitmekult ID-ga 0,35***

Eestivenelane
0,14*
0,27***

Eestlane
0,65***
0,00

Head uudised:
Seos etnilise ja riigiuhkuse vahel neutraalne vi
positiivne
Seos etnilise uhkuse ja mitmekultuurilise identiteedi
vahel neutraalne vi positiivne
Mtlema paneb: Eestlaste etniline identiteet pea
eristamatu riigiidentiteedist

Mis meid (pigem) hendab?

(1) Arusaam sellest, et inimene vib olla korraga
eestlane ja .
(2) OK, et Eestis elab palju erinevaid etnilisi gruppe
omaette teema, kas kigiga htsust tuntakse
(3) Tore on olla korraga eestlane ja eurooplane (seotud
Eesti ja Euroopaga)
(4) Rahulolu Eesti inimeste saavutuste le
(5) Seotustunne Eesti maa ja loodusega
(6) Eesti kui vike ja edukas riik
(7) Hea olla Eesti kodanik
(8) Eesti phade thistamine

II Multikultuurilisuse hpotees.
G. Nimmerfeldti doktorit

only two of the above mentioned factors

are significantly associated with the
formation of a strong sense of belonging to
Estonia among second generation
Russians.
the perception of assimilative pressure
the diasporic identity considering Russia
the homeland and intending to go to live in
Russia

Eksperiment: eestlaste akulturatsiooniga

seotud hoiakute mju venelaste
riigiidentiteedile
Hpotees: Assimilatiivne suhtumine ohustab
etnilist identiteeti. Ohutunne tekitab
reaktiivset identiteeti

Variant 1
Eestlaste seas viidi lbi arvamusksitlus, mille kigus uuriti inimeste
hoiakuid Eestis elavate vhemusgruppide suhtes. Ksitlusest selgus, et
eestlased peavad oluliseks eelkige eesti keele ja kultuuri silimist.
Teised kultuurid on huvitavad, aga Eesti on liiga vike ja vaene, et
toetada teisi kultuure ja keeli. Kuna Eestis elab alla miljoni eestlase, siis
on eesti keele silimiseks vajalik, et ka kik lejnud Eestis elavad
kultuurigrupid rgiksid eesti keelt krgel tasemel.
Uuringus osalenud petajad leidsid, et kige paremini saavad
klassiruumis hakkama need vhemusrahvuste esindajad, kes kituvad
eestlaste moodi ja ei pa rhutada oma vene, ukraina vi mnda muud
pritolu. Minu soovitus on, et vanemad peaksid ka kodus oma lastega
rkima eesti keelt, ainult siis on vimalik omandada eesti keel vigadeta,
tles ks osaleja. Venelastel ja muudel vhemusrahvustel pole reaalne
pda oma keelt ja kultuuri silitada. Eestis hsti toimetulekuks on vaja
krgtasemel eesti keele oskust ning kahte keelt pole vimalik vrdselt
omandada. .

2. variant
Eestlaste seas viidi lbi arvamusksitlus, mille kigus uuriti
inimeste hoiakuid Eestis elavate vhemusgruppide suhtes.
Ksitlusest selgus, et eestlased peavad eesti keele ja kultuuri
krval oluliseks ka vhemusrahvuste keelte ja kultuuride
silimist Eestis. Eesti kultuur on vike ning seega mistavad
eestlased hsti vhemuskultuuride hoidmise ja arendamise
vajalikkust. Eestis elab le saja erineva rahvuse ning nad kik
on osa Eesti kultuuriruumist. Eesti keele oskuse thtsustamise
krval, tuleks toetada ka teiste keelte ppimist.
Uuringus osalenud petajad leidsid, et ka klassiruumis muudab
pilaste mitmekultuurilisus tunnid palju huvitavamaks. Samuti
on mitmesse kultuuri kuuluvad lapsed tolerantsemad ja
avatumad. Minu soovitus on, et venelased peaksid silitama
vga heal tasemel vene keele oskuse, sest mitmekeelsus on
suur pluss edasi ppimisel ja t leidmisel, tles ks osaleja

