HSC-Intermediate Physics 1st Paper by Tanbircox

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1. (Vector)
2. (Linear-Motion)
3. (Motion-In-Two-Dimensions)
4. (Laws-Of-Motion)
5. (Laws-Of-Angular-Motion)
6. , (Work-Energy-And-Power)
7. (Gravitation)
8. (Simple-Harmonic-Oscillation)
9. (Elasticity)
10. (Fluid)
11. (Heat-And-Gas)
12. (Temperature)
13. (First Law Of Thermodynamics)
14. (Heat Radiation)
15. (Change Of State)
16. (Second Law Of Thermodynamics)
17. (Waves & Sound)
18. (Sound)
19. (Speed Of Sound)
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Web: http://tanbircox.blogspot.com
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, ,

,
fi ivwk (Vector Quantities):

h mKj fZ ivwkK m~Yic cKvk Kivi Rb gvb I w`K Dfqi cqvRb nq ZvìK fi ivwk ej|
hgb- miY, IRb, eM, ZiY, ej BZvw`|
jvi ivwk (Scalar Quantities):
h mKj fZ ivwkK ay gvb viv m~Yic cKvk Kiv hvq ZvìK jvi ivwk ej| hgb- `wZ, fi,
KvR, `N BZvw`|
jvi ivwk I fi ivwki ga cv_K (Distinction between Scalar and Vector Quantities):
wgK
jvi ivwk
fi ivwk
h mKj fZ ivwkK ay gvb viv m~Yic
h mKj fZ ivwkK m~Yic cKvk Kivi Rb
cKvk Kiv hvq ZvìK jvi ivwk ej|
1|
gvb I w`K Dfqi cqvRb nq ZvìK fi ivwk
ej|
`wZ, fi, KvR, `N BZvw` jvi ivwki
miY, IRb, eM, ZiY, ej BZvw` fi ivwki
2|
D`vniY|
D`vniY|
Kgc GKwU ivwki gvb k~b bv nj bdj
Kvb ivwki gvb k~b bv njI bdj k~b nZ
3|
k~b nZ cvi bv|
cvi|
4|
gvb AvQ wK w`K bvB|
gvb I w`K AvQ|
hvM, weqvM, b, I fvM ^vfvweK wbqg Kiv
hvM, weqvM, b, I fvM ^vfvweK wbqg Kiv hvq
5|
hvq|
bv|
`ywU Aw`K ivwki bdj me`v GKwU Aw`K ivwk `ywU w`K ivwki myweav RbK bdj GKwU w`K ivwk
6|
nq|
ev GKwU Aw`K ivwk nq|
GKK fi (Unit Vector):
h fii gvb GK ZvK GKK fi ej| gvb k~b bq Ggb fiK Gi gvb viv fvM Kij H w`K ivwkwUi w`K
A
GKwU GKK fi cvIqv hvq| gb Kwi A GKwU fi ivwk; A 0 A Gi w`K GKK fi a (awi)
A
mxgve fi (Restricted Vector):

h fii Avw` we`y Kv_vq _vK Zv wi _vK ZvK mxgve fi ej| O we`yZ
P ej OB iLv eivei wqv Ki eySvj fi P mxgve fi hvi cv` we`y O |

mgvb fi (Equal Vector):
GKB w`K wqviZ `ywU mgRvZxq fii gvb mgvb nj ZvìK mgfi
ev mgvb fi ej| wP P I Q mgvb fi|

k~b ev bvj fi (Zero or Null Vector):
h fii gvb k~b ZvK k~b ev bvj fi ej| bvj fii Avw` I kl we`y GKB we`yZ AewZ|
01| fi (Vector)
m`k fi ev mgvivj fi (Like Vector):

mgRvZxq `yB ev ZZvwaK fi hw` GKB w`K wqv Ki Ze ZvìK m`k fi ev mgvivj
fi ej| wP A I B m`k fi ev mgvivj fi|

wem`k fi (Unlike Vector):
mgRvZxq `yB ev ZZvwaK fi hw` wecixZ w`K wqv Ki Ze ZvìK wem`k fi ej|
wP A I B wem`k fi|
mgiL fi (Co-linear Vector):
`yB ev ZZvwaK fi hw` GKB mijiLv eivei ev cii mgvivj wqv

Ki Ze ZvìK mgiL fi ej| wP A , B , C mgiL fi|
Aevb fi (Position Vector):
cm KvVvgvi g~j we`yi mvc Ab Kvb we`yi Aevb wbYqi Rb h fi eenvi
Kiv nq ZvK Aevb fi ej|
evLv t wP O nQ cmsM KvVvgvi g~j we`y Ges h P Kvb GKwU we`y|
OP fiwU O we`yi mvc P we`yi Aevb wb`k KiQ| ZvB OP GKwU Aevb fi|
Aevb fiK AbK mgq evmva fi r viv cKvk Kiv nq| OP r
AvqZGKK fi (Rectangular Unit Vector):

wgvwK vbv eevq cii j^ wZbwU A _vK| h_v t X,Y Ges Z A| X Ai w`K
wewfb fiK cKvk Kivi Rb GKwU GKK fi i eenvi Kiv nq| Zgwb j I k h_vg
Y I Z Ai w`K GKK fi (Wvb cvki wP)| i , j Ges k K AvqZGKK fi ej|
evmva fi (Radius Vector): AbK mgq Kvb we`yi AevbK h fii mvnvh cKvk
Kiv nq ZvK evmva fi r ej| myZivs Kvb we`y P-Gi vbvsK (x,y,z) nj, evmva
fi r OP x i y j zk viv cKvk Kiv nq| Ges Gi gvb nq r r x 2 y 2 z 2

fi ivwki mvgvwiK m~ (Law of Parallelogram) eYbv I evLv :
eYbv: Kvb KYvi Dci GKB mgq wqvkxj `ywU fi ivwkK hw` Kvb GK we`y _K AswKZ mvgvwiKi `ywU
mwbwnZ ev viv wb`k Kiv hvq Ze H we`y _K AswKZ mvgvwiKi KYB fi `ywUi jwi gvb I w`K wb`k Ki|
gbKwi GKwU KYvi Dci GKB mgq `ywU w`Kivwk P I Q, KvY wqv KiQ| OA Ges OC iLv `ywU
h_vg P I Q gvb Ges Zxi wP Gì w`K wb`k KiQ| GLvb AOC | GB `ywU w`K ivwki jwi gvb I w`K
wbYq KiZ ne|
AsKb : mvgvwiK OABC AsKb Ki Kb OB hy Kwi| Zvnj OB KbB w`Kivwk `ywUi gvb I w`K wb`k
Kie| gb Kwi jwi gvb R Ges KvY GKwU myKvY| GLb B we`y _K OA Gi ewaZ Aski Dci BN j^ Uvwb|
01| fi (Vector)
jwi gvb wbYqt AB I OC mgvivj| AOC | OBN wfyRi ONB GK mgKvb|

OB2 = ON2+ BN2
OB 2 =(OA+AN)2 +BN2
OB 2 = OA2 +2OA .AN +AN2 +BN2
OB 2 = OA2 +(AN2 +BN2) +2OA .AN
AN
OB 2 = OA2 +AB2 +2OA. AB.
AB
OB 2 = OA2 +OC2 +2OA.OC Cos
R2 = P2 +Q2 +2PQ Cos
R P 2 Q 2 2PQCos ... ... ... (1)
jwi w`K wbYq: gbKwi jw R, P Gi mv_ Kvb Drcb Ki| A_vr AOB OBN mgKvYx wfyR
tan
BN
ON
BN
OA AN
BN
AB
AB
tan
AN
OA AB
AB
QSin
tan
P QCos
tan
tan 1
QSin
... ... ... (2)
P QCos
(1) bs mgxKiY jwi gvb I (2) bs mgxKiY jwi w`K wb`k Ki|
GKB mgq GKB we`yZ wqviZ `ywU w`Kivwki jwi mevP I mewb gvb ivwk `ywUi hvMdj I weqvM dji mgvb t
P I Q, KvY wqv Kij mvgvwiKi m~vbyhvqx Avgiv cvB,
R P 2 Q 2 2PQCos ... ... ... (1)
R2 = P2 +Q2 +2PQ Cos
R2 P2 Q2 = 2PQ Cos
R 2 P2 Q2
Cos
Avevi Avgiv Rvwb, CosGi gvb
2PQ
1 _K +1 Gi ga mxgve| A_vr, 1 Cos 1
R 2 P 2 Q2
1
1
[CosGi gvb ewmq]
2PQ
2PQ R 2 P 2 Q 2 2PQ
P 2 Q 2 2PQ R 2 P 2 Q 2 2PQ [Dfq c P2+Q2 hvM Ki]
( P Q) 2 R 2 ( P ~ Q) 2
(P Q) R (P ~ Q) KvRB GKB mgq GKB we`yZ wqviZ `ywU w`K ivwki jwi mevP I mewb gvb
ivwk `ywUi hvMdj I weqvM dji mgvb| Ab fveI ejv hvq, GKB mgq GKB we`yZ wqviZ `ywU w`K ivwki jwi
mevP gvb ivwk `ywUi hvMdj nZ eo nZ cvi bv I mewb gvb ivwk `ywUi weqvM dj _K QvU nZ cvi bv|
01| fi (Vector)
`ywU fi ivwk P I Q cii KvY AvY&Z| Gì jvi Yb I fi Yb t

jvi Yb ev WU Yb t `ywU w`K ivwki jvi Yb GKwU Aw`K ivwk Ges Gi gvb w`Kivwk `ywUi gvbi
Ydj Ges Gì gaeZx KvYi Cosine Gi Y dji mgvb ne|
evLvt gb Kwi, P I Q `ywU w`K ivwk cii KvY AvbZ& A_vr P I Q Gi gaeZx KvY | Gì WU

Yb A_vr jvi Yb P.Q PQCos
wPvbyhvqx, P OA; Q OB; BM, OA Gi Dci j^ I AN, OB

Gi Dci j^ | myZivs OM =OB Cos
ev, OM =Q Cos

P.Q P(QCos) = ( P Gi gvb) (OM)
= ( P Gi gvb) ( P Gi Dci Q Gi j^ Awfci gvb)

Abyicfve, Q.P QPCos Q ( PCos ) = ( Q Gi gvb) ( Q Gi Dci P Gi j^ Awfci gvb) A_vr `ywU fi
ivwki jvi A_vr WU Ydj ejZ Gì h Kvb GKwU fi ivwk viv Dnviw`K Aci fi ivwkwUi Awfci
Ydj evSvq|

(K) hw` fi ivwkq cii mgKvb AvbZ& _vK Ze P.Q PQ Cos 90 0 AZGe `ywU fiivwk mgKvY AvbZ&
_vKj Gì jvi bdj k~b ne wecixZg `ywU fi ivwki jvi bdj k~b nj ivwk `ywU ciii Dci j^
ne|
awi wZbwU AvqZKvi fi ivwk i, j I k cZK ciii Dci j^|
myZivs Gì h Kvb `ywUi jvi bdj k~b ne| A_vr i. j j.k k.i 0
(L) hw` `ywU fi ivwk GKB w`K wqv Ki Ze Gì gaeZx KvY = 0;

m P.Q PQ Cos 0 PQ ne| GKK w`K ivwki cvB, i .i j . j k .k 1

(M) hw` P I Q `ywU fi ivwk cii wecixZgyLx nq Ze Gì gaeZx KvY = 180

nq Ze m P.Q PQ Cos 180 PQ ne|
fi Yb ev m Yb t `ywU w`K ivwki fi (m) Yb GKwU fi ivwk hvi gvb w`Kivwk `ywUi gvbi Ydj Ges
Gì gaeZx KvYi Sine -Gi Y dji mgvb Ges GB bdj ivwk `ywUi Zj j^fve vwcZ GKwU Wvb cvKi KK
zK 1g fi ivwk _K 2q fi ivwki w`K z`Zi KvY Nyivj GUv h w`K AMmi nq mB w`K wqv Ki|
evLvt gb Kwi, P I Q `ywU w`K ivwk cii KvY AvbZ& A_vr P I Q Gi gaeZx KvY | Gì m

Yb A_vr fi Yb P Q PQSin GLvb GKwU GKK w`K ivwk hv ( P Q ) Gi jwi w`K wb`k Ki|

hw` P Q R aiv nq Ze R Gi AwfgyL P I Q Gi mgZji mv_ Awfj^ eivei ne|

R P Q PQSin
( P Gi gvb) ( P Gi j^ eivei Q Gi gvb )

Avevi, Q P QPSin ()

Q P QPSin

Q P ( Q Gi gvb) ( Q Gi j^ eivei P Gi gvb )

P Q Q P A_vr fi Yb wewbgq m~ gb Pj bv|
01| fi (Vector)
Avgiv Rvwb, Wvb cvKi KK zK evgw`K Nyivj GwU Dcii w`K Lyj Avm Avi Wvb w`K Nyivj wbPi w`K AMmi
nq, Z`c P I Q Gi fi Yb evgveZx nj Gì jw R Gi AwfgyL Da w`K nq Ges P I Q Gi fi Yb
`wbveZx nj Gì jw R Gi AwfgyL wbgyLx ne hv c~ei AwfgyLi Dv w`K ne|

Dciv eYbv Abymvi,

1) = 0 nj P Q 0 ne KviY Sin 0 = 0

2) P|| Q nj P Q 0 ne KviY Sin 0 = 0

3) P Q nj P Q PQ ne KviY Sin 90 = 1
4) i, j I k mgKvY wqv Kij i j k, j k i , k i j
I i, j I k mgvivj wqv Kij i i j j k k 0
jvi Yb wewbgq m~ gb Pj wK fi Yb wewbgq m~ gb Pj bv:

gb Kwi `ywU fi P I Q , KvY AvbZ& P.Q PQCos ... ... ... (1)

Avevi, Q. P QPCos

Q.P PQCos ... ... ... (2)

(1) I (2) nZ cvB, P. Q Q. P A_vr jvi Yb wewbgq m~ gb Pj| Acic, (P Q) I (Q P) Gi gvb GKB

njI Gì w`K wecixZ A_vr P Q PQ Sin ... ... ... (3)

Avevi, Q P Q P Sin ( )

Q P PQ Sin ... ... ... (4)

(3) I (4) nZ cvB, (P Q) (Q P)

P Q Q P A_vr fi Yb wewbgq m~ gb Pj bv|
fi hvMi wfyR m~ (Triangle Law) t

`ywU fiK GKwU wfyRi `ywU mwbwnZ ev viv GKB g w`K I gvb wb`k
Kij wfyRwUi ZZxq ev wecixZ g w`K I gvb Dnvì jw wb`k Ki|
evLv t awi P I Q GKB RvZxq `ywU fi| ABC wfyRi AB Ges BC
ev h_vg fi P I Q wb`k Ki| m~vbymvi, AC AB BC

R P Q
[ GLv b, AC R ]
01| fi (Vector)

fii hvMi wewbgq m~ (Commutative Law) t A B B A
cgvb t aiv hvK
OP A Ges OR B `ywU fi O we`yZ wqv Ki OPQR
mvgvwiK c~Y Ki wfyR m~vbymvi cvB,
OP PQ OQ ... ... ... ... (1)
Ges OR RQ OQ ... ... ... ... (2)
(1) I (2) _K cvB, OP PQ OR RQ

A_vr, A B B A myZvivs fi hvM wewbgq m~ gb Pj|
fii hvMi mshvM m~ (Associative Law) : (A B) C A (B C)
cgvb t aiv hvK OP A , PQ B Ges QR C | GLb OQ, PR Ges OR ai
wf~R m~vbymvi cvB, OP PQ OQ (A B)
Ges PQ QR PR (B C)
GLb OQ QR OR A_vr (A B) C D
Avevi, OP PR OR A_vr A (B C) D

(A B) C A (B C) myZvivs fi hvM mshvM m~ gb Pj|
eUb m~: A .(B C) A . B A .C Gi cgvY:

cgvY: gb Kwi, A, B I C fi wZbwU h_vg OP,OQI QR viv m~wPZ Kiv nqQ| GLb wP _K Avgiv
cvB, A .(B C) A . (OQ QR )
A .(B C) A . OR
A .(B C) A OP Gi Dci OR Gi j ^ Awf c
A .(B C) A ON
A .(B C) A (OM MN )
Figure 1
A .(B C) A OM A MN
A .(B C) A OP Gi Dci OQ Gi j ^ Awf c A OP Gi Dci QR Gi j ^ Awf c
A .(B C) A . OQ A . QR
A .(B C) A . B A . C (cgvwYZ)
01| fi (Vector)
wgvwK vbv eevvq GKwU Aevb fii gvb wbYq:

A_vr r x 2 y 2 z 2 Gi cgvY :
wgvwK vbv eevq cii wZbwU iLv OX, OY I OZ h_vg X, Y I

Z, A wb`k Ki Ges i , j I k A wZbwU eivei GKK fi| r GKwU Aevb fi| awi, r OP Ges P we`yi
vbv (x,y,z)| XZ Zji Dci PN Ges N we`y nZ X I Z Ai Dci h_vg NA I NB j^ AvuwK|
wP nZ, BN =OA= x, AN=OB = z Ges NP = y
wfyR m~ Abymvi, OP ON NP
OP OB BN NP
OP BN NP OB
r xi yj zk
Avevi, OPN wfyR nZ, OP2=ON2+NP2
OP2 = OB2+BN2+NP2
OP2 = BN2 + NP2 +OB2
r2 x 2 y2 z2
r x2 y2 z2
(cgvwYZ )

A.B A x B x A y B y A z B z Gi cgvY:
awi, A A x i A y j A z k I B B x i B y j B z k

dj, A . B (A x i A y j A z k) . ( Bx i B y j B z k)

A . B A x B x (i .i ) A x B y ( i .j) A x B z ( i .k )
A y B x (j.i ) A y B y (j.j) A y B z (j.k)
A z B x (k .i ) A z B y (k .j) A z B z (k .k )

A . B Ax Bx (1) Ax By (0) Ax Bz (0) Ay Bx (0) A y By(1) A y Bz (0) Az Bx (0) Az By (0) Az Bz (1)

A . B Ax Bx 0 0 0 Ay By 0 0 0 Az Bz

A . B Ax Bx A y By A z Bz ( Pr oved)
A A x i A y j A z k I B B x i B y j B z k nj
01| fi (Vector)

A B wbYq :

A B (A x i A y j A z k) (B x i B y j B z k )

A B A x B x (i i) A x B y (i j) A x B z (i k)
A y B x (j i) A y B y (j j) A y B z (j k)
A z B x (k i ) A z B y (k j) A z B z (k k)

A B 0 A x B y (k) A x B z ( j) A y B x ( k) 0 A y B z (i) A z B x (j) A z B y ( i ) 0

A B A y B z (i) A z B y (i) A z B x (j) A x B z (j) A x B y (k) A y B x (k)

A B (A y B z A z B y )i (A z B x A x B z )j (A x B y A y B x )k
i

A B Ax
Bx
j
Ay
By
k
A z (Ans.)
Bz
fi wefvRb ev fi weklb (Resolution Of Vectors) t

GKwU fi ivwkK `yB ev ZZvwaK fi ivwkZ wef Kivi cwZK fii wefvRb ev fii weklb ej|
gbKwi, wP OC iLv R fiwUi gvb I w`K wb`k Ki| GLb R fiwUK Ggb `ywU Ask wef KiZ ne h, G
jv OC Gi mv_ h_vg I KvY Drcb Ki| GLb O we`y _K OC iLvi mv_ Gi `yB cvk I
KvY Ki OB I OA iLv Uvbv nj| OACB mvgvwiKwU c~Y Kiv nj mvgvwiKi
m~vbymvi OA Ges OB ev `ywU R fii `ywU Dcvsk wb`k Kie|
gbKwi, wefvwRZ Dcvsk OA X Ges OB Y |

(K) wP, BOC OCA
Ges OAC 180 - GLb OAC wfyR weePbv Ki Avgiv cvB,
OA
AC
OC
Sin Sin Sin[180 ( )]

X
Y
R
( AC OB Y)
Sin Sin Sin ( )
RSin
RSin
X
Ges Y
R fiK hw` mgKvY wefvwRZ Kiv hvq [wP (L)] A_vr
Sin ( )
Sin ( )
Dcvsk `ywU hw` cii j^ nq Ze Zvnj,+90 Sin+Sin 90 = 1
X = R SinGesY = R Sin hnZz +90 90
Sin Sin () = Cos dj, X = R Cos GesY = R Sin
c_g ci AsKi mgvavb

First Paper Math Solution
1| fi (Vector)
1| fi
1| hw` A 3i j 2k I B 2i 3j k nq Ze

|A B| KZ?
i j
k

A B 3 1 2
i( 1 6 ) j(3 4 ) k (9 2 ) 5 i 7 j 11k

| A B | 52 (7) 2 112 25 49 121 13 . 96(Ans.)
2| hw` A 6i 3j 2k I B 2i 2j k nq Ze

A.B KZ?

A.B A x B x A y B y A z B z
(6)(2) ( 3)(2) (2)(1) 12 6 2 8 (Ans.)
3| A 5i 2j-3k I B 15i aj-9k | a Gi gvb KZ

nj A I B cii mgvivj ne?

