Society for History Education

Partners in a Human Enterprise: Harkness Teaching in the History Classroom

Author(s): Lawrence A. Smith and Margaret Foley
Source: The History Teacher, Vol. 42, No. 4 (Aug., 2009), pp. 477-496
Published by: Society for History Education
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in a HumanEnterprise:HarknessTeachingin
Partners
theHistoryClassroom

LawrenceA. SmithandMargaret
Foley

NewHampshire
PhillipsExeterAcademy,

in Octobera few
U.S. Historyclass, occurring
IMAGINE a particular
1
1th
a
an
enters
few
minutes
grader,
yearsago. Morgan,
earlytofindthe
at
the
oval
table.
teacherand one otherstudent
already
Theyexchange
andthenMorgansays,"So Madisonis a littlecrazyhere,huh?
greetings
He reallydoesn'ttrustthepeople." Morganis referring
to "Federalist
for
the
class.
The
imthe
homework
other
student
#10," assigned
day's
reasons
that
Madison
was
various
worried
about
mediately
suggests
rightly
factions.Theirclassmatesfillinaroundthetableanda coupleask,"What
areyouguystalkingabout?" Morganfillsthemin andsomenewvoices
enterthediscussion."It wasn'ta matterof trustor distrust,"
someone
a
matter
of
"it's
self-interest
and
we
all
have
it." The
counters, simply
to
the
and
class,becoming
document,
quiteengagedbythis,quicklyopens
discussionensues. Somewherewithinthisexchange,theclass learning
began,yettheteacherhad saidnothing.
Visitorsto PhillipsExeterAcademy(PEA) invariablystop outside
classroomsandwatchsuchclassesin sessionwhiletouring
thecampus.
see
discussions
around
oval
tables
and,at
They lively
takingplace
large
first
it
be
difficult
to
well
tell
which
of
the
arethe
glance, might
participants
teachersbecausenobodystandsoutas directing
ortakingpartmorethan
thetextandapparently
anyoneelse. Teachersmightbe lookingthrough
notpayingattention
to theconversation,
ortheymightbe sitting
quietly
TheHistoryTeacher Volume42 Number4

August2009

LawrenceA. SmithandMargaret
Foley

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478

LawrenceA. SmithandMargaret
Foley

awayfromthetable.
takingitall in,orperhapstheymayevenbe sitting
- itdoesnot
Itis a regular
occurrence
forvisitors
toaskabouttheteachers
seemas thoughtheydo muchinthewayofteaching.Whatthesevisitors
is Harknessteaching,
whichis thepedagogyofall history
areobserving
classesand,indeed,ofall classesin all disciplinesat Exeter.
of"HarkIt can be somewhatdifficult
to arriveat an exactdefinition
PotterStewart
nessteaching."In 1964,SupremeCourtAssociateJustice
said aboutpornography
that,althoughitwas hardto define,"I
famously
knowitwhenI see it." The samecanbe saidabouta Harknessteacher's
of "Harknessteaching"
work. Thereare probablyas manydefinitions
ofthiselusiveart. Looselyspeaking,
Harkness
as therearepractitioners
discussionsinclass,finding
waysto
teachingis leadingstudent-centered
to getthemto draw
to makethediscoveriesforthemselves,
getstudents
theirownconclusions,
toteachthemhowtoconsiderall sidesofan argument,andto makeup theirownmindsbasedon analysisofthematerial
theirownsenseof
athand.Harknessteaching
triestodevelopinstudents
for
their
education.
The
teacher
is
the
cultivator
ofthatsense
responsibility
rather
thanthefountofinformation
andanalysis.
ofresponsibility,
Harknessteachingdatesback to thelate 1920s,whenphilanthropist
PEA principal,
withanoffer
Dr.LewisPerry,
EdwardHarkness
approached
thatwould
the
of
Exeter
could
devise
to fundwhatever
program faculty
The
condition
on
this
American
education.
giftwas
only
placed
improve
thattheteachinghadto be newand ithadto be innovative.The faculty
wentbacktoMr.
workedatthischallengeforseveralyearsandeventually
Harknessin 1930witha plantochangeExeter'scontemporary
pedagogy
satinrowsandlistened
classesinwhichthestudents
ofteacher-centered
oftheclass. Instead,theboys(Exeterwas an
tothe"experts"atthefront
at
the
would
sitaroundtablesanddiscussthemateschool
time)
all-boys
Dr.Perryexplainedthevisionofthenew
rial. In a letter
toMr.Harkness,
HarknessPlan:"Thenetresultwouldbe thattheboywouldbecomemore
morereal,andwould
wouldthinkofhisstudiesas something
grown-up,
a compelling
which
he
would
havean interest,
motive,
carryto college.
a drillmaster,
would
not
be
teacherintheconference
The successful
plan
in a humanenterprise."1
buta partner
Whileitmightbe hardto defineexactlywhatHarknessteachingis, it
to discernwhatit is not. It is nota lecture.It is
is notterribly
difficult
nota seriesof Socraticquestions.Harknessteachingputsthestudent,
nottheteacher,at thecenterof developingmeaningfromthereadings.
thisis acceptable.Thereis no one wayof
Whatever
worksto reinforce
andfindwaysofteachingand
must
be
themselves
this.
Teachers
doing
with
andwithin
the
discussions
that
work
their
ownpersonalities
leading
oftheirownschools.
theconfines

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HarknessTeachingintheHistoryClassroom

