Running head: THEORETICAL PERSONAL POSITION

Personal Theoretical Position; School Psychology

Lindsay A. Birchall
University of Calgary

Counselling Theories and Professional Practice EDPS 602

Dr. Barry Hollowell
November 17th, 2014

Table of Contents
Abstract3
Introduction..4
Philosophical Approach..4
The Human Experience.................................................................................................4
The Nature of Healthy; Well-Adjusted Functioning..6
The Major Cause of Problems; Not Functioning in a Healthy Manner.7
The Nature of Change....8
The School Psychologist Experience...9
The School Psychologist....9
Client-Therapist Relationship9
Beliefs, Emotions and Behaviours11
Change Process Including Resistance..11
Interventions..12
Success..13
Diverse Backgrounds and Contextual factors..13
Reflection and Conclusion.....14

Abstract
Adopting a theory of psychotherapy that you believe in helps you become a better
therapist (Truscott, 2010). Importantly, an individuals theoretical approach should be constructed
and adapted over the course of their career and should be congruent with who they are as a
person, (Truscott, 2010) More effective therapists are committed to and positively influenced by
a theory of psychotherapy when their therapeutic approach is consistent with their
epistemological worldview, (Truscott, 2010, p.159). Because a therapists preferred theory may
not work with all clients, it is necessary for them to adapt their theoretical perspective based on
who their client is as a person, (Truscott, 2010). A school psychologist (SP) may adopt an
Eclectic theoretical perspective, incorporating elements from multiple theories or therapeutic
approaches, to better meet the needs of their diverse client base.

Introduction
Ideally, a therapist should be flexible in their approach and responsive to a variety of
human experiences. The practice of psychotherapy often merges the professional and personal
aspects of ones life into a unified perspective, (Rnnestad and Skovholt, 2003). This process is
an ongoing and conscious effort for the therapist, to integrate and reflect on their personal and
professional life experience, in order to effectively expand their approach, (Truscott, 2010).
Importantly, a therapist is more effective when their therapeutic approach is consistent with their
epistemological worldview, (Truscott, 2010).
Therefore, it is imperative to be aware of ones personal strengths and ones worldview.
My personal strengths include my analytical judgement, perseverance, being a life-long learner
and my creativity. These strengths match well with my most prominent worldview of
Empiricism. By trade, I work as a Behavioural Consultant, using Behavioural and Cognitive
approaches. However, I respect and appreciate elements of other world views and therapeutic
approaches such as Systemic, Feminism and Person-Centered. As recommended by prominent
writers in the area of school psychology, Sattler and Hoge, (2014) it is necessary for a SP to
integrate a multitude of theoretical perspectives into their practice of assessment and intervention.
Philosophical Assumptions
The Human Experience
One cannot explain the essence of the human condition or experience, utilizing only one
theoretical approach; we have to draw on a variety of approaches. When examining the human
experience, we must consider how an individuals present and past experiences with others may
be impacting not only their behaviours, but their perceptions, thoughts, beliefs and values. We
also must also incorporate and understanding of an individuals biological and neurological make
up, and how this may guide their learning.

As Truscott, (2010) identifies, how we feel emotionally is not purely a reaction to a