A I B cii mgvivj ne hw` A B 0 nq|
i j k

AB 5 2 3
15 a -9

A B i( 18 3a) j(-45 45) k(5a-30)

A B i (3a 18) k(5a 30)

A B (3a 18) 2 (5a 30) 2

ckgZ, A I B cii mgvivj nj A B 0
(3a 18) 2 (5a 30) 2 0
(3a 18) 2 (5a 30) 2 0 [Dfq c K eM K i]
32 (a 6) 2 5 2 (a 6) 2 0
(a 6) 2 (32 5 2 ) 0
(a 6) 2 0 Dfq c K (32 5 2 ) viv fvM K i
a 6 (Ans.)
A 2i 3j-5k I B mi 2j - 10k | m Gi

gvb KZ nj A I B cii j^ ne|

A I B cii j^ nj A . B 0 ne|
4|

A .B Ax Bx Ay By Az Bz
(2)(m) (3)(2) (5)(10) 2m 6 50 0

- 56
m
m - 28 (Ans.)
2
5| A 2i 2j k I B 6i 3j 2k nj A I B
Gi gaeZx KvY wbYq Ki|

A.B AB cos

1 A . B
A I B Gi gaeZx KvY, Cos
AB

A .B A x B x A y B y A z B z (2)(6) (2)(-3)
(-1)(2) 12-6-2 4
2
2
2
A 2 2 (1) 9 3
B 6 2 (3) 2 2 2 36 9 4 49 7
Cos

A .B
4
4
-1
Cos 1
Cos
(3)(7)
21
AB
79 .02 (Ans.)
6. fi B 6i 3j 2 k Gi Dci fi
A 2i 2j k Gi j^ Awfc wbYq Ki|

A.B AB cos

A.B
A Gi j^ Awfc, A cos
B

A .B A x B x A y B y A z B z
( 2)(6) ( 2)(-3) (1)(2) 12-6 2 8
B 6 2 ( 3) 2 2 2 36 9 4 49 7

A.B 8
A Gi j^ Awfc =
7
B
7| A 3i 2j k , B i 2j 3k I C i j 2k

nj cgvY Ki h, A.(B C) (A B).C
i j k

B C 1 2 3
1 1 2

ev, B C i (4 3) j(2 3) k(1-2) 7i-5j -k
1| fi (Vector)

L.H.S A . (B C)
(3)(7) (2)(-5) (1)(-1) 21 10 1 10
i j

GLb, A B 3 2
k
1

ev, A B = i ( 6 2 ) j( 9 1) k ( 6 - 2 )
8 i 10 j 4 k

R.H.S ( A B ) . C (- 8 )(1) (10 )(1)
( 4 )( 2 ) - 8 10 8 10
L. H. S R.H.S

A_vr, A.(B C) (A B).C ( Pr oved.)
8| A i 3j 2k , B i 2j k I C 2i 3j 4k
nj cgvY Ki h, (B C) A B A C A

(B C) (1 2) i (2 3)j ( 1 4)k 3i j 3k
i

L.H.S (B C) A 3 1 3
i ( 2 9) j(6 3) k(9 1) 11 i 3j 10k

i j k

Avevi, B A 1 2 1
1 3
i(4 3) j(2 1) k(3-2) 7i 3j k

i j k

C A 2 3 4
i( 6 12) j(4-4) k(6 3) 18i 9k

R.H.S B A C A 7i 3j k 18i 9k
11 i 3j 10k

A_vr, (B C) A B A C A ( Pr oved.)
wK A 0, B 0 CosC 0
ev , Cos Cos 90 90
AZGe A I ciii Dcii j^|
10| hw` A A x i A y j A z k I B Bx i B y j Bz k nq

Ze `LvI h, A.B A x B x A y B y A z B z
1 2 -3
9| A 9i j-6k Ges B 4i 6j 5k fi `ywUi

Mybdj wbYq Ki `LvI h, Giv ciii Dci j^|

A.B A x B x A y B y A z B z
(9)(4) (1)( 6) ( 6)(5) 36 6 30 0

A . B ABCos 0

A . B (A x i A y j A z k) . ( Bx i B y j B z k)

A . B A x B x ( i .i ) A x B y ( i .j) A x B z (i .k)
A y B x (j.i ) A y B y (j.j) A y B z (j.k)
A z B x (k. i ) A z B y (k.j) A z B z (k.k )

A . B Ax Bx (1) A x By (0) Ax Bz (0)
Ay Bx (0) A y By(1) A y Bz (0)
Az Bx (0) Az By (0) Az Bz (1)

A . B Ax Bx 0 0 0 Ay By 0 0 0 Az Bz

A . B Ax Bx A y By A z Bz ( Pr oved)
11| hw` A 2i 4j 5k I B i 2j 3k fi qi jw
fii mgvivj GKK fi wbYq Ki|

R A B 2 i 4 j 5 k i 2 j 3k
R 3i 6j 2k
R
R Gi mgvivj GKK fi a
R
R 32 6 2 (2) 2 9 36 4 49 7
R 3i 6j 2k 3 6 2
a
i j k (Ans.)
7
7
7
7
R
12| GKB we`yZ wqvkxj `ywU mgvb gvbi fii gaeZx KvY KZ
nj Gì jwi gvb h Kvb GKwU fii mgvb ne?
R2=P2+Q2+2PQCos
ev, X2= X2+X2+2X.X.Cos
GLvb,
ev, X2- X2-X2=2X2Cos
awi, fi, P=Q=X
2
2
ev, -X =2X Cos
jw, R= X
X2
ev , Cos
Af

~ KvY,
2X 2
1
ev, Cos
2
1
ev , Cos 1
2
120 (Ans.)
1| fi (Vector)
13| Aevb fi r x i y j z k K eeKjb Ki

wKfve eM I ZiY cvIqv hvq?
Avgiv Rvwb,
dr
dt
d
(x i y j z k)
dt
dx dy dz
(Ans.)
j k
i
dt
dt
dt
dv d dx dy dz
i
j k
Avevi, ZiY a
dt
dt
dt dt dt
eM, v
d 2x d2 y d2z
2 i 2 j 2 k
dt
dt
dt
(Ans.)
`ywU fii m bdj fi `ywU viv MwVZ mgZji Dci j^ nq| mB

j^ fii mgvivj GKK fiB ne mgZji Dj^ w`K GKK

PQ
fi| awi, mB fi a , a
PQ
i j
k

P Q 2 3 4 i (9 8) j(6 4) k (4 3)
1 2 3

P Q i 10j 7k

P I Q h Zj AewZ Zvi Dj^ w`K fi

(i 10j 7k)
( P Q)
a
PQ
(1) 2 (10) 2 (7) 2
14| P t 2 i t j ( 2 t 1) k I Q 5ti tj t 3 k
d
d
(P. Q) ? (P Q) ?
dt
dt

2
P.Q ( t )(5t ) ( t )(t ) (2t 1)( t 3 )

P.Q 5t 3 t 2 2t 4 t 3

P.Q 2 t 4 4t 3 t 2
d
d
(P.Q) (2 t 4 4t 3 t 2 )
dt
dt
d
(P.Q) 8t 3 12t 2 2t
dt
i
j
k

P Q t 2 t 2t 1
5t
t3
d
(P Q) (4 t 3 4 t 1)i (5t 4 20 t 5)j
dt
(Ans.)
(3t 2 10 t )k
15| P 2i 3j 4k, Q i - 2j 3k fi q h Zj
Aevb Ki Zvi Dj^w`K GKwU GKK fi wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
(i 10j 7k)
( Ans.)
150
16| Kvb GKwU KYvi Aevb fi
r [(3.5ms 1 )t 4.2m] i [5.3ms 1 ]j nj
eM V wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb, V
dr
dt
d
[(3.5ms 1 )t 4.2m]i [5.3ms 1 t]j
dt
V 3.5i 5.3j (Ans.)

LHS A B A.B
2
17| cgvY Ki t A B A.B

2
A 2 B2

P Q i ( t 4 2 t 2 t ) j(10 t 2 5t t 5 )
k ( t 3 5t 2 )
4
2
2
5
d i ( t 2t t ) j(10t 5t t )
d
( P Q)
dt
dt
k (t 3 5t 2
d
d
(P Q) ( t 4 2t 2 t )i
dt
dt
d 5
d
( t 10 t 2 5t )j ( t 3 5t 2 ) k
dt
dt
AB sin AB cos
2 A 2 B 2 sin 2 A 2 B 2 cos 2
1. A 2 B 2 sin 2 A 2 B 2 cos2
A 2 B 2 sin 2 cos 2
A 2 B 2 .1 A2 B 2 L.H .S R.H .S (Proved)
18| P i 2j k Ges Q 3i 6j 3k nj `LvI h, P I
Q cii mgvivj|

P I Q cii mgvivj ne hw` P Q 0 nq|
i j k

P Q 1 2 1 i (6 6) j(3 3) k (6 6)
3 6 3

P Q i (0) j(0) k (0) 0 0 0 0
1| fi (Vector)

P Q 0 P Q 0 P I Q cii mgvivj|
(cgvwYZ)
19| P 2i 3j 4k Ges Q 2i j 3k fi q h
Zj AewZ Zvi Dj^w`K GKwU GKK fi wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
`ywU fii m bdj fi `ywU viv MwVZ mgZji Dci j^
nq| mB j^ fii mgvivj GKK fiB ne mgZji Dj^

P Q
w`K GKK fi| awi, mB fi n , n
P Q
i

PQ 2
j k
3 4 i (9 4) j(6 8) k (2 6)
2 1 3

P Q 13i 2j 8k

Avevi, P Q 132 2 2 8 2 P Q 237

PQ
13i 2 j 8k
n
237
PQ
8
2
13
n
i
j
( Ans.)
237
237
237
20| P 4i 4j k Ges Q 2i 2j k fiq

GKwU mgvwiKi `ywU mwbwnZ ev wb`k Kij Gi dj wbYq
Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb, `ywU fi GKwU mgvwiKi `ywU mwbwnZ ev wb`k
Kij H mgvwiKi dj ne fi `ywUi m Ydji gvbi
mgvb| P Q mgvwiKi dj|

GLb,
i
j

PQ 4 4
k
1 i (4 2) j(4 2) k (8 8)
2 2 1

P Q 6i 6j

P Q 6 2 6 2 72 8.49 GKK (Ans.)
21| P 2i mj-3k I Q 10i 5j-15k | m Gi gvb KZ nj

P I Q cii mgvivj ne?

P I Q cii mgvivj ne hw` P Q 0 nq|
i

PQ 2
j
k
m 3
10 5 -15
P Q i ( 15m 15) j(-30 30) k( 10-10m)

P Q i ( 15m 15) k( 10 10m)

P Q ( 15m 15) 2 ( 10 10m)2

ckgZ, P I Q cii mgvivj nj, P Q 0
( 15m 15) 2 ( 10 10m)2 0
( 15m 15) 2 ( 10 10m) 2 0 [Dfq c K eM K i]

152 (m 1) 2 102 (m 1) 2 0
(m 1) 2 ( 152 102 ) 0
(m 1) 2 0 Dfq c K ( 152 102 ) viv fvM K i
m 1 (Ans.)
22| A 2i 2 j k Ges B 6i 3 j 2k `ywU fi ivwk|

Gì j^ AwfgyL GKwU GKK fi wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
`ywU fii m bdj fi `ywU viv MwVZ mgZji Dci j^ nq| mB
j^ fii mgvivj GKK fiB ne mgZji Dj^ w`K GKK

P Q
fi| awi, mB fi n , n
P Q
i

PQ 2
2
6 3
k
1 i(4 3) j (4 6) k(6 12)
2

P Q i 10 j 18k
Avevi, P Q 12 (10 2 ) ( 182 ) P Q 425

PQ
i 10 j 18k
n
(Ans.)
425
PQ

,

- ,
:
: () ()
: () ()

(i)
-
(ii) - ,
(iii)

.

.

, ,
.

,
.
, , ,
.
,
MoeM (Average Velocity) :

msv: h Kvb mgq eeavb Kvb ei Mo cwZ GKK mgq h miY nq ZvK ewUi Mo eM ej|
r
ne|
eLv: t mgq eeavb Kvb ei miY r nj Mo eM v
t
eM (Velocity):
msv: mgq eeavb k~bi KvQvKvwQ nj mgqi mv_ ei miYi nviK eM ej|
r
r
wK
eLv: t mgq eeavb Kvb ei miY r nj eM v lim
nQ Mo eM v | myZivs v lim v
t 0 t
t 0
t
A_vr mgq eeavb k~bi KvQvKvwQ nj Mo eMi mxgvwK gvbKB eM ej|

mgeM ev mylg eM (Uniform Velocity) :
hw` Kvb ei MwZKvj Zvi eMi gvb I w`K AcwiewZZ _vK Zvnj mB ei eMK mgeM ej| A_vr Kvb e
hw` wbw` w`K mgvb mgq mgvb c_ AwZg Ki Zvnj ei
eMK mgeM ej| ki eM, Avjvi eM, cfwZ mgeMi cK
cvKwZK D`vniY|
AmgeM (Variable Velocity) t
Kvb ei MwZKvj hw` Zvi eMi gvb ev w`K ev DfqB cwiewZZ nq Zvnj mB eMK AmgeM ej| Avgiv
mPvivPi h MwZkxj e `wL Zvì eM AmgeM|
ZvrwbK eM (Instantaneus Velocity) :
GKwU e mij ev e c_ AmgeM Pjj cwZwbqZ Gi eMi cwieZb nq| Gfve AmgeM Pj Kvb ei h
Kvb gyZi eMK H ei ZvrwbK eM ej| ZvrwbK eMi w`K ewUi H gyZi Aevb AswKZ MwZc_i
kK eivei|
ZiY (Acceleration) :
mgqi mv_ eM ewi nviK ZiY ej| t mgq eeavb ei eMi cwieZb v nj ZiY a
ne| Abfve
t
ejv hvq mgq eeavb k~bi KvQvKvwQ nj mgqi mv_ ei eM ewi nviK ZiY ej| t mgq eeavb ei eMi
ne|
cwieZb v nj ZiY a lim
t 0 t
mgZiY ev mylg ZiY (Uniform Acceleration) :

GKB w`K GKB mgq eeavb eMi ewi nvi mgvb nj ZvK mgZiY ev mylg ZiY ej| AwfKli Uvb gyfve
co ei eM ewi nviK AwfKlR ZiY ej| AwfKlR ZiY, mgZiY wewk MwZi GKwU cK D`vniY| mgZiY,
ZiYi gvb I w`K mgqi mv_ AcwiewZZ _vK| mgZiY MwZkxj eZ mgej wqvKi ei cici mKi
eMi
2
02| iwLK MwZ (Linear Motion)
AiB mgZiY| wP GKwU mijiLv eivei cici mKi eM `wLq Gi Zibi cKwZ wb`k Kiv nqQ| GLvb
mgZiYi gvb 2ms2 |
miY ( Displacement ) t wbw` w`K ei Aevbi cwieZbK miY ej| miYK s ev d viv cKvk Kiv nq| Gi
GKK wgUvi| wbw` w`K Kvb e t mgq ai v eM Pjj, miY s = v t ne| miY GKwU fi ivwk|
AvcwK eM: `ywU MwZkxj ei GKwUi Zzjbvq (mvc) AciwUi Aevbi cwieZbi nviK AvcwK eM ej|
ga eM: Kvb GKwU MwZkxj ei c_g Ges kl eM Gi AwfgyL GKB nj Zvì hvM dji AaKK ga eM
ej| Kvb wbw` w`K Kvb ei AvwèM viI kl eM vf nj gaeM =
vi v f
2
ne|
`wZ I eMi cv_K (Distinction between Speed and Velocity) :

wgK
`ywZ
eM
h Kvb w`K ei vb cwieZbi nviK ei wbw` w`K ei vb cwieZbi nviK ei eM
1|
`wZ ej|
ej|
`wZi Kej gvb AvQ, w`K bvB| dj `wZ eMi gvb I AvQ , w`K I AvQ | dj, eM
2|
me`vB abvZK|
abvZK I nZ cvi FbvZK I nZ cvi|
3|
`ywZ GKwU jvi ivwk ev Aw`K ivwk|
eM GKwU fi ivwk ev w`K ivwk|
4|
`wZ cwigvci hi bvg wWvwgUvi|
eM cwigvci hi bvg fjvUvwgUvi|
Kvb e t mgq r `yiZ AwZg Kij
wbw` w`K Kvb e t mgq s `yiZ AwZg Kij
5|
dr
ds
`wZ = ne|
eM = ne|
dt
dt
eM I ZiYi cv_K (Distinction between Velocity and Acceleration) :

wgK
eM
ZiY
wbw` w`K ei vb cwieZbi nviK ei mgqi mv_ eM ewi nviK ZiY ej|
1|
eM ej|
eMK v viv cKvk Kiv nq|
ZiYK a viv cKvk Kiv nq|
2|
eMi GKK ms1|
ZiYi GKK ms2|
3|
eMi gvv [LT 1]|
ZiYi gvv [LT 2]|
4|
(K) vx vxo ax t cwZcv`b|
gbKwi, X A eivei GKwU e mylg ZiY MwZkxj| Aviv awi, GB MwZi cviwK kZvw` nj mgq Mbbvi iZ
A_vr hLb t = 0 ZLb Avw` Aevb x = 0 Ges AvwèM vx = vxo | Aviv awi, t mgq ci ewUi Aevb x = x Ges
Ges eM vx = vx| hnZz h Kvb gyn~ Zi mgqi mvc Kvb KYvi eM ewi nviK ZiY ej|
dv x
dt
dv x ax dt
myZivs, ax
hLb t = 0 ZLb vx = vxo Ges x = xo Avevi, hLb t = t ZLb vx = vx Ges x = x

GB mxgvi ga mgxKiYK mgvKjb Ki cvB,
vx
dv
v xo
ax a eK
a x dt
0
v x
vx
ax t
v x0
t
o
v x v xo a x t 0
v x v xo a x t mgxKiYwU cwZcv`b Kiv nj|
1
2
cwZcv`b:
(L) x x o ( v xo v x )t
gbKwi, X A eivei GKwU e mylg ZiY MwZkxj| Aviv awi, GB MwZi cviwK kZvw` nj mgq Mbbvi iZ
A_vr hLb t = 0 ZLb Avw` Aevb x = x0 Ges AvwèM vx = vxo | Aviv awi, t mgq ci ewUi Aevb x Ges Ges
kleM vx | MoeMi msv nZ Avgiv Rvwb, z`vwZz` mgq eeavb eM I mgq eeavbi bdji mgw wbq
ZvK gvU mgq w`q fvM Kij H mgqi MoeM ej| myZivs KYvwUi t mgq ci MoeM v x nj,
1t
v x v x dt
t0
dx
1 t dx
v x dt
vx
dt
t 0 dt
x x o v x t ... ... ... ... (1)
mymg ZiY Pjgvb ewUi eM v x mgqi mv_ mymgfve cwiewZZ nq ej h Kvb mgq eeavb Zvi Mo gvb H
1
2
mgq eeavbi i I kli eMi gvbqi mgwi AaK| A_vr v x ( v xo v x ), v x Gi GB gvb (1) bs
1
2
mgxKiY ewmq cvB, x x o ( v xo v x ) t

1
2
(M) x xo vxo t ax t 2
1
x x o ( v xo v x ) t mgxKiYwU cwZcv`b Kiv nj|
2
cwZcv`b:
gbKwi, X A eivei GKwU e ax mylg ZiY MwZkxj| Aviv awi, GB MwZi cviwK kZvw` nj mgq Mbbvi iZ
A_vr hLb t = 0 ZLb Avw` Aevb x = xo Ges AvwèM vx = vxo | Aviv awi, t mgq ci ewUi Aevb x = x Ges
Ges eM vx = vx| hnZz h Kvb gyn~ Zi mgqi mvc Kvb KYvi eM ewi nviK ZiY ej|
dvx
dt
dvx ax dt hLb t = 0 ZLb vx = vxo Ges x = xo Avevi, hLb t = t ZLb vx = vx Ges x = x GB
myZivs, ax
mxgvi ga mgxKiYK mgvKjb Ki cvB,

vx
dv
v xo
t
x
ax a eK
a x dt
0
v x vxxo ax t o
v
vx vxo ax t 0
vx vxo ax t ... ... ... ... ... (1)
(1) mgxKiY vx
dx
ewmq cvB,
dt
h Kvb gyZ ei miY ewi nviK eM ej| D
dx
v xo a x t
dt
dx vxo dt a x t dt
t
t
x
dx v xo dt a x t dt
o
o
xo
t
t2
x v xo t ax
2 o
1
x xo vxo t 0 a x t 2 0
2
1
x xo vxot a xt 2 mgxKiYwU cwZcv`b Kiv nj|
2
1 2
1 2
ev, x xo vxot a xt S v xot a xt mgxKiYwUI cwZcv`b Kiv nj| wi
2
2
1
2
Aevb _K mgZiY Pjgvb ei , v xo 0 Ges a x a eK ,dj S 0 a eK t S a eK t 2
2
2
S t KvRB, wi Aevb _K mgZiY Pjgvb ei AwZv `yiZ mgqi eMi mgvbycvwZK|
x
xo
t
o
(N) v 2x v 2xo 2ax ( x x o ) cwZcv`b :

awi, GKwU e X A eivei ax mylg ZiY MwZkxj| GB MwZi cviwK kZvw` nj hLb mgq Mbbvi iZ hLb t = 0
ZLb Avw` Aevb x = xo Ges AvwèM vx = vxo Avevi, t mgq ci KYvwUi Aevb x Ges eM vx | hnZz h Kvb
gyn~ Z mgqi mvc ei eM ewi nviK ZiY ej|
dv x
dt
dv
dx
ax x
dx dt
dv
dx
ax x v x
vx
dx
dt
v x dv x a x dx
hLb x = xo ZLb vx = vxo Ges hLb x = x ZLb vx = vx GB mxgvi ga Dciv mgxKiYK mgvKjb Ki cvB,
myZivs Z iY a x
vx
v x dv x ax dx
v xo
xo
vx
v2
x a xx
x x
2 vxo
o
v 2x v 2xo
ax ( x x o )
2
v 2x v 2xo 2a x ( x x o )
mgxKiYwU cwZcv`b Kiv nj|
1
2
(O) s t v o a (2t 1) ev, s t v o
(2t 1)
a cwZcv`b :
2
gbKwi, vo AvwèM Ges a mgZiY AB mijiLv eivei Pjgvb KYvwUi Avw` Aevb A we`yZ| (t-1) mK Ges t
mK hw` Gi Aevb h_vg C I B we`yZ nq Ze t Zg mK e KYvwU BC `~iZ AwZg Kie| MwZi
m~vbyhvqx t mK e KZK AwZv `~iZ AB
1
AB v0 t at 2 ... ... ... ... ... (1)
2
(t-1) mK e KZK AwZv `~iZ AC
1
AC v 0 ( t 1) a ( t 1) 2 ... ... ... ... ... (2)
2
KvRB t Zg mK e KZK AwZv `yiZ st nj

st = CB
s t AB AC
1
1
s t v 0 t at 2 v 0 (t 1) a ( t 1) 2
2
2
1
1
s t v 0 t at 2 v 0 ( t 1) a (t 1) 2
2
2
1 2
1 2
s t v 0 t at v 0 t v 0 a (t 2t 1)
2
2
1
1
1
s t v 0 t at 2 v 0 t v 0 at 2 at a
2
2
2
1
s t v 0 at a
2
1
s t v 0 at a
2
1
(2 t 1)
a mgxKiYwU cwZcv`b Kiv nj|
s t v o a (2 t 1) ev, s t v o
2
2
Lvov Dcii w`K wbw ei mevwaK DPZv wbYq :

gbKwi, Kvb GKwU eK Lvov Dcii w`K v0 eM Qvov nj| G ei Dci wqviZ ZiY = g, KviY g
cw_exi K`vwfgyLx| KvRB h DPZvq v MwZeM ARb Kij MwZi mgxKiY _K Avgiv cvB, v 2 v 2o 2gH KvRB
ewU Da DVZ _vKj Gi kl eMi gvb gkt KgZ _vKe| KvRB h we`yZ wbw ei eM k~b H we`yB
ei MwZ c_i mevP we`y wb`k Ki| myZivs h we`yZ ei kl eM k~b, mB we`yi DPZv H nj ,
0 2 v o2 2gH
v 2o
v o2
-B nj e KZK AwZv mevP
H
KvRB Lvov Dcii w`K wbw ei
2g
2g
DPZv|
Lvov Dcii w`K wbw ei mevwaK DPZvq cQZ mgq wbYq :
gbKwi, Kvb GKwU eK Lvov Dcii w`K vo eM Qvov nj| G ei Dci wqviZ ZiY = -g, KviY g
cw_exi K`vwfgyLx| t mgq ci Kvb wbw` DPZvq ewUi eM v nj, MwZi mgxKiY nZ cvB, v = vo gt KvRB
`Lv hvQ h, Dcii w`K wbw ei eM axi axi KgZ _vK| Kvb wbw` DPZvq hLb gt Gi gvb vo Gi mgvb
ZLb kl eM v = 0 ne| A_vr ewU Avi Dci DVZ cvie bv| GB DPZvB mvP DPZv| awi, mevP DPZvq
MgbKvj t, myZiv&s 0 = vo gt t
vo
v
KvRB Lvov Dcii w`K wbw ei o -B nj e KZK AwZv
g
g
mevP DPZvq cQbvi mgq|