479

Therehasbeenlimited
workinthefieldofpedagogyinthehisscholarly
thebestworkdonewouldbe SamWineburg's
toryclassroomexclusively;
and OtherUnnatural
Acts? Thereis,however,
HistoricalThinking
much
workon thebenefits
ofdiscussion-based
teachingin general,nothistory
specific,withmanyauthorsof thepracticeavailableto read. Perhaps
thestaunchest
argument
advocatingthispedagogyis inDiscussionas a
WayofTeaching:Toolsand Techniques
forDemocraticClassrooms,by
and StephenPreskill.In a chapterentitled
"How
StephenD. Brookfield
DiscussionHelpsLearningandEnlivensClassrooms,"theypresenta list
ofDiscussion.Amongthemanybenefits
ofFifteenBenefits
theauthors
awarenessofandtoleranceforambiguity
citeare:"It increasesstudents'
andcomplexity.
. . Ithelpsstudents
andinvestigate
theirassumprecognize
It
tions.. . Itencourages
.
.
increases
intellectual
attentive,
living.
respectful
It
.
.
the
for
the
clear
communication
of ideas
agility.
develops capacity
andmeaning.
. . It developshabitsofcollaborative
learning."3
alloftheseideas,debatesaboutthevalueofdiscussion
have
Considering
beengoingonatExeterforseveralgenerations
ofteachers.Itwasnotuntil
thatExeterdecidedto do anything
morethanpractice
however,
recently,
to do in these
thepedagogyof Harknessteaching.Whatwe are trying
to
fewpagesis toconsiderwhatwe do hereas Harknesshistory
teachers,
aboutleadingdiscussioninthehistory
classroomfrom
offer
ourthinking
as teachersat PEA, and to sharewhatwe have learned
ourperspectives
in
Institute.
the
ExeterHumanities
byworking
The ExeterHumanitiesInstitute
In June2000,ExeterlaunchedtheExeterHumanities
Institute
(EHI),
a programdevelopedand designedto consider,dissect,and learnmore
abouttheintricacies
ofleadingstudent
discussionarounda table. Exeter
nottheonlyschoolto haveas itspedagogystudent-centered
is certainly
nordoesitclaimtobe. Theconference,
ledbyfivehistory
and
discussion,
teacherspracticedin leadingdiscusEnglishinstructors,
bringstogether
sion-basedclasses,teacherswhoseschoolsare considering
adoptingthe
a technique
pedagogy,andteacherswhomaybe therenegadeby trying
newattheirschools.As a highschool,we arenotintheposition
completely
toconductresearchoranalysiscomparing
thispedagogytootherequally
validandvaluablewaysofteaching,
noris thatourinterest.
thestudent
atthecenterofthediscussionwas whatthefoundPutting
oftheExeterHumanities
Institute
triedtoreplicatein2000.
ingmembers
was and stillis structured
The conference
to givemaximumopportunity
inHarknessclasses. Thisis important
foreachparticipant
tobe a student
sinceHarknessis experiential
thePEA facbydefinition.
Consequently,

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480

LawrenceA. SmithandMargaret
Foley

ultyleadersdevelopreadingselectionsfromdifferent
disciplinesaround
a centraltopic("Taste"in 2009), whichare thenread as "homework"
beforeeach class duringtheweek. Different
bytheparticipants
pairsof
participants
practiceas teachersfortheclasseachday,guidingdiscussion
all participants
at somepoint
aroundtheassignedreadings.In addition,
to sitaway fromthetableduringclass and act as
have theopportunity
observersoftheactionsandmechanicsofthediscussion.Moreover,in
to engageas stumostclasses,participants
simplyenjoytheopportunity
class. Someobservations
dentsina discussion-based
oftheleadteachers
atEHI arethatdiscussionsofacademicsubjectsarenotterribly
different
betweenhistory
andEnglish,orbetweenhistory
andbiology,orbetween
andanyothersubject.Thereare,forsure,somepartsofteaching
history
thatareuniqueto eachdiscipline,
whileat thesametimetherearemany
in leadingdiscussion.
similarities
PreparingforDiscussion: DevelopingReadingsand Questions
Muchofthesuccessofa class can be determined,
or at leaststrongly
the
students'
before
class.
The
teacher'sselecinfluenced,
by
preparation
tionof thehomework
materialgoes a longway towardsdevelopingan
withsome"tension"
class discussion.Generally,
homework
interesting
makesforthebestdiscussions:different
viewpointson thesame event
workwell,suchas readingsfrombothBritishand colonialaccountsof
theBostonMassacre.
ofthesameevent,oraccounts
andmodern
Contemporary
interpretations
to ponderand
thatarebiasedin someway,givethestudents
something
with
discuss. Mostclassesuse a textbookof somekind,supplemented
itis
Textbooks
can
be
and
and
hence
source
readings.
general dry
primary
In
offset
this
with
courses
to
interesting
supplemental
reading.
important
and/or
do nothavea primary
wherewe readmonographs
text,thesame
that
will
rule
find
discussion.
provoke
Manyofus
general applies: readings
the
students
to
and
on
our
to
annotate,
think,
syllabi encourage
putquestions
material
a
bit
before
come
into
class.
even
write
about
the
they
maybe
Whena syllabushasbeendevelopedandpreparation
beginsfora spemustnexttrytodetermine
wherethestudents
cificclass,theteacher
might
whatquestionstoask? Therearemanydifferent
go withtheinformation:
tohavea
totheindividual
classes,butall requiretheinstructor
approaches
to
remain
and
the
the
of
flexible,
understanding material, ability
thorough
a willingness
controlovereverything
to giveup theidea ofmaintaining
a class
thatmaytakeplace duringa class. We usuallythinkofpreparing
a
intermsof"Whatquestionareyougoingto ask?"andtryto formulate
thesequestopromote
discussion.Sometimes
fewquestionsbeforehand

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HarknessTeachingintheHistoryClassroom

48 1

tionsare fairlybroad,whileat othertimestheyare quitespecific.They

ifever,simplequestionsthatcan be answeredin a fewwords:
arerarely,
such"deadend"questionssearchfora specificanswer,butwillnotpromotediscussion.KenBainwritesin WhatTheBestCollegeTeachersDo,
"In thelearningliterature
and in thethinking
ofthebestteachers,
ques. . Some cognitive
tionsplayan essentialrolein theprocessoflearning.
thatwe cannotlearnuntil
thinkthatquestionsareso important
scientists
whomhe
therightonehasbeenasked."4He goes on to quoteprofessors
inhisresearch.One ofthemostrepeatedsentiments
was
hadinterviewed
stimulate
ourstudents
to ask theirown
that"Whenwe can successfully
forlearning."5
Another
we arelayingthefoundation
professor
questions,
said,"Wedefinethequestionsthatourcoursewillhelpthemtoanswer.. .
butwe wantthem,alongtheway,to developtheirown set of richand
important
questionsaboutourdisciplineandoursubjectmatter."6
In TheJoyofTeaching,
PeterFilenewrites,"As thousandsof studies
thatdepend
. . good teachersdisplayfivecharacteristics
have suggested.
thanon personalskills,"identifying
enthusiless on scholarlyexpertise
the
to
stimulate
and
care.7
For
students,
asm,clarity,
organization, ability
we
would
add
to
these
five
traits
and
discussion-based
listening
teaching,
kindsofquestion.The questions,
theabilityto framethemosteffective
however,regardlessof how good theyare,do notmatteriftheteacher
to the students'commentsand inquiries.
is inflexible
or unresponsive
HermanB. LeonardoftheHarvardBusinessSchool,longknownforits
teachingusingcase studies,writes:
Activelisteningis a vital componentof learningby the discussion
method.If a class is a discussion,theremustbe an exchangeof ideas,
withmessagesreceivedas well as sent. Therecan be greatexcitement
- buttherecan be no
in a classroomwhereideas are merelypresented
areencouraged
to absorbandreflect
discussionunlessstudents
as well as
andsharpened.Forsuch
to speak. The ideascan be expanded,criticized,
thecapacityto listenis a preciousresource.At anygivenmodiscussion,
ofthegroupbutone areengagedin listening.
ment,afterall,all members
criticallistening
Discussionleadersneedto makeitclearthatattentive,
is
a fundamental
partofthegroup'swork.8