situation. Rather, emotions incorporate our thoughts, perceptions and previous learning, which
influences our response, (Truscott, 2010). Indeed, there may be a circular causality that occurs
between the individual and others in their environments as outlined in Systemic therapy, (Corsini
& Wedding, 2014). Internal (e.g. emotional distress, body temperature) and external processes
(e.g. interpersonal relationships, environmental demands) create a number of cause and effect
relationships between the individual and others, (Truscott, 2010). This series of transactions can
create and change a persons thoughts, beliefs, emotions and behaviours. For example, when a
child is protesting because they are feeling anxious, and the parent removes the trigger for
anxiety, not only is the protesting childs behaviour reinforced, but removing the trigger is
reinforcing for the parent because their child calms down.
The previous example highlights how behaviours may be learned through ones
environment via the principles of classical and operant conditioning. Behavioural constructs are
as necessary in psychology as there are in any other science, however, behavioural principles
alone cannot explain the human condition, (Moore, 2013; Truscott, 2010). It important that we
consider cognitive processes such as beliefs, attitudes, memories and thoughts, that contribute to
learning and problem behaviours, (Truscott, 2010).
It is also important to consider how our biological and neurological constitutions
influence our human experience, (Sattler & Hoge, 2014). Genetically, we may be predisposed to
the development of a disorder (e.g. schizophrenia). Biologically and neurologically, problem
behaviours may be due to specific neurological features (e.g. neurotransmitters involved in
attention and impulse control), (Parker, 2013). We also must consider how ones experiences may
shape their neurological development (e.g. neglect, abuse), and how ones neurological features

may impact their interactions with their environment, (e.g. executive functioning difficulties),
(Sattler & Hoge, 2014). Neurologically, many of our learned behaviours (e.g. motor, emotional)
become automatic; a thought process that arises quickly, almost like a reflex, (Truscott, 2010).
Automatic thoughts make the perception of our environment and the choices of our actions more
efficient, (Griffiths, 2013). For example, a child that has experienced complex trauma may
demonstrate hypervigilance. This behaviour may be a learned protective factor, based on the
childs family environment. Automatic thoughts and cognitive schemas (e.g. they are yelling,
you should hide) may develop, related to emotional distress, which will influence their beliefs
and values, altering their human experience.
The Nature of Healthy; Well-Adjusted Functioning
There are several elements to consider when we question what is healthy or well-adjusted
functioning. One is the diagnostic model, where we may compare an individuals symptoms to
the normative population, determining how their challenges fit within a certain system of
classifications, (Sattler & Hoge, 2014; Seligman, 2004). Seligman, (2013) who speaks from a
Positive Psychology approach, asserts that we have become victimologists and we are stuck in
pathologizing our clients (Seligman, 2004) due to the diagnostic model. Although the
identification of specific disorders is part of our occupation as SPs, we also need to integrate
happiness as a true measure of how healthy or well-adjusted an individual is, (Seligman, 2004).
It is considered unhealthy to have a disorder that negatively impacts your social, academic
or occupational functioning, (APA, 2013). But, negative impact may be relative to the individual.
For example, perfectionism can be considered to be unhealthy for some, but a strength for others.
One means of determining unhealthy behaviours is examining an individuals insight into the
problem. Do their thoughts, emotions and behaviours negatively impact their daily life, and to
what degree? Do they consider these behaviours unhealthy and do they want to change them? As

SPs, it is our job to assist students and families with gaining insight into a students problem
behaviours and improve their quality of life. This may include the diagnostic model, but should
also include the assessment of individual strengths and happiness.
The Major Causes of Problems; Not Functioning in a Healthy Manner
The causes of problem behaviors are related to our human experience. Problem
behaviours can stem from a variety of internal and external sources which are not mutually
exclusive; they are often intertwined; triggering, maintaining and even exacerbating problems.
Individual factors such as family, medical and educational history, present behaviours,
interactions with the systems in their lives (e.g. friends, family, culture, religion, community),
cognitive processes (e.g. thoughts, beliefs, values), the functions of behaviours and neurological
strengths and limitations should all be considered when determining the major cause of problems.
For example, the environment can impact a students learning via their neurological
development, (e.g. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder or neglect). In turn, a students interactions
with the systems in their lives (e.g. family, culture, community) can impact their problem
behaviours, such as living in poverty or living in a dangerous community, (Corsini & Wedding,
2014; Chase, 2014). A Permissive parenting style can result in poor school performance or
problems with authority (Cherry, 2014; Macklem, 2008). An individuals perceptions and beliefs
may create dysfunctional thought patterns around self-esteem or body image.
Importantly, all of these potential causes for problem behaviours interact. For example, a
childs academic success may be impacted by a specific learning disorder. But, the experience of
repeated failure may result in task avoidance and social and emotional difficulties. A multitude of
factors are always involved in the development, maintenance and perpetuation of a problem
behaviours. SPs have to be vigilant when determining the foundation of any individual students
difficulties; there is no deductive formula, (Truscott, 2010).

