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    Wave Theory PDF

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    Chapter 3 Wave Theories “Equations have often been successful beyond the limits of their original hypotheses, and indeed this type of success is one of the hallmarks of a great theory.” —David Gilbarg Numerous water wave theories have been developed which are applicable to different environments dependent upon the specific environmental parameters, e.g, water depth, wave height and wave period. Most of the wave theories that are normally used in the design of an offshore structure are based on these three parameters. While some theories are available that apply to a sloping bottom or other bottom conditions, the theories that will be developed here will be limited toa flat bottom having a constant uniform water depth. Unlike the ocean waves, all water wave theories assume that the waves are periodic and uniform, having a period T and a height H.. Note that the period of the wave is defined as the time required for a crest to travel a distance of one wave length, and the height of the wave is defined as the vertical distance between a crest and the adjacent trough of the wave. The wave length is the horizontal distance between similar points on two successive waves measured in the direction of propagation of the wave. Fora periodic wave, the speed ofa given crest (or trough) in the wave is called the celerity. Since a succession of wave crests pass a given point in space at a fixed interval of time, T, and since the length between the two consecutive crests is the wave length, L, the velocity of wave propagation orcelerity, c, is obtained simply by dividing the wave length, L, by the wave period, T, B.1) L “Tt In developing a wave theory, a boundary value problem (BVP) consisting of a differential equation and certain boundary conditions describing the various boundaries is solved in an approximate way. In this chapter, the complete boundary value problem will be examined and the various simplifying assumptions made in developing a particular wave theory will be discussed. For the simplest of wave theories, it is reasonably straightforward to solve the differential equation which will be illustrated here. As will become evident, the complete boundary value problem cannot be solved in general, even in the simple case of uniform water depth There are two general types of approximate theory: one is developed around the wave height as a perturbation parameter (e.g., in deep water) while the other is developed as a function of the water depth (e.g., in shallow water) Two classes of solutions are obtained. In one case the perturbation parameteris limited to a given order of the wave theory. The solution is obtained in a closed form a Chapter 3. Wave Theories and the expressions of dynamic pressures and water particle kinematics are calculated from known formulas. The linear wave theory, and the Stokes nonlinear wave theory are examples that fall in this category. In other cases, the order of the wave theory remains general, and a numerical solution is sought from the formulation, e.g., stream function theory The discussion in this section will be limited to those wave theories that are commonly used in the design of offshore structures. These are the (1) linear Airy wave theory, (2) Stokes second- and third-order theory, (3) Stokes fifth-order theory, (4) cnoidal theory, and (5) stream function theory. The limitations of these wave theories as well as their regions of applicability will also be discussed. Some of the laboratory investigations that test the validity of these theories and demonstrate their applicability even beyond their limited assumptions will be reviewed. There are other known wave theories which are not presented here, eg, solitary wave theory, trochoidal theory, etc. which find limited application in offshore structure design. The reader should refer to other text books, e.g., by Ippen (1966) and LeMehaute (1976) for further discussion of these theories. In developing the water wave theories, the water will be assumed incompressible throughout and the continuity of flow will be assumed. The continuity