Considertheclass on "Federalist#10"mentioned
earlier.We could
as thatone; ofcourse,
onlywishthateveryclass wouldstartas naturally
whenitdoes happenlikethat,we hopethatwe are astuteenoughjustto
letthestudents
theirownmomentum.
continue
However,haditbegunas
a moretypicalclass,theteacherwas readywithan idea ofhowtogetthe
discussionstarted.Fora classwitha difficult
readingsuchas "Federalist
toworkinpairsto
#10,"we mighthavebegunwitha chanceforstudents
Madison'sprimary
andto sharetheirideas as a class,
identify
argument

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482

LawrenceA. SmithandMargaret
Foley

thenintoanalysis.Maybetheywouldbegintheanalysison
proceeding
theirown,butifnot,theteachermighthave asked,"So is he right,
that
largerepublicsare thebest solutionto majorityfactions?"Even with
fromtheteacher,the
Morgan'sclass,whichstartedwithoutprompting
withjustthatquestioninordertogetthe
teacherdidultimately
intervene
class toreacha deeperlevelofanalysisin a timelyfashion.
Thereare varioustypesof readingassignments
that,in turn,require
different
slightly
approaches.For instance,afterreadingtenpages in a
standard
abouttheU.S. entry
intoWorldWarI, itis difcollegetextbook
ficult
toformulate
a questionthatwouldcoverall thevariablesandall the
different
andpositionsthatwentintomakingthedecisionto
perspectives
go towar.A possibleapproachtotheclassmightbe toputa listofideas
and/oreventson theboardfromthehomework
reading,suchas: "race
laborproblems,
economicinequities,
lackofpreparedness
of
riots,draft,
themilitary,
anti-German
ofU.S. populasentiment,
patriotism,
diversity
other?"Wecouldspendthefirst
fewminutes
tion,Progressive
crusaders,
- askinga student
ofclasstalking
aboutthesespecificsubtopics
toexplain
- andthen
theimportance
ofoneoftheseandremind
us significant
details
moveontoa discussionquestionsuchas, "Whatseemstobe themindset
ofthecountry
headingintoWorldWarI?" Or,"How do Progressivism,
A different
and
the
marchtowardswarall fittogether?"
neutrality,
wayof
this
if
would
be
to
ask
the
students
have
doing
they
anyquestionsabout
theideasontheboard,andiftheydo not,assumethattheyhavethedetails
undercontrolandthengo aheadwiththediscussion.
a class,consider
Foranother
thetypicaltextbook
exampleofstructuring
on
Andrew
which
includes
Indianremoval,
Jackson,
readingassignment
A Harkness
theBankWar,Nullification,
andthetariff.
teacher
wouldtryto
as
avoidmarching
the
events
factual
through
asking
questions, thiswould
elicitone or twowordanswers.Instead,we mightask a moreunifying
didAndrewJackson
actwithconsistency
questionsuchas "To whatextent
in
has
chosen
his
term
office?"
The
teacher
theunifying
term
throughout
andnowthestudents
needtoconsider
theirownevidence
of"consistency"
thatterm.Another
andideasthatcouldcharacterize
or support
approach
a wellto
write
a
statement
on
the
such
as a quotation
from
be
board,
might
in an event,ormaybeevena statement
the
knownauthorora participant
some
"Andrew
Jackson
was
a
true
teacher
to
thought:
developed
just spark
man
a champion
ofdemocracy,
andan indisputable
andmoralAmerican,
ofthepeople." The class couldthenturnto considerthisinterpretation.
classthatwouldconsider
the
Usually,thiswoulddevelopintoanenergized
natureof democracy
rather
thanjust a checklist
of events.Additionally,
needtoknowthedetailsoftheeventstomaketheircase
becausestudents
incritiquing
thequotation,
tothetext.
theyneedtopaycloseattention

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HarknessTeachingintheHistoryClassroom

483

The Flow ofClass: WorkingWithUnpredictability

timein
The firstfiveminutesof class are perhapsthemostdifficult
class. Teacherstendto starteveryclass by
leadinga discussion-based
orifthereis any
havequestionson thehomework,
askingifthestudents
thateliciteda reactiontheywouldliketoshare.
issuefromthehomework
herecould includethatthestudents
Reasonsfordifficulty
maywantto
itwas thatthe
different
fromwhatever
talkaboutsomething
completely
hadplanned,oritmayquicklybecomecleartotheteacherthat
instructor
- andiftheteacherwere
thereading
didnotreallyunderstand
thestudents
theclass wouldnotbe able to
to forgeaheadwiththeplannedquestions,
dojusticetothetopic.Worse,theymightbe completely
lost,tuningout,
andlearningitas "fact."
orconfusion
ortakinginmisinformation
an"InvisibleTeacher,"
describes
InHistoricalThinking,
SamWineburg
in
an ethnically
diverse
teacher
ElizabethJensen,an 11th
gradehistory
schoolwhohas setup a debateon BritishtaxationoftheAmericancolonies:
be called
thatwouldconventionally
didlittle
Duringtheseclasses,Jensen
"teaching."She did notlecture;she did notwriteon theboard;she did
thatitis
a worksheet,
notdistribute
initially,
quiz ortest.One mightthink,
whoallowherto sitbackand,inherwords,"playGod."
Jensen'sstudents
adolescents,anyteacherwould
Perhapswithsuch seeminglymotivated
As selfthat
students
aremotivated.
Jensen's
There
is
no
denying
sparkle.
thatitrequired
extra
selectedhonorsstudents
theychosethisclassknowing
work.ButJensen'sstudents,
groups,arenot
nearlya thirdfromminority
inthisandother
inbackground
fromotherstudents
different
dramatically
school
The
urban
schools.
high
theyattendeven
comprehensive
high
large
hasthesamelookandfeelas otherurbanschools- theusualcrackedpaint,
The
thestallsintherestroom.
graffiti
marking
exposedpipes,andscattered
thatJensen
playedonlya smallroleinthiseventis a testimony
impression
ofa Broadway
Forjustas we don'tsee thechoreographers
toherartistry.
a groupofdancers,so we don'tsee
onstageanddirecting
musicalstanding
as herstudents
thehandofElizabethJensen
shapeideasandcraft
arguments
. . Whatallowsstudents
to do so,
oftaxation.
ina debateon thelegitimacy
is up tothem;theyknow
inpart,is knowing
thatthesuccessoftheactivity
theirteacherwill notstepin and save themiftheyflounder.Sometimes
herselfandleta wildgoosechasego
thismeansthatJensenhastorestrain
on longerthanitshould. Butsheknowsshe can'thaveitbothways. "If
itfrombecominga
to prevent
I enterwithanything
morethanregulations
sheexplains,"thentheyare
match.. . or [from]losingstructure,"
shouting
goingto lookto me forall ofit."9
Ifyou have everread about switchesin computers,bravedthelanguage
in a Microsoftmanual,or triedto deciphera "Help" page on theInternet,