Lvov Dcii w`K wbw ei Dvbi, cZbi, Dvb cZbi mgq wbYq :
gbKwi, Kvb GKwU eK Lvov Dcii w`K vo eM Qvov nj| G ei Dci wqviZ ZiY = g, KviY g
cw_exi K`vwfgyLx| t mgq ci h DPZvq ewUi eM v nj MwZi mgxKiY nZ cvB,
v = vo gt ... ... ... ... (1)
Ges v 2 v 2o 2gH ... ... ... (2)
myZivs `Lv hvQ h, Dcii w`K wbw ei eM axi axi KgZ _vK| GB eM GK mgq 0 (k~b) ne| A_vr
ewU Avi Dci DVe bv| dj ewU h DPZvq DV ZvB-B e KZK AwZv mevwaK DPZv H| awi GB DPZvq
hZ mgq jvM t1 myZivs (1) bs mgxKiY nZ cvB,
0 = vo gt1
v
t1 o ... ... ... ... ... (3)
g
v
mevwaK DPZvq Dvb Kvj t 1 o , Avevi (2) mgxKiY nZ cvB,
g
2
0 v o 2gH
v o2
... ... ... ... (4)
H
2g
mevwaK DPZvq ei kleM k~b| KvRB mevP DPZv nZ f~wgZ
covi mgq Gi AvwèM ne k~b Ges ay AwfKlR ZiY ewU wbP coZ _vKe| mevP we`y _K f~wgZ wdi
AvmZ t2 mgq jvMj, MwZi mgxKiY _K cvB,
1
H 0 t 2 gt 22
2
v2
1
gt 22 H 0
2g
2
v o2
g2
v
t 2 o ... ... ... ... (5)
g
Dvb cZbi gvU mgq T nj
T = t1+t2
v
v
T o o
g
g
2v
T o BnvB Dvb cZbi gvU mgq|
g
t 22
Lvov Dcii w`K wbw e fywgZ wdi Avmvi mgq wbYq :

gbKwi, Kvb GKwU eK Lvov Dcii w`K vo AvwèM Qvov nj| G ei Dci wqviZ ZiY = g,
KviY g cw_exi K`vwfgyLx| dj ewUi eM axi axi KgZ _vKe Ges GKwU wbw` DPZvq eM k~b ne A_vr
ewU Avi Dci DVebv| KvRB GB DPZvq e KZK AwZv mevP DPZv| awi mevP DPZv H, dj MwZi
mgxKiY _K cvB,
v 2 v 2o 2gH
0 v o2 2gH
2
o
v
... ... ... (1)
2g
Avevi mevP DPZv _K fywgZ cZveZbKvj ei AvwèM k~b ne Ges ay gv AwfKlR ZiY ewU wbP coZ
_vKe| mevP we`y _K fywgZ wdi AvmZ ei t mgq jvMj MwZi mgxKiY _K cvB,
1
H 0 t gt 2
2
2
v
1
o gt 2
2g 2
2
v
t o
g
v
t o ... ... ... ... (2) BnvB mevP DPZv nZ cZbKvj|
g
awi, fywgZ wdi AvmZ h mgq jvM mB mgqi kl ei eM = v
myZivs v = 0 + gt
v
v g o
g
v v o myZivs f~wg _K eK h eM Dcii
2
w`K wbc Kiv nq, ewU wdi Gm mB eM f~wgZ AvNvZ Ki|

co ei m~ eYbv (Laws of falling bodies) :
evavnxb fve co e wbv wZbwU m~ gb Pj| 1589 wLv wevbx MvwjwjI m~ wZbwU Avwevi Kib t
1g m~t e mgvb mgq mgvb c_ AwZg Ki|
2q m~t wbw` mgq e h eM jvf Ki Zv H mgqi mgvbycvwZK| t mgq v eM jvf Kij, m~vbyhvqx eM ne,
vt
3q m~t wbw` mgq e KZK AwZv `~iZ H mgqi eMi mgvbycvwZK| t mgq AwZv `yiZ h nj, m~vbyhvqx
DPZv ne, ht 2
^bgy`v I cvjK cixv:
hcvwZt (K) j^v GKwU k, gvUv I duvcv `yBgyL Lvjv KvPbj B| (L) GKwU Uzwc C
(M) GKwU c KK S (N) GKwU cvjK |
cixvi weeiY: KvPbji GKcvGKwU Uzwc C Ges Aci cvGKwU c KK S _vK|
Uzwc Lyj GKwU ^bgy`v G Ges GKwU cvjK F bji ga XyKvbv nq| cKKi Pvwe Lyj
cvi mvnvh bjwUK evqyc~b ev evqyk~b Kiv hvq| bjwUK nVvr Dwq gy`v I cvjKK
wbPiw`K coZ Ìqv nq| cixvq `Lv hvq h (1) evqyc~b Aevq gy`vwU cvjKi AvM
wbPi cvco| (2) evqyk~b Aevq gy`v I cvjK GKB mv_ wbPi cv c
o|
djvdjt evqyk~b vb mKj e mgvb mgq mgvb c_ AwZg Ki|
8
1
2
mgZiY MwZi eM ebvg mgq (v t)jLwP AsKb Ges jLwP nZ s v o t at 2 mgxKiYwU cwZcv`b:
mgZiY MwZkxj Kvb ei X Ai w`K mgq t Ges Y Ai w`K eM v wbq v ebvg t jL wP AsKb
Kiv nj| GwU Y AK Q`Kvix GKwU mij iLv nq hv, v = vo+at mgxKiY gb Pj| GB jLwP _K t mgq
ei AwZv `~iZ s wbbq Kiv hvq| AB iLvi Dci h Kvb we`y P bqv nq| P _K X Ai Dci PQ j^ Uvbv
nq| Zvnj OQ = t mgq AwZv `~iZ s ne AOQP i
dj| aiv hvK, KYvwUi mgZiY a
Ges AvwèM, vo = AO
AwZv mgq, t = OQ
Ges t mgq AwZv `~iZ , s = AOQP i dj|
= AOQR i dj ARP i dj|
= AOOQ +
1
2
ARPR
s = AOOQ + 12 OQPR
wK AB iLvi Xvj nQ KYvwUi ZiY a,
PR
a
AR
PR = aAR
= aOQ
s = AOOQ + 12 OQaOQ
[ AR = OQ ]
s = AOOQ + 12 aOQ2
1
s v o t at 2 mgxKiYwU cwZcv`b Kiv nj|
2
c_g ci AsKi mgvavb


1| GKwU e`yKi wj Kvb Ìqvji ga 0.04m cek Kivi
ci AaK eM nvivq | MywjwU Ìqvji
ga Avi KZUzKz cek Kie?
gb Kwi,
jj ceki gyn~ Z wji AvwèM = u
Ges wjwU AviI x wgUvi `~iZ cek Kie|
0.04 m cek Kivi ci eM ne =
u
2
Ges kl eM ne 0 (k~b)|
Avgiv Rvwb, c_g Aski Rb
2
u
2
u 2a(0.04)
2
u2
0.08a u 2
4
3u 2
3u 2
a
..... .......... (1)

4 0.08 0.32
wZxq Aski Rb,

2
u
0 2ax
2
3| 20ms-1 eM MwZkxj GKwU ei eM cwZ mK 3ms-1 nvi

nvm cvq| _g hvIqvi AvM ewU KZ `~iZ AwZg Kie?
Avgiv Rvwb, v2 = u2 2as
GLvb,
ev, 0 = 202 2(3)s
AvwèM, u = 20 ms-1
ev, 6s = 400
g`b, a = 3 ms-2
400
kleM, v = 0
ev, s
_vgvi AvM ewU KZK
6
s 66.7 m (Ans.) AwZv `~iZ, s = ?
4| Dcii w`K wbw GKwU ej Uwjdvb ZviK 0.70ms-1 `wZZ
AvNvr Ki| Qvovi vb _K ZviwUi DPZv 5.1m nj ejwUi Avw`
`wZ KZ wQj?
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
v 2 u 2 2gh
DPZv, h =5.1m
2
2
g
= 9.8 ms-2
(0.7) u 2 9.8 5.1
kl eM, v =0.70ms-1
u 2 (0.7) 2 2 9.8 5.1
Avw` `wZ, u =?
u 2 0.49 99.96
u 2 100.45
u 100.45 10.02 ms-1 (Ans.)
3u 2
u
ev , 0 2
x
0.32
2
6u 2 x u 2
ev ,
0.32
4
x
0.32
0.0133 m (Ans.)
6 4
2| 50 wgUvi DPuy _K GKwU e f~wgZ cwZZ nq|

(K) fywgZ cuQZ Gi KZ mgq jvMe?
(L) fywgZ cuQevi c~e gyn~ Z Gi eM KZ ne?
1 2
gt
2
1
50 0 9.8 t 2
2
50 4.9 t 2
50
t2
4. 9
50
t
4.9
(K) h ut
GLvb,
DPZv, h =50m
AvwèM, u = 0
g = 9.8 ms-2
(K) mgq, t = KZ?
(L) kl eM, v = KZ ?
t = 3.19 s (Ans.)
Avevi,
(L) v = u + gt
v = 0 + 9.8 3.19
v = 31.26 ms-1 (Ans.)
5| GKwU Ub 3ms-2 mgZib PjQ Ges AvwèM 10m/s UbwU hLb

60m c_ AwZg Kie ZLb Gi eM KZ ne|
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
ZiY, a = 3ms-2
2
2
v u 2as
AvwèM, u = 10 ms-1
v 2 10 2 2 3 60
miY, s = 60m
v 2 100 360
kleM, v = ?
v 2 460
v 460 21.447 21.45ms 1 ( Ans )
6| GKwU eK 98 ms-1 eM Lvov Dcii w`K wbc Kiv nj
`LvI h, 3 Sec I 17 Sec mgq ei eMq mgvb wK w`K
wecixZ gyLx|
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
3 mt ci eM
AvwèM, u = 98 ms-1
v1 = u gt1
mgq, t1 = 3S
ev, v1 = 989.83
mgq, t2 = 17S
ev, v1 = 9829.4
kleM, v1 =?
v1 = 68.6ms-1
kleM, v2 =?
Avevi, 17 mt ci eM
v2 = u gt2
ev, v2 = 98 9.817
ev, v2 = 98 166.6
v2 = 68.6 ms-1
3 mt I 17 mt ci eR q mgvb I wecixZ (cgvwYZ)
1
7| s t 3 3t m~vbymvi GKwU e mij iLvq PjQ|
3
2 mK ci Gi eM KZ ne?
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
mgq, t = 2 Sec
eM, v =?
d 1
v t 3 3t
dt 3
1
3t 2 3
3
v t2 3
v 2 2 3 [t Gi gvb ewmq]
v 7 GKK (Ans.)
v
8| 54 kmh1 eM Pj GKwU ij MvwoZ mb _K wKQy `yi

0.75ms-2 g`b mwKvix eK Ìqvq MvwowU mb Gm _g Mj|
mb _K KZ `~i eK Ìqv nqwQj Ges MvwowU _vgZ KZ
mgq jMwQj?
Avgiv Rvwb,
v2 = u22as
GLvb,
0 15 2 0.75 s
15 15
m
s
2 0.75
s 150 m (Ans.)
Avevi, v = u at
0 15 0.75 t
15
s
t
0.75
t 20s (Ans.)
AvwèM, u = 54 kmh-1
54 1000 1
ms
3600
=15ms-1
g`b, a = 0.75ms-2
kleM, v = 0
mgq, t = ?
miY, s=?
9| GKwU e wi Aevb nZ hvv i Ki c_g mK 1m

`~iZ AwZg Ki| cieZx 1m `~iZ AwZg KiZ KZ mgq
jvMe|
GLvb,
Avgiv Rvwb,
AvwèM, u = 0
1
s1 ut 1 at12
mgq, t1 = 1s
2
miY, s1 =1m
1
ZiY, a=?
1 0 a (1) 2
2
a
1
2
a 2ms 2
GLb c_g _K s2 = (1m+1) =2m `~iZ AwZg KiZ mgq

jvM = t2
s 2 ut 2
1
2 0 2 t 22
2
2
t2 2
t 2 2 1.414s
ds
dt
1 2
at 2
2
kli 1m `~iZ AwZg KiZ mgq

jvM, t t 2 t1 (1.414 1) s 0.414s (Ans.)
10| GKwU Ub wi Aevb nZ 10ms-2 ZiY PjZ Avi Kij| GKB
mgq GKwU Mvwo 100ms-1 mgeM Ubi mgvivj Pjv i Kij| Ub
MvwowUK KLb wcQb dje?
gb Kwi, t mgq ci Ub MvwowUK wcQb dj Pj hve,
t mgq Ub KZK AwZv `~iZ,
GLvb,
1
x 0 at 2
Mvwoi mgeM, V = 100ms-1
2
Ubi ZiY, a = 10ms-2
1
x 10 t 2
mgq, t = ?
2
x 5t 2 ... ... ... (1)
t mgq Mvwo KZK AwZv `~iZ, x Vt
x 100 t ... ... ... (2)

kZgZ Ub hLb MvwowUK AwZg Kie ZLb x x ne|
5t 2 100 t
100
t
t 20s (Ans.)
5
11| wivev _K PjZ Avi Ki 625m `~iZ AwZg Kij GKwU
ei eM 125ms-1 nj| ZiY wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
v 2 u 2 2as
125 2 0 2 a 625
125 2
a
ms 2
2 625
a 12.5ms 2 (Ans.)
GLvb,
AvwèM, u = 0
AwZv `~iZ , s = 625m
kl eM, v = 125 ms-1
ZiY, a =?
12| 64m DuPz `vjvbi Qv` _K 5kg fii GKwU cv_i Qo w`j
f~wgZ cuQvZ Gi KZ mgq jvMe?
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
1
h ut gt 2
2
1
64 0 9.8 t 2
2
64 4.9t 2
64
t
t 3.61 s.
4.9
AvwèM, u = 0
AwZv `~iZ , h = 64m
fi, m= 5kg
mgq, t =?
(Ans.)
13| wi Aevb nZ hvv Avi Ki GKwU e c_g mK 2m

`~iZ AwZg Ki| cieZx 2m `~iZ AwZg KiZ ewUi KZ
mgq jvMe|
Avgiv Rvwb,
1
s1 ut1 at 12
2
1
2 0 a(1) 2
2
a
2
a 4ms 2
2
GLvb,
AvwèM, u = 0
mgq, t1 = 1s
miY, s1 =1m
ZiY, a =?
GLb c_g _K s2 = (2m+2m) = 4m `~iZ AwZg KiZ

mgq jvM = t2
1 2
at 2
2
1
4 0 4 t 22
2
2
t2 2
s 2 ut 2
t 2 2 1.414s
kli 2m `~iZ AwZg KiZ mgq
jvM, t t 2 t 1 (1.414 1) s 0.414s (Ans.)
14| GKwU e c_g `yB mK 30m I cieZx Pvi mK 150m

Mj| ZiY AcwiewZZ _vKj ewU Gi ci GK mK KZUv c_
AwZg Kie?
GLvb,
Avgiv Rvwb,
`~iZ, s1 = 30m
1
s1 ut1 at 12
2
1
30 u 2 a 2 2
2
u a 15..........(1)
mgq, t1 = 2s
miY, s2 = (30+150)
=180m
miY, s7 =?
c_g _K t2= (2+4)= 6 mK ewU hvq s2=(30+150)m=180m
1
s2 ut2 at 22
2
1
180 u 6 a 6 2
2
u 3a 30..........(2)
u a 15..........(1)
weqvM Ki, 2a= 15 a 7.5ms 2
GLb (1) bs mgxKiY a Gi gvb ewmq,
u 7.5 15 u 7.5ms 1
6 mKi cii mK A_vr 7g mK AwZv `~iZ,
a
st u (2t 1)
2
7.5
s7 7.5
( 2 7 1)
2
7.5
s7 7.5
13
2
s7 7.5 48.75
s7 56.25m ( Ans)
ckt wbwjwLZ mgxKiYwj mivmwi fi ic cwZcv`b Ki|

( K) v v at ( L) r r 1 (v v )t
0
0
0
2

( K) v v at cwZcv`b|
( M) r r v t 1 at 2
0
0
2

( N) v 2 v 2 2a (r r )
0
awi, GKwU e a mgZiY Kvb Zj MwZkxj| GB MwZi cviwK kZvw` nj hLb ti o ZLb Avw` Aevb fi
r r0 Ges AvwèM v v0 Avevi, t f t mgq ewUi Aevb fi r Ges eM v |

h Kvb gyn~ Z mgqi mvc ei eM ewi nviK ZiY ej|
dv
Z iY a
dt

ev, dv adt

hLb t = 0 ZLb v v0 Ges hLb t = t ZLb v v GB mxgvi ga Dciv mgxKiYK mgvKjb Ki cvB,
t
d
v
a dt
v0

v vvo at 0t

v v0 a (t o)

v v0 a t

v v0 at

(L) r r 1 (v v )t cwZcv`b|
0
0
2
awi, GKwU e a mgZiY Kvb Zj MwZkxj| GB MwZi cviwK kZvw` nj hLb ti 0 ZLb Avw` Aevb fi
myZivs KYvwUi t mgq eeavb MoeM V nj

1t
V v dt
t0
1 t dr
dt
V
t 0 dt
dr
[ v ]
dt
1r
V dr
t r0
1
V [r ]rr0
t
1
V (r r0 )
t

r r0 V t

r r0 12 (v v0 )t

r r0 12 (v v0 )t
1
2

( v v0 )
3| wgvwK MwZ (Motion In Two Dimention)

2
(M) r r v t 1 a t cwZcv`b |
0
0
2

dv
Z iY a
dt

ev, dv adt

hLb ti = 0 ZLb v v0 Ges hLb tf = t ZLb v v GB mxgvi ga Dciv mgxKiYK mgvKjb Ki cvB,
t
d
v
a dt
v0
v t
v vo at 0

v v0 a (t o)

v v0 a t

v v0 a t
Avevi, hnZz Kvb gyn~ Z mgqi mvc ei Aevb fi ewi nviK eM ej, ZvB msvbymvi,
dr
ewmq cvB,
v
dt
dr
v0 a t
dt

dr v0 dt atdt
hLb ti = 0 ZLb r r0 Ges hLb tf = t ZLb r r GB mxgvi ga Dciv mgxKiYK mgvKjb Ki cvB,
t
t
d r v 0 dt a tdt
r0
[r ]rr0 v0 [t ]t0 a
t2
2
t
0

r r0 v0 (t 0) a (t 2 0)
2
r r0 v 0 t 12 a t 2

r r0 v 0 t 12 a t 2
(N) v

v 2 2 a ( r r ) cwZcv`b |
0

dv
Z iY a
dt

ev, dv adt

hLb t = 0 ZLb v v0 Ges hLb t = t ZLb v v GB mxgvi ga Dciv mgxKiYK mgvKjb Ki cvB,
t
dv a dt
v0

v vvo at 0t

v v0 a (t o)

v v0 a t

v v0 at
Dfq cK GB mgxKiY w`q Y Ki cvB,

v .v (v0 at ).(v0 at )

v .v v0 .v0 v0 .at v0 .at a.at 2

v.v v0 .v0 2v0 .at a.at 2

1
v.v v0 .v0 2a.(v0t at 2 )
2

12

v
t
a
t
r
v .v v0 .v0 2a.r r0
(
r0 )
0

2
2
v v0 2a.r r0
ckt cvm KvK ej?