equation states that the mass of the fluid is conserved. In the water wave problem, the continuity equation gives rise to the basic differential equation of wave motion. Since incompressibility is assumed, this is equivalent to expressing the conservation of volume, which may be stated in terms of fluid velocities as (3.2) in which w, v, w are the three components of a fluid particle velocity in a rectangular Cartesian coordinate system, OX YZ and the @’s refer to the partial derivatives with respect to the arguments. The coordinate system is chosen such that the origin, O, is at the still water surface, x is positive in the direction of the wave propagation, y is positive upwards and z forms a right-handed system with x and y. For a derivation of the continuity equation refer to Stoker (1957) and LeMehaute (1976). The continuity equation may be equivalently written in terms of the velocity vector i+ oj +wk G3) V-V=0 (3.4) 3.5) } ; 3.1, Stream Function 4B 3.1. Stream Function The theories associated with water waves are developed on the basis of a two- dimensional coordinate system, horizontal (in the direction of wave travel) and vertical, i.e., in the coordinate system OXY, and time, t. Thus the wave crests are assumed infinitely long and not varying in the Z direction. If one introduces a stream function, (x, y,) such that (3.6) and (37) on ne = (3.8) Thus, existence of a stream function implies that the continuity relationship is satisfied and vice versa. Also, ¥ = constant defines a streamline. 3.2. Potential Function A flow is called rotational if each fluid particle undergoes a rotation in addition to translation and pure strain. If a rotation vector is introduced such that w=hVxV G9) then the three components of the rotational vector are given by l/éw éy i alsa) ee (3.11) (3.12) The motion is irrotational if , = «, = «3 =0. The absence of rotations, however, does not imply inviscid fluid, except in the region of flow where w = 0. If we define a function, ® (henceforth called the potential function) such that une, ya ant (3.13) ox 44 Chapter 3. Wave Theories or v=Vo, 3.14) and by inserting these values of the velocity in the above Eqs. (3.10}-(3.12), it can be shown that @, = @ = 3 = 0. Thus, the existence of a potential, ® implies that the motion is irrotational. Altematively, an irrotational flow can be described by a potential function, ®. If the expressions from Eq. (3.13) are substituted in the continuity equation (Eq 3.2), then the well-known Laplace equation is obtained. © 0b oO met oF +3 (3.15) vo A similar equation for the irrotational flow may be obtained for the stream function vey =0 G.16) Sometimes the problem is easier to handle in the cylindrical polar coordinates r, 6, and y, eg., in solving the problem of a vertical circular cylinder in which x=rcos and z=rsin 6. In this case the velocities in the respective directions are given by 3 1 w= aye 3.17) w= 3g G.17) and Laplace's equation becomes eo 120 180 FO arr G.18) ay oF 3.3. Bernoulli Equation There is one more basic concept to derive before embarking on the water wave theory. The continuity equation and the associated relations in Eq. (3.13) aresolved for the kinematics (eg., particle velocity and acceleration) of the wave motion. In order to solve for the kinetics (¢.g., pressures and forces) of the waves, one uses the Bernoulli equation. The unsteady Navier-Stokes equation [Stoker (1957)] may be written in vector form as ev a Mapex vixy avs v(t parte) =0 (3.19) in which p = mass density of wave, 4 = dynamic viscosity of wave, g = acceleration due to gravity, y = vertical coordinate, p = pressure, and V = yelocity vector. The 3.4. Boundary Conditions 45 subsequent discussion will be limited to the irrotational flow (V x V = 0) and perfect fluid (1 = 0). By applying these assumptions and inserting the value of V in terms of in the local inertia term, p GV;/ér, integration with respect to the spatial coordinate provides the unsteady form of the Bernoulli equation eb é@\? (a\? iz oP +p+oa+t[(2) +) +(2) ]-40 6.20) where f(t) is an arbitrary function of time. If, in addition, the flow is considered steady (¢/ét = 0), the familiar form of the Bernoulli equation is obtained P+ pgy +hp(u? +e? + w?)