The Nature of Change

Healthy functioning is relative to an individuals strengths and weaknesses and to their
specific problem behaviours; no single theory can encompass this individuality. For example,
Existential therapy equates living healthy to living Authentically; having an honest appreciation
for the human condition, (Corsini & Wedding, 2014). Cognitive therapy associates living healthy
with replacing dysfunctional thought patterns with new ways of thinking, (Truscott,2010). These
approaches may not be a good fit for some clients and are not be applicable or relevant for all
problem behaviours (e.g. cognitive deficits, language difficulties, incongruent spiritual beliefs).
We must consider individual differences before we can embark on corrective action. The nature
of change is relative to the root of the problem behaviour (e.g. dysfunctional family interactions)
and the therapeutic approach should reflect that (e.g. Systemic Family therapy approach).
Although we must take into account individual differences when we are considering
personal growth and healthy functioning, there are some elements of the Cognitive and
Behavioural approach that I feel are necessary for a SP to utilize within the change process. First,
the client needs to acknowledge their problems. Interventions cannot be helpful if the client does
not believe there is a problem. In theory and in practice I believe that client change is active
process, (Truscott, 2010). Also, the change process should promote insight and be collaborative;
increasing the clients understanding and motivation for change, (Truscott, 2010).
In order to return to a healthy state of functioning we should not only be concerned with a
clients challenges, we should also place emphasis on their strengths, (Seligman, 2004).
Promoting our students strengths is a Positive Psychology approach that is necessary for SPs to
embrace. This can be thought of as aiming to build whats strong rather than fix whats
wrong (Corsini & Wedding, 2014). As humanism asserts, strengths and talents are assets and
gifts to be appreciated and used, (Truscott, 2010, p.12).

Lastly, when we explore the process of growth and change, we should consider a childs
resiliency factors. Resiliency may be defined as surviving and thriving in the face of adversity, or,
overcoming difficult circumstances and going on to lead healthy, successful lives, (Chase, 2014).
When considering how an individual may return to a healthy state, not only do we need to
evaluate the systems students interact with and specific contextual conditions (i.e. low SES,
dangerous neighborhood or school climate), but also their risk factors (e.g. low self-esteem,
difficult temperament, family violence, authoritarian parenting), protective factors (e.g.
community networking, strong cultural identity, access to support services) and their individual
traits and abilities (e.g. sociability, optimism, flexibility, self-confidence), (Chase, 2014).

The School Psychologists Experience

The School Psychologist
A SP works as a member of a multidisciplinary team, supporting a students ability to
learn and a teachers ability to teach, (nasp.online.org). The goal is to help children succeed
academically, socially, behaviourally and emotionally. A SP will consult and collaborate with
students, teachers, families, school administrators, other professionals (e.g. Speech and Language
Pathologist) and other agencies (e.g. Child and Family Services, Alberta Health Services) to
promote a safe, healthy and supportive learning environment for the student (nasp.online.org).
Ideally, connections between these the systems (e.g. home, school, community supports) will
strengthen to facilitate the childs success. SPs work within a broad scope client challenges so it
is imperative that when using an Eclectic approach, we are flexible and introspective, but also
understand our personal and professional boundaries of competence, (Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001).