Dit Kvb eK AbyfywgKi mv_ wZhKfve Kvb vb wbc Kiv nj ZvK cvm ej| wZhKfve wbw
wXj, eyjUi MwZ BZvw` cvm MwZi D`vniY|
ckt AbyfywgKi mv_ wZhKfve wbw cvmi MwZc_i mgxKiY wbbq Ki Ges `LvI h, GB MwZc_ AwaevKvi|
Dit gbKwi, evqygawZ O we`y nZ GKwU cvmK wbc Kiv nj|
wbc eM ev AvwèM = vo
wbc KvY =
g wbPi w`K wqvkxj| AZGe ay = -g; ax = 0;
wbc we`y I g~j we`y GKB nIqvq xo = yo = 0
AvwèMi Abyf~wgK Dcvsk = voCoso
Ges AvwèMi Dj^ Dcvsk = voSino
X A eivei MwZi cwieZb D A eivei ZiYi Dci wbfikxj| Y A eivei MwZi cwieZb D A
eivei ZiYi Dci wbfikxj| G `ywU A eivei MwZi cwieZb Awbfikxj|
awi t mgq cvmwU P(x,y) Aevb _vK| ZLb Gi eM = v
Abyf~wgKi w`K ZiY, ax= 0
Abyf~wgKi w`K miY = x
x = voCoso t +
1
2
axt2
ev, x = voCoso t + 0
[ax= 0]
ev, x = voCoso t
x
t
.......................(1)
vo Cos o
Dj^ w`K ZiY ay=g;

Dj^ w`K miY y; Abyicfve
y=voSinot 12 gt2
ev, y v Sin
o
v Cos
o
1
2
v Cos
o
[t Gi gvb ewmq]
2
g
x
ev, y tan o x 2
2
2vo Cos o
b
awi
,
a
eK
tan
Ges
c
o
2
2
2voCos o
y bx cx
Dciv mgxKiYwU GKwU Awaei mgxKiY| cvmi MwZc_ GKwU Awae (cvivevjv)|
ckt cgvY Ki, evqynxb Aevq f~wg nZ DPZvq AewZ h Kvb Aevb nZ Abyf~wgK AwfgyL wbw ei MwZc_
GKwU Awae|
gbKwi, k~b AewZ O we`y nZ vo eM f~wgi mgvivj GKwU eKYv wbw nj| e KYvwU g Gi cfve
bxP coe| awi ccb Zj Abyf~wgK OX iLv X A Ges OY iLv Y A| awi t mgq ci e KYvwU MwZ c_i
P(x,y) we`yZ gyn~ Zi Rb Aevb Kie| g bxPi w`K wqvkxj|
AZGe ay = g; ax= 0 ;
AvwèMi Abyf~wgK Dcvsk = vo
Ges AvwèMi Dj^ Dcvsk = 0
tmgq AwfKlRZiYnxb Abyf~wgK miY x = vot
x 2 v o2 t 2 ...
...
... ...
... ...
(1 )
tmgq Dj^ miY y = 0.t + 12 gt2

y=
1
2
gt2...
.... .... .... .... .... ....
(2)
(1) K (2) viv fvM Ki cvB

x2
v 2t 2
1o 2
y
2 gt
x 2 2 v 2o
y
g
2v 2
x 2 o y
g
x 2 4ay
2vo2
awi
4a a eK
,
Dciv mgxKiYwU GKwU Awaei mgxKiY| ZvB wbw ei MwZc_ GKwU Awae (cvivevjv)|
ckt AbyfywgKi mv_ wZhK fve wbw ei (K) mevP DPZvq cQZ mgq (L) mevP DPZv (M) wePiY
Kvj (N) cvjv (O) mevwaK cvjv wbbq Ki|
gb Kwi, evqygawZ O we`y nZ GKwU cvmK vo eM o KvY wZhKfve wbc Kiv nj| cvmwU t mgq mevP
DPZv P(x,y) G Aevb Kie Ges ZLb Gi eM ne v|
(K) mevP DPZvq cQZ mgqt vo eMi Dj^ Dcvsk voSino
t mgq ci P we`yZ eM, vy = voSino gt.................(1)
P we`yMvgx mevP DPZvq vy= 0..................................... (2)
(1) bs mgxKiY vy= 0 ewmq cvB

0 = voSino gt
v Sin o
t o
..................................(3)
g
(L) mevP DPZvt

gbKwi, mevP DPZv = H
H = voSinot 12 gt2
v Sin o 1 vo Sin o
H vo Sin o o
2 g
g
g
2
2
vo Sin o vo Sin o
2g
(3)
bs n Z t Gi gvb ewm q
v o2Sin 2 o
... ... ... ... ... ... ... (4)
2g
(M) Dqb (wePiY) Kvj (Time of Flight) t

gb Kwi wePiY Kvj T A_vr T mgq cvmwU mgZj wdi Avm|
t mgq Dj^ w`K miY y = voSinot 12 gt2GB mgxKiY mgq t = T Ges miY y = 0 ewmq cvB,
0 = voSinoT 12 gT2
ev, 12 gT2 = voSinoT

2vo Sino
... ... ... ... ... ... (5)
g
(N) cvjv (Range)t

gb Kwi cvjv R A_vr T mgq cvmwU AbyfywgKi w`K h `~iZ AwZg Ki ZvBB cvjv R
R = ( voCoso ) T
2v Sin o
R voCos o o
g
R
R
[(5) bs nZ T Gi gvb ewmq]
vo2 2Sin o Cos o

g
vo2 Sin 2 o
...........................(6)
g
(O) mevwaK cvjv (Maximum Range) t

gbKwi mevwaK cvjv Rmax| wbw` vo Gi Rb, Sin20 Gi gvb mevwaK nj cvjv ne mevwaK| Sin20 Gi
mevwaK gvb = 1
A_vr Sin20 = 1
ev, Sin20 = Sin900
ev, 20 = 900
0 = 450 myZivs wbc KvY0 = 450 nj cvjv mevwaK
mevwaK cvjv Rmax

Rmax
2
o
v Sin 2 45
g
vo2 Sin 90 o
Rmax
Rmax
vo2 1
g
vo2
... ... ... ... ... (7)
g

ckt iwLK eM I KwbK eMi msv `vI Ges Gì ga mK vcb Ki| ev, v r ev , v r cgvb Ki |

ev, v r cgvY Ki |
iwLK eM (Linear Velocity)t wbw` w`K iwLK c_ Kvb e GKK mgq h `yiZ AwZg Ki ZvK H ei iwLK
eM ej| iwLK eMK v viv cKvk Kiv nq| wbw` w`K e t mgq d `~iZ AwZg Kij eM v
d
ne| eM
t
GKwU fi ivwk| iwLK eMi GKK ms-1

KwYK eM (Angular Velocity) t mgq eeavb k~bi KvQvKvwQ nj Kvb we`y ev AK K` Ki evKvi c_
Pjgvb Kvb ei mgqi mv_ KwbK miYi nviK KwbK eM ej| Ab K_vq evKvi c_ Kvb e GKK mgq
h KwbK `~iZ AwZg Ki ZvK H ei KwbK eM ej| KwbK eMK viv cKvk Kiv nq| wbw` w`K e t
ne| KwbK eMi GKK rad s-1

t
L
KvY
Pvc
T-1
Gi gvv nQ
mgq
evmva mgq L T
mgq KvY Drcb Kij KwbK eM
mK (Relation) t
gbKwi GKwU eKYv OC= OB = r evmva wewk GKwU ei
cwiwa eiveiKwbK eM NyiQ| hw` T mK e KYvwU ei cwiwa
eivei GKevi Nyi Avm Ze KwbK `~iZ = iwWqvb ne|
KwbK eM,
ev, T
2
T
2
... ... ... ... ...(1)
GLb e KYvwU hw` evKvi c_ bv Nyi H GKB mgq mij iLv eivei PjZ Ze T mgq eKYvwU ewUi
cwiwai mgvb c_ r `~iZ AwZg KiZ| iwLK eM v
T
2r
T
2r
... ... ... ... ...( 2)
v
(1) bs I (2) mgxKiYq nZ cvB

2 2 r
1 r
v
v = r A_vr iwLK eM = KwbK eM ei evmva|
v = r mgxKiYi fi ic:

gb Kwi, u r ... ... ... (3)

u fii gvb u r sin 90 r [ r ]

m Ybi wbqg Abymvi, r ev , u fii AwfgyL Ges v fii AwfgyL Awfb| Avevi v = r| `Lv hvQ h,

gvb I w`K weePbvq u I v fi Awfb|

u v ... ... ... (4)

(3) I (4) nZ v r (cgvwYZ)
ck: KwbK eM I iwLK eMi ga cv_K eYbv Ki|

KwbK eM I iwLK eMi ga cv_K (Distinction between Angular Velocity and Linear Velocity)
wgK
KwbK eM
iwLK eM
KwbK c_ ei KwbK mibi nviK KwbK eM wbw` w`K iwLK c_ Kvb GKwU ei vb
1|
ej|
cwieZbi nvi K iwLK eM ej|
2|
GK viv v cKvk Kiv nq|
GK viv cKvk Kiv nq|
3|
Gi mgxKiY
Gi mgxKiY v
4|
5|
t
Gi gvv mgxKiY [ T-1 ]
s
t
Gi mgxKiY [ LT-1 ]
Gi GKK iwWqvb/ mK
Gi GKK wgUvi/ mK
K`gyLx ej (Centripetal Force): hLb Kvb e evKvi c_ NyiZ _vK ZLb h ej ei Dci H ei K`
AwfgyL wqv Ki ewUK evKvi c_ MwZkxj ivL ZvK K`gyLx ej ej| m fii e r evmva wewk evKvic_
v2
v mg`wZZ NyiZ _vKj Zvi K`gyLx ej m |
r
K`wegyLx ej (Centrifugal Force): hLb Kvb e evKvi c_ NyiZ _vK ZLb h ej H ei Kì wecixZ
w`K cqvM Ki ZvK K`wegyLx ej ej| m fii e r evmva wewk evKvic_ v mg`wZZ NyiZ _vKj Zvi
K`wegyLx ej m
v2
|
r
m fi wewk GKwU e r emvai evKvi c_ v mg`wZZ NyiQ| (1) `LvI h, j^ ZiY a
j^ ZiYi ivwkgvjv wbbq Ki| (3) cgvY Ki h, K`gyLx ej F m
v2
2 r ev (2)
r
v2
m 2 r ev, (4) evKvi c_ mg`wZZ
r
N~bvqgvb Kvb ei Dci wqvkxj K`gyLx eji gvb I w`K wbYq |

aiv hvK, m fii Kvb e r evmvai evKvi c_ v mg`wZZ Ges KwbK eM AveZbiZ AvQ| awi AwZ z`
mgq t eeavb ewU A nZ B we`yZ Am| A we`yZ ewUi eM H we`yZ kK AC eivei| B we`yZ ewUi eM
H we`yZ kK BD eivei| BD K cQb ewaZ Kij AC I BD Gi wgjb we`y nq E|
GLb, OAEB PZzf~R,

AEB+ AOB = `yB mgKvY|
Avevi, AEB+ BEC = `yB mgKvY|
AOB = BEC = awi,
A we`yZ ei eMi Dj^ Dcvsk, vy = 0
Ges AbyfywgK Dcvsk, vx = v
B we`yZ ei eMi AC eivei eMi Dj^ Dcvsk, v y vsin
Ges AbyfywgK Dcvsk, v x vcos

t AwZ z` mgq myZivs AwZ z`|
sin Ges cos 1
B we`yZ ei eMi eMi Dj^ Dcvsk, v y v
Ges AbyfywgK Dcvsk, v x v GZ `Lv hvQ, AbyfywgK eivei eMi Dcvski Kvb cwieZb nq bv|
v 0
t
v
eMi Dj^ Dcvski cwieZbi KviY ZiY, a nj, a
r
v2 2r 2
a
2r
r
r
v2
K`gyLx ej, F ma m m 2 r (cgvwYZ)
r
v
v
r
ck: Awfj^ ZiY ev evmvagyLx ZiY ev K`gyLx ZiY:

Awfj^ ZiY ev evmvagyLx ZiY ev K`gyLx ZiY t
Kvb e hLb evKvic_ NyiZ _vK ZLb ei evmva eivei ei Kì w`K wqvkxj AwfK` eji Rb h
ZiYi mw nq ZvK evmvagyLx ZiY ev Awfj^ ZiY ev K`gyLx ZiY ej| Gi GKK wgUvi/mK2|
ck: KwbK ZiY KvK ej?
KwbK ZiYt hLb Kvb eKYv Amg KwbK eM Nyi, ZLb ewUi KwbK eM cwieZbi nviK KwbK ZiY
ej A_ev, mgqi mv_ Amg KwbK eM cwieZbi nviK KwbK ZiY ej| GK viv cKvk Kiv nq| Gi GKK
iwWqvb/mK2|
gbKwi, evKvi c_ Nybvqgvb eKYvi Avw`KwbK eM i Ges t mgq ci Gi kl KwbK eM f KvRB
KwbK ZiY
f i
t
ck: mg`wZZ Pjgvb ei Zib _vK bv, wK evKvi c_ mg`wZZ Pjgvb ei ZiY _vK Kb? evLv Ki|
mg`wZZ Pjgvb ei Zib _vK bv, wK evKvi c_ mg`wZZ Pjgvb ei ZiY _vK t
eMi gvb nQ `wZ Ges eMi cwieZbi nvi nQ ZiY| Kvb e hLb mij c_ mg `wZZ Pj ZLb eMi
gvbi Kvb cwieZb nq bv Avi mij c_ Pjvi Rb w`Ki I Kvb cwieZb
nq bv| dj ei Kvb ZiY _vK bv|
wK evKvi c_ Nyievi mgq ei wbqZ w`Ki cwieZb nq, KviY
eMi AwfgyL me`vB ei kK eivii nq| Gfve AbeiZ w`K cwiewZZ
nZ _vK ej e mg`wZZ PjjI eM mgvb _vKbv| eMi GB cwieZbi
dj ZiYi mw nq| GB ZiYi AwfgyL evKvi c_i K` eivei nq _vK|
G Rb evKvi c_ mg`wZZ Pjgvb ei ZiY _vK|
c_g ci AsKi mgvavb


1| GKwU cvmi AbyfywgK cvjv 96m Ges AvwèM 66 ms-1|
wbc KvY KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb,
v o2Sin 2 o
g
R g
v 20
96 9.8
ev, Sin2 o
66 2
ev , 2 o Sin 1 (0.2159)
ev, 2 o 12.47
ev , Sin2 o
GLvb,
AbyfywgK cvjv, R = 96 m
AvwèM, vo = 66ms-1
AwfKlR ZiY, g = 9.8ms-2
wbc KvY, = ?
2| GKwU eK 40ms-1 eM Ab~fywgKi mv_ 60 KvY wbc

Kiv nj| mevwaK DPZv Ges Abyf~wgK cvjv wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
(v o Sin o ) 2
2g
40 Sin
2 9.8
40 Sin
H
H
2
60
2
60
2 9.8
40 0.86602 2
2 9.8
34 .6408 2
GLvb,
AvwèM, v0 = 40ms-1
wbc KvY 60
AwfKlR ZiY,
g = 9.8ms-2
mevwaK DPZv, H = ?
AbyfywgK cvjv, R = ?
2 9.8
1199 .9850
2 9 .8
H 61.22 m (Ans .)
Avevi,
2
v 0 Sin 2 o
g
40 2 Sin ( 2 60)
9.8
2
40 Sin ( 2 60 )
R
9.8
R
1385 .632
9.8
R 141.39 m (Ans.)
3| nvBWvRb cigvbyi gWji GKwU BjKUb GKwU cvUbi Pviw`K
5.2 10 -11 m evmvai GKwU evKvi c_ 2.18 106 ms-1 eM
c`wb Ki| BjKUbi fi 9.1 10-31 kg nj K`gyLx ej KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb,
mv 2
r
9.1 10 -31 (2.18106 )2

5.2 10-11
F 8. 316 108 N (Ans.)
4| 0.250kg fii GKwU cv_i LK 0.75m j^v GKwU myZvi GK
cv eua evKvi c_ cwZ wgwbU 90 evi Nyivj myZvi Dci KZ Uvb
coe|
GLvb,
Avgiv Rvwb,
fi, m = 0.250 kg
F m2 r
evmva, r = 0.75 m
2
2n
mgq t = 1 min.
F m
r
= 60s.
t
2
cvKmsLv,
n = 90 cvK|
23.141690
F 0.25
0.75 Uvb, F = ?
F
o 6.24 (Ans.)
1600 Sin 120 )

9.8
1600 0.86602
9.8
60
F 16.65 N (Ans.)
5| 9.2 ms-1 eM GKwU z` eK Lvov Dcii w`K wbc Kiv nj|
GwU KZ mgq ci f~-c wdi Avme?
Avgiv Rvwb,
2 v oSin o
g
2 9.2 Sin 90
T
9.8
2 9. 2 1
T
9.8
18.4
T
9. 8
T 1.877s (Ans.)
T
GLvb,
AvwèM, vo = 9.2 ms-1
wbc KvY, 0
AwfKlR ZiY,
g = 9.8ms-2
Dvb cZbi gvU
mgq T =?
6| AbyfywgKi mv_ 30KvY f~-c _K 50ms-1 eM GKwU eyjU

Qvov nj| eyjUwU 50m `~i AewZ GKwU ÌqvjK KZ DPZvq
AvNvZ Kie|
GLvb,
Avgiv Rvwb,
AvwèM, v = 50 ms-1
g
y (tan 0 ) x
x2
2
2( v 0 cos 0 )
y (tan30 )x
g
(50)2
2(v0 cos30 )2
wbc KvY,
AwfKlR ZiY,
g = 9.8ms-2
AbyfywgK `~iZ, x=50m
Dj^ `~iZ, y=?
y (tan30)50
g
(50)2
2
2(v0 cos30 )
9.8
(50) 2
2(50 0.866025403
)2
y 28.86751346 6.533333345
y 22.33 m (Ans.)
y 0.577350269 50
7| GKwU cvmi AbyfywgK cvjv 79.53 m Ges wePiYKvj 5.3 s

nj wbc KvY I wbc eM KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
v o2Sin 2 o
Aby
fywgK cvjv, R = 79.53 m
R
g
wePiYKvj, T=5.3s
wbc eM, vo = ?
v 2oSin 2 o
79.53
wbc KvY, = ?
9.8
2
o
v Sin 2 o 779.394.. ... (1)
2 v oSin o
g
2v Sin o
5.3 o
9. 8
2v oSin o 51.94 ... ... ... (2)
Aevi, T
8| GKwU ejK f~wgi mv_ 30KvY Ki Dcii w`K wbc Kiv nj

GwU 20m `~i GKwU `vjvbi Qv` wMq coj| wbc we`y _K Qvì
DPZv 5m nj ejwU KZ eM Qvov nqwQj|
Avgiv Rvwb,
y (tan 0 ) x
g
x2
2
2( v 0 cos 0 )
5 tan30 20
9.8
(20)2
2v cos2 30
2
0
5 0.577350269 20
5 11.54
v o2Sin 2 o 779.394
2v oSin o
51.94
v o2 2Sin o Coso 779.394
2 v oSin o
51.94
v 0 Cos o 15 ... ... .. (3)
(2) bs mgxKiYK (3) bs mgxKiY viv fvM Ki cvB,
2v oSin o 51.94
v 0 Cos o
15
3.463
tan o
2
tan o 1.732
o tan 1 1.732
o 60(Ans.)
(3) bs mgxKiY 0 Gi gvb ewmq cvB,
v 0 Cos60 15
1
v 0 15
2
v 0 30ms 1 (Ans.)
GLvb,
wbc KvY,
AwfKlR ZiY,
g = 9.8ms-2
AbyfywgK `~iZ, x=20m
Dj^ `~iZ, y=5m
AvwèM, vo = ?
9.8 400
2 v02 0.75
3920
v02 1.5
3920
6.54
v 02 1.5
3920
v 02
v 0 20ms 1 (Ans.)
6.54 1.5
9| GKRb jvK 48 ms-1 eM GKwU ej Lvov Dcii w`K wbc

Ki| ejwU KZ mgq k~Y _vKe Ges mevP KZ Dci DVe?
Avgiv Rvwb,
2 v oSin o
T
g
2 48 Sin 90
T
9.8
2 48 1
T
9. 8
T 9.795 s. ( Ans.)
GLvb,
eM, v0 = 48 ms-1
wbc KvY, =
Dvb cZbi gvU mgq,T =?
DPZv, H =?
Avevi,
v o2Sin 2 o
2g
482 (Sin 90) 2

2 9.8
H 117.5m (Ans.)
10| GKwU Mvgvdvb iKW cwZ wgwbU 45 evi Nyi| Gi K` _K
9cm `~i Kvb we`yi `wZ KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb,
v r
2n
r
t
2 3.14 45 0.09
v
60
1
v 0.42ms (Ans.)
v
GLvb,
mgq, t = 1m =60s
cvKmsLv, n=45
evmva,r =9cm=0.09m
`wZ, v =?