=constant (3.21) Referring to Eqs. (3.15) and (3.20), if the Laplace equation is solved for a set of appropriate boundary conditions in a problem, then the velocity potential, ©, will be known which will then provide the expression for the pressure from Eq. (3.20). 3.4, Boundary Conditions A few of the common boundary conditions encountered in the water wave problems and in developing the wave theories are introduced here. On the assumption that the floor of the ocean is flat, the boundary condition at the ocean bottom states that the vertical velocity component is zero at the bottom (3.22) where d=water depth. Note that y is negative since our coordinate system originates at the water surface. Similarly, in the presence of a fixed body in waves, the surface of which is described by the direction normal, n, the water velocity at the surface of the body must be zero, 0 on the surface of the body (3.23) én Ifthe body is moving with the velocity V, at its surface, then the boundary condition of the water particle at a point on the body surface is given in terms of its velocity being equal to the velocity of the body at that point oo én 4 on the surface of the body (3.24) In the absence of the body, of course, these latter two conditions do not exist. In developing a water wave theory it is assumed that the flow is unobstructed. 46 Chapter 3. Wave Theories Therefore, the above boundary conditions, Eqs. (3.23)-(3.24) are absent and will be considered when the problem of the wave structure interaction is encountered in Chapter 7. The free surface of the wave is governed by two boundary conditions— kinematic and dynamic. The kinematic condition states that a particle lying on the free surface at one instant of time will continue to remain on the free surface. Mathematically, at y=n (3.25) where y=1(x, 2, ¢) represents the free surface. The dynamic free surface condition derives from the Bernoulli equation (Eq. 3.20), on the assumption that the atmospheric pressure outside the fluid is constant. eee 0 +4o|(2) +(2) +(2) ] 00 10 aty=n 6.26) et ex éy. 3.5. Common Wave Theories The governing equations for the wave theories are summarized here based on the developments in the earlier sections. It is assumed that the waves are two dimensional in the XY plane, that the ocean floor is flat of undisturbed depth, d, from the still water level (SWL), and that the waves are progressive in the positive X direction, At this point it is convenient to understand the difference between a progressive wave train and a standing wave. The difference may be best described by Fig. 3.1. The progressive wave travels along the X axis at a given velocity (also called celerity defined earlier). Its characteristics remain identical for an observer traveling at the same speed and in the same direction as the wave. On the other hand, the water surface of the standing wave oscillates vertically between fixed points without progression. The standing wave can be considered as the superposition of two progressive waves of the same amplitude and period, but traveling at the same speed in opposite directions so that the net travel is zero, leaving only the vertical oscillation. Ata given point, a standing wave experiences the same amount of oscillation about the X axis from one cycle to the next. Thus, one point experiences the maximum vertical oscillation called the antinode while another point in space 1/4 of wave length away experiences no vertical displacement, and is called the node. A standing wave may have several nodes and antinodes and is usually encountered in a confined body of water, e.g., harbor basins, lakes, laboratory basin, etc. The standing wave theory is discussed in detail in a later section. Now, let us return to the progressive waves. The progressive wave is defined in Fig. 3.2 in which the various symbols used to characterize the wave are given. A wave train is generally defined by its height, H, period, T, and water depth, d. 3,5, Common, Wave Theories PROGRESSIVE WAVE STANDING WAVE ° ELEVATION, 7] DISTANCE, X Fig. 3.1. Types of waves in open and closed waters Fig. 3.2. Definition sketch for a progressive wave train The problem for any