Biology Review Notes

What is Biology?
Bio = life, -Logy = the study of
Biology is the study of living things and their surroundings
Organism = a living thing; anything possessing the characteristics of living
things.
Characteristics of living things:
o All living things grow and develop.
o All living things reproduce.
o All living things are organized.
o All living things adjust to their surroundings (adapt).
o All living things need energy (ATP).
o All living things are made up of cells.
o All living things contain genetic material (DNA).
Reproduction = organisms making more of their own kind, making offspring.
Offspring = babies, when organisms reproduce they produce offspring
Growth = organism gets bigger
Development = organism changes shape or form. It develops new structures.
Metamorphosis = type of development where an organism makes a very big
change in shape or form. Ex: tadpole to a frog; caterpillar to a butterfly.
Environment = organisms surroundings, both living and nonliving.
Adaptation = physical change that arises in an organism over time through the
process of evolution.
Adaptations can be physical (webbed feet of ducks to swim) or behavioral
(changing colors to blend in with surroundings)
Animals adapt (thick fur for polar bear to keep warm) but plants also adapt
(thorns for protection from predators, stop photosynthesis when not enough light
or water).
Organization:
All living things are organized in the following way:
o atoms molecules cell parts cells tissues organs organ system
organisms
(smallest to largest)
Homeostasis:
Homeostasis = an organism remaining constant in a changing environment;
maintaining a stable, internal environment
Every organism tries to regulate how much of each chemical is present in it. They
try to keep the level or the amount constant or the same. TOO much or TOO little
is bad!
o Ex: body temperature = 98.6F; too cold or too hot is bad and that is why
we sweat or shiver to maintain that 98.6F
Scientific Method:
Independent variable = the part of the experiment that is changed or
manipulated in the beginning (I change the IV)
Dependent variable = the part of the experiment that is different at the end;
the part that is measured at the end. (DV = Data)
Constants = conditions in an experiment that are the same for every group.
Control = the group that is kept under normal conditions or that is not being
tested.
Hypothesis = prediction; testable sentence. Usually in If.Then format.

Experiment = procedure done to test a hypothesis.

Quantitative data = data that can be counted or measured, numbers
Qualitative data = data gathered by observing qualities, descriptive

Ecology:
Biotic factors: living parts of the environment
Abiotic factors: nonliving parts of the environment
Symbiosis: two organisms living together
Mutualism: relationship where both species benefit
Parasitism: relationship where one species benefits, the other is harmed
Commensalism: relationship where one species benefits, the other is unaffected
Herbivore: eats only plants, primary consumers
Carnivore: eats only animals, secondary consumers
Omnivore: eats both plants and animals
Biomolecules- molecules that help to make up cell parts, cells, and living things.
Organic Molecules - any molecule that contains some carbon (C). ALL of the
biomolecules are organic.
The FOUR biomolecules:
Carbohydrates
o Composed of C, H, and O (ratio of CH2O)
o Examples include pasta, bread, and many vegetables
o Store and release quick energy
o Structural support in plants
o Monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides (ex. Cellulose, starch,
glycogen)

Lipids
o Composed of C, H, and O
o Building block (subunit) is glycerol and 3 fatty acids
o Examples include fats, oils, waxes, and steroids
o Long-term energy storage, insulation, protective coatings
o Major part of the cell membrane
o Made in the smooth ER

Proteins
o Composed of C, H, O, and N
o Building blocks (subunits) are amino acids, held together by peptide bonds
o Helps with muscle contraction
o Transports oxygen in blood (hemoglobin)
o Examples include tuna, meat
o Carries out (speeds up) chemical reactions
(enzymes)
o Made in ribosomes and rough ER
o
Nucleic Acids
o Composed of C, H, O, N, and P
o Building block (subunit) is a nucleotide: sugar, phosphate, nitrogen base
o Examples include DNA and RNA
o Stores genetic information in cells in the form of a code