1 = 7.2324 1 = 13825.728
- )
() () () ()
30
40
42
1:10 :10 :10 [ 1]

Gravitation
Intermediate vector bosons
Photon

, , , ,

RoZv (Inertia):
c`v_ h Aevq AvQ mB Aevq _vKZ PvIqvi h ceYZv ev mB Aev ivLZ PvIqvi h ag ZvK RoZv ej|
RoZv `yB cKvi: h_v (1) wwZ RoZv (2) MwZ RoZv
(1) wwZ RoZv (Inertia of rest) t wi e wi _vKZ Pvq ei GB bK ei wwZ RoZv ej|
D`vniYt wi Mvwo nVvr Qo w`j hvwiv wcQb w`K nj co| KviY Mvwo Pvjy nIqvi msM msM hvwì
kixii wbPi Ask Mvwoi mv_ mshy _vKvq mvgbi w`K GwMq hvq| wK kixii Dcii Ask wwZ RoZvi Rb
wcwQq co|
(2) MwZ RoZv (Inertia of motion) t MwZkxj e MwZkxj _vKZ Pvq ei GB bK ei MwZ RoZv ej|
D`vniYt Pj Mvwo nVvr eK Kij hvwiv mvgbi w`K SzK co| KviY Mvwo eK Kivi KviY Mvwo _g
hvIqvi mv_ mv_ hvwì kixii wbPi Ask Mvwoi mv_ mshy _vKvq _g hvq wK kixii Dcii Ask MwZ
RoZvi Rb mvgbi w`K GwMq hvq|
ej (Force):
hv wi ei Dci wqv Ki eK MwZkxj Ki ev KiZ Pvq A_ev MwZkxj ei Dci wqv Ki MwZi cwieZb Ki ev
KiZ Pvq ZvK ej ej| ejK F viv cKvk Kiv nq| m fii ei ZiY a nj ej F=ma ne| ej GKwU fi
ivwk|
gwjK ej (Fundamental Forces) t
h mKj ej ^vaxb A_vr h mKj ej Ab Kvb ej _K Drcb nq bv ZvK eis Abvb ej GB mKj eji Kvb bv
Kvb ici cKvk ZvìK gwjK ej ej| gwjK ej Pvi cKvi, h_v: (1) gnvKl ej (2) ZvwoZ P^K ej (3)
mej wbDwKq ej I (4) `~ej wbDwKq ej
(1) gnvKl ej t gnvweki h Kvb `ywU ei gaKvi cviwiK AvKlb ejK gnvKl ej ej|
(2) ZvwoZ P^K ej t `ywU PvwRZ KYv Zvì PvRi KviY GK Acii Dci h AvKlY ev weKlb ej cqvM Ki
ZvK ZvwoZ P^K ej ej|
(3) mej wbDwKq ej t cigvbyi wbDwKqvm wbDwKq Dcv`vb Z_v wbDwKqbjvK GK Ave ivL h kwkvjx ej
ZvK mej wbDwKq ej ej|
(4) `~ej wbDwKq ej t h ^ cvjvi I ^ gvbi ej wbDwKqvmi ga gwjK KYvwji ga wqv Ki AbK
wbDwKqvm AwwZkxjZvi De NUvq ZvK `~ej wbDwKq ej ej|
04| MwZm~ (Laws Of Motion)
gwjK ej mg~n
1) gnvKl ej
2) ZvwoZ P^K ej
3) mej wbDwKq ej
4) `~ej wbDwKq ej
AvcwK wZeZv
1
1039
1041
1030
cvjv
Amxg
Amxg
10-15 m
10-16 m
fieM (Momentum) t fi I eMi bdjK fieM ej| fieMK P viv cKvk Kiv nq| m fii Kvb ei eM
v nj fieM P = mv ne| fieMi GKK kg-ms-1| Gi gvv [MLT-1]
wbDUbi MwZi 1g m~ (Newton's 1st Law of Motion) t
eYbvt evwnK ej cqvM bv Kij wi e wPiKvj wi Ges MwZkxj e mgeM mij c_ PjZ _vKe|
eLvt evBi _K ej chy bv nj (1) wi e wPiKvj wi _vKe Ges
(2) MwZkxj e mgeM mij c_ PjZ _vKe|
myZivs `Lv hvq h, MwZi c_g m~i `ywU Ask| c_g Ask _K wi ei wwZkxj _vKvi ceYZv mK
aviYv cvIqv hvq| GB ceYZvK wwZ RoZv ej| Avevi wZxq Ask MwZkxj ei MwZkxj _vKvi ceYZv jbxq |
GB ceYZvK MwZ RoZv ej| G KviY wbDUbi MwZi 1g m~K RoZvi m~ I ejv nq| G m~ _K eji msv I
cvIqv hvq|
wbDUbi MwZi 2q m~ (Newtons 2nd Law of Motion)t
eYbvt ei fi eM cwieZbi nvi ei Dci chy eji mgvbycvwZK Ges ej h w`K wqv Ki ei fi eMi
cwieZb I mB w`K NU|
eLvt G m~i evLv nj F ma cwZcv`b|
F ma
cwZcv`b t

gb Kwi, Kvb MwZkxj eKYvi fieM P | F eji wqvq z`vwZz` mgq eeavb dt AeKvk KYvi fieMi
dP
ne| MwZi 2q m~vbymvi, fieM cwieZbi nvi chy eji
cwieZb dP nj fieM cwieZbi nvi
dt
dP
F
mgvbycvwZK| A_vr,
dt
eKYvi fi m Ges eM v nj fieM P mv ewmq cvB,
d ( m v)
F
dt
dv
m
F
dt
dv
ma F
Z
iY
a
dt
ma kF ... ... ... .... ... (1)

GLvb k GKwU mgvbycvwZK aeK; hvi gvb GKK eji
msv viv wbaviY Kiv hvq| h ej GKK fii Dci wqv Ki GKK ZiY mw Ki ZvK GKK ej ej|
A_vr F 1 , m=1 Ges a 1 nq Ze mgxKiY (1) nZ cvB|

11=k1 k=1 mgxKiY ewmq cvB, ma F
3

A_vr F ma Kvb ei Dci ^Z ejwj hw` nq h_vg F1 , F2 , F3 ,..Fn BZvw` wqviZ _vKj Avgiv cvB,

F1 F2 F3 .... Fn ma
F ma GLvb, F nQ jw ej ev bxU ej hLvb, F F1 F2 F3 .... Fn (cgvwbZ)

eji GKK wbDUb t h ej 1kg fii Dci wqv Ki 1ms -1 ZiY mw Ki ZvK 1 wbDUb ej ej|
A_vr 1 wbDUb = 1kg 1ms -2 |

wZxq m~ _K c_g m~ cwZcv`b t
wbDUbi MwZi 1g I 2q m~ Zzjbv Ki `Lv hvq h, 1g m~ nQ 2q m~i GKwU ic|
F ma
_K `Lv hvq
h, ei Dci wbU ej k~b nj A_vr hLb F 0 ZLb ma 0 ,wK m 0, a 0 nq| myZivs hLb evBi _K
ej cqvM bv nq A_vr wbU ej k~b nq ZLb,
a0
dv
0
dt
v Gi wWdviwqmvb k~b v = aeK|
myZivs evBi _K ei Dci ej wbU ej k~b nj ei eM AcwiewZZ _vK A_vr e h Aevq wQj mB AevqB
_vK| A_vr evwnK ej cqvM e Aevb cwieZb KiZ eva bv Kij wi e wPiKvj wi Ges MwZkxj e wPiKvj
mgeM mij c_ PjZ _vKe| GwUB wbDUbi MwZi c_g m~|
NvZej (Impulsive Force) t
Lye A mgq h ej chy nq ZvK NvZ ej ej| nvZzwo viv KvV ciK cvZv, evU viv wKU ej AvNvr Kiv,
BZvw` NvZ eji D`vniY|
eji NvZ (Impulse of Force) t
Kvb ej I eji wqv Kvji b djK eji NvZ ej| Kvb ej F hw` Kvb ei Dci t i mgq _K t f mgq ch
tf
wqv Ki, Zvnj eji NvZ ne, J Fdt
ti
tf
J F dt
[ F a e ]
ti
tf
J Ft F [t f - t i ]
ti

J Ft
eji NvZi mv_ fieMi mK (Relation with Impulse of Force and Momentum ) t
tf
chy ej F nj eji NvZ J Fdt

ti
dP
J
dt
dt
ti
tf
dP
F
dt
Pf

J dP P
pi
Pf
Pi

J Pf Pi
J P A_vr, eji NvZ fieMi cwieZbi mgvb|
wbDUbi MwZi ZZxq m~ (Newton's 3rd Law of Motion) t

eYbv: cZK wqviB GKwU mgvb I wecixZ cwZwqv AvQ|
wbDUbi MwZi ZZxq m~vbymvi hw` GKwU e A, Aci e B Gi Dci ej cqvM Ki, Ze B eI A ei Dci mgvb
I wecixZ ej cqvM Kie| awi A e B ei Dci F1 ej cqvM Ki Ges B e A ei Dci F2 ej cqvM Ki|
m~vbymvi, F1 = F2 , A_vr ej qi gvb mgvb wK wecixZgywL| G `ywU eji h Kvb GKwUK wqv Ges
AbwUK cwZwqv ej| Dcii `v wqv I cwZwqv mgvb I wecixZ|
fieMi msib m~ (Law of Conservation of Momentum) t
GKvwaK ei ga wqv cwZwqv ej Qvov Ab Kvb ej wqv bv Kij, H e mg~ni gvU fieMi mgw ae _vK|
MvwbwZK fve, P a eK
cwZcv`b: 1 I 2 `ywU e weePbv Kwi| awi Kvb GK mgq eq
msNl wj nj| aiv hvK, GB msNl F1 nQ c_g ei Dci wZxq
e KZK chy ej Ges F2 nQ wZxq ei Dci c_g e KZK chy ej| Kvb GK mgq t Z c_g ei fieM P1
Ges wZxq ei fieM P2 | Avgiv cwZwU ei wbDUbi 2q m~ cqvM Ki cvB,
dP1
dP2
F1
Ges F2
dt
dt
wbDUbi MwZi ZZxq m~ _K cvB,

F1 F2
dP1
dP2
dt
dt
dP dP
1 2 0
dt
dt
d
P1 P2 0
dt

dP
0
[ P1 P2 nQ eevi gvU fieM ev P]
dt

hnZz mgqi mvc gvU fieM P P1 P2 , P Gi cwieZbi nvi k~b, ZvB gvU fieM P ae _vK, A_vr

P P1 P2 = ae

Pi Pf
P1i P2i P1f P2f myZivs `Lv hvQ h, msNli AvM Kvb eevi fieMi
fi mgw Avi msNli ci fieMi fi mgw me`v mgvb _vK| GwUB fieMi msib m~|
iKUi MwZ (Motion of Rocket) t

awi iKUwU AwfKli AvIZvgy gnvk~b MwZkxj| hLb iKUi Bwb KZK MvmwbMZ nq
ZLb mB Mvmi GKwU fieM _vK| ZLb fieM msiwZ _vK ej iKU wecixZ w`K
MwZkxj nq| iKU _K Mvm hLb GKwU wbw` nvi wbMZ nZ _vK, ZLb Mvmi MwZi
wecixZ w`K iKUwU GKwU wi ej jvf Ki| GB ejK avv ej|
wnmve: gbKwi iKU _K Rvjvwb Z_v Mvm v eM wbMZ nQ| t mgq wbMZ Mvmi
fi m nj, wbMZ Mvmi fieM ne,
P=(m)v
wbMZ Mvmi GB fieM iKU Rvjvwbi fieMi cwieZbi mgvb| fieMi msib
m~vbymvi Rvjvwbi fieMi GB cwieZb iKUwUi fieMi cwieZbi mgvb| Avgiv Rvwb,
Kvb ei fieMi cwieZbi nvi Zvi Dci chy eji NvZi mgvb| myZivs iKUi Dci
chy avv F nj
P = Ft
(m)v = Ft
m
m
ev , F
nQ Rvjvwb eenvii nvi|
v GLvb
t
t
Kvb gyn~ Z iKUi fi M nj Ges H gyn~Z Zvi ZiY a nj, F Gi gvb F= Ma ewmq cvB,
m
Ma
v
t
1 m
Z iY, a
v
M t
eji fvimvg (Equilibrium of Force) t
ei Dci eji jw k~b nIqvK A_vr, F 0 nIqvK eji fvimvg ej| fvimvg Aevq ei Dci ZiY k~b
nq| fvimvg Aevq ei eM ae _vK| A_vr eMi gvbi ev w`Ki Kvb cwieZb nq bv| fvimvg `yB cKvi| h_v(1) wi fvimvg (2) MwZq fvimvg
jvwgi Dccv` (Lami's Theorem) t
Kvb ei Dci wZbwU Amgvivj ej wqv Ki fvimvg Aevi mw Kij cZKwU ej Aci `ywU eji Afy
Kvbi mvBbi mgvbycvwZK|

gbKwi, P, Q I R wZbwU ej O we`yZ wqv Ki fvimvg mw Ki| Q I R Gi
Afy KvY , R I P Gi Afy KvY , P I Q Gi Afy KvY |

myZivs jvwgi Dccv` Abymvi,
P
Q
R
ne|
Sin Sin Sin
NlY (Friction) t
`ywU e ciii msk _K hw` GKi Dci w`q AciwU PjZ Pv Kij e qi
k Zj GB MwZi wei h evavi Drcw nq ZvK NlY ej| NlY mvaviYZ Pvi cKvii nq _vKt
(1) wwZ NlY (Static Friction),
(2) MZxq NlY (Kinetic Friction),
(3) AveZ NlY (Rolling Friction),
(4) cevwn NlY (Fluid Friction),
NlY ej t
`ywU e ciii msk _K hw` GKi Dci w`q AciwU PjZ Pv Kij e qi k Zj GB MwZi wei
h eji mw nq ZvK NlY ej ej|
wwZNlY ev mxgvwK NlY (Static Friction) t
chy eji mevP h gvbi Rb GKwU wwZkxj e MwZi Dcg nq, ZvK wwZ NlY ev mxgvwK NlY ej&|
wwZ Nlbi gvb k~b _K mxgvwK gvb ch nZ cvi|
wwZNlY ej t
h Nlb ej viv Kvb e ch
y ejK cwZnZ Ki wi _vKZ cqvm cvq ZvK wwZNlb ej ej|
NlY KvY I wwZ KvYi ga mK t

wwZ NlY Yv t wwZ NlYi mxgvwK gvb Ges Awfj^ cwZwqvi AbycvZK wwZ NlY Yv ej| GK s viv
cKvk Kiv nq| wwZ NlYi mxgvwK gvb fs Ges Awfj^ cwZwqv R nj wwZ NlY Yv ne
s
fs
... ... ... ... ... ... (2) fs I R Gi GKK GKB| KvRB s Gi Kvb GKK bB|
R
NlY KvY (Angle of Friction) t

wwZ NlYi mxgvwK gvb fs Ges Awfj^ cwZwqv R K mg^q Ki
h jw cvIqv hvq ZvK j cwZwqv S ej| GB j cwZwqv Awfj^
cwZwqvi mv_ h KvY Ki ZvK NlY KvY ev wwZ NlY KvY
ej| NlY KvYK viv cKvk Kiv nq| Wvbcvki wP
Gi Aevb `Lvb nqQ| wPvbymvi cvB,
R S cos ... ... ... ... ... ... (3)
f s S sin ... ... ... ... ... ... (4)
Avevi,
(2) bs mgxKiY s
fs
tan ... ... ... ... (5)
R
fs
K (5) bs Gi mv_ Zzjbv Ki cvB, s tan ... ... ... (6) A_vr NlY KvYi
R
UvbRU -Gi gvb wwZ Nlb bvi mgvb| BnvB NlY KvY I wwZ NlY Yvi ga mK|
7
wwZ KvY ev wbj Kvb (Angle of Repose) t
Kvb AvYZ ZjwZ e Zji h AvbwZi Rb MwZi Dcg nq ZvK wwZ KvY ev wbj KvY ej| GK viv
cKvk Kiv nq| wPvbymvi, OY Zji DcwiwZ e Zji AvbwZi Rb MwZi Dcg nq| myZivs ne wwZ KvY|
GB Aevq W Lvov wbPi w`K wqv Kie Ges Zji Awfj^ cwZwqv R-Gi wqv iLvi mv_ KvY bZ _vKe|
wP c`wkZ fi eev Abymvi, R W Cos
f s W Sin
fs
... ... ... ... (7)
R
f
wK (2) bs mgxKiY nZ cvB, s s ...(2) Avevi (7) I (2) bs mgxKiY _K cvB,
R
s tan ... ... ... (8)
tan
Avevi, s tan ... ... ... ... (6) dj (6) I (8) _K cvB,
tan tan
AZGe, NlY KvY Ges wbj KvYi gvb mgvb| Ze NlY KvY me
chvR; wK wbj KvY aygv AvbZ Zji Rb chvR|

MwZq NlY (Kinetic Friction) t
Kvb Zji Dci w`q MwZkxj e MwZi wei h evav Abyfe Ki ZvK MwZq NlY bv ej Ges h ej MwZZ
evavi mw Ki, ZvK MwZq NlY ej ej|
MwZq NlY bv t
MwZq NlY ej Ges Awfj^ cwZwqvi AbycvZK MwZq NlYbv ej| GK viv cKvk Kiv nq| k
fk
R
GLvb, fk = MwZq NlY ej I R Awfj^ cwZwqv|
c_g ci AsKi mgvavb


1| 10kg fii GKwU e`yKi wUMvi Pvc ÌqvZ e`yKi bj
nZ 20g fii GKwU eyjU 400ms-1 eM ei nq Mj|
e`yKwUi cvr eM KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
m1v1 = m2v2
e`y
Ki fi, m1 = 10 kg
ev, 10v1 20 10 3 400
eyjUi fi,
20 10 3 400 m2 = 2010-3kg
ev, v1
eyjUi eM, v2 = 400ms-1
10
v 0.8ms1 (Ans.) e`yKi cvr eM, v1 =?
1
2| 40kg I 60kg fii `ywU e h_vg 10ms-1 I 5ms-1

eM cii wecixZ w`K _K Avmvi mgq GK AciK avv
w`j| avvi ci e q GK hy nq KZ eM Kvb w`K Pje?
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
m1u1+m2u2 = m1v1+m2v2
1g ei fi, m1 = 40kg
ev, 4010+ 60(-5)
2q ei fi, m 2 = 60kg
= 40v + 60 v
1g ei AvwèM, u1 = 10ms-1
ev, 400300 =100v
2q ei AvwèM, u2 =-5ms-1
ev, 100v =100
hy eqi kl eM,
100
ev, v
v1 = v2 = v = ?
100
v 1 ms 1
v abvZK nZz avvi ci e q GK hy

nq 1ms eM 1g ei AwfgyL Pje|
-1
3| GKwU e wi Avevq wQj| 15 wbDUbi GKwU ej Gi Dci 4

mK wqv Kivi ci eji wqv e nq hvq| ewU Gi ci 4
mK 48m `~iZ Mj| ewUi fi KZ?
ej _vKv Kvjxb 4 mK ewU h kl eM jvf Ki
mB kl eMK Mo eM wbq cieZx 4 mK ewU 48m `~iZ
hvq|
Avgiv Rvwb,
s = v t2
s
t2
48
ev, v
4
v 12 ms -1
ev, v
Avevi,
v = u + at1
ev, 12 = 0 + a (4)
ev, a
12
4
GLvb,
AvwèM, u = 0
ej, F = 15 N
mgq, t1 = 4s
mgq, t2 = 4s
kleM = MoeM = v
miY, s = 48m
fi, m = ?
a = 3 ms-2
Avevi, F = ma
ev, m
m 5 kg (Ans.)
4| 10N Gi GKwU ej 2kg fii GKwU wi ei Dci wqv Ki| hw`
4s ci eji wqv e` nq hvq Ze c_g _K 8s G ewU KZ `~i
hve?
cieZx (8 4) = 4 mK mB kl eMK Mo eM wbq ewU
Pje|
Avgiv Rvwb,
F=ma
GLvb,
F
ev, a
AvwèM, u = 0
m
ej, F = 10 N
10
ev, a
fi, m = 2 kg
2
mgq, t1 = 4s
a 5 ms -2
mgq, t2 = (84) s = 4s
gvU `yiZ, s = s1+s2 = ?
Avevi, s1 ut 1
1 2
at 1
2
1
5 42
2
s1 40 m
Avevi, v u at1
s1 0
v 0 5 4
v 20 ms -1
Avevi, s 2 v t 2
s 2 20 4
s 2 80 m
s = s1+s2 = (40+80)m =120m (Ans.)
5| 100kg Ges 200kg fii `wU e cii wecixZ w`K
h_vg 20ms-1 Ges 10ms-1 eM hvIqvi c_ GK AciK
avv w`j| avvi ci e `ywU GK hy _K KZ eM Kvb
GLvb,
w`K Pje?
1g ei fi, m1 = 100kg
2q ei fi, m2 = 200kg
Avgiv Rvwb,
1g ei eM, u1 = 20 ms-1
m1u1+m2u2 = m1v1+m2v2
-1
10020+200(-10)=100v+200v 2q ei eM, u2 = -10 ms
GK hy eM v1=v2=v=?
100v+200v =2000 2000

300v =0
v = 0
hnZz kl eM k~b dj e `ywU GK hy nq _g hve|
F
15
ev, m
a
3
6| 4 kg fii GKwU eK 10ms-2 ZiY MwZkxj KiZ KZ

ej cqvM KiZ ne? c_i Nlb ej 2.5N kg-1 |
GLvb,
Avgiv Rvwb,
fi,
m = 4 kg
F1 = ma
Z
i
Y,
a = 10ms-2
F1 = 410 N
NlY ej, F =2.5 N kg-1
F1 = 40 N
Avevi 4kg Z NlY ej F2= F 4 N ej, F = ?
F2= 2.5 4 N = 10 N
Avevi, F = F1+F2
F = (40+10)N=50N (Ans.)
7| 70kg fii evK 500N AbyfywgK ej gSi Dci w`q
Uvbv nQ| evwU hLb Pj ZLb ev I gSi gaeZx NlY mnM
0.5| evi ZiY wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
F
MZxq NlY mnM, k k
R
Fk k R
Fk 0.5 686
Fk 343N
Avevi, F = P-Fk
F =(500 343)N
F =157 N
Avevi, F = ma
157 = 70 a
GLvb,
MZxq NlY mnM k 0.5
evi fi m = 70kg
Awfj^ cwZwqv.
R=mg=709.8N=686N
AbyfywgK ej P=500N
evi ZiY a =?
157 1
ms
70
a 2.24 ms 2 (Ans.)
8| 1N Gi GKwU ej 0.1kg fii GKwU wi ei Dci wqv
Ki| hw` 1s ci eji wqv e` nq hvq Ze c_g _K 2s G
ewU KZ `~i hve?
cieZx (2 1) = 1 mK mB kl eMK Mo eM wbq ewU
Pje|
GLvb,
Avgiv Rvwb,
AvwèM, u = 0
F=ma
ej, F = 1 N
F
ev, a
fi, m = 0.1 kg
m
ev, a
1
0.1
a 10 ms -2
Avevi, s1 ut 1
s1 0
1 2
at 1
2
1
10 12
2
s1 5 m
Avevi, v u at 1
v 0 10 1
v 10 ms -1
Avevi, s 2 v t 2
s 2 10 1
s 2 10 m
s = s1+s2 = (5+10) m =15m (Ans.)