water wave theory is to determine the velocity potential, ® (or equivalently, the stream function, ¥) pertaining to the fluid region. The boundary value problem in the two-dimensional case may be summarized as follows. Differential Equation: (3.27) | 48 Chapter 3. Wave Theories Bottom Boundary Condition: eno aty=-d 6.28) ey : Free Surface Kinematic Condition én eb én 0 cre ou cit = at * ax ax dy aty=n G29) Free Surface Dynamic Condition: eb if /eo\? x Sl(2) +() rao aty=n (3.30) The potential, ®, must satisfy the Laplace equation (Eq. 3.27) and the three boundary conditions (Eqs. 3.28-3.30). The solution of this complete problem is difficult because the free surface boundary conditions are nonlinear and must be satisfied at the free surface which is constantly changing. 3.5.1. Linear Airy Wave Theory The simplest and most useful of all wave theories is the small amplitude wave theory. This wave theory is also known as Airy theory or sinusoidal wave theory. It is based on the assumption that the wave height is small compared to the wave length or water depth. This assumption allows the free surface boundary conditions to be linearized by dropping wave height terms which are beyond the first order. This assumption also allows the free surface conditions to be satisfied at the mean water level, rather than at the oscillating free surface. The solution for ® is assumed to take the form of a power series in terms of a nondimensional perturbation parameter e, which is defined in terms of the wave slope (wave height/wave length) as (3.31) o-Se (3.32) where ©, is the nth order solution for ®. Similarly, the wave profile, 7 is defined as ” r ee (3.33) m1 3.5. Common Wave Theories 49 Now, since the linear theory is directed toward a first-order solution (i.e., linear in the wave height, H, or wave slope, e), only the first term of the series in ® and 1 is retained on substitution in the free surface boundary conditions (Eqs. 3.29-3.30) Then Eqs. (3.29}-(3.30) reduce to at y=0 (3.34) and Bion =0 aty=0 (35) From Eq. (3.35), the free surface profile is given by 1/60, _ mens (@) at y=0 (3.36) The two free surface boundary conditions may be combined into one by eliminating one of the unknowns, 1, as follows: #O, | 20, a 9 By =0 aty=0 (3.37) The other equations in BVP are the same as Eqs. (3.27)-(3.28). For the progressive wave with the speed, c, the periodicity is given by a = x — ct. This form of z assumes that the time is traveling in the negative x direction (direction of wave propagation along +x). Asan alternative, ifthe time is taken in the same direction as the positive x direction (direction of wave propagation along —x), then a= x + ct. This type of BVP is solved by the separation of variable technique. The potential, ®,, is assumed to be of the form ®, = Y(y)A@) (3.38) which when substituted in the partial differential equation produces two ordinary differential equations ay, ae kY=0 (3.39) aA 2A 20 (3.40) da where k? is a constant. It will be shown later that k is the wave number. The general solutions are ¥ =A, coshky+ A, sinh ky G41) 30 Chapter 3. Wave Theories A= Aycos [k(x —ct)] + Ay sin [k(x —ct)] (3.42) The reference point (x =0) is considered for the wave such that at x=0, the surface profile, 1, becomes equal to H/2 (ie., the wave crest) when the time, r, equals 0. Then, A;=0. The bottom boundary condition gives 4, = A, tanh kd Referring to Eq. (3.38), ® may now be written as. cosh k(y +d) eye) sin [k(x —cr)] (3.43) where Ay = 4, Ay. Again applying = H/2 from Eq. (3.36) at x=0, y=0, and at , we get As = gH/2kc. Also, from Eq. (3.43), wave length L = 2x/k, wave period 2n/ke; also, c= L/T, ke =o, k being the wave number and @ = wave frequency. Then substituting s= y +d and @=k(x —ct) the expression for the first-order velocity potential, © (= e®,), becomes gf cosh a 2 cosh kd aay » rosso MIL able 5 (3.45) Substituting the value of @ in the combined free surface boundary condition (Eq. 3.37), the linear dispersion relationship is obtained co? = gk tanh kd (3.46) An alternate form for may be obtained by combining Eqs. (3.44) and (3.46) BH coshks «@ G47) kT sinh kd Similarly, noting that c= /k an alternate form of the dispersion relationship is