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484

LawrenceA. SmithandMargaret
Foley

function
andoperation
youfindthatmuchofa computer's
dependson a
seriesofswitches.To present
thisinan overlysimplistic
image,theinformationentersa computer
andimmediately
comestoa switch.Depending
ontheinformation
andthecomputer
theinformation
settings,
goeseither
"left"or "right"(forlack of betterterms)and thenimmediately
comes
to a new switch,and will eithergo "left"or "right,"
afterwhichcomes
another
ad infiniswitch,andwillgo "left"or"right,"
etcetera,
etcetera,
tum.Eventually,
a nanosecondlater,thecomputer
completes
processing
and outputstheresulting
data,or solution.The nexttimethecomputer
handlesinformation,
itwillprobablynotfoleveniftheinputis similar,
low theexactpathoftheprevioussequence. Regardlessofwhether
the
solutionsaresimilarordifferent,
thepaththattheinformation
takeswill
notbe thesameas itwasbefore.Thissameconceptworkswhentrying
to
ofa Harknessteacher'sbrain.Theteacherlistens
imagineofthefunction
tothediscussionandhas tomakea decision:"Do I stepinhere?"or"Do
I letthemgo andsee whatdevelops?"Iftheteacherdoes stepin,he/she
has to decide,"Do I stoptheconversation
to fillin some
immediately
I
or
"Do
the
conversation
and
background?"
keep
going
just givethem
a quickreminder?"Withthesamehomework
andperhapsthe
material,
samediscussionprompts,
thepathof thediscussionis invariably
going
tobe different
classtoclass,andteachersmustacceptandembracethese
ifthediscoveriesandunderstanding
differences
ofthematerialis going
tobe leftup tothestudents.
Teacherscan prepare,to an extent,
forthese"unpredictabilities"
in a
of
Some
of
our
will
write
a
list
of
critical
events
variety ways.
colleagues
ora quotation
on theboardbeforeclassandthencoveritup priortoclass
starting
bypullingdowna wall map. Shouldtheneedarise,theteacher
cango totheboard,liftthemap,andtheinformation
canthenbe included
in thediscussionwithout
students
willbe askedto
interruption.
Maybe
ofclasstoget"warmed
writeortoworkinpairsforthefirst
fewminutes
to discuss. Alternatively,
handoutswitha
up" beforecomingtogether
or
a
be
class
be
can
before
to
ornot,
distributed,
quotation picture
prepared
A
how
the
discussion
be
written
on
onthe
depending
goes. questionmight
for
boardthatcouldbe usedtorefocusa waveringdiscussion.Preparing
with
different
makes
these
eventualities
approaches
possible
seemingly
randomtransitions
mucheasier.
thepreparation
forclassis,itwillprobably
Whatever
notgo exactlyas
This
is
where
the
need
for
the
teacher
to
let
planned.
go andhavesome
confidence
arises. Witha littlepatience,we findthatoftenthestudents
willasktherightquestion,ordevelopquestionsalongthoughtful
andinthat
lines.
These
not
be
the
or
the
teacher
may
questions topics
teresting

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HarknessTeachingintheHistoryClassroom

485

hadplanned,butifthediscussionis on topicanddrivenbythestudents,
thentheyare gettingsomething
out of it and learningthematerial.In
theteacherhas to letgo. Silences,fearedanddreadedbymost
addition,
morethana moteachersnewto thispedagogy,are quiteoftennothing
areall thinking,
andiftheteacherwereto
mentintimewhenthestudents
willbecomedependent
on thisand
rushandfillthesilence,thestudents
be "letoffthehook."
effectively
In a piece called"GettingFromA to Z: UsingtheHarknessMethod
WithSixthGraders,"HannahJonesof ShadyHill School wroteabout
thisdilemma:
"A," calls outone student.
"B," calls outanother.
"C!" declaresanother.
ofa class to
My 6thgradersandI playthisgameoftenat thebeginning
call outletters
ofthe
settleourselvesandgetinto"groupthink."Students
At
has
to
at
least
We
some
each
student
once.
point
participate
alphabet.
buttherecanbe nopattern
tothe
aretrying
tosaythealphabetsequentially,
Iftwostudents
tobe announced
saytheletter
simultaneously,
participation.
thenwe startall overwithA. My class has beenplayingthisgamesince
andwe haveyettogettoZ. Afterplayingitforabouta month,
September
forthe
I askedthestudents
to writedownfouror fiverecommendations
classthatmighthelpus to getto Z. Theywrotethingslike:
Listen.
Relax.
Let theurgeto speakpass sometimes.
Thinkofthegroup.
Say a letterloudlyandclearly.
We hada class discussionabouttheirsuggestions,
compiledtheminto
a longlist,andposteditintheclassroom.. . Sincethenwe havehadeight
discussionsaboutnovelsand autobiographies
thatwe have
"roundtable"
. . Thismethodhashelpedmeto shutup andletthekidstake
beenreading.
whereI
controlof theclass discussion.Inevitably,
theytakethemselves
hadhopedto go.10

Whensilenceshappen,theHarknessteachershouldtryto determine
arecarefully
why.Is thissilencesimplybecausethestudents
considering
thematerial?Is itbecauseofmyquestion?Is itbecausetheyhaveless
ofthematerialthanI had anticipated?Is itbecausethey
understanding
areexhausted
attheendoftheday? Whatever
thereason,lettheclass sit
forthirty
secondsor so. If nothing
the
happens, teachercan ask "Why
intheblanksofthediscussion.As a class,
thanfilling
thissilence?"rather
can talkaboutwhynobodywas talking.
everyone

