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Sharon To
Dr. Lynda Haas
WR 39C
19 August 2015
Silent Victims: The Cognitive and Emotional Effect of Abuse on our Canine Companions
Introduction
As an adult, I clearly remember the feeling of being mauled by a giant, black and white, bi-eyed
Siberian Husky at the age of six and never again being able to sit still in the presence of a dog. From that
day on, I had always considered dogs as monstrous beings whose only purpose was to strike fear in
children, and that, as creatures, humans and dogs couldnt be more different. It wasnt until my family
decided to get our family dog, Taro, that I overcame my fear of dogs with a slow-and-steady approach
and constant exposure. The more I learned about his habits and gestures, what he did when he was
happy or scared, the more comfortable I became around him. My experience with Taro reminded me a
friend of mine who always hid her dog away when visitors were present. She warned her guests that Jojo
would bark, growl, or bite if anyone came near him, explaining that he was weary of strangers because he
was a shelter dog who had been abused in his past home. Jojo, having had a traumatizing experience
with humans in the past, learned to fear them just as I had learned to fear dogs because of my encounter.
This made me wonder if perhaps dogs had a similar thought process as humans, and also called to mind
the question of emotions. Do dogs share similar feelings with humans? The parallel I was able to draw
between myself and my friends dog caused me to think that perhaps humans and dogs arent so different
after all, and if one bad experience with a dog could be so traumatizing to me, what could constant abuse
do to our innocent canine companions?
Historical Background
The study of canine science is fairly new, as evolutionary anthropologist Brian Hare infers is in
part due to the fact that until the mid- to late- 1900s scientists believed domesticated animals were
artificial products of human breeding (The Genius of Dogs 14), diverting researcher attention from dogs
to other species deemed more intriguing. My literature review consists of studies held throughout the past
several decades specifically aimed at discovering what dogs are feeling or thinking, if they are at all, and

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how such emotions and thoughts affect or are affected by the human-animal relationship we have
developed with them. Many of these studies transformed the way humans viewed dogs and their mental
capacities and redefined the human-animal relationship. More recent studies from the late 20th to early
21st century provide even further insight into canine intelligence and learning and its effect on our
consideration of dogs as conscious intelligent creatures.
One of the first formal studies of canine intelligence was conducted in 1898 by comparative
psychologist and pioneer investigator in human and animal learning Edward Thorndike. By placing dogs
into puzzle-boxes and re-placing them after their successful escape, Thorndike observed how dogs
figured out how to escape the box and whether or not they could remember how it was done when the
experiment was repeated. With each succeeding session, the dogs were able to escape more quickly,
leading to the conclusion that dogs learned through a method of associative learning known as trial-anderror learning (Chance 437-439).
In studies spanning the early 2000s, researchers Adam Miklosi, chair of the Ethology department
at Eotvos Lorand University and a leading expert on dog cognition and behavior, and Brian Hare revealed
dogs abilities to interpret human gestures, signifying the possession of communicative skills and
disproving previous misconceptions of dogs as automata that behave in purely mechanistic terms (The
Genius of Dogs 53; Wilson, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy). Through various experiments, dogs
were directed to specific areas with a simple pointing gesture from the experimenter. Despite enacting
different situations, such as the accompaniment of other forms of visual gesturing (eye movement,
gazing, etc.) and different styles of pointing, such as proximal pointing, cross pointing, and asymmetric
pointing, dogs responded accordingly, following the pointing gesture regardless of where the
experimenter stood, or how he/she pointed to the desired location. This ability to follow directions implies
an understanding among dogs of human gestures and body language. Their enhanced sociocognitive
abilities, developed from extensive socialization with humans, provide them with communicative skills that
support higher learning capabilities (Miklosi 81-93). Results from Miklosis and Hares experiments
contributed to a new perception of dogs and an incipient appreciation for their degree of consciousness
and intelligence.