Biochemistry
pH scale
o Scale that determines how acidic (H+) or basic (OH-) a substance is
Acid: pH of 1-7
Base: pH of 7-14
Neutral: pH of 7
Properties of Water
o Expands when freezes: Causes ice to float, forms soil by cracking rocks, lakes
do not freeze solid
o Resists temperature change: keeps organisms environments stable, ocenas
keep earth warm enough for life
o High heat of vaporization: high energy needed to evaporate; helps body cool
through sweating
o Capillary action: can creep up thin tubes for movement and transport
o High surface tension: molecules stick together
Osmosis/Diffusion: movement of water (particles) in and out of a cell
o Hypotonic: higher concentration of water OUTSIDE the cell; cell will swell
o Hypertonic: higher concentration of water INSIDE the cell; cell will shrink
Cells
Important cell scientists:
1. Hooke: Looked at cork (dead cells), came up with term cell.
2. Leeuwenhoek: Invented the microscope. First to look at living cells.
3. Schleiden: studied plant cells.
4. Schwann: studied animal cells (Schwann sounds like swan).
5. Virchow: first to see cells divide under the microscope.; therefore concluded that
cells only come from other cells
The Cell Theory: (based on discoveries made by Schleiden and Schwann)
1. all living things are made of cells. (this is why viruses are NOT living)
2. all cells come from pre-existing cells.
3. cells are the basic unit of organization.
Prokaryotic cells:
primitive, small, NO membrane-bound organelles or nucleus, DNA is in the
cytoplasm
first cells on Earth were prokaryotic
bacteria are this type of cell
Archaebacteria and Eubacteria = two prokaryotic kingdoms
Eukaryotic Cells:
Advanced cells, larger than prokaryotic cells, DNA in nucleus, has organelles
Plants, animals, fungi, and protists are made of this kind of cell.
Endosymbiont Theory:
Big cell ate little cell and kept it around to do work. Little cell became an
organelle.

Evidence for theory:

Mitochondria: most scientists believe that they were once aerobic
bacteria.
Chloroplast: most scientists believe that they were once
cyanobacteria or blue green algae.

Cell Parts:
cell membrane: semi-permeable membrane surrounding all cells; allows materials to
enter and leave the cell
cell wall: additional boundary of plant cells providing structural support, made of
cellulose
cytoplasm: clear, gel-like fluid inside of a cell, where important chemical reactions take
place
ribosomes: where proteins are made in the cell
ER: folded system of membranes for transport of materials through a cell
Smooth: no ribosomes, makes lipids

Rough: has ribosomes, makes

proteins
golgi apparatus: flattened stack of membranes for packaging and sorting proteins
vacuole: storage of food and water
lysosome: digests food and old cell parts
mitochondria: produces ATP (energy) for the cell; powerhouse
chloroplast:: transforms sunlight into glucose (food) in plant cells
nucleus: strores DNA, control center or brain of the cell
nucleolus: region within the nucleus that produces ribosomes
cytoskeleton: internal support system; made of microfilaments and microtubules
unicellular: organism made of one cell
multicellular: organism made of more than 1 cell
centriole: used for cell division in animal cells
flagella: long projections used for movement by cells
cilia: short, hair-like structures used for movement by cells
Plant Cells:

Plant cells have chloroplasts and cell walls; animal

cells do NOT

Plant cells do NOT have centrioles

Vacuoles in plant cells are HUGE for H2O storage

Plant cells are usually rectangular or square in shape

due to cell walls

Plant cells can not pinch in to divide. Instead the

must construct a cell plate to divide the two new cells.