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486

LawrenceA. SmithandMargaret
Foley

EstablishingDiscussionHabits
aboutclass mechanics,a fair
To be able to have suchconversations
has totakeplace earlyintheterm.Assumingresponamountoftraining
to
sibilityforthesuccessof theclass does notcomeeasilyor naturally
to whichtheyhave earlierbeen
moststudents;in academicsituations
andresponsibility
tofill
exposed,theteacherpossessesboththeauthority
withknowledge.Moststudents
do notnaturally
thestudents
questionthe
norquestionthetext,nordisagreewiththeirpeerson intellectual
teacher,
andyetthisis exactlywhattheyneedto do inordertohavesucmatters,
cessfulclass discussions.
whoarenewtotheconcept,
Earlyintheterm,especiallywithstudents
timehas to be setaside on a regularbasis to developgroundrulesand
forclass mechanics.Askingthemwhatmakes
commonunderstandings
a successfuldiscussionandthentrying
to modeltheirideasthenextday
All
to
start.
students
havetobe taught,
andthenconis an effective
way
to
to
the
text
discussion
to
find
evidenceto
reminded,
tinually
go
during
Most
students
have
to
be
howtoread
their
taught
support generalizations.
or
at
least
made
aware
of
the
of
impact bodylanguageon
bodylanguage,
all coma discussion.Students
havetobe brokenofthehabitofdirecting
totheteacher.Thepracticesofusingeyecontact
mentsandconversation
withtheirpeersandofusingnamesindiscussionarenotnaturaltomany
forfiveminutes
youngpeople. Discussionsabouttheclass discussions,
attheendofclass,helpto advancethesebehaviorsandplace theonusof
whilealso
successful
class discussionsmoreinthehandsofthestudents,
able
to do this
with
and
the
tools
to
be
them
the
understanding
equipping
teachers
of
the
lower
Some
teachers,
gradeshere,
successfully.
particularly
fortheclasswithrulesofclassexpectations
createbookmarks
developed
bythestudents.Otherclassesdrawup class rulesandpostthemsomewhereintheroom. It is a simplematter,
then,on a regularbasisearlyin
oron thewallandask
thetermtorefer
backtotherulesonthebookmark
howtheyaredoingwiththeirexpectations.
thestudents
Assigninga "pointperson"is anotherway,perhapsat thenextlevel,
theclass.
totakeon theresponsibility
ofrunning
thestudents
forgetting
the
task
of
individual
students
are
On a rotating
basis,
comingup
assigned
withthreeorfourquestionsfortheclassbasedonthehomework
reading.
At thestartof class,thispointpersonasks a questionof theclass, and
a firm
thediscussionbegins.The teacherstillhas tomaintain
hopefully,
handon thetiller,andguidethediscussioninwaysas subtlyas possible,
thefactors
thatthestudents
understand
further
butthisexperience
requires
andhelpfuldiscussion.
thatlead to effective
thanolderstumoreoftenusedwithyoungerrather
Another
practice,

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HarknessTeachingintheHistoryClassroom

487

dents,is to havebriefreadingquizzeson a regularbasis. Ifthestudents

are preparedforthese,thentheyare preparedto discuss. Usually,we
whenthey
allowthemtouse anynotesthattheytookon theirhomework
takethesequizzes,and it seemsthatthisdevelopshabitsof carefuland
Italso encourages
themtowrite
activereadingandbetter
understanding.
andthesequestions
downquestionsthattheyhavewhiletheyarereading,
oftenbecomethebasis forclass discussionthatday. Havingcompleted
thereadingis indeedessentialforsuccessfulclass discussion.
sitaroundthe
discussionwherestudents
Not everyclass is a straight
on
butall theclassesarecentered
thenight'shomework,
tablediscussing
thestudents
beingthedrivingforceof discovery.In oneAncientGreek
weregivenplywoodshieldsandclosetpolesas spearsand
class,students
hadtofigure
outa phalanxbasedontheirhomework
readingandpictures
lastwinter
ofVirgil's
AnAncientRomeclassdrewpictures
frompottery.
underworld
afterreadingBook VI intheAeneid. Oureconomicsclasses
economictheoryand
use case studiesto help thembetterunderstand
"Think
a
an exerciserefined
will
do
classes
Aloud,"
Sometimes,
practice.
where
students
are paired
EHI
after
her
summer
an
here,
by
participant
seen
andsent
that
have
never
a
document
or
before,
they
image
up,given
offfora setperiodoftime.One memberofthepairreadsthedocument
aloud,injectingat any timewhateverideas or questionshe/shemight
own
downanyofhis/her
is silent,takingnotes,writing
have. Thepartner
the
who
is
or
but
not
speaking.
prompting interrupting person
questions,
be vettedor editedin
Thistendsto bringoutideas thatmightotherwise
totheclassroomfor
a regularclass discussion.Whenall thepairsreturn
reactionsand
a
rich
of
there
is
discussion,
body already-stated
usually
the
conversation.
to
DBQs assignedas homework
questions helpshape
for
class
varied
discussion,and generaterecollections
opinions
provide
can bringto thetable.
ofoutsideknowledgethatstudents
Observingand EvaluatingDiscussion
we realizedthatwe had to developmoretangible
WhenEHI started,
a classdiscussion.To do this,over
ofexplaining
andmonitoring
methods
severaldifthecourseofthelasttenyears,we havecreatedandmodified
and
track
of
what
of
a
discussion
ferent
actually
ways watching
keeping
fromexistingworkssuchas C.
Someoftheseweremodified
transpired.
TheArtistry
Education
RolandChristensen's
ofDiscussion
forJudgment:
You
Don't
Understand.
Some of
or
Deborah
Tannen's
Just
Leadership,
behaviors.
onthespottotrytocapture
themwereinvented
Among
specific
devicesarethoseto tracktypesofcomments,
ourvarioustracking
types
of questions,typesof interruptions,
bodylanguage,
genderinteraction,

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488

LawrenceA. SmithandMargaret
Foley

Figure1: Samplediscussiontrackingdevice. A simpleoval designrecords

and interaction
amongstudentsduringa classroomdiscussion;
participation
notations
are addedas desired.
further

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HarknessTeachingintheHistoryClassroom