9| 36 kg fii GKwU ei Dci KZ ej cqvM Kij 1 wgwbU
Gi eM 15kmh-1 ew cve?
Avgiv Rvwb,
ej F=ma
mgq, t1 = 1s
mgq, t2 = (21) s = 1s
gvU `yiZ, s = s1+s2 = ?
(v u )
t
15 1000
F 36
N
3600 60
F 2 .5 N ( Ans ).
F m
GLvb,
fi, m =36 kg
mgq, t = 1m=60s
eM ew,
(v-u)=15kmh-1
15 1000 ms-1
3600
ej,F=?
10| 36 kg fii GKwU ei Dci KZ ej cqvM Kij wgwbU

Gi eM NUvq 12km ew cve?
Avgiv Rvwb,
ej F=ma
(v u )
t
12 1000
N
F 36
3600 60
F 2 N ( Ans ).
F m
GLvb,
fi, m =36 kg
mgq, t = 1m=60s
eM ew,
(v-u)=12kmh-1
12 1000 ms-1
3600
ej,F=?
1| GKwU PvKvi fi 5kg Ges PMwZi evmva 25cm | Gi

RoZvi vgK KZ? PvKvwUK 4 rad s-2 KwbK ZiY mw KiZ
KZ gvbi UK cqvM KiZ ne?
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
RoZvi vgK
fi,
M = 5kg
2
I = MK
PMwZi evmva, K= 25cm
= 5(0.25)2
2
=0.25m
= 0. 3125 kg m
RoZvi
vgK,
I
=
?
( Ans.)
KwbK ZiY, = 4 rad s-2
Avevi,
UK, ?
UK
0. 3125 4 Nm
=1.25Nm (Ans.)
2| GKwU KYv 1.5m evmvai evKvi c_ cwZ wgwbU 120 evi
AveZb Ki| Gi mij iwLK eM wbYq Ki|
GLvb,
Avgiv Rvwb,
evmva, r = 1.5m
v= r
mgq, t = 1 min = 60 sec.
2 n
ev, v
r
cvK msLv, n = 120 cvK
t
iwLK eM, v =?
2 3.14 120
1.5
60
v 18.84 ms 1 ( Ans.)
ev, v
3| evKvi c_ 3.14ms-1 mg`ywZZ AveZbiZ GKwU KYv cwZ

mK 10 wU c~b AveZb mb Ki| evKvi c_i evmva wbYq
Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
v= r
GLvb,
2n
iwLK `ywZ, v = 3.14ms-1
ev, v
r
t
mgq, t = 1 sec.
vt
cvK msLv, n = 10 cvK
ev, r
evmva, r =?
2 n
3.14 1
ev, r
2 3.14 10
r 0.05m (Ans.)
-1
4| 13ms eM GKwU MvwoK wbivc` 30m evmvai GKwU

euvK AwZg KiZ nj euvKwUK KZ KvY Xvjy KiZ ne?
Avgiv Rvwb,
tan 1
v2
rg
132
30 9.8
1
tan 0.57
29.89 (Ans)
tan 1
GLvb,
eM, v =13 ms-1
evmva, r = 30m
g = 9.8 ms-2
KvY, =?
5| GKwU Zvgvi MvjKi fi 0.05 Kg| GwUK 2m `xN GKwU myZvi

GK cv ea cwZ mK 5 evi Nyivb nQ| MvjKwUi KwbK
fieM KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb,
RoZvi vgK
I = MK2
= 0.05(2)2
= 0.2 kg-m2
n
t
2 314 5
rad s-1
1
Avevi,
GLvb,
fi, M = 0.05 kg
PMwZi evmva, K= 2m
RoZvi vgK, I = ?
cvKmsLv, n = 5
mgq, t = 1 Sec
KwbK fieM, L =?
= 31.4 rad s-1

Avevi, L = I
L =0.231.4 = 6.28 Kg-m2 s-1 (Ans.)
6| evKvi c_ 72Kmh-1 mg`ywZZ Pjgvb Kvb gvUi Mvoxi K`gyLx

ZiY 1ms-2 nj evKvi c_i evmva KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb,
v2
a
r
GLvb,
v = 72 Kmh-1
20 2
r
r 400m (Ans.)
a = 1ms-2
evmva, r = ?
72 1000
20ms
-1
3600
7| 75m evmvai evKvi c_ Kvb gUi mvBKj Avivnx KZ eM

Nyij Dj^ Zji mv_ 30KvY AvbZ _vKe?
Avgiv Rvwb,
v2
rg
2
v tan rg
tan
v2
v2
v2
v2
tan 30 75 9.8
tan 30 75 9.8
424.35
424.35
GLvb,
evmva, r = 75m
g = 9.8 ms-2
KvY, =30
eM, v =?
v 424.35 20.6 ms -1 ( Ans)
5| KwbK MwZm~ (Laws Of Angular Motion)
8| 0.1kg fii GKwU cv_iK 0.5m j^v myZvi mvnvh evKvi

c_ Nyivb nQ| cv_iwU cwZwgwbU 30 evi c~Y NyYb mb Ki|
myZvi Uvb KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb,
10| 200m evmva wewk GKwU euvKv c_ 50.4 km.h-1 eM Mvwo

PvjvZ c_wUK KZ KvY KvZ Ki ivLZ ne? ivvwUi c 1m nj,
evBii cvk wfZii cvk Acv KZ DuPz nZ ne? (g = 9.8 ms-2 )
F m2 r
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
fi, m = 0.1kg
2n
evmva, r = 0.5m
F m
r
t
cvKmsLv, n = 30
2
mgq, t = 1 min
2 3.14 30
= 60sec
0
.
5
N
F 0.1
60
myZvi Uvb ej, F = ?

2
F = 0.49298 N (Ans.)
9| cw_exi Pvwiw`K Pì Kc_i emva cvq 3.85105 km|
GKevi c`wb KiZ mgq jvM 27.3 w`b| Pvì KwbK `wZ
wbYq Ki|
GLvb,
Avgiv Rvwb,
emva r=3.85105 km
2n
=3.85108 m
t
mgq t= 27.3 w`b
cvK msLv=1cvK
2 3.1416 1
KwbK `wZ =?
27.3 24 3600
6
1
2.66 10 rads (Ans.)
tan 1
v2
rg
GLvb,
eM, v = 50.4 kmh -1
14 2
200 9.8
1
tan 0.1
5.71 (Ans)
tan 1
sin 5 . 71
0 . 0995
50.4 1000 -1
ms
3600
v = 14 ms -1
v=
evmva, r = 200m
g = 9.8 ms-2
KvY, =?
x=1m, h=?
h
1
h
h 0 . 0994 m 0 . 1m ( Ans .)
1
, W = F. S FS cos
:
: , p =
:
:
: ,
:
,
- : W = k
. ,
. : F. P. S Ft-poundal C. G. S erg M. K. S S.I Jole
. =
.

. : Jol/sec watt.
. : : [ML2T-2] : [ML2T-2] : [ML2T-3]
. 25 27
. 0.143 H.P
. 900
.
0 < < 900 900 << 1800
. =
KvR (Work):
Kvb ei Dci ej cqvM Kij hw` ei miY NU Ze ej I eji w`K miYi Dcvski bdjK KvR ej|
KvRK W viv cKvk Kiv nq| gb Kwi, Kvb KYvi Dci GKwU ae ej F Gi wqvq KYvwUi
eji AwfgyL mijiLv eivei miY S nj KYvwUi Dci ejviv KZ KvR W FS ne|
KvR GKwU Aw`K ivwk| KvRi GKK Ryj|
ae ej hw` KYvwUi miY S Gi KvY Drcb Ki, Zvnj GB miY Kvj KZ KvR
W (F cos )S
ev, W F(S cos ) A_vr, KvR = ej eji w`K miYi Dcvsk
fi ic wjLj, W F.S
Ryj: GK wbDUb ej cqvM e hw` eji w`K GK wgUvi mi hvq Ze h KvR nq ZvK GK Ryj KvR ej|
eji viv KvR (Work done by the force): hw` ej cqvMi dj e eji w`K mi hvq Ze ev eji w`K miYi
Dcvsk _vK Ze mB ej Ges eji w`K miYi Dcvski b djK abvZK KvR ev eji viv KvR ej|
evLv: W F.S FS cos mgxKiY _K `Lv hvq h, cos abvZK nj W abvZK nq| ej F Ges miY S Gi
Afy KvY Gi gvb 90 Gi Kg nj A_vr 0 90 nj cos abvZK nq, ZLb eji w`K miYi Dcvsk
_vK; dj eji viv KvR ev abvZK KvR nq|
D`vniY: GKwU e Dci _K gvwUZ dj w`j ewU AwfKl eji cfve gvwUZ coe| G chy ej Z_v ei
IRb mg Ges S GKB w`K A_vr wbPi w`K nq, dj ei Dci AwfKl ej viv KvR nqQ ev abvZK KvR nqQ
eySvq|
eji wei KvR (Work done against the force): hw` ej cqvMi dj e eji wecixZ w`K mi hvq Ze ev
eji wecixZ w`K miYi Dcvsk _vK Ze mB ej Ges eji wecixZ w`K miYi Dcvski b djK FbvZK KvR
ev eji wei KvR ej|
evLv: W F.S FS cos mgxKiY _K `Lv hvq h, cos FbvZK nj W FbvZK nq| ej F Ges miY S Gi
Afy KvY Gi gvb 90 Gi ekx nj A_vr 90 0 180 0 nj cos FbvZK nq, ZLb eji wecixZ w`K
miYi Dcvsk _vK; dj eji wei KvR ev FbvZK KvR nq|
D`vniY: GKwU e gvwU _K Dci DVvbv nj| Zvnj ei Dci AwfKl ej Z_v ei IRb mg Lvov wbPi w`K
Ges S Lvov Dci w`K wqv Ki| G AwfKl ej I miY wecixZ gyLx nIqvq AwfKl eji wei KvR nqQ ev
FbvZK KvR nqQ eySvq|
cwieZx ej viv KZ KvRi ivwkgvjv (GKgvwK ):
aivhvK, Kvb ei Dci X A eivei F ej wqv KiQ| Zvnj ei miY ne x A eivei| aivhvK, GB
ej ae bq Ges Gi gvb miYi Dci wbfikxj A_vr F, x Gi AvcK ev F(x)| GLb ej ebvg jLwP wbgic ne,
hLvb X Ai w`K miY x I Y Ai w`K ej F `Lvb nqQ|
06| KvR, kw I gZv (Work, Energy And Power)
aivhvK, Kvb ei Dci F(x) ej cqvMi dj nq x1 _K x2| GLb GB miYK x `Ni z` y` Ask fvM Kwi|
gb Kwi fvM msLv N (wP-1)| e x1 Aevb _K x1+x Aevb A_vr x z` miYi Rb ej cvq aeK weePbv
Kiv hvq| gbKwi GB ae ej F1| Zvnj GB Ask KZ KvR,
W1=F1x
Avevi x1+x _K x1+2x Aevb mivZ A_vr x miYi Rb ae ej F2 nj G KZ KvR,
W2=F2x
Gfve, cieZx x miYi Rb ae ej F3 nj G KZ KvRi cwigvb,
W3=F3x
GLb eK x1 Aevb _K x2 Aevb mivZ gvU KZ KvR ne G aibi N msLK z` z` KvRi mgwi mgvb|
gvU KvR W nj,
W = W1+W2+W3+.........................+WN
= F1x + F2x + F3x +......................... +FNx
N
F x
i
i 1
GLb KvRi mwVK gvb cZ nj x1 _K x2 ch miYK AmsL y` z` Ask fvM KiZ ne| (wP-2) A_vr hLb
x 0 Ges fvMmsLv N ne ZLb KZ KvRi cwigvb ne,
N
W lim
F x
x 0
i
i 1
x2
F( x )dx KvjKzjvmi fvlvq
lim
x 0
x1
Ges GB KZ KvR ne ej ebvg miY jLwP viv X Ai mv_ Ave i dji mgvb hv wP-3 G Qvqv hy
Aj viv `Lvbv nqQ| hnZz GLvb ej I miYi Afy KvY 0 ZvB, jLv hvq,
x2
W Fdx cos 0
x1
x2
F . dx [m YYi wbqgvbymvi]
x1
GwUB GKgvwK cwieZx ej viv KZ KvRi ivwkgvjv|

wcs ej viv mvw`Z KvR (Work done by the spring force)t
wcs ej viv mvw`Z KvR GK gvwK KvRi GKwU cK D`vniY| GKwU wcsK Ub cmvwiZ Kij ev Pc
msKzwPZ Kij wcs Gi Afi cwZqv eji mw nq| G cwZwqv ejK wcs ej ej| wcs ej Fs, wcs Gi
cmviY ev msKvPb x Gi mgvbycvwZK I wecixZgyLx A_vr F - x
s
F - k x GLvb k GKwU aeK| GK wcs aeK ej|

s
3
GLb wcs F -k x ej viv KZ KvR wnme Kiv hvK| aiv hvK, wcs eji wqvq GKwU eK x0 Aevb _K x
Aevb Avbv nj| wcs eji wqvq eK dx cwigvb mivZ KZ KvR,

dW F dx
s
dW kx dx
AZGe eK x0 Aevb _K x Aevb wbZ gvU KvR
x
W kx dx
x
0
x
x2
W k
2
x
0
1
1
W k x 2 x 2 GUvB wbYq KvRi ivwkgvjv| hw`, x0= 0 nq Ze, W kx 2 | wcs msKzwPZ ev cmvwiZ hvB
2
2 0
1
nvK A_vr x abvZK ev FbvZK hvB nvK bv Kb Gi eM me`v abvZK| dj mgxKiY W kx 2 _K ejv hvq,
2
wcs ej viv KvR me`v FbvZK ne|

GKwU wcs Gi msKvPb ev cmviYi Rb mwZ wefe kwi ivwkgvjvt
gb Kwi, GK cv `pfve Ave GKwU wcs Gi gy cv m fii GKwU
e AvUKvb AvQ| ewU GKwU NlY wenxb Zji Dci PjvPj KiZ cvi|
Avgiv Rvwb, wcsK Uvb Uvb KiZ wcs eji wei KvR KiZ ne|
wcs eji wei KZ GB KvRB wcs G wefe kw wnmve weivR Ki|
wcswUK hLb Zvi wkw_j Aev x=0 _K x=x Aevb Uvb Uvb Kiv nq,
ZLb ewUi Dci chy wcs Gi ej Fs= kx| GLb ewUK x `~iZ
mivZ Zvi Dci Gi mgvb I wecixZgyLx F=ks ej cqvM Ki KvR KiZ ne| GB ej viv KZ KvRB ne ewUi
mwZ wefe kw|
x
wefe kw U Fdx
0
x
ev, U kx dx
0
x
ev, U k x dx
0
x2
ev, U k
2 0
1
U kx 2 BnvB wefe kwi ivwkgvjv|
2
gnvKl ej viv KvR (Work done by the gravitational force) t

gb Kwi, O we`yZ GKwU e AvQ| ei fi M| O we`y nZ r `~i A we`yZ AewZ m fii ei Dci wqvkxj
ej ne, F
GMm
GLvb,
r2
4
G -K gnvKl aeK ej| GB ej AO eivei wqv Kie| GLb AO Gi mshvM iLvi Dci A _K dr z` `~iZ B
we`yi Aevb weePbv Kiv hvK| Wvb cvki wP AB = dr LyeB z` ej AB -Gi Gi me gnvKl eji gvb mgvb
weePbv Kiv hvq| myZivs A we`y _K B we`yZ m fii eK AvbZ mvw`Z KvRi cwigvb,
dW Fdr
GMm
dW
dr GLb ewUK ra Aevb _K rb Aevb mivZ mvw`Z
r2
r
b
gvU KvR, W dW
r
a
r
b
W
r
GMm
dr
r2
r
b
W GMm r 2 dr
r
a
rb
r 21
W GMm
1 ra
1 1
W GMm
rb ra
1 1
W GMm BnvB wbYq KvRi ivwkgvjv|
ra rb
kw (Energy) t
Kvb e ev eevi KvR Kivi mvg_K kw ej| KvR I kwi cwigvc, GKK I gvv GKB| kwi GKK Ryj, kwi
gvv [ML2T-2]| Aev f` gnvwek kw wewfb ic Aevb Ki, hgbt hvwK kw, Zvc kw, k kw, we`yr kw,
Pz^K kw, AvjvK kw, cvigvYyweK kw BZvw`|
hvwK kw (Mechanical Energy) t
Kvb e ev eevi fZ Aevbi (wwZ ev MwZ) Rb GUv KvR Kivi h mvg_ ARb Ki, ZvK hvwK kw ej|
hvwK kw 2 cKvit 1| wefe kw (Potential Energy) 2| MwZ kw (Kinetic Energy)
wefe kw (Potential Energy) t
cvwicvwkKi mvc wi _vKvi dj Kvb e ev eev KvR Kivi h mvg_ ARb Ki ev
kw mq Ki, ZvK wefe kw ev wwZkw ej|
wefe kwi cwigvc (Measurement of Potential Energy) t
Kvb eK GK wwZkxj Aev _K Ab wwZkxj Aevq wbZ h cwigvb KvR mv`b
KiZ nq ZvK H ei wefe kw ej| gb Kwi, m fii e f~ -c nZ h DPZvq
Kvb we`y B Z Aevb KiQ| Gi wefe U kw wbYq KiZ ne|
5
ewUK f~wg nZ h DPZvq ZzjZ Gi Dci wqviZ AwfKl ej F= ei IRb = mg Gi wei h cwigvb
KvR KiZ nq, ZvBB B we`yi wefe kwi cwigvb wb`k Kie| AZGe, U = ej miY = mgh | GLvb fi m ae
ivwk Ges Kvb wbw` vb g ae wbw` vb, U a eK h Uh A_vr wefe kw DPZvi mgvbycvwZK|
MwZkw (Kinetic Energy) t

cvwicvwkKi mvc MwZkxj _vKvi dj Kvb e ev eev KvR Kivi h mvg_ ARb Ki, ZvK MwZ kw ej|
MwZkwi cwigvc (Measurement of Kinetic Energy) t
gb Kwi m fii Kvb wi ei Dci GKwU ae ej F wqv Kivq ewU v eM cv nj| Gi MwZ kw K wbYq KiZ
ne| ewUK v eM w`Z F eji viv mvw`Z KvRi cwigvbB Gi MwZkwi cwigvb wb`k Kie| GLb, F eji
wqvq ewUK dx z`vwZz` `~iZ mivZ KZKvR,
dW Fdx
dW ma dx
dv
dW m dx
dt
dx
dW m dv
dt
dW mvdv
F ma
dv
dt a
dx
dt v
AZGe ewUK eM v = 0 nZ v = v eM w`Z gvU KZ KvR A_vr MwZkw

W
K dW
0
v
K mvdv
0
v2
K m
2
0
1
K mv 2 ei fi m GKUv aeK KvRB
2
K a eK v 2
K v 2 A_vr, wbw` fii Kvb ei MwZkw Gi eMi eMi mgvbycvwZK|
MwZ kwi mv_ fieMi mK (Relation with Kinetic Energy and Momentum) t
1
K mv 2
2
1
m
K mv 2
m
2
MwZkw,
K
K
[ni I jeK m viv b]
1 m 2v2
2 m
p2
2m
[mv = fieM p] BnvB MwZkw I fieMi ga mKh

y mgxKiY|
6
msibkxj ej (Conservative force) t
Kvb eji viv GKwU eK c~Y P cwigb KivZ KZ KvRi cwigvb k~b nj, H ejK msibkxj ej ej|
AwfKl ej GKwU msibkxj ej| GKwU eK Lvov Dci w`K wbc Kij GUv wKQy mgq ci f~-c wdi Avm|
ewU Dcii MwZi Rb AwfKl eji wei h cwigvb KvR mvw`Z nq, Zv cZb Kvj AwfKl eji viv KZKvRi
mgvb nq| ei GB PvKvi gbi Rb gvU KZ KvR k~b nq|
AwfKl ej GKwU msibkxj ej t

Avgiv hw` GKwU eK AwfKli wei Lvov Dcii w`K wbc Kwi, Ze GwU cybivq Avgvì nvZ wdi Avme|
G ewU nvZ _K wbw nq cybivq nvZ wdi Avmv GB c~Y P KYvwUi
Dci AwfKl eji mvw`Z KvRi cwigvb k~b| m fii GKwU eK fci
A we`y _K h DPZvq B we`yZ DVvj AwfKl eji Rb KZ KvR FbvZK nq|
ewUK h c_B (Wvb cvki wP) DVvbv nvK bv Kb mKj B GB KvRi
cwigvb nq mgh| AZGe AwfKl ej viv mb KvRi cwigvb Kej we`y `ywUi
Aevbi Dci wbfikxj-KYvwUi MwZc_i Dci bq| ZvB AwfKl ej GKwU
msibkxj ej| Z`c Zwor ej, P^K ej, GKwU Av`k ws- Gi ej cfwZ
msibkxj ej|
Amsibkxj ej (Non-conservative force) t
Kvb eji viv GKwU eK c~Y P cwigb KivZ KZ KvRi cwigvb k~b bv nj, H ejK Amsibkxj ej ej|
NlY ej GKwU Amsibkxj ej| mvBKvUb h h ZviK ej KvR Ki, Zv Amsibkxj ej|
NlY ej GKwU Amsibkxj ej t
gbKwi, GKwU eK Kvb Agmb Zji Dci w`q ACB c_ A Aevb _K B Aevb Ges ci BDA c_ B Aevb
_K cybivq A Aevb Avbv nj| MwZ c_ GKwU z` miY dx Ges G miY
Mo NlY ej F Gi wecixZ w`K NUQ|
ACB c_ Pjvi Rb NlY eji wei KvR Fdx
ACB c_ A nZ B we`yZ cQZ eji wei KvR W1 Fdx
c
Gi ci hw` ewUK cyYivq BDA c_ A we`yZ Avbv nq, Ze G I NlY ej ei wecixZ w`K wqv Kie|
KvRB KZ KvRi cwigvb, W2 Fdx
d
ewU A we`y nZ B we`yZ Ges B we`y nZ A we`yZ hvZvqvZi Rb NlY eji wei gvU KvR,
W W1 W2 Fdx Fdx 0 KvRB NlY ej GKwU Amsibkxj ej|
c
7
msibkxj ej I Amsibkxj eji ga cv_K:
wgK
msibkxj ej
Amsibkxj ej
Kvb eji viv GKwU eK c~Y P cwigb Kvb eji viv GKwU eK c~Y P cwigb
1
KivZ KZ KvRi cwigvb k~b nj, H ejK KivZ KZ KvRi cwigvb k~b bv nj, H ejK
msibkxj ej ej|
msibkxj ej ej|
msibkxj ej wqviZ _vKj hvwK kwi Amsibkxj ej wqviZ _vKj hvwK kwi
2
msib m~ LvU|
msib m~ LvU bv|
GB eji viv KZ KvR c_i cKwZi Dci wbfi GB eji viv KZ KvR c_i cKwZi Dci wbfi
3
Ki bv|
Ki|
4
GB eji viv KZ KvR c~bivi Kiv me|
GB eji viv KZ KvR c~bivi Kiv me bq|
5 GB ej KvhiZ _vKj kwi AcPq NUbv|
GB ej KvhiZ _vKj kwi AcPq NU|
KvRkw Dccv` (Work-Energy theorem) t