Animal Cell:
Animal cells have centrioles, plants do
NOT
Animals cells do NOT have cell walls or
chloroplasts

Biomolecules and Cells:

Cell membranes are made of phospholipids, which are a type of lipid.
Cell walls are made of cellulose, a polysaccharide, which is a carbohydrate.
Cytoskeleton, centrioles, and ribosomes are made up of structural proteins.
Proteins are made in the ribosomes and rough ER.
Lipids are made in the smooth ER.
DNA, which is a nucleic acid, is stored in the nucleus.
RNA, which is a nucleic acid, is a copy of DNA, which carries the genetic code
from the nucleus to the ribosome during protein synthesis.
Cell Differentation:
This is the process where cells in multicellular organisms become specialized or
different. These cells differentiate into cells that do very different jobs.
DNA

DNA stands for Deoxyribonucleic Acid

The structure of DNA was discovered by Watson and Crick; they won the
Nobel Prize. (Rosalind Franklin= xray picture showing the double helix)
DNA is in the shape of a double helix, which is a twisted ladder
In eukaryotic cells, DNA is stored in the nucleus
Chromosomes are made up of DNA. Genes are made up of DNA. DNA carries
the genetic code.
In the DNA molecule, the building blocks are nucleotides. Each nucleotide is
made up of deoxyribose, phosphate, and a nitrogen base. A nucleotide looks
like:

When the building blocks are put together, the deoxyribose and the phosphate
make up the 2 outer backbones of the molecule:

The nitrogen bases (A,T,C,G) pair up in the middle. Adenine pairs with thymine
and cytosine pairs with guanine. (ATCG)
Each chromosome carries many genes. Each gene tells the cell how to make a
protein or a piece of a protein.
Proteins are made at the ribosomes, but the DNA never leaves the nucleus so that
it can stay protected.
DNA replication is where DNA copies itself. It is semiconservative, meaning that
each new copy is half old and half new.
Messenger RNA, also known as mRNA, is a copy of the gene that carries the
code to the ribosomes.
The process where the mRNA is made in the nucleus is called transcription.
Messenger RNA looks like half of a DNA molecule. It used ribose instead of
deoxyribose. It uses Uracil (U) instead of T.
Every 3 nitrogen bases or letters on a mRNA or DNA molecule is called a codon.
Every codon codes for one amino acid.
Transfer RNA, also known as tRNA, carries amino acids to the ribosomes.
Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. Amino acids are joined together
by peptide bonds.
The process where the mRNA code is read to tell what amino acids are needed to
make a protein is called translation. It is called translation because there is a
switch from mRNA language to protein language.
The genes or DNA that a person has makes up the persons genotype.
The protein that is made from the DNA code give the person the phenotype that
the person has.

Mitosis: InterphaseMitosisCytokinesis (IPMAT)

Interphase: normal part of cell, DNA and organelles are copied/replicated

Prophase: DNA is wound up into chromosomes, centrioles move to opposite
sides of the cell, nuclear membrane disappears, spindle fiber form.
Metaphase: chromosomes line up at the middle, spindle fibers attach to
centrioles.
Anaphase: chromosomes pulled to opposite ends/sides of the cell
Telophase: chromosomes in opposite sides, nucleus reforms, cell splits
Centrioles: only in animal cells, spindle fibers come from these.
Chromosomes: made of DNA, carry genes, neatly packaged
Chromatin: DNA unpackaged or unwound
Spindle Fibers: pieces of cytoskeleton that attach to chromosomes and pull them
to opposite sides of the cell in mitosis.
Centromeres: dot that holds copies of chromosomes together. Spindle fibers
attach to these.
Mitosis: cell division in body cells
Cytokinesis: when the cytoplasm divides, cell actually splits
Plant cells: cant pinch due to cell wall, they form cell plate. They also do not
have centrioles.
Cells can NOT be huge/large because:
o Surface area to volume ratio, not enough doors to support in and out traffic
o Only one copy of DNA to share, like building a skyscraper with 1 set of blue
prints
o Diffusion is too slow, oxygen cannot get to the middle of the cell
Cells divide for growth, reproduction, development, to replace dead or dying
cells, and to repair injuries

Meiosis: (division of sex cells)

Meiosis is the cell division that is done to make gametes
Gametes are the sperm, egg, or pollen (contains sperm)
Gametes only have 1 copy of each gene and 1 copy of each chromosome
When gametes are combined they make a zygote (a 1 celled embryo)
Zygotes have 2 copies of each gene and chromosome. They get 1 gene from mom and
one from dad.
Haploid Cell: a cell with 1 copy of each gene or chromosome
Diploid Cell: a cell with 2 copies of each gene or chromosome
Tetraploid cell: a cell with 4 copies of each gene or chromosome
X chromosome= female chromosome, Y chromosome = male chromosome
XX = female organism, XY = male organism
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes in each cell. This means that they have 46
chromosomes total in each cell.