489

textreferences,
nameusage,
numberofcomments,
lengthofcomments,
itall dependson whatit
lengthof silences,and individualparticipation;
is thattheobserverorteacherwantsto see. The mostcommonofthese
outside
nameswritten
devicesisjustanimageofanoval,withthestudents'
totheirseatsatthetable(see
theshapeplacedinpositionscorresponding
Figure1 foran example).The observersimplydrawslinesfromnameto
name,acrossthe"table"as thediscussionmovesfrompersonto person
in theclassroom.Witha fewminutesleft,thediagramcan be shownto
andtheclassitselfcanbe discussed.Teacherscanpostthese
thestudents
ondifferent
intheclassroomandthencomparediscussions
days
diagrams
theterm.
as moreclassesaretrackedthrough
butrather
topick
is nottoevaluatethediscussion,
Thepointoftracking
in
either
one
class
or
and
look
for
behaviors
trends,
particular
up specific
realizationto see a diagram
acrossseveralclasses. It can be a startling
ofone ofyourclasseswhereyouthought
youhad stayedoutofthediscussionforthemostpart,butsee thatin fact,youtalkedabouttwiceas
theteacher
manytimesas anyofthestudents.Itis also helpfultoremind
somestudents
are habitually
naturalproclivities:
of individualstudents'
needto be reignedin. Havinga pictureto
whilesomestudents
reticent,
mucheasier.
whichyoucan pointmakesdiscussionswiththesestudents
can also be helpfultoremindteachersthattheyshouldnot
Suchpictures
reminders
to back
andto serveas not-so-subtle
be thecenterofattention
to question,to learn.
haveroomtothink,
offandletthestudents
ofthestudents
workaroundthetableinevitably
Somekindofevaluation
has to takeplace at mostschools,and thefacultyat ExeterandtheEHI
have developedmanydifferent
waysto do this. A general
participants
thebetter
ruleis thatthemorefeedbacka teachercan givethestudents,
evaluationsin all of
thediscussionswill develop. We conductmidterm
ontheclass
ourclasses,andthequestionsonthesearecentered
primarily
far?"
"Are
there
discussions."Whathasworkedbestforyouso
specific
exercisesor typesof questionsthatyou would liketo see moreoften?
Why?" "Whatcan we as a groupdo to betterour class discussions?"
do to betterourclass discus"Whatcan you,as an individualstudent,
sions?" "Whatcan Ms. Foleydo to improveourclass discussions?"As
mentioned
earlier,manyofus taketimeat theendof class on a regular
basisto talkabouttheclass discussions.We also tendto givefeedback
noteson returned
to thestudents
on a regularbasis bywriting
essaysor
class!" "We haven'theardyour
quizzes:"Greatquestionin yesterday's
voiceina fewdays- what'sup?" "Pleasecontrol
yoururgetospeakevery
minuteoftheclass. Maybeallow fourotherpeopleto speakbeforeyou
"Listentoyourclassmates!"
reenter
theconversation?"
from
bothExeterandfromEHI, havedevelopedrubrics
Someteachers,

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490

LawrenceA. SmithandMargaret
Foley

forclass participation
so theycan pointoutand discussspecificbehavand
students
have in discussion.
iors,mannerisms, traitsthatdifferent
such
as
Critical
Text
and
Categories
Participation,
Thinking, References,
TableBehaviorcanall be evaluatedanddiscussedwiththestudent.Many
teachersgiveletter
gradesforclassparticipation,
usuallybetweentwenty
andthirty
percentofthefinalgrade. Some teachersgradethequalityof
ona dailybasiswitha simplerubric,
suchas
participation
usingnotations
plus(+), check(V),orminus(-) symbolsfortheirworkaroundthetable
methoda teacherchoosestouse,thecriticaleleduringclass. Whatever
mentis theclarity
andregularity
oftheevaluationandfeedbackgivento
thestudents,
thatthestudents
havebotha clearunderstanding
ensuring
oftheexpectations
fortheclass as well as a clearunderstanding
ofhow
theyaremeetingtheseexpectations.
Writingand Technologyin theHarknessClassroom
Another
crucialareainthestudyofhistory
forwhichstudent-centered
discussionseemswell suitedis writing,
and thisis fortwodistinct
and
different
reasons.Firstofall,classdiscussionteachesanalysisofsources
and ideas,and encouragesstudents
to developthehabitof questioning
theaccuracyandvalidityofsources.It also teachesstudents
howto createan argument
andsupport
theirgeneralizations
withevidencefromthe
aroundthetable. Secondly,havingcritiques
text;theydo thiseveryday
and discussionsaboutstudent
in theclass,paressayshelpsall students
the
student
whose
work
is
under
to
better
understand
the
review,
ticularly
mechanicsofwriting.Examiningstudent
whether
as
a
class,in
writing,
smallgroups,or in pairs,is certainly
one of themosteffective
waysof
review
as
well
as
conversations
about
the
promoting
peer
passivevoice,
verbtense,or stylistic
an issue. Students
tend
approachesto explaining
tobe bothobservant
andgentlewitheach other,andhearingcorrections
or suggestions
fromone's peersoftenleaves a morelastingimpression
thanrepeatedreminders
fromtheteacher.As a class,we willoftenlook
at a student's
workbyprojecting
iton thewall andtheninviting
critique
fromtheclass. It is sometimes
hardto getvolunteers
at thestartofthe
butstudents
toimprove,
term,
quicklylearnthatiftheywanttheirwriting
thebestway to do it is to have as manypeopleas possiblelook at and
comment
on theirwork.Afterdoingthisexercisea fewtimes,itcan be
difficult
to decidewhoseworkto exhibit;theyall wanttheirownwork
tobe thefocusofthediscussion.Suchpeerreviewis notonlycollaborative,butalso it validatesthestudents'opinionsand voices,reinforcing
theconceptthatstudents'
candrawlargelyfromclassdiscussions
writing
aroundthetable.

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HarknessTeachingintheHistoryClassroom

49 1

andHarknessteachingcan be
use ofbothtechnology
The concurrent
The verynatureof a computer
difficult.
encouragesisolationand indiin class
to participation
whichpromotesbehaviorscontrary
viduality,
a greatdeal
discussion.For thisreason,we tendnotto use technology
and a fewotherless
exceptfortheabove methodof reviewingwriting,
webpagesfordifferent
havedesigned
Teachers
common
classes,
practices.
are
Students
on student
buttheyall stilltendtobe centered
participation.
able to continuetheirdiscussionsfromclass, or beginnew discussions
onblogsoronthediscussionboardfeature
abouta homework
assignment,
ofBlackboardsoftware.Some classesemploya "scribe"forthedayto
recordwhatgoes on in class discussion,andthisscribecan writeon the
andfilethenotesina commonfolderwithremoteaccess. This
computer
ina papernotebookthatcanbe lefton the
isjustas easilydone,however,
classroomtable.We arealwayslookingforwaystointegrate
technology
exclusivefrom
butso oftenthetwoarealmostmutually
anddiscussion,
whileat thesame
cannotbe workingat a computer
eachother;a student
withclassmates.
timediscussingmaterial
QuestionsAboutHarknessat Home
totrydiscustheweekenergized
attend
Whenteachers
EHI, theyfinish
timeorperhapswith
sion-basedteachingbackhome,maybeforthefirst
some modifications.
However,theyalwayswonderif whattheyhave
is truly
teachersat theconference
learnedat Exeterfromthesixty-odd
await
or
constraints
of
towhatever
transferable
type school,curriculum,
themathome. Wehavebeenable to lookat someofthesequestionsand
whilemanyofoursolutionsoranswersarehearsay,
theydo seemtohold
situations.
trueinmanydifferent
teaching
Perhapsthemostcommonconcernis how discussion-based
willworkat a schoolotherthanExeter.The biggestadvantagethatwe
knowaboutHarknessteachingbefore
haveatPEA is thatall thestudents
it,theyareeagerto
theyenroll,andwhiletheymaynotreallyunderstand
takepartandknowthatit is a coreethosoftheentireschool. Virtually
discussionandwhileseated
everyclass theytakehereis taughtthrough
are used to this;it is thenormto go
arounda table,so Exeterstudents
frommathclass,to history
class,to Englishclass overthecourseof an
averagemorning,
havingdiscussionsin everysingleclassroom.Teachisolated"
EHI saythatbeing"pedagogically
erswhohavecomethrough
butitis farfrominsurmountable.
obstacletoovercome,
canbe a difficult
tendto liketo takecontrolovertheireducation.Regularand
Students
ofwhat
continuous
training
bytheteacherdevelopsa senseinthestudents
in
a
to buckthepedagogicalnorm school
is expected.It can be difficult