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Aside from merely understanding the body language of other species, dogs also communicate
through their own forms of body language, though their gestures often go unnoticed on our part. Emotions
that dogs may feel, such as anger or fear along with other possible emotions for which there are no
human parallels, are often conveyed through varying mannerisms. In 1999, zoologists and animal
behaviorists Zana Bahlig-Pieren and Dennis Turner
investigated the anthropomorphic interpretations that
humans have of animal behavior. Dog owners and nonowners were shown clips of dog behavior and were
asked to associate their expressions with emotions.
The owners descriptions were more anthropomorphic
than the non-owners because their judgment was
affected by their relationship with dogs and their
tendency to project their own feelings onto dogs,
disregarding the dogs body language, which should
have been a clearer indication of how they were
actually feeling (Bahlig-Pieren & Turner 205-210). In
Figure 1, I have created an infographic that displays the
body language of three typical emotions dogs convey

Fig. 1. Dog body language and

behavior infographic. Made with
information on each emotion. Through these studies, dogs
have proven their ability to communicate
Venngage.
through their body language as well as additional

through and understand body language.

Based on this research that proves dogs skills when it comes to communicating, it stands to
reason that perhaps dogs are capable of different kinds of reasoning that does not parallel that of human
beings. One such way could be in their reliance on and heavy usage of imprinting, a practice humans are
not familiar with. In 1994, Peter Hepper, psychology professor and director of research in behavioral
development and welfare at Queens University Belfast, found that dogs imprint on other species, like
humans, in addition to their own. The bond they are able to share with humans can be understood on a
scientific and hormonal level, and also leads to insight on their emotional and cognitive facilities. To test

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the degree of attachment dogs feel with humans as compared to their attachment with their own species
on a hormonal level, scientists David Tuber (Ohio State University, Mansfield), Suzanne Sanders (Ohio
State University, Columbus), Michael Hennessy (Wright State University), and Julia Miller (Ohio State
University, Mansfield) conducted an experiment with eight mongrels raised as littermate pairs with full
socialization with humans from eight weeks to seven years of age. They observed the behavior of one of
the dogs while their littermate pair was taken away and a human caretaker was present. The level of
stress hormone cortisol in their blood did not change and neither did their behavior as long as they were
in their familiar kennel. However, when the dogs were taken to an unfamiliar kennel as a pair, they
showed agitation and their levels of stress hormone went up by over 50 percent (Tuber et al. 105). With a
caretaker present, their stress was alleviated and their cortisol levels returned to normal. Researchers
also indicated that the dogs cortisol levels remained steady regardless of location so long as their
caretaker was nearby. These results illustrate the attachment that dogs form between themselves and
humans; they are sentient beings who draw connections and behave according to those connections,
even if it is in a way humans have yet to fully understand.
Due to the last few decades of research in the areas of canine cognition and communication, it is
now understood that dogs are cognitive and emotional, even though they express it in different ways.
According to Bradshaw, emotions are survival mechanisms and exist to indicate to us where we are in
relation to where we ought to be (153). By that logic, dogs are also capable of emotions, having needed
them to survive. However, their needs for survival differed from our own, meaning evolution is what
created the difference between human emotion and canine emotion. Similarly, canine intelligence, and all
animal intelligence for that matter, does not parallel human intelligence, not necessarily because they are
inferior, but because their evolutionary needs were and continue to be different from our own.
With a better understanding of dogs and their emotional and mental capacity comes a
responsibility and obligation to treat these creatures accordingly. Our relationship with dogs has changed
over the decades with the research that has been done to shed light on their capabilities, and it may
continue to evolve as we discover more about them.
Implications of Canine Abuse