MwZkxj ei Dci chy ej viv KZ KvR ei MwZkwi cwieZbi mgvb|
ae eji Rb cwZcv`b: awi v0 eM MwZkxj m fii Kvb ei Dci F ae ej wqv Ki| Gi dj eM ewUi nq
v Ges H mgq ewUi eji w`K x `~iZ AwZg Ki|
myZivs ej viv KZKvR, W=Fx
GB ej cqvMi dj ei ae ZiY a nj, wbDUbi MwZi wZxq m~vbyhvqx, F=ma
W=max
wK MwZi mgxKiY _K Avgiv Rvwb,

v 2 v 2 2ax
0
v2
0
2ax
v2 v2
0
ax
2
v v
0
myZivs, W m
1
1
1
1
W mv 2 mv02 wK mv02 nQ ei Avw` MwZkw K0 Ges mv 2 nQ ei kl MwZkw K |
2
2
2
2
W K K 0 K
2
A_vrej viv KZ KvR = ei MwZkw cwieZb|

cwieZbkxj eji Rb cwZcv`b: aiv hvK, KvY KYvi Dci cwieZbkxj ej wqv KiQ| eji gvb cwieZbkxj
njI Gi w`K AcwieZbkxj| m KYvwUi miYi AwfgyL eji w`KB ne| aiv hvK, KYvwU x- A eivei
x
MwZkxj| GLb KYvwUK x0 Aevb _K x Aevb mivZ chy ej viv KZ KvRi cwigvY, W Fdx
x0
wK wbDUbi MwZi wZxq _K Avgiv Rvwb, F=ma Avevi, a
dv dv dx dv
dv
. .v v
dt dx dt dx
dx
mvw`Z KvR, W madx mv

x0
wK
x0
v
1
1
dv
dx mvdv m vdv m mv 2 mv02
2
dx
2 v0 2
v0
v0
1
1 2
mv0 nQ ei Avw` MwZkw K0 Ges mv 2 nQ ei kl MwZkw K |
2
2
W K K 0 K
A_vrcwieZbkxj ej viv KZ KvR = ei MwZkwi cwieZb|

MwZkw I wefe kwi ga cv_Kt
wgK
MwZkw
wefe kw
cvwicvwkKi mvc MwZkxj _vKvi dj Kvb cvwicvwkKi mvc wi _vKvi dj Kvb e ev
1
e ev eev KvR Kivi h mg_ ARb Ki, ZvK eev KvR Kivi h mg_ ARb Ki ev kw mq
Ki, ZvK wefe kw ej| GK wwZ kwI ej|
MwZ kw ej|
2
m fii ei eMv nj Gi MwZ kw
ei eM bv _vKj MwZkw _vK bv|
1
mv 2
2
m fii e h DPZvq _vKj Gi wefe kw = mgh
ei Aev ev Aevbi cwieZb bv nj wefe kw

_vK bv|
wefe kw K P viv cKvk Kiv nq|
4
MwZ kw K K viv cKvk Kiv nq|
kwi wbZZv m~ (Conservation law of energy) t
kwi mw ev webvk bB, kw Kej GK ic _K Aci GK ev ev GKvwaK ic cwiewZZ nZ cvi| gnvweki gvU
kwi cwigvb wbw` I AcwieZbxq|
evLvt kwi askI bB mwI bB, AvQ ay cwieZb| hgb wnUvi we`yr kw Zvc kwZ, evj we`yr kw
AvjvK I Zvc kwZ dvb we`yr kw hvwK kwZ icvwiZ nq|
hvwK kwi wbZZv m~ (Mechanical Conservation law of Energy) t
Kvb eevq Kej msibkxj ej wqv Kij eevi MwZ kw I wefe kwi hvMdj me`v ae _vK| A_vr,
MwZkw + wefe kw = aeK
co ei hvwK kwi wbZZv m~ (Conservation law of energy in case of falling body)t
gb Kwi, m fii GKwU eKYv f~-ci A Aevb nZ B Aevb Avbv nj| B we`yZ ewU
wi Aevq _vK ej Gi Kvb MwZkw _vK bv| B we`yZ MwZkw = 0
B we`yi wefe kw = mgh
B we`yZ gvU kw EB = MwZkw + wefe kw
EB = 0 + mgh
EB = mgh
GLb aiv hvK, ewU B we`y nZ Aeva cwZZ njv Ges wKQy mgq ci x `yiZ AwZg Ki C we`yZ cwQj
Ges v eM cv njv| Zvnj co ei MwZi mgxKiY Abymvi cvB,

v2= o+2gx
v2= 2gx
1
2
1
K c m 2gx
2
K c mgx
C we`yZ ei MwZkw K c mv 2
f~-c nZ C we`yi DPZv (h x) ;

KvRB C we`yZ ei wefe kw U c mg (h x )
U c mgh mgx
C we`yZ gvU kw EC = MwZkw + wefe kw = KC+UC
Ec=mgx + mgh - mgx = mgh A_vr, B we`yZ gvU kw EB = C we`yZ gvU kw EC
ewU f~-c cwZZ nj GB kw k, Zvc I Abvb kwZ icvwiZ nq| Abyic fve `Lvbv hvq h, fwg k
Kivi gyn~Z A we`yZ gvU kw EA= mgh myZivs AwfKli cfve gyfve co ei me mgq wefe kw I
MwZ kwi mgw mgvb _vK|A_vr co ei kwi wbZZv m~ cgvwYZ nj|
mij `vjKi mvnvh hvwK kwi wbZZvi m~i cgvY (Conservation law of energy in case of simple pendulum)t
aiv hvK, OA GKwU mij `vjKi mvgvevb| eei fi m| GwU `yjZ `yjZ Kvb GK mgq mevP we`y
C-Z cuwQj wbKi Rb wi ne| C we`y, eei mvgvevb A nZ AN DPZvq AewZ|
C we`yZ mg kw wefe kw|
C we`yZ wefe kw EP = mg AN
Ges C we`yZ MwZ kw EK = 0
C we`yZ gvU kw EP +EK = mg AN + 0
C we`yZ gvU kw = mg AN
`vjKwU Kvb GK mgq B we`yZ cQe| B we`yZ eei wefe kw I
MwZkw DfqB _vKe|
B we`yZ wefe kw EP = mg AM
1
m(u 2 2gh )
2
1
E K m(0 2 2gh )
2
1
E K m 2gh
2
E K mgh
B we`yZ MwZ kw E K
E K mg NM
[GLv b, h NM ]
EK mg(AN AM)
B we`yZ gvU kw = EP +EK = mg AM+ mg (AN AM)
= mg AM+ mg AN mg AM
= mg AN = C we`yZ gvU kw, Gfve `Lvb hvq h, eei MwZ c_i me gvU kw
aeK| AZGe, mij `vjKi kwi wbZZv m~ cgvwYZ nj|

gZv (Power) t
Kvb evw ev hi KvR Kivi nviK gZv ej| gZvK P viv cKvk Kiv nq| t mgq W KvR Kij gZv
P
W
t
ne| gZvi GKK IqvU| Zvi gvv [ML2 T 3 ]
IqvU (Watt) t
1 mK 1 Ryj KvR Kivi gZvK GK IqvU gZv ej| IqvU K W viv cKvk Kiv nq| IqvU = Ryj/ mK|
10
AkgZv (H.P) t
1 mK 550 dzU cvD KvR Kivi gZK 1 AkgZv ej| 1 AkgZv = 550 dzU-cvD/mK| IqvU Gi mv_
Gi mK nj, 1 AkgZv = 746 IqvU|
1 H.P 550ft lb / s
1 H.P 550 30.48 10 -2 m 0.4536Kg / s
1 H.P 550 30.48 10 -2 0.4536 kg m / s

1 H.P 550 30.48 10 -2 0.4536 g Ryj / m K
1 H.P 550 30.48 10 -2 0.4536 9.81 Watt
1 AkgZv = 746 IqvU|
Kg`Zv (Efficiency) t
Kvb h _K cv gvU KvhKi kw I h c` gvU kwi AbycvZK H hì Kg`Zv ej| Kg`ZvK viv
cKvk Kiv nq| Kg`Zv,
gvU Kvh Ki kw
gvU c` kw
kZKivq cKvk Kij,
gvU Kvh Ki kw
100 %
gvU c` kw
Kvb hi KvhKi gZv 50% ejZ eywS h, hw` H h 100 Ryj kw Ìqv nq Ze hwU _K 50 Ryj kw KvhKi
ne|
c_g ci AsKi mgvavb

6| KvR gZv I kw (Work, Energy And Power)

1| 100m Mfxi GKwU Kzqv _K Bwbi mvnvh cwZ wgwbU
1000kg cvwb DVvbv nq| hw` Bwbi gZv 42% b nq Ze
Gi Ak gZv wbYq Ki|
1
k 40 302 J
2
Avgiv Rvwb,
mgh
t
1000 9.8 100
W
ev, P1
60
ev, P1 16333.33 W
16333 .33
H.P
ev, P1
746
P1 21.89 H.P
Avevi, P 58% P1
58
P
21.89
100
21.89 100
H.P
P
58
P 37.74 H.P (Ans.)
P1
GLvb,
MfxiZv, h = 100 m
mgq, t = 1min = 60 sec.
fi, m = 1000 kg
KvhKix gZv,
P1 = (10042)% = 58%
cKZ gZv, P = ?
GLvb,
awi,fi m I eM v1
1
m v12
2
dj, 16 wU Zv f` Kivi kw, E 2
1
m v 22
2
ckgZ, E2 = 16E1
1
1
m v 22 16 m v12
2
2
2
2
v 2 16 v1
3| wivev _K 40kg fi wewk Kvb e wbw` eji wqvi

dj 2s ci 15ms-1 eM ARb Ki| Gi Dci wK cwigvb ej
wqv KiQ Ges 4s ci Gi MwZ kw KZ ne?
15
7.5ms 2
2
4| GKwU ivBdji wj wbw` cyiZi GKwU Zv f` KiZ cvi| H

ic 16 wU Zv f` KiZ nj Gi eM KZ b KiZ ne?
16 wU Zv f` Kivi eM v2
133 . 6 1036 J (Ans.)
k 18000 J (Ans.)
dj, 1 wU Zv f` Kivi kw E1
2| GKwU wbDUbi fi 1.6710-27 kg Ges GwU 410-4 ms-1

eM MwZkxj| Gi MwZ kw wbYq Ki|
GLvb,
Avgiv Rvwb,
fi,
1
m = 1.6710-27 kg
MwZkw, mv 2
eM, v = 410-4 ms-1
2
MwZkw, E = ?
1
1.6710-27 (410-4 )2
2
Avgiv Rvwb,
v1 = u + a t1
ev, 15 = 0 + a2
1
Avevi, MwZkw , k m v 22
2
GLvb,
AvwèM, u = 0 fi, m = 40kg
eM, v1 = 15ms-1 mgq, t1 = 2s,
ej, F = ? mgq, t2 = 4s, nj
MwZkw, Ek=?
Avevi,
F = ma
F =407.5 N = 300 N (Ans.)
Avevi,
v2 = u + at2
ev, v2 = 0 +7.54
v2 = 30ms-1
v 22 ( 4v1 ) 2
v 2 4v1 A_vr eM Pvi b KiZ ne|
5| GKwU gUi wgwbU 5.5105 kg cvwb 100m Dci DVvZ cvi|
gUiwUi gZv 70 % KvhKi nj Gi gZv KZ H.P wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
mgh
t
5.5105 9.8100
ev, P1
W
60
ev, P1 8983333.333W
8983333.333
H.P
ev, P1
746
P1 12042.00 H.P
Avevi, P 70% P1
70
P
12042.00
100
12042.00 100
H.P
P
70
P 17202 . 86 H.P (Ans.)
P1
GLvb,
MfxiZv, h = 100 m
mgq, t = 1min = 60 sec.
fi, m = 5.5105 kg
KvhKix gZv,
P1 = 70%
cKZ gZv, P = ?
6| GKwU gUi 4.9 wgwbU 10000 wjUvi cvwb 6m Dci DVvZ

cvi| gUiwUi gZv 80 % KvhKi nj Gi gZv KZ wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
mgh
t
10000 9.8 6
W
ev,P1
60 4.9
P1 2000 W
Avevi, P 80% P1
80
P
2000
100
2000 100
W
P
80
P 2500 W (Ans.)
P1
MfxiZv, h = 6 m
mgq, t = 4.9min = 604.9s
1wjUvi cvwbi fi, =1 KwR
10000 wjUvi cvwbi fi,
m =10000 KwR
KvhKix gZv,
P1 = 80%
cKZ gZv, P = ?
7| GKwU gUi NUvq 2.5107 kg cvwb 50m Dci DVvZ cvi|

gUiwUi gZv 45 % KvhKi nj Gi gZv wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
mgh
P1
MfxiZv, h = 50 m
t
mgq, t = 3600sec.
7
2.5 10 9 . 8 5 0
W
ev, P1
fi, m =2.5107 kg
3600
KvhKix gZv,
ev, P1 3402777.77 W
P1 = 45%
Avevi, P 45% P1
cKZ gZv, P = ?
45
3402777.77
100
3402777.77 100
W
P
45
P 7561728 . 38 W (Ans.)
P
8| 30m DPZv _K GKwU eK webv evavq coZ w`j

Kv_vq Dnvi MwZ kw wefe kwi wb ne?
gb Kwi ewUi fi m, Ges fc _K h DPZvq ewUi MwZkw
wefe kwi wb nq|
kZvbymvi,
1 2
mv 2mgh
2
v 2 4 gh
0 2 2 g (30 h) 4 gh
30 h 2h
3h 30
30
h
10
h 10 m
9| GKRb jvK I GKRb evjK GK òvQb| evjKwUi fi jvKi

fii AaK Ges jvKwUi MwZkw evjKwUi MwZkwi AaK| jvKwU
hw` Zvi eM 1ms-1 ew Kib Ze Zvi MwZkw evjKwUi MwZkwi
mgvb nq| Gì AvwèM wbYq Ki|
gb Kwi, evjKwUi AvwèM= v1
jvKi AvwèM = v2
jvKi fi = m
m
evj Ki fi
2
1
ckvbymv i, jvKwUi MwZkw evjKwUi MwZkw
2
1
1 1 m
mv 22 v12
2
2 2 2
2
v
ev , v 22 1
4
v
ev, v 2 1 ... ... ... ... (1)
2
ev,
Avevi ckvbymv i,
1
1 m
m(v 2 1) 2 v12
2
2 2
ev, (v 2 1) 2
v12
2
v1
2
v
v
ev, 1 1 1
2
2
ev, 0.5v1 1 0.707 v1
ev, 0.207v1 1
1
v1
4.83 ms 1 (Ans.)
0.207
ev, v 2 1
Ges, v 2
v1 4.83
2.42 ms -1 (Ans.)
2
2
10| GKwU KYvi Dci F 6i 3j 2 k N ej cqvM KYvwUi
r 2i 2j k m miY nq| ej KZK mvw`Z KvRi cwigvb
wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
W F.r
W (6i 3j 2k ). ( 2i 2j k )
W (6)(2) (3)(2) ( 2)(1)
W 12 6 2
W 4 J (Ans.)
Di: 10m DPZvq MwZ kw wefe kwi wb ne|
11| GKwU cvwbc~Y Kzqvi MfxiZv 12m Ges evm 1.8m | GKwU
cv 24 wgwbU KzqvwUK cvwbk~Y KiZ cvi| cvwUi AkgZv
KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb,
13| 200 gm fii GKwU e 10m Dci _K bxP co hvq| f~c

k Kivi c~e gyn~ Z Gi MwZ kw wbYq Ki|
fi m r 2 l
1
fi,
E k mv 2 mgh
m = 0.2 kg
2
0.2 9.8 10 19.6J (Ans.) h=10m
m 3.14 (0.9) 2 12 10 3 GLvb,

1. 8
m 30520.8 Kg
evmva r =
= 0.9m
2
Avevi,
MfxiZv l = 12m
mgh
P
cvwb DVvbvi Mo DPZv
t
12
h=
m = 6m
30520.8 908 6
P
Watt
2
24 60
mgq t = 24 wgt = 24 60 mt
30520.8 908 6
H.P
24 60 746
P 1.67 H.P (Ans.)
P
cvwUi AkgZv P = ?
12| 6kg fi wewk GKwU e wi Aevq wQj| 30N ej cqvM

Kivq 10s ci ewUi MwZkw KZ ne?
Avgiv Rvwb,
F = ma
GLvb,
30=6a
mgq, t = 10s.
a = 5ms-2
fi, m = 6kg
Avevi,
ej F =30N
v u at
v 0 5 10
v 50ms 1
MwZkw, Ek =?
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
MwZkw, Ek = ?
14| h wgUvi DuPy vb _K GKwU e coQ| Kv_vq Zvi MwZ-kw

wwZ-kwi AaK ne?
gb Kwi ewUi fi m, Ges fc _K x DPZvq ewUi MwZ-kw
wwZ-kwi AaK ne?
kZvbymvi,
1
2 mv 2 mgx
2
v 2 gx
0 2 2 g (h x) gx
2( h x ) x
2h 2 x x 3x 2h
2h
x
3
Di: 2h/3 DPZvq MwZ kw wefe kwi AaK ne|
Avevi,
Ek
1 2
mv
2
1
6 502
2
K 7500J(Ans.)
K
,

-1
(S.I.) Nkg

,

-1
-1
11.18kms 6.98mils

( ): (Focas)

( ):
( ):
-

9.30 : : 7
g
g (983.217cm/s2) (978.039
cm/s2) - g (0)
, R = 6.37 106m
, = 5.5 103 kgm-3
, M = 5.975 1027gm
27 g 1/6
gnvKl (Gravitation)t
gnvweki cvZwU e KYvB GK AciK wbRi w`K AvKlb Ki| GB AvKlb eji gvb ay eqi fi I Gì
gaKvi `~iZi Dci wbfi Ki Gì AvKwZ, cKwZ, AwfgyL I gvagi cKwZi Dci wbfi Ki bv| gnvweki h
Kvb `ywU ei gaKvi GB AvKlY ejK gnvKl ej|
wbDUbi gnvKl m~ (Newton's Law of Gravitation)t
gnvweki cwZwU eKYv GK AciK wbRi w`K AvKlY Ki; GB AvKlY eji gvb e KYvqi fii Ydji
mgvbycvwZK Ges Gì gaeZx `~iZi eMi evvbycvwZK Ges GB ej e KYvqi mshvRK mijiLv eivei wqv
Ki|
evLvt aivhvK, m1 I m2 fii `ywU e cii nZ d `~iZ AewZ| Gì
gaKvi AvKlb ej F nj gnvKl m~vbymvi,
F m1m 2 hLb d ae _vK Ges
F
1
d2
hLb m1 I m2 ae _vK|
AbycvZi m~vbymvi, F
ev, F G
mm
1
d
mm
1
hLb m1, m2 I d cwiewZZ nq|

... ... ... (1) GLvb G GKwU mgvbycvwZK aeK| Gi gvb gnvweki me
GKB mB Rb GK wekRbxb ev meRbxb gnvKlxq aeK ej|

gnvKlxq aeK (Gravitational Constant)t
mm
FG
d2
GB mgxKiY m1= m2=1 GKK I d= 1 GKK nj F G
1.1
12
ev, G = F nq|
msvt GKK fii `ywU e KYv GKK `~iZ _K ciiK h ej AvKlb Ki Zvi gvbK gnvKlxq aeK ej| G
Gi GKK, F G
mm
1
d2
Fd 2
G
GB mgxKiY Wvb cvki ivwkjvi GKK emvj G-Gi GKK cvIqv hvq|
mm
1
Gm AvB cwZZ G Gi GKK nQ Nm2 kg -2, Gm AvB cwZZ G Gi gvb memZ gvb 6.673 10-11 Nm2 kg -2,
G Gi gvb 6.673 10-11 Nm2 kg -2 ejZ GB eywS h, 1 kg eii `ywU e 1m `~i _K ciiK 6.673 10-11 N
ej AvKlY Ki|
2
2
2 L2
G Gi gvv: G Fd ej `~ iZ MLT
= [M-1L3 T-2]
mm
1
fi 2
M2
07| gnvKl (Gravitation)

2
Kvfwmi cwZZ G-Gi gvb wbYq (Determination of Gravitational Constant by Cavendish Method)t
Kvfwmi h `ywU mgvb fii QvU MvjK A I B GKwU nvjKv ` R K GKwU mi Zvi F -Gi gvag GKwU `p
Aej^b nZ Ggb fve Szwjq Ìqv nq hb `wU AbyfywgK _vK| jv

I j eevq R ì N~Yb KvY cwigvci Rb Szjb Zvii mv_ GKwU
mgZj `cb W hy _vK| cixvKvj`ywU mgvb fii eo MvjK C I D K
QvU MvjK qi cii wecixZw`K GKB `~iZ Ggbfve vcb Kiv nq,
hb MvjK PviwUi K` GKB Abyf~wgK Zj _vK| eo MvjKq vcb Kivi
mv_ mv_ QvU MvjKq Gì cwZ AvKwlZ nq| dj R ì Dci GKwU
wqvkxj nq| GB i wqvq R ` Nyi hvh| dj Szjb Zvi cvK co|
Zvii wwZvcKZv GB cvK LyjZ cqvm cvq; A_vr Szjb Zvi cZqbx i
mw nq| R ì mvgvevq GB Dfq i vgKi gvb mgvb nq| cixvq jv I j eevq R ì N~Yb KvY
gc bIqv nq|
wnmve I MYbv t
gb Kwi, cwZwU eo MvjKi fi = M Ges cwZ QvU MvjKi fi = m| ì mvgvevq eo I QvU MvjKi
K`qi gaeZx `~iZ = d nj, gnvKl m~vbymvi cvB,
F
GMm
d2
... ... ... (1)
R ì `yB cv GB cwigvb ej wqv Kivq GKwU i mw nq| GB i bvg wecx | R ì `N l nj

wecx i vgK = F l
GMml
... ... ... (2)
d2
GB i wqvq R ` Nyi hvq| dj Szjb Zvi cvK co| Zvii wwZvcKZv GB cvK LyjZ cqvm cvq| myZivs,
Szjb GKwU cZqbx i mw nq| R ì wecKvY nj,
cZqbx i vgK = ... ... ... ... (3) GLvb njv Szjb Zvii cvK aeK| R ì mvgvevq,
wecx i vgK = cZqbx i vgK

GMml

d2
d 2
... ... ... (4)
Mml
GLvb, , d, M, m I l -Gi gvb Rvbv AvQ| Gi gvb wbYq KiZ ne| GLb eo MvjKqK mwiq, R
`K eeZ `vjb `vj `qv nq Ges `vjb Kvj T wbYq Kiv nq| R ì RoZvi vgK I nj,
T 2
4 2 I
2
4 I
ev, T 2