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492

LawrenceA. SmithandMargaret
Foley

thatis wed to a different

butitseemsthatiftheteacher
wayofteaching,
is committed
in his/her
to discussion,confident
andnotafraidto
ability,
takesomechances,thensuccessfuldiscussionscan be heldin virtually
anyinstitution.
thatwe hearvoicedquiteoftenisthatstudents
Another
concern
atExeter
areall smart,
butlessablestudents
fromanother
schoolcouldnotpossibly
inmakinghisgift
carryona discussionas well. In fact,EdwardHarkness,
toExeter,was specifically
concerned
notaboutthesmartest
boys,northe
- eachofwhomhebelievedalreadygarnered
weakest
muchattention
from
their
teachers.Instead,
hepushedthefaculty
todevisea system
ofteaching
thatwouldbolster
the"middling
whooftengounnoticed
sort,"thestudents
- someofwhom
inclass. Based on whatwe hearfromEHI participants
teachininnercitypublicschools,someofwhomteachinmiddleschools,
andsomeofwhomteachincollege- indeedall students
candevelopand
becomeengagedbythoughtful
discussions.Energyandimagination
can
intellectual
at
level.
Susan
another
EHI
Pearson,
develop
curiosity any
wroteaboutinstituting
discussion-based
attheApex
"graduate,"
teaching
SeniorHighSchool,inApex,NorthCarolina:
are growingby leaps and bounds. Theirwriting
has imMy students
theassignedmaterial,
proveddramatically.
Theyarereading
theyareasking
ideas and opinionsto thetable. Classroom
questions,theyare bringing
has becomevirtually
a non-issue.
. . I havecometo see that
management
in
as
as
desks
a
circle
is a terrible
violationof
something simple placingmy
thehiddencurriculum
ofourpublicschools.. . Atitscore,publiceducation
inthiscountry
was designedtocreateemployees,
andconsumers.
. . Roundtablediscussionshowsstudents
theloose threadsintheeducationsweater
theyhave cometo acceptas theironlyclothingoption.Withoutstudent
participation,
nothing
happens.. . Indeed,bykeepingchildrendependent
not
wisdom,andmeaning,
uponteachersas thesole sourceofknowledge,
tomention
andskill,we guarantee
thattheydo
entertainment,
information,
notbecomecompetent,
criticalandinsightful
adults.11
independent,

At Exeter,our classes are usuallycomposedof twelveor thirteen

thanksto theHarknessgiftforsalariesand classrooms.These
students,
thatdiscussionscannotbe heldin
numbers
leadtoanother
misperception;
classeslargerthanthis.EHI participants
havetackledthisproblemwith
andingenuity.
Somehavearranged
thechairsintheirclassrooms
creativity
in twoconcentric
circles,androtatewho sitson theinside"discussing"
ring.Teacherswhohavedone
ringandwhositsontheoutside"listening"
andanalysis
thisfeelthatthestudents
developtheirlistening,
questioning,
theirclassmates'discussionmorethantheydo from
skillsfromobserving
thanthe
to a lecture;itis a moreactivewayoflearning
simplylistening
passivityof takinglecturenotes. Otherteachershave approachedthis

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HarknessTeachingintheHistoryClassroom

493

the
bybreaking
up theirclassesintotwoorthreegroups,circling
problem
chairsindifferent
partsoftheclassroom,andhavingtwoorthreediscussionsgoingon at thesametime. The teacherthenmovesfromgroupto
to monitor
them
group,nottakingpartin anyone discussionbuttrying
ofthisapproachis thatitbreaksstudents
all. One oftheaddedbenefits
on theteacherandrequiresthatthestudents
ofthehabitofrelying
carry
ofmakingthediscussionflow.BarklieEliot,from
all theresponsibility
theSt.EdwardsSchoolinVeroBeach,Florida,toldus:
Althoughmyclass is biggerthanideal (19), theyare a congenialand
thequietones
enthusiastic
group.. . Mybiggestchallengehasbeengetting
to speak. Butonetechniqueseemsto havehelpeda greatdeal. I letthem
minutes
andthenstoppedthem.AtthatpointI asked
talkforaboutfifteen
about
whohad notyetspokento pulltheirdesksforward
all thestudents
fourfeet(ourroomplanis desksin a largecircle.) ThenI toldthemthat
minutes.SincethenI havenoticed
onlytheycouldspeakforthenextfifteen
feelmorecomfortable
thatthereservedstudents
speaking.12

Historyteachersat EHI alwayshave one finalquestion:how can we

coursesifthe
we needtoforourhistory
be suretocoverall ofthecontent
arounddiscussions?Weaskourselvesthisquestion
coursesarestructured
toknow?Howcanwe cover
allthetime.Whatfactsarecrucialforstudents
whatwe wanttoinsucha shortamountoftime?Indeed,thesequestions
classes. Therejust is
teachersoflecture-based
comeup evenforhistory
towhichwewanttoexposeour
neverenoughtimetocoverallofthehistory
itis truethatthereis evenlesstimeinthediscusstudents.Furthermore,
as lecture,
or
as efficient
becausediscussionis rarely
classroom
sion-based
ofinformation.
ifthegoalis dissemination
evenSocraticquestioning,
But,
ofinformation,
buttodevelop
ofcourse,ourgoalis notjustdissemination
inthe"dramaofideas"withinourstudents.Wewantstudents
an interest
to speaktheir
to be empowered
to be critically
engagedbythematerial,
theircomto
base
andto be knowledgeable
mindsto eachother,
enough
entitled
"The
oflearnedevidence.Ina chapter
mentsona solidfoundation
Weimer
FunctionofContent"inLearner-Centered
Teaching,
Maryellen
in a student-centered
classroom:
writesabouttheplace ofcontent
Strongallegianceto contentblockstheroadto morelearner-centered
is largelyunrecognized,
the
teaching.Unlikepower,wheretheinfluence
contentbarrierexplicitlyimpedesfaculty.Most of us have no trouble
ifnot
thattheneedto covercontentstrongly
influences,
acknowledging
aboutcontent
has long
decisions.Ourthinking
mostinstructional
dictates,
moreis better.The timehas cometo
beendominated
byone assumption:
- notwithcontent-free
coursesbutwithnew
challengethatassumption
Learner-centered
the
function
of
content.
about
objectivesallow
thinking
us to dojustthat.