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Presently in the United States, there are a total of 19,448 cases of animal abuse, 11,894 of which
list dogs as the victims according to Pet-Abuse.com, an online database that documents incidents of
animal cruelty. Animal cruelty is broken down into two categories: active and passive. Passive acts are
typically cases of neglect in the form of starvation, dehydration, inadequate sheltering in extreme weather
conditions, and so on. Active cruelty, otherwise known as non-accidental injury, is deliberate and
intentional harm to an animal and often involves beating, burning, fighting, and the like (Pet-Abuse.com).
To better understand the state of companion animal abuse, Helen Munro, veterinary pathologist, and
Michael Thrusfield, chair of veterinary epidemiology at the Royal School of Veterinary Studies, studied
records of 243 non-accidental injury cases in companion dogs. Their research documented superficial
and deep injuries found on victims bodies (bruising, swelling, lacerations, fractures, etc. on head/neck,
eyes, thorax, abdomen, and limbs), cases of repetitive injury and outcome, and age, gender, and breed
distribution of canine victims, noting the young male dog as the most common victim.
The ramifications of these acts of abuse take a toll on not just the animals physical well being but
its psychological state as well. A study published in the Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science
conducted by scientists Franklin McMillan (American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine), Deborah
Duffy (Center for the Interaction of Animals and Society), Stephen Zawistowski (The American Society for
the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals), and James Serpell (School of Veterinary Medicine, University of
Pennsylvania) in 2014 analyzes the behavior of dogs with a certain or near certain history of being
abused in an attempt to determine characteristics that could be potential risk factors for abuse (92).
Comparisons of behavioral responses of abused and non-abused dogs show that abused dogs exhibit
more aggression and fear directed toward unfamiliar humans and dogs...more hyperactivity, and more
persistent barking on top of more fearful responses to petting or reprimand (102). Other similar studies
also found that animals suspected to be victims of abuse by veterinarians showed signs of depression,
psychological damage, meekness, and excessive fear of strangers (Munro & Thrusfield, 2001). The
tendencies that abused dogs exhibit indicate that they learn to think of humans as threats and, therefore,
sources of fear, corresponding with Thorndikes experiment which found that dogs are capable of
associative learning; in this case, they are associating humans with danger. These findings are made

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more intriguing when we consider the strength of the human-canine relationship dogs are able to form
with their caretakers that was demonstrated by the kennel experiment conducted by Tuber et al.
One of the most pressing issues at hand in terms of companion animal abuse lies in the lack of
concern for animal abuse as a subject of research. Frank Ascione, professor of psychology at Utah State
University, calls attention to the practically nonexistent criteria for determining the occurrence of abuse
and neglect in animals, which also manifests itself in the absence of a clear definition of animal abuse
and animal cruelty. This shortcoming makes it difficult to assess the true extent of animal abuse in the
greater community with an estimated 1 million animals falling victim to it every year. An idea that is
relevant to the discussion of canine abuse is speciesism, a term coined by psychologist and philosopher
Richard Ryder to describe the prejudice against other species (What is speciesism? 0:10). Companion
animals like dogs are most often the victims of human aggression as they are frequently viewed as
property and subject to human acts of superiority. Much of the abuse occurs due to failure on the
humans part to acknowledge dogs as sentient beings who are
capable of feeling emotions and pain similar to humans (Phillips
& Lockwood 2). Figure 2 is an infographic I created intended to
depict the various forms of abuse canine victims typically suffer.
With the growing interest in animal abuse research since the late
1990s, researchers have been able to develop their knowledge
on the existence and prevalence of animal abuse, and even draw
a connection between abuse of humans and animals (Tiplady
14). Senior research scholar at the Yale University School of
Forestry and Environmental Studies Stephen Kellert and director
of forensic psychiatry at Saint Louis University School of
Medicine Alan Felthous interviewed over 150 criminals, 25% of
which committed five or more acts of animal cruelty (Tiplady
19). Kellert and Felthous found nine animal cruelty motivations
that include a desire to control an animal, express aggression
through an animal, enhance ones own aggressiveness, retaliate