tanh kd (3.48) ys while the wave length is obtained from the formula 2 p= tanh kd (3.49) From Eq. (3.49) it is seen that the wave length, L, is dependent on T and d. Since 3.5. Common Wave Theories SL k = 2n/L, the wave length cannot be computed directly, and an iterative technique may be used starting with the deep water value for the wave length. In shallower water, however, it is more efficient to start the iteration with the shallow water approximation. In the intermediate range of water depth, a simpler approximate formula for the wave length is L=Lo[tanh (2nd/Lp)]*? (3.50) where Lo is the deep water wave length. For a given water depth and wave period, there is an upper limit to the wave height at which the wave becomes unstable and breaks. The Stokes criterion for wave breaking is that the particle velocity at the crest of the wave reaches the celerity. It is intuitively clear that velocity higher than the celerity will make the waves topple forward and break. Stokes’ (1880) breaking-wave criterion is a crest angle of no more than 120°. In deep water the limiting wave steepness is given by Hy og G51) Lo which makes the breaking wave height, H,, about one-seventh the deep water wave length. In finite water depth the limiting steepness is similarly obtained by introducing the intermediate depth parameter As 0.142 tanh kd (3.52) where L is now the wave length corresponding to the intermediate depth. These relationships will be again considered when discussing the regions of applicability of various wave theories. The water-particle velocities in the X and Y directions are obtained from the expressions and Differentiating Eq. (3.47) with respect to x and y respectively, the horizontal water- particle velocity is nH cosh ks Hi 3.55) T sinh kd °° (3.55) Chapter 3. Wave Theories 32 and the vertical water-particle velocity is sinh ks 3.56) aiah kd 2° an Zt CST ‘The water-particle accelerations in the x and y direction are given by Gu _2n2H cosh ks oe i 3.57 Horizontal: = Gogg 50 (3.57) év 2n?H h ks Vertical: P= SS (3.58) aT? sinh kd © It is sometimes convenient to express u and v in an alternate form using Eq (3.44), In this case gkH cosh ks eee 3.59 2w cosh kd °° CS) and gkH sinh ks Bo coshkd 7° (360) Similarly, the water-particle accelerations take the forms Gu _gkH cosh ks a 2 coshkd "° Bsn av __gkH sinks a 2 cosh kd © 05 (3.62) From the expressions of the horizontal and vertical velocities it is observed that the horizontal velocity of a water particle is maximum (or minimum) when the vertical velocity is zero and vice versa. Since the amplitudes of the two velocities are generally different, it may be inferred that a water particle describes an elliptical orbit about its mean position in a complete wave cycle. The displacements of the water particle about its mean position are obtained by the integration of u and v with respect to the time, t, and applying the appropriate boundary condition for the constant of integration The horizontal and vertical particle displacements, and 7, are given by H cosh ks sin. (3.63) 2 sinh kd and sinh ks cos (3.64) “2 sinh kd 3.5. Common Wave Theories 33 Note that the maximum vertical displacement (at the still water level) of a water particle is equal to the wave amplitude, H/2. As in the case of the velocity potential, ®, the dynamic pressure, p, takes on the first-order form as (3.65) (3.66) An example of the water-particle velocities and accelerations fora wave height of 20 ft and period of 10 sec in a water depth of 100 ftis given in Fig. 3.3. The quantities are computed at the SWL at a station given by x=0. Note that wand év/ét are respectively in phase and 180° out of phase with the wave profile, while » and du/ét are out of phase by 90°. An example of the correlation of maximum measured pressures in a laboratory wave tank with linear theory predictions is shown in Fig. H = 208 = 100" T= 10sec. yro ttsec dv * —__—~ Ot -4 Ss ° Th = 3p ar 6 Fig. 3.3. Example profiles of wave and kinematic~dynamic properties by linear theory 54 Chapter 3. Wave Theories 12 - - 4yq2 = 3.072 FT/sec? 4yp2 «2.22 sec? bo a os aa ° os | 9 Ros - = | SYMBOL ast? ‘SYMBOL Wr | cety sect) (FT/ SEC") 20208 2 0.006 j | 0 ors ll a T T S22 1.28" Vsec? 2 = 0.661 Vsec? to a 1.0 0c ao alo symp wT?) | symsolH/T?, oe (FT/sec?) (errsec?) 