3. variant

Eestlaste seas viidi lbi arvamusksitlus, mille kigus uuriti

inimeste hoiakuid Eestis elavate vhemusgruppide suhtes.
Ksitlusest selgus, et suurem osa eestlastest ei pea inimeste
rahvust ja kultuuri esmathtsaks. Kogu see rahvuse ja keele
teema on kuidagi lepaisutatud. Minu arust ei vali eestlased
endale tuttavaid rahvuse jrgi. Juba praegu rgivad noored
omavahel niikuinii inglise keeles. Pole reaalne silitada Eestis
vene keelt ega kultuuri, ka Eesti kultuur on aina enam
globaliseerumas, tles ks ksitletutest. Enamik ksitletutest
leidis, et eelkige peaks ppima keeli, millega maailmas
hakkama saab. Uuringus osalenud petajatel on olnud
kokkupuuteid erinevast rahvusest pilastega ning nad leiavad,
et igaks on omaette indiviid ning kultuur ppeprotsessi
oluliselt ei mjuta. Minu soovitus on valida heal tasemel
rahvusvaheline pe, mis annab vimaluse minna edasi ppima
le maailma, tles ks osaleja.

Tulemused

III Kontaktihpotees (Allport)

Teatud tingimustel gruppidevaheline kontakt
vhendab eelarvamusi:
Vrdne staatus gruppide vahel antud
situatsioonis
hised eesmrgid
Gruppide vaheline koost
Vimude ja seaduste toetus
Positiivne kontakt he grupiga (sber teisest
etnilisest grupist) suurendab ldist tolerantsust

Igasugune kontakt hea

Allporti nimetatud kontakti tingimused pole
hdavajalikud, vaid on hlbustavad, et
kontaktist tekiks positiivne tulemus.
(Pettigrew, Tropp, 2006)

Kokkupuutud etniliste gruppide vahel

(Integratsiooni monitooring 2008)

Kontakt ja avatud hoiak (IM, 2008)

Miks kontakt ei tta?

Krge revus gruppidevahelises suhtlemises
Ohutunne oma identiteedile, heaolule
et kontaktid vhendaksid eelarvamusi, on
oluline vhendada gruppidevahelist revust
(Islam & Hewstone, 1993; Stephan et al.,
2002).
revus vahendab kontakti ja eelarvamuse
seost kui grupikuuluvus on oluline ja
teemana leval. (Voci and Hewstone, 2003)

revus
So hirm ja ebakindlus, mida inimesed
tajuvad gruppidevahelises suhtlemises.
Tuleneb murest, et ei teata, kuidas
kituda, kuidas neid vidakse tajuda, ja
kas ollakse aktsepteeritud.

Grupit 1: kuidas luua kontakte ja

kujundada avatud identiteeti?
13.02. 2014 vttis Vabariigi Valitsus vastu Eesti elukestva ppe
strateegia 2020. Strateegia he tegevusena on kavandatud:
toetatakse muu emakeelega laste pinguid eesti
ppekeelega koolis (petajate tienduskoolitus,
pikapevarhmad, mitmekultuurilisuse pe, kultuurilugu
jmt);
Kujutage ette, et aastateks 2015-2018 kuulutatakse vlja
vimalus taotleda Euroopa Sotsiaalfondist toetust selle
tegevuse elluviimiseks. Te otsustate kooli meeskonnana seda
vimalust kasutada, kuna teie mbruskonnas elab
venekeelseid lapsi, kelle muud haridusvimalused pole vga
head.
Milliseid tegevusi kavandaksite kolmeks aastaks? Melge
petajatele, pilastele, avalikkusele, ppevahenditele. Miks just
need? Kui palju muu emakeelega lapsi viks teie kooli tulla?

Grupit 2: Kuidas avada eestlasi?

Uues limumiskavas on rohkem thelepanu
enamusgrupi hoiakutel Limumispoliitika
ksitlemist laiapinnalise ja kogu hiskonda
hlmava protsessina thtsustati ka
varasemates poliitikasuunistes ja
arengukavades, kuid senise
limumispoliitika peamise sihtrhmana on
nhtud valdavalt venekeelseid Eesti
psielanikke.

Kavandage 1 vi mitu vimalikult

konkreetset tegevust allolevate eesmrkide
titmiseks
Baastase

2017

2020

Avatud hoiakuga
inimeste osakaal
sallivuse
koondindeksi
alusel

eestlased 22%; eestlased 25%;

teised rahvused teised rahvused
36%
37%

eestlased 27%;
teised rahvused
38%

Kontaktide
tihedus eestlaste
ja teiste rahvuste
esindajate vahel
(osakaal, kellel on
olnud palju
kontakte)

eestlased 20%; eestlased 23%;

teised rahvused teised rahvused
44%
46%

eestlased 26%;
teised rahvused
47%