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against another person, and displace hostility from a person to an animal. These findings support other
studies that have found strong ties between companion animal abuse and domestic violence, as animal
abuse has been indicated to be a manipulation mechanism to establish and maintain control over victims
(Animal Legal Defense Fund).
According to the American Humane Association, 71% of pet-owning women subjected to
domestic violence reported that their batterer injured, maimed, killed or threatened family pets for
revenge or to psychologically control victims. An article in the Journal of Community Health titled Risk
factors for intimate partner violence and associated injury among urban women cites pet abuse as one of
the four predictors of domestic partner violence. Animal abuse and comparative criminology professor
Piers Beirne presents numerous studies that reveal a link between animal abuse and a variety of forms of
domestic violence like partner abuse, child physical abuse, child sexual abuse, and sibling abuse (124).
Professor psychology at John Jay College Cathy Widom found that a history of child abuse and neglect
increased chances of delinquency, crime, and violence in adulthood. Varying factors such as corporal
punishment, physical abuse, sexual abuse, and domestic violence have been attributed to the higher
likelihood of animal abuse in children and adolescents. In

Fig. 2. Forms of canine

abuse. Made with
likely to be exposed to the abuse of animals, whether an adult commits the act or the children themselves
Canva.
households in which domestic violence occurs, children are more

as an expression of the pain they feel from their own victimization.

The problem with canine abuse is clear: it is damaging in a multitude of ways to both dogs and
humans. Daily interactions between humans and their household pets immensely affect the well-being of
said animal, and whether by neglect or intended action, abuse can have long-term consequences on a
dogs physical lifestyle as well as its psychological and behavioral characteristics. Canine victims of
domestic abuse are often silent victims, not because they dont speak up, but because they do in ways
we cant understand. As proven through studies like those conducted by Bahlig-Pieren & Turner, dogs are
capable of feeling emotions and pain, but their forms of communication, like their use of body language, is
often misunderstood by humans. These acts of cruelty dont just hurt the dogs either; there are countless
studies that make the relationship between canine abuse and interhuman violence undeniable. Without
intervention, this cruel cycle of violence will continue unhindered.

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Efforts to Combat the Issue
The problem at hand is one that requires attention and action on all fronts, both in the greater
community and closer to home, a sentiment that is growing in recognition. According to the National
District Attorneys Association, animal abuse laws in the United States are becoming more conscious of
the need to protect animals from harm. As of 2013, states have established felony laws for severe cruelty
to animals, prohibited neglect of animals, and prohibited dog fighting. For example, Californias Penal
Code Section 597, which was established in 1905 and periodically amended, is titled Cruelty to Animals
and addresses animal abuse and neglect cases. This section discusses various factors of animal abuse
such as physical abuse (maiming, mutilating, torturing, etc.) and neglect (i.e. leaving an animal in an
unattended vehicle under endangering conditions). In 2006, states began including pets in domestic
violence protective orders (Phillips & Lockwood 13). Inclusion of family pets into protective orders
removes a significant barrier that causes many victims of intimate partner violence to avoid leaving their
abuser (Arkow & Coppola 6).
Another issue that often arises with cases of domestic violence includes a situation in which a
victim leaves the abusive household to find a domestic violence shelter, but said shelter cannot house
animals; in fact, only 3% of domestic violence shelters nationwide currently allow pets (Markarian).
Typically in these situations, victims choose to abandon their pets, leaving them to fend for themselves. In
response, Safe Haven programs such as the Animal Safety Net, Red Rover, and Ahimsa House have
been initiated nationwide. These programs enlist animal shelters, veterinarians, rescue groups, and
similar organizations to aid in providing foster care for animal victims.
While the current laws set in place have shown great strides in the acknowledgement of animal
abuse issues, and Safe Haven programs provide a significant amount of help to abuse victims, these
policies and programs have their shortcomings. First, all current domestic animal abuse laws are
restricted to state-level policy. Second, Safe Haven programs are not available in every state and mainly
depend upon volunteer help and donations. To counter this problem U.S. Representatives Katherine
Clark and Ileana Ros-Lehtinen introduced the Pet and Women Safety (PAWS) Act in March 2015. This
act would amend the Violence Against Women Act to extend federal protections to companion animals,
establishing a national policy on the issue of pet abuse and introducing a federal grant program to help