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494

Lawrence
A. Smith
andMargaret
Foley

in the metaphorused to
is reflected
Our strongcontentorientation
describetheactionwe takeinrespectto content:
we "cover"it. Butwhat
- liketheleaves
mean? We "cover"content
exactlydoes thatmetaphor
covertheforest
floor?Likea bedspreadcoveringthebed? Is thattherelatheteacher
whenthegoal
thatoughttoexistbetween
andthecontent
tionship
I
in
A
one
have
seen
a
cartoon.
is learning?I rather
prefer
faculty
person
with
ofa blackboard
(usuallymaleandround)is standing
squarelyinfront
oneither
sideofhim.Thecaptionproclaims:
appearing
piecesofa problem
"Aimnotto coverthecontent
butto uncoverpartofit."13

Thissamethought
is echoedinDiscussionAsA WayOfTeaching:Tools
and Techniques
forDemocraticClassrooms,by StephenD. Brookfield
and StephenPreskill. In theprefaceto thefirstedition,theseauthors
arguethat:
The concernabouthavinginsufficient
timeto covercontentis feltby
to learnis too
teacherswho believethatthematerialtheywantstudents
to be leftto chance. If theylecture,so theargument
important
goes, at
leastthisensuresthatthematerial
is airedinstudents'
presence.We share
thissameconcern.We wantourstudents
to engageseriouslywithideas
In fact,itis preciselyforthisreason
andinformation
we thinkimportant.
. . [B]uildingconnecthatthatwe thinkdiscussionis worthconsidering.
- is at theheartofdiscussion.Ideas that
- personaland intellectual
tions
seemdisconnected
whenheardin a lecturecomealive whenexploredin
thatseemwhollyabstract
whenreadin a homework
speech. Arguments
forcethemselves
onourattention
whenspokenbya peer.There
assignment
is no pointin coveringcontentforcontent'ssake- thepointis to cover
ina waythatensuresthatstudents
content
engagewithit. Itis becausewe
tounderstand
takecontent
so seriously
andwantstudents
certainkeyideas
thatwe feeldiscussionis indispensable.14
andthoroughly
accurately

HarknessTeachers: Partnersin a Human Enterprise

witha fairdegreeofskeptiIt is withthesequestions,
and sometimes
and froma wide spectrum
cism,thatteachersfromaroundthecountry
of schoolsarrivehereeverysummerto spenda weekat theHumanities
as we can
is as experiential
Institute
talkingaboutteaching.TheInstitute
tolecture
tolearnpossiblymakeit,sinceitwouldsomehowbe antithetical
discussions.Wetrytotake
abouthowtoleadstudent-centered
ingteachers
seatsofknowledgeandpowerby
teachersoutoftheirusual,comfortable
textsthatarenewto us all or actingas students
spendingtimestudying
ina mathorscienceclass,andwe askthemtobehaveina classroomsetfashion:bygivingup control.It
anduncomfortable
tinginan unfamiliar
takesa fewdaystofigureitoutandtheEHI faculty
provideno answers;
learnbydoingandfromeachother.Mostparticipants
tryto
participants

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HarknessTeachingintheHistoryClassroom

495

as the
and takea "waitand see" attitude
watchfromtheoutsideat first,
forseveraldays.
subtleties
ofleadinga discussionarenotreadilyapparent
thatteachinga class by leadingdiscussionis
Theysoonlearn,however,
andintellectually
stimulatchallenging,
hugelyrewarding,
tremendously
ing. As SusanPearsonwrote,"We are no longerfountsof knowledge,
in thelearningprocess,humanbeingsstruggling
butrather
participants
thesame."15
to makemeaningandworkwithequalswho areattempting
overseventy
echoDr.Perry'shope,written
Thesethoughts
yearsbefore:
teacherintheconference
"Thesuccessful
planwouldnotbe a drillmaster,
in a humanenterprise."
buta partner

Notes
Dr. Lewis Perry,letterto EdwardHarkness,PhillipsExeterAcademyar1.
chives.
Acts(Philadelphia,
and OtherUnnatural
HistoricalThinking
2.
Sam Wineburg,
PA: TempleUniversity
Press,2001).
DiscussionAsA WayOfTeaching:
andStephenPreskill,
3.
StephenD. Brookfield
For DemocraticClassrooms(San Francisco,CA: JohnWileyand
Toolsand Techniques
Sons,2005),22.
4.
Ken Bain, WhatTheBest College TeachersDo (Cambridge,MA: Harvard
Press,2004), 3 1.
University
5.
Ibid.
6.
Ibid.
ofNorthCarolina
PeterFilene,TheJoyofTeaching
7.
(ChapelHill,NC: University
Press,2005), 7.
8.
HermanB. Leonard,"WithOpen Ears: Listeningand theArtof Discussion
David A. Garvin,andAnnSweet,eds.,Education
Leading,"in C. RolandChristiansen,
ofDiscussionLeadership(Boston,MA: HarvardBusiness
forJudgment:TheArtistry
SchoolPress,1991),138.
159-160.
9.
Wineburg,
10. HannahJones,unpublished
essay,"GettingFromA to Z: UsingtheHarkness
2002.
MethodWithSixthGraders,"
11. SusanPearson,unpublished
essay,"Ringsof Fire: RoundtableDiscussionas
2004.
Subversive
Methodology,"
2005.
12. BarklieEliot,correspondence,
Learner-Centered
13. Maryellen
Weimer,
Teaching:FiveKeyChangestoPractice
(San Francisco,CA: Jossey-Bass,
2002), 46.
andPreskill,xiv.
14. Brookfield
15. Pearson.

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

496

LawrenceA. SmithandMargaret
Foley

Appendix

HarknessTeachingroundtable
discussioninactionat PhillipsExeterAcademy.

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