2 oor ° 0.048 ° OuT7 ° O13 3 4 0.308 4 0.202 os 0.4 0.2 f 0.2 cry os 0 0.2 0.4 Os NORMALIZED DYNAMIC PRESSURE, Pmax /H Fig. 3.4. Correlation of measured dynamic pressures with linear theory 3.4. The test was performed in a wave tank in 5 ft water depth and the waves were generated by a pneumatic wave generator. The theoretical results are shown as a solid line and test data are normalized with the wave height. Different wave heights at each period are shown with different symbols. Note that the higher waves at each period tend to deviate from the linear theory. Also, near the free surface where linear theory is not valid, the pressure tends to reduce to zero from the maximum value in an approximate linear fashion. Certain simplifications to the above expressions can be made depending on the magnitude of the water depth relative to the wave length. The simplifications are " 3.5. Common Wave Theories 35 based on the application of te asymptotic values of the tanh function, Note that for a large argument, x tanhx = 1 This assumption is valid (<0.4% error) for x > x. Similarly, for small x, tanh x which is acceptable (<1.0% error) for x < 7/10. From this discussion, then, the deep and shallow water limits may be considered as follows: Approximation Criteria Wave Length formula Deep water djL>4 L=gT?/2n Shallow water dL<4 L=TVgd Other expressions may be simplified by the following approximations coshks _sinhks 4, Deep water; SE = SENS (67) coshks 1 Shallow water: SS = 7 (3.68) sinh ks y sinhkd 6.69) ‘The particle orbits and the velocity profiles for the shallow, intermediate, and deep water cases are shown in Fig. 3.5. Note that in shallow water u= constant while v is approximately linear. In deep water, the particle orbits are circular and ue. 3.5.2. Stokes Finite Amplitude Wave Theory The linear small amplitude wave theory is the first and simplest approximation to the water wave BVP. It has a single frequency component described by a sinusoidal wave of frequency, «. It is clear that further approximations of the theory in succession may be obtained by the perturbation technique outlined earlier. Stokes (1880) employed the above scheme such that the higher-order solutions are an order of magnitude smaller than the immediate lower one. This method is considered valid for H/d < (kd), for (kd) < 1 and H/L < 1. These conditions place severe restrictions on the wave heights in shallow water and thus the Stokes theory is not generally applicable to shallow water. On substitution of the series expression for ® from Eq. (3.32) in the Laplace 538 Chapter 3. Wave Theories respectively, the surface elevation profile is given by H nH? coshkd es cH x (3.79) 1 = 5008 © + Sr Taq L2 + cosh 2kd] cos 20 ) In deep water the wave profile has the form H He n= 50080 +e cos 20 (3.80) The second-order water-particle velocities are nH coshks 3/xH)\xl a. o+2(= Horizontal: w=" 2 cos +3 2) (381) 3 (nH nH sinh 2ks Vertical: 7 in@ +2( ZH MES in 20 2 Vertical: one Sak sin 43( ) T sinkead (3.82) The water-particle accelerations can simply be obtained from these expressions by differentiation éu _ 2n?H cosh ks 3n°H (nH\ cosh ks Horizontal = i aed 20 3.83 zontal: =F Sinhd tO + “TE (ra 83) 2n*H sinh ks 3n7H (nH) sinh 2ks i ES cos @ — = 5—| — J cos 20 4 Vertical Tanking 8°77 (fa (3.84) From here, the expressions for the water-particle displacements for the Stokes second-order theory can be derived. The expression for the dynamic pressure is obtained by the substitution of and ©, from Eqs. (3.44) and (3.77) into the complete Bernoulli's equation (Eq. 3.20) [for f(t) =0 and without hydrostatic pressure] pg Ht £05045 ooo y gygt? 1 P= POD cosh kd 300 Tinh 2kd x cosh 2ks 1 cos 2 — 4 aH? 1 sinh? kd 99 T sinh 2kd x [cosh 2ks — 1] (3.85) Note that the dynamic pressure has a time-independent term and the hydrostatic term has been left out. The wave velocity or celerity given to the third order is a ‘nH\?{9 —8 cosh? kd +8 cosh* kd “ -af{i+(%) 8 sinh kd BBC) 3.5. Common Wave Theories 59 which has an alternate form as follows: 542 2 cif +(%) [

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