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victims safely house their pets. As this is a recently proposed bill that has yet to be enacted into law, it is
unclear the effects the law will have on both human and animal victims of domestic violence.
A few drawbacks that come with these solutions include the lack of clarity of the laws and the
question of enforcement. In terms of clarity, the definition of animal and other terms like abuse and
neglect varies across every state and is often ambiguous and riddled with exemptions, leaving the
determination of which cases violate these laws up to interpretation. As such, many cases of abuse
continue to go unaddressed. Additionally, these laws can, of course, only be enforced when they are
acknowledged and reported. Veterinarians and concerned community members may do their part in
reporting noticed signs of abuse; however, there are a few problems with this method. For instance, not
everyone knows what symptoms or signs could signify abuse, and if they do notice, some civilians may
not know who to call or what to do with that information. There are also cases that simply remain out of
the public eye such as situations that occur strictly in the home. Some states employ agencies that
specifically investigate complaints of animal cruelty; however, several others lack local resources to
properly investigate or are perceived to be unresponsive or ineffective (Lockwood 25). Because of these
deficiencies, many animal cruelty cases continue to be overlooked. Furthermore, these solutions only
come into play after the crime has already been committed, but I believe a more effective proposal should
address the problem before it starts.
One method I suggest that I believe would greatly help in addressing and preventing the topic of
domestic canine abuse is proper education. While laws against canine violence would aid in the
punishment of those who commit these indiscretions, they arent as effective with regards to prevention
as the spreading of knowledge would be. Just as citizens need a license to operate a car, I think such a
standard should also be expected of those who wish to own a dog, requiring dog owner education
classes as a prerequisite to licensing (Mixon). Classes should teach topics such as proper dog
upbringing, recognition and treatment of illnesses, health insurance information, proper nutrition, hygiene
and maintenance, local laws pertaining to keeping a canine, and factors, signs, and solutions for canine
abuse witnessed at home or in public. With such a structure in place, potential dog owners will know
exactly what obligations come with accepting the responsibility of dog ownership. The classes can also
provide the public with tools and services to help stop canine abuse by informing them of what constitutes

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abuse, how to recognize it, and what to do if they come across it. The initiation of a licensing system with
pre-licensing classes serves to screen for potentially problematic owners, which may reduce cases of
canine abuse significantly.
In addition to classes meant to properly educate interested dog owners, non-dog owners must
also be informed on matters concerning canine abuse, and the best way to do so is through social media.
As I have learned through the social media campaign project, the internet is one of our best and most
effective tools for spreading awareness because of its broad scope. As Shirky says in How social media
can make history, the size of the network...is actually the square of the number of participants, and that
is all thanks to the internet (11:33). The world has never been as interconnected as it is now because of
the various social media platforms that allow users to read content from users all over the world in a
matter of seconds. Taking advantage of this convenient method of information dissemination, we can
bring a greater awareness to the problems of canine abuse. Many of the laws and policies that were
passed in favor of canine protection were made possible because of public pressure for more effective
animal rights laws. Utilizing social media can further engage a larger audience to partake in the fight
against canine abuse.
Canine violence is a complex issue, one that that clearly is not easily solved. However, with effort
and cooperation from both the general public and political authority, we can and will put an end to canine
abuse.