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Client-Therapist Relationship. Frank, (1961) and Frank and Frank, (1991) identified
three necessary features of the client-therapist relationship, to promote therapeutic success. First,
the treatment must involve a therapeutic rationale that both the client and the therapist believe in,
(Frank & Frank, 1991; Frank, 1961). Second, a client must seek help from a practitioner that the
client believes to be helpful (Frank & Frank, 1991; Frank, 1961). And, third, the client must
experience a collaborative relationship with the therapist (Frank & Frank, 1991; Frank, 1961).
Because a SP not only works with the student, but also the students family and other school
professionals, it will be challenging to adhere to Franks and Frank and Franks (1991;1961)
recommendations. As such, we should regularly evaluate and contemplate the efficacy of our
client-therapist relationships.
Although the intricacies of each individual relationship may challenge a SP, there are
several guidelines that I believe are necessary when facilitating change. Congruent with the
Cognitive therapeutic approach, a SP needs to have an integrated approach including
collaborative, trusting and respectful relationship within the student, their family and team of
professional they work with, (Corsini & Wedding, 2014). This will take time to develop. The SP
should embrace an Existential approach within the client-therapist relationship; being available,
open, emotionally present, respectful and share the clients experience with genuine concern,
(Truscott, 2010). They should always maintain a respectful and approachable manner, but ensure
they are directive (e.g. assessment, interviews, interventions, etc.), (Sattler & Hoge, 2014).
Because interventions that a SP may recommend will have roots in a multitude of
theoretical perspectives, the SP may assimilate different roles and employ varying degrees of
directedness required for different change tasks. Their session structure may also change based on
the intervention. For example, when utilizing Exposure based interventions from the Cognitive

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approach, the SP will be more collaborative then when they apply an Enactment technique from
Systemic Family therapy (Corsini & Wedding, 2014).
Beliefs, Emotions and Behaviours. An individuals beliefs, thoughts, perceptions,
emotions and past experiences all have influence on ones present behaviours; these processes
change as we develop and grow, (Truscott, 2010). Importantly, thought processes, beliefs and
emotions are also impacted our neurological or biological makeup (e.g. delayed language, gifted
intelligence), (Griffiths, 2013, Sattler & Hoge, 2014). It is imperative to acknowledge that we
cannot separate beliefs, emotions and behaviours; each impacts individual learning in an infinite
number of ways and each impact the development of each other. For example, having a fearful
experience can develop a cognitive schema, which includes thoughts and emotions that may
generalize to other similar experiences (e.g. being bit by a dog may prompt a student to be afraid
of all animals).
Change Process Including Resistance. It is imperative that SP understand, each
individual has unique and enduring pattern of behavior, (Corsini & Wedding, p.199). These
behavioural patterns should be examined through a clear, open and objective lens when
developing an intervention plan. A SP needs to demonstrate flexibility, integrating change tasks
from a variety of theoretical perspectives, in order to best meet the needs of their clients.
From professional experience, if the individual or the family does not accept or
acknowledge the problem behaviour it will be very difficult to get the student, the family or the
teacher to participate in any interventions or change tasks. Ideally, all individuals will be in
agreement to seek assistance from a SP, and will be committed to implementing treatment
recommendations, however, Geffken, Keeley, Kellison, Storch, & Rodrigue, (2006) caution that
non adherence rates are as high as 50%. To increase adherence Sattler and Hoge, (2014)
recommend developing intervention plans collaboratively. Importantly, within the change