Genetics:
The father of genetics is Gregor Mendel; monk and
scientist
Mendels 1 law:
o 2 genes for every trait
o 1 gene from mom and 1 gene from dad
o dominant beats recessive

Genotype: letter or genes you have for a trait (ex: TT,

Tt, tt)
Phenotype: how genes make you look (ex: normal
height or dwarf)
Homozygous: has 2 sets of the same genes for a trait
(TT or tt)
Heterozygous: has 2 different genes for a trait (Tt)
Also known as a carrier
Alleles: different forms of the gene (ex: T or t)
Sex-linked Traits: gene on X chromosome, show it as
exponent
o Female has 2 and male has 1
o More common in males

Monohybrid Cross: Punnett square looking at 1 trait at a time

Dihybrid Cross: Punnett square looking at 2 genes at a time
Dominant: big letters, beats recessive
Recessive: small letters, weaker than dominant, can be masked
Pedigree Rules:
o Circle is girl, square is boy
o Shaded in means two little letters (dd)
o Not shaded, at least 1 big letter (D_), figure out second letter by looking at
parents and kids
Classification:
6 Kingdoms:
1. Archaebacteria: lives in extreme environment, extremophile bacteria, like high
salt, acid, temperatures; prokaryotic cells
2. Eubacteria: normal bacteria, strep throat, E. coli; prokaryotic cells
3. Protista: usually unicellular or microscopic, eukaryotic cells; algae (plant like),
protozoa (animal-like), slime molds (fungus like)
4. Fungi: molds, fungus, athletes foot, mushrooms, decomposer, or parasite
5. Plants: green, chloroplasts, photosynthesis, producer, eukaryotic cells,
multicellular
6. Animals: move, need oxygen, multicellular, eukaryotic cells

7 part name: kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species

o King Phillip came over from Germany suddenly
Scientific Name: Genus species
Binomial Nomenclature: every animal has a 2 part name: genus & species
Linnaeus is the father of taxonomy
Taxonomy: classification of organisms into groups by similarities in structure,
DNA, protein, behavior, or development
Remember in a dichotomous key ALWAYS start at number 1

Cell Energy:
Photosynthesis:
o Happens in plants in chloroplast, two parts to chloroplast: stroma and
thylakoid (grana)
o Chorophyll in plants catches sunlight energy and uses this energy to make
glucose sugar
o Plants need carbon dioxide and water to do photosynthesis
o 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + sunlight C6H12O6 +6O2
o 2 steps: Light-Dependent Reactions use water and light to make oxygen,
occurs in thylakoid
Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin cycle) use carbon dioxide to
make glucose, occurs in stroma
o Desert plants adapt to dry conditions: CAM plants open stomata at night
when transpiration rates are slower or close them completely when no
water( become idle= no photosynthesis) ex. cactus. C4 plants
photosynthesize rapidly when hot and dry so stomata open not as long
during the day to conserve water

Cell Respiration:
o ALL living things do respiration! Even plants, when they have no light!
o happens in mitochondria. Breaks down glucose sugar to make energy or
ATP.
o Mitochondria need oxygen and glucose to do respiration
o C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36 ATP
o First step is always glycolysis which makes 2 ATP, happens in cytoplasm
o Second step depends on presence of oxygen
If oxygen present: Krebs cycle and electron transport chain make 34 ATP,
water, and CO2 happens inside mitochondria
If no oxygen: anaerobic respiration (Fermentation) occurs and makes lactic
acid in muscles OR carbon dioxide and alcohol by yeast, also makes 2 ATP

Also look over body systems (circulatory, digestive, skeletal, muscle, respiratory, and
immune).