Works Cited
"Animal Cruelty." Pet-Abuse.Com. Pet-Abuse.Com, n.d. Web. 4 Aug. 2015.
Arkow, Phil, and Tracy Coppola. "Expanding Protective Orders to Include Companion Animals." Web log
post. American Humane Association, n.d. Web. 13 Aug. 2015.
Ascione, Frank R. "Animal Abuse and Youth Violence." Juvenile Justice Bulletin (2001): n. pag.National
Criminal Justice Reference Service. Web. 10 Aug. 2015.
Bahlig-Pieren, Zana, and Dennis C. Turner. "Anthropomorphic Interpretations and Ethological

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Descriptions of Dog and Cat Behavior by Lay People." Anthrozoos 12 (1999): 205-10. Research
Gate. Web. 15 July 2015.
Beirne, Piers. "For A Nonspeciesist Criminology: Animal Abuse as an Object of Study." Criminology37.1
(1999): 117-48. Wiley Online Library. Web. 5 Aug. 2015.
Bradshaw, John. Dog Sense: How the New Science of Dog Behavior Can Make You a Better Friend to
Your Pet. New York: Basic, 2011. Print.
"California "Animal Abuse & Cruelty" Laws." Shouse California Law Group. Shouse Law Group, A.P.C.,
n.d. Web. 19 Aug. 2015.
Chance, Paul. "Thorndike's Puzzle Boxes and the Origins of the Experimental Analysis of
Behavior."Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 3.72 (1999): 433-40. Print.
"Facts About Animal Abuse & Domestic Violence." Facts About Animal Abuse & Domestic Violence.
American Humane Association, n.d. Web. 4 Aug. 2015.
Hare, Brian, and Vanessa Woods. The Genius of Dogs: How Dogs Are Smarter than You Think. New
York: Dutton, 2013. Print.
Hepper, Peter G. "Long-term Retention of Kinship Recognition Established during Infancy in the Domestic
Dog." Behavioural Processes 33.1-2 (1994): 3-14. Science Direct. Web. 12 July 2015.
Markarian, Michael. "PAWS Act Would Protect Pets in Abusive Homes." Animals & Politics. Humane
Society Legislative Fund, 6 Mar. 2015. Web. 13 Aug. 2015.
McMillan, Franklin D., Deborah L. Duffy, Stephen L. Zawistowski, and James A. Serpell. "Behavioral and
Psychological Characteristics of Canine Victims of Abuse." Journal of Applied Animal Welfare
Science 18.1 (2014): 92-111. Research Gate. Web. 4 Aug. 2015.
Miklosi, Adam, and Krisztina Soproni. "A Comparative Analysis of Animals' Understanding of the Human
Pointing Gesture." Animal Cognition 9.2 (2006): 81-93. Springer Link. Web. 10 July 2015.
Mixon, Craig. "Dog Owner Education and Screening Classes as a Prerequisite to Licensing." New Animal
Control.Org. Craig Mixon, n.d. Web. 13 Aug. 2015.
Munro, Helen M., and Michael V. Thrusfield. "Battered Pets: Non-Accidental Physical Injuries Found in
Dogs and Cats." Journal of Small Animal Practice 42 (2001): 279-90. Wiley Online Library. Web.
4 Aug. 2015.

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Tiplady, Catherine. Animal Abuse: Helping Animals and People. Wallingford, Oxfordshire: CABI, 2013.
Print.
Tuber, David, Suzanne Sanders, Michael Hennessy, and Julia MIller. "Behavioral and Glucocorticoid
Responses of Adult Domestic Dogs (Canis Familiaris) to Companionship and Social
Separation."Journal of Comparative Psychology 110 (1996): 103-08. Research Gate. Web. 12
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Widom, C.S. 1989. The cycle of violence. Science 244:160166. Web. 10 Aug. 2015.
Wilson, Scott D. "Animals and Ethics." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 July 2015.
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Interpersonal Violence. By Randall Lockwood. National District Attorneys Association, 2006.
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United States. National Center for Prosecution of Animal Abuse. Investigating and Prosecuting Animal
Abuse: A Guidebook on Safer Communities, Safer Families, and Being an Effective Voice for
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