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process, Truscott, (2010) advises, the uniqueness of each client can be understood in an infinite
number of ways, (p.164). Ideally, to enhance the change process, true collaboration within a
shared therapeutic rationale can only come from listening and responding closely and
empathetically to each clients view of his or her place in the world, (Truscott, 2010, p.165).
Imperatively, we are all fundamentally human; respecting and embracing individual differences
will only increase our understanding and effectiveness with each student.
Interventions.Change tasks and interventions should promote the childs strengths as
well as work on their problem behaviours. As clinicians, drawing on evidence based interventions
and matching them with causes of the problem behaviours is paramount; interventions without an
evidence base should be used with caution but not disregarded. If we only prescribe to one
theoretical approach, we stand to only address part of the cause of the unhealthy behaviours (e.g.
overt behaviours in Behaviourism). When we disregard other possible contributors (e.g. thoughts,
family interactions) we may limit the students growth and change; this is a significant ethical
issue, (Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001).
However, because of the diversity of student challenges we may encounter, and the large
evidence base of interventions across all therapeutic approaches, as SPs we may be confronted
with difficulties in determining which interventions may be best for which individuals. Likely, we
will not be sufficiently trained in all approaches. Importantly, Truscott, (2010) advises that new
change tasks should be assimilated gradually into a psychologists skill set. SPs should be
cognisant that they are ethically responsible for developing and maintaining their skill set as well
as working within their scope of practice, (Truscott, 2010;Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001).
A SP should be an active participant in the implementation of change tasks. Providing the
individual or family with specific tasks or homework is useful in not only determining the clients
adherence to recommendations, but also assessing the efficacy of those recommendations. The SP

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should be open to altering interventions when they have proved unsuccessful. Although
manualized interventions are helpful (e.g. The Incredible 5 point scale, The Zones of Regulation),
it is important that we consider the individual characteristics of the student, and be willing to
modify the intervention if necessary.
Success. As SPs we should ask ourselves; what is success? Success on an IPP goal may
be 80%. Success for an adult may mean leading a happier life, or having more friends. For SPs,
it may be seeing a family accept help and improve their parenting skills. Maybe success is having
a calm mind and feeling less anxious? For most of us success means to achieve a goal; we work
hard and motivate ourselves to accomplish these goals, (nasp.online.org). Therefore, success can
be influenced on our perceptions and should be regarded as relative to the individual. We are all
different and do not identify with the same challenges or strive for the same achievements.
Prominently, success should not only be defined as a reduction of an individuals problem
behaviours, or as Seligman, (2004) states, working to achieve zero. Rather, success should also
be measured by a persons overall contentment and happiness. Relieving misery and being
happy are not the same, (Seilgman, 2004). As we provide students with insights into their
difficulties, we should also help students develop insight into their achievements and strengths.
As humanism emphasises, we need to value the growth promoting subjective experience,
(Truscott, 2010, p.12).
Diverse Backgrounds and Contextual Factors. As SPs we need to consider each
students diverse background and the context of their behaviours. For example, personal space
has different meanings and boundaries in different cultures; a students behaviour may be
considered to be maladaptive in one culture but completely appropriate in another. Because the
context of the problem behaviour is imperative to assisting with change, a SP needs to be
educated in risk and protective factors. For example, if a child lives in a dangerous neighborhood,

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aggression may be considered to be a cultural norm or a protective factor, instead of a

maladaptive behaviour, (Chase, 2014). If a child is living in poverty, we may have a different
perspective on their behaviour of stealing or hoarding food. With reference to culture, although
we may strive for culturally competence within every culture we will be exposed to, we may not
achieve this goal; but we can be respectful of all cultures and individual cultural beliefs that are
different from our own, (Truscott, 2010).
Reflection and Conclusion
Although I am drawn to the Cognitive, Behavioural and Systemic approaches, I am open
to continued learning. Within my weekly personal reflections I found myself surprisingly aligning
with many new approaches (e.g. Feminism, Constructivist). Truscott, (2010) explains that highly
effective therapists engage in an ongoing process of professional development in which their
personal and professional values, beliefs and behaviours are integrated into a unified therapeutic
self, (p. 161). In addition, Rnnestad and Skovholt, (2003) assert that an openness to learning
(i.e. an active, searching, exploratory stance) is necessary for continual professional growth.
Importantly, we need to be aware of our own biases; well-seasoned therapists continuously revise
their approach, by systematically decreasing their exclusive influence of a single theory on their
practice, (Truscott, 2010). I have watched my personal theoretical position expand and change as
a gain more personal, professional and educational experience; I will strive to continue this
evolution.

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