GB Gi gvb (4) bs mgxKiY ewmq cvB,
T
2
4 I d 2
MmlT
... ... ... (5) GB mgxKiYi Wvb cvki ivwk wji gvb ewmq G Gi gvb cvIqv hvq|
Kvfwm Zvi cixvq h gvb cv nb Zv nj G = 6.673 10-11 Nm2 kg -2 |
AwfKlR ZiY (Acceleration Due to Gravity)t

AwfKl eji cfve gy fve co ei eM ewi nviK AwfKlR ZiY ej| G ZiY me`v Lvov wbPi w`K wqv
Ki| GK g viv cKvk Kiv nq| Gi GKK ms -2 | Gi gvv [LT -2]
ckt AwfKlR ZiYK wKfve cw_exi fi, evmva Ges gnvKl aeKi mvnh cKvk Kiv hvq `LvI|
Dit f~-c nZ h `~i m fii Kvb ei Dci AwfKl eji wqv weePbv Kiv hvK, cw_exi fi M Ges evmva R
nj, ewUi Dci AwfKl ej, F
GMm
Avevi, AwfKlR ZiY g nj
(R h ) 2
wbDUbi MwZ m~vbyhvqx Avgiv cvB, F = mg dj, mg GMm 2

(R h )
GM
... ... ... (1)
(R h ) 2
GUvB AwfKlR ZiYi Av`k mgxKiY| G _K `Lv hvq h, AwfKlR ZiY mswk ei fii Dci wbfi Ki bv|
GM
... ... ... (2) mgxKiY (2) nZ ejv hvq, g -Gi gvb cw_exi evmvai Dci
R2
wbfi Ki| f~-ci Kvb vb meRb MnxZ gvb 9.8 ms-2| f~-ci Kvb vb g Gi gvb 9.8 ms-2 ejZ GB eywS h,
H vb f~-c gy fve co ei eM cwZ mK 9.8ms-1 nvi ew cvq| mgxKiY (1) I (2) AwfKlR ZiYi
Avevi f~-c h=0 AvZGe, g
mv_ cw_exi fi, evmva Ges gnvKl aeKi mv_ mKh

y mgxKiY|
f~-c _K DPZi I wbZi Kvb vb AwfKlxq ZiY g Gi gvbi wKic cwieZb nq MvwbwZK weklbi mvnvh
`LvI| f~-c nZ h DPZvq AwfKlR ZiY :
gb Kwi, cw_exi fi M Ges evmva R nj f~-c AwfKlR ZiY, g
GM
... ... ... (1) Avevi f~-c nZ h
R2
DPZvq A_vr cw_exi K` nZ (R+h) Dci AwfKlR ZiY g nj (9) bs mgxKiY Abymvi,
GM
... ... ... (2)
(R h ) 2
g
g
GM
R2
g (R h ) 2 GM
g
R2
g (R h ) 2
g
1

g R h 2
R
g
1

2
g
h
1 R
g
h 2
1
GB mgxKiYK evBbvwgqvj Zvbymvi wewZ Ki Ges h z` ej Gi DPNvZ AMvn Ki cvB,
R
g R
g
2h
1
g
R
2h
g 1
g ... ... ... (3) GUvB wbYq AwfKlR ZiY|mgxKiY (3) nZ `Lv hvq h, g g A_vr f~-c nZ
R
hZB Dci DVv hvq AwfKlR ZiYi gvb ZZB KgZ _vK|
f~-c nZ h MfxiZvq AwfKlR ZiYt f-K` g Gi gvb k~b|
4
3
gb Kwi, cw_exi evmva R Ges Gi Mo NbZ | Zvnj cw_exi fi M R 3 ne|

4
G R 3
GM
3
AZGe, f~-c AwfKlR ZiY g nj g 2 2
R
R
4
g GR ... ... ... (1)
3
h MfxiZvq cw_exi evmva (R-h) Ges Gi Mo NbZ | Zvnj (R-h) evmva ch cw_exi
4
fi M (R h )3 ne| cw_exi K` nZ (R-h) `~i AwfKlR
3
4
G ( R h ) 3
GM
ZiY g
3
(R h ) 2
(R h ) 2
4
g G(R h )... ... ... (2)
3
4
G(R h )
g 3
4
g
GR
3
g R h

g
R
h
g 1 g ... ... ... (3)

R
GUvB wbYq AwfKlR ZiY| mgxKiY (3) nZ `Lv hvq, g g A_vr f~-c nZ hZB cw_exi Kì w`K hvIqv hvq,
AwfKlR Zibi gvb ZZB KgZ _vK| cw_exi K` h = R;
R
g 1 g 0 ... ... ... (4) AZGe, g 0 cw_exi K` (f-K`) AwfKlR ZiYi gvb k~b|
R

5
cw_exi AvwK MwZi Rb AwfKlR Zibi cwieZb (Variation of acceleration due to gravity due to rotational
motion of earth)t
cw_exi AvwK MwZi Rb f~-ci Dci Kvb eKYv cw_exi mgvb KwbK eM
cw_exi A YY' -K K` Ki evKvi c_ Nyie| dj e KYvwU GKwU AcK`
ej Fc Abyfe Kie| wP Abymvi, aiv hvK, m fii Kvb KYv P, cw_exi mylg KwYK
eM mnKvi t evmvai evKvi c_ NyiQ| Zvnj AcK` ej Fc = mr ne|
Fc -Gi w`K wP `Lvb nqQ| P KYvwU Avsk Aevb Kij, cw_exi K` O nZ
OP eivei Fc -Gi Dcvsk Fc cos ne| eKYvi IRb mg -Gi wKQz Ask Fc cos -K
ckwgZ Kie| myZivs, cw_ex KZK eKYvi Dci wqviZ wbU ej,
F= mg Fc cos
Avsk AwfKlR ZiY gy nj, Dcii mgxKiY, F= mg ewmq cvB,
mg = mg mr cos
ev, g = g r cos
cw_exi evmva R nj, r =Rcos ne| AZGe,
g = g R cos2(1)
GUvB, cw_exi AvwK MwZi Rb AwfKlR Zibi cwieZb m~PK mgxKiY| welye Aj =0 Ges cosdj,
welye Aj AwfKlR ZiYi gvb, g = g R (2)
Avevi,gi Aj =90 Ges cosdj,
gi Aj AwfKlR ZiYi gvb, g = g (3)
AZGe, gi Aj AwfKlR ZiYi gvb mevwaK Ges welye iLv Aj AwfKlR ZiYi gvb mevcv Kg|
AwfKl K` (Gravitational Center) t GKwU eK h fveB ivLv nvK bv Kb ei wfZi AewZ h we`yi gaw`q
gvU IRb wqv Ki mB we`yK ei AwfKl K` ej|
gnvKlxq (Gravitational Field) t Kvb ei Avk cvk h Ajevcx Gi gnvKl cfve eRvq _vK A_vr
AbKvb e ivLv nj mwU AvKlb ej jvf Ki, ZvK H ei gnvKlxq ej|
gnvKlxq cvej (Gravitation Field Strength or Gravitation Intensity)t gnvKlxq i Kvb we`yZ GKK
fii GKwU e vcb Kij mwU h ej jvf Ki ZvK H we`yi gnvKlxq cvej ej|
Kwg DcMn (Artificial Satellites) t gbyl cwiZ h mKj gnvk~bhvb wbw` Kc_ _K cw_exK cwigb Ki,
ZvK Kwg DcMn ej|
iKUi mvnvh Kwg DcMnK wbw` DPZvq Zzj f~-ci mgvivj wbw` eM Qyo `qv nq| dj DcMnwU
cw_exK c`wY KiZ _vK|
f~-wi DcMn (Geo-stationary Satellites)t h mKj DcMni AveZb Kvj wbR Ai Pviw`K cw_exi AveZb Kvji
mgvb, Zvì f~-wi DcMn ej| Gic DcMni MwZeM Ggb `qv nq, hb GUv 24 NUvq cw_exK GKevi c`wb
Ki| mB Rb f~-c nZ GK Rb cheK DcMnwUK me mgq GKB RvqMvq `L|
Kwg DcMni eM, AveZb Kvj I f~-c _K `~iZt

f~-c nZ h DPZvq m fii GKwU Kwg DcMn v eM evKvi c_ cw_exK c`wYiZ AvQ| cw_exi evmva R
nj, Kwg DcMni K` gyLx ej,
Fc
mv 2
... ... ... ... ... (1)
(R h )
cw_exi fi M nj Kwg DcMni Dci wqviZ AwfKl ej,

GMm
... ... ... ... (2)
(R h ) 2
MwZi mvgvevq, Fc F ne| AZGe (1) I (2) bs mgxKiY eenvi Ki cvB,
F
mv 2
GMm
(R h ) (R h ) 2
GM
... ... ... ... ... (3) BnvB Kwg DcMni eM wbYqi mgxKiY|
Rh
AveZb Kvj ev chvqKvjt

h mgq Kvb DcMn cw_exK GKevi c`wY Ki, ZvK Gi chvqKvj ej| Kwg DcMni chvq Kvj T nj, Gi
iwLK eM, v (R h ) , v
2(R h )
... ... ... (4) GLb (3) I (4) bs mgxKiY _K Avgiv cvB,
T
2(R h )
GM
T
Rh
T
Rh
2 ( R h )
GM
(R h )3
... ... ... ... (5) BnvB chvq Kvj wbYqi mgxKiY|
T 2
GM
Kwg DcMni DPZv wbYqi Rb (5) bs mgxKiYK eM Ki cvB,
(R h ) 3
T 2 4 2
GM
GMT 2
(R h )3
4 2
GMT
R h
2
4
1
3
GMT 2 3
R ... ... ... ... ... (6) BnvB DPZvi mgxKiY|
h
2
4
Kwg DcMni eenvit

1| AvenvIqv mwKZ Melbv, wbixY I c~evfvm c`vb|
2| eZvi I Uwjwfkbi gvag Z_ c`vb|
3| eZvi I Uwjwfkb hvMvhvMi ixj kb wnme KvR Kiv|
4| Avgnv`kxq hvMvhvM iv|
5| cwZiv, cvnviv I mvgwiK KvR eenvi BZvw` KvR eenvi Kiv nq|
Kwg DcMn c`wbiZ gnvk~bPvix wbRK IRbnxb gb Kib Kb?

Dit ei IRb ejZ Gi Dci cw_exi AvKlbK eySvq| Kvb vbi AwfKlR ZiY g Ges Gi fi m nj, H vb
ei Dci cw_exi AvKlb ej ne mg Ges GUvB ei IRb wb`k Ki| dj ei IRb g Gi wbfi Ki| myZivs e
IRbnxb nj g Gi gvb k~b nq|
cw_exK c`wbiZ gnvk~bhvbi hvxiv IRbnxbZv Abyfe Kib| Gi KviY wbw` DPZvq AevbiZ gnvk~bhvb
cw_exi Kì w`K wqvkxj AwfKlR ZiY g -Gi mggvbi wecixZgyLx ZiY cv nq| GB Aevq gnvk~bhvbi
cvUvZbi mvc gnvk~bPvixi ZiY g g = 0 nq, dj wZwb gnvk~bhvbi cvUvZb Kvb ej cqvM Kib bv Ges
Kvb cwZwqv ej A_vr IRb Abyfe Kib bv|
gnvKlxq wefe (Gravitational Potential) t
Amxg `~iZ nZ GKK fii Kvb eK gnvKlxq i Kvb we`yZ AvbZ gnvKl ej viv mb KvRi cwigvbK
H we`yi gnvKlxq wefe ej| GK V viv cKvk Kiv nq| m fii Kvb eK Amxg ìZ nZ gnvKlxq i Kvb
we`yZ AvbZ W KvR mb nj H we`yi gnvKlxq wefe V
W
ne| KvR I fi DfqB jvi ivwk myZivs gnvKl
m
wefe jvi ivwk|

we`y fii Rb gnvlxq Kvb we`yZ gnvKlxq wefei ivwkgvjv wbYq (Gravitational Potential due to Point Mass)t
gb Kwi, A we`yZ GKwU we`y fi M AewZ| M fi _K gnvKlxq
i ga r `yiZ B we`yZ wefe wbYq KiZ ne| AB hvM Kwi|
B we`yZ GKK fi vcb Kij Zvi Dci wqvkxj gnvKlxq ej,
M 1 GM
2 , BA eivei| aiv hvK, B we`yi wefe V| GLb
r2
r
hw` GB GKK fii ewU M fii ewUi mv_ AvKlY ej F Gi dj eji AwfgyL z`vwZz` `~iZ dr mi C we`yZ
Avm, Zvnj KvR ne Fdr cos 0 Ges wefei cwieZb dV=Fdr cos 0
dV=Fdr1=Fdr GLb GB mgxKiYK r _K r = r GB mxgvi ga mgvKjb Ki B we`yZ wefe V nj,
FG
V Fdr
GM
dr
r2
dr
r2
V GM
r
V GM r 2dr
1
V GM
r
1 1
V GM
r
GM
V
GUvB wbYq wefe| GLb FbvZK wP wb`k Ki h, gnvKl wefei gvb Amxg ekx| Amxg nZ
r
i w`K GZ _vKj wefei gvb KgZ _vK|
gyw eM KvK ej? gyw eMi ivwkgvjv cwZcv`b Ki t

gyw eM (Escape Velocity) t mevcv Kg h eM k~b wbw e AwfKli cfve KvwUq gnvk~b Pj hvq, ZvK
gyw eM ev wbgY eM ej| GK ve viv cKvk Kiv nq|
gyw eMi ivwkgvjv (Magnitude of Escape Velocity) t cw_exi fi M nj Gi K` nZ r `~i m fii Kvb ei
Dci wqviZ AwfKl ej, F GMm
GB eji wqvq m fii ewUK dr z` `~iZ mivZ KZ KvR,
2
r
dW Fdr
GMm
dW 2 dr cw_exi evmva R nj f~-c nZ m fii eK gnvk~b A_vr, Amxg ciYi Rb KZ
r
gvU KvR, W dW
R
GMm
dr
r2
R
W GMm r 2 dr
R
r 21
W GMm
1 R
1
W GMm
r R
1 1
W GMm
R
GMm
W
... ... ... ... (1)
R
ewUK gnvk~b Mgbi Rb GB cwigvb KvRi mgZzj MwZkw ARb KiZ ne| AZGe, gyweM ve nj, Avgiv
1
GMm
mv e2
2
R
2GM
ve
R
cvB,
cybivq,
ve
2GMR
R2
ve 2gR ... ... ... ... (2)
GM
g R 2 BnvB gyw eMi ivwkgvjv|
AwfKl K` ev fviK` (Centre of Gravity) t

GKwU eK h fveB ivLv nvK bv Kb ei wfZi AewZ h we`yi ga w`q gvU IRb wqv Ki mB we`yK ei
AwfKl K` ev fviK` ej|
Mni MwZ msv Kcjvii m~i eYbv (Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion) t
c_g m~t
Ki m~t cwZ MnB m~hK GKwU dvKvm ( focus) iL DcevKvi c_ Nyi|
wZxq m~t
dji m~t Mn Ges m~hi mshvRK mijiLv mgvb mgq mgvb dj AwZg Ki|
ZZxq m~t AveZb Kvji m~t m~hi Pviw`K cwZwU Mni AveZbKvji eM m~h_K H Mni Mo `~iZi Nbdji
mgvbycvwZK|
Kcjvii m~i evLvt
c_g m~i evLvt
wP ABCD GKwU DcevKvi Kc_| F I F GB Dcei `ywU
dvKvm| Kcjvii c_g m~vbymvi m~h GB dvKvm `ywUi h Kvb GKwUZ
_vKe Ges DcevKvi c_ Nyie|
wZxq m~i evLvt
gb Kwi wP F dvKvm m~h AewZ| Kvb Mn hw` GB Kc_i A
Aevb _K B Aevb AvmZ t mgq bq Ges C Aevb _K D Aevb AvmZI mB GKB mgq t bq Zvnj
wZxq m~ Abymvi AFB dj CFD dj mgvb ne|
ZZxq m~i evLvt
Mnjv DcevKvi c_ m~hK c`wb Ki| myZivs wewfb mgq m~h_K h Kvb Mni `~iZ wewfb nq| aiv hvK, h
Kvb Mni m~h _K Mo `~iZ R Ges H Mni m~hK GKevi c`wb KiZ T mgq jvM| Kcjvii ZZxq m~vbymvi,
T 2 R 3 ne| A_vr m~h _K R1, R2, R2, ... Mo `~iZ AewZ Mni AveZb Kvj
h_vg T1,T2,T3, ... nj,
T2
1
3
1
T2
T2
3
2
... ... ... ...
ae ne|
3
3
c_g ci AsKi mgvavb

1| cw_exi evmva R = 6.4l103 km I gnvKlxq aeK G

=6.6710-11 Nm2kg-2 ai Gi Mo NbZ wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
evmva, R = 6.41103km
GM
R2
= 6.41106m
4
G R3
3
g
R2
gnvKlxq aeK,
G =6.6710-11 Nm2kg-2
Mo NbZ, = ?
AwfKlR ZiY, g = 9.8sms-2
4
g G R
3
3 9.8
4 3.14 6.4l106 6.67 1011
5474 . 87kgm 3
(Ans.)
2| cw_exi evmva 6.4l106m I AwfKlR ZiY 9.8ms-2 nj

cw_exc nZ Kvb ei gyw eM wbYq Ki|
GLvb,
Avgiv Rvwb,
evmva, R = 6.4l106m
v e 2gR
AwfKlR Zi Y,
ve 2 9.8 6.41106 ms-1
g = 9.8ms-2
gyweM, ve = ?
-1
ve 11208. 75 ms (Ans.)
6
3| cw_exi evmva 6.410 m I Gi c AwfKlR ZiY 9.8

ms-2 | cw_exc nZ 6.4 105 m DPZvq AwfKlR ZiYi gvb
wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
R 2g
g
(R h) 2
ev, g
(6.4106 )2 9.8
(6.4106 6.4105 )2
4.01408 1014
ev , g
4.95616 1013
g 8.099 ms -2 (Ans.)
gR 2
G
M=6.01024 kg (Ans.)
5| cw_exK 6400Km evmvai GKwU MvjK aij f~-c nZ KZ
DPZvq AwfKlR ZiYi gvb f~-ci AwfKlR ZiYi gvbi 641 Ask
ne|
Avgiv Rvwb,
R 2g
GLvb,
(R h) 2
evmva, R = 6400Km
g
R2g
= 6400000 m
64 (R h) 2
DPZv, h = ?
g
1
R2
AwfKl R Z iY, g
64
64 (R h) 2
1
R

8 Rh
R h 8R
h 7R
h 7 6400000
h 44800000 m 44800Km (Ans.)
6| enwZi fi I evmva h_vg 1.9 1027kg Ges 7 107m nj,
Gi gyw eM wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
v e 2gR
GLvb,
evmva, R = 6.4106m
AwfKlR ZiY,
2GMR
ve
R2
g = 9.8 ms-2
DPZv, h = 6.4 105 m
ve
AwfKl R Z iY, g
4| cw_exc g Gi gvb 9.8ms-2| cw_exi evmva

R = 6.4l103km I gnvKlxq aeK G = 6.710-11 Nm2kg-2
nj cw_exi fi wbYq Ki|
GLvb,
Avgiv Rvwb,
AwfKlR ZiY, g = 9.8 ms-2
GM
evmva, R = 6.41103km
g
2
=6.41106 m
R
ev, M
9.8 (6.41 10 6 ) 2
6.7 10 11
3g
4 RG
ev, M
gnvKlxq aeK,
G=6.710-11 Nm2kg-2
cw_exi fi, M = ?
2GM
R
GLvb,
fi, M = 1.9 1027kg
evmva, R = 7 107m
gyweM, ve = ?
2 6.673 10 -11 1.9 10 27

7 10 7
v e 60187. 08 ms 1 (Ans.)
ve
7| cw_exK 6.4106 m evmvai Ges 5.5gm/cc NbZi MvjK gb

Ki Gi c AwfKlR ZiY wbYq Ki| G = 6.67310-11 Nm2kg-2
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
GM
evmva, R = 6.4106 m
g 2
R
gnvKlxq aeK,
4
G = 6.67310-11 Nm2kg-2
G R 3
cw_exi NbZ , = 5.5gm/cc
3
g
2
= 5.5103kg/m3
R
AwfKlR ZiY, g =?
G 4R
g
3
6.673 10 11 4 3.14 6.4 10 6 5.5 10 3
g
3
2
g 9.83 ms (Ans.)
8| cw_ex _K 1600 km DPZvq GKwU Kwg DcMn cw_exK
K` Ki evKvi c_ c`wb KiQ| Gi eM ei Ki| `qv
AvQ cw_exi evmva 6.4103 km, cw_exi fi 61024 kg Ges
G = 6.6710-11Nm2kg-2|
Avgiv Rvwb,
GM
Rh
-11
24
6.67 10 6.0 10
6.4 10 6 1600000
v 7072.84ms 1 (Ans.)
v
GLvb,
evmva, R = 6.4106 m
gnvKlxq aeK,
G = 6.6710-11 Nm2kg-2
cw_exi fi,
M=6.01024 kg
DPZv h = 1600000m
DcMni eM v =?
9| f-c Kvb jvKi IRb 684N nj wZwb Puv` wMq KZUzKz IRb
nviveb? cw_exi fi I evmva h_vg Puvì fi I evmvai 81 Ges 4
b| Avgiv Rvwb,
GM M
........(1)
R 2M
GM E
........(2)
gE
R 2E
gM
g M M M R 2E
2
gE
RM ME
gM
M (4R) 2
2
gE R
81M
g
16
M ...........(6)
g E 81
ev,
cw_ex c IRb WE = 684N Ges Puv` IRb WM nj,
WM g M
WE
gE
WM 16
16
WM WE
81
WE 81
16
WM 684 N 135.11N
81
Puv` IRb nvive, = (684-135.11) N = 548.89N (Ans.)

i) ;
ii) ;
iii) , ;
iv) ;
v) ; vi)

i) g
ii)
iii) iv) g
cy/s
T L

1. 40
3.

4. - g
5.

6. g , g , ,

7. ,

8. L T
9. , g T
10. L T
11.
12. g T g T

chve MwZ (Periodic Motion):

Kvb MwZkxj eKYvi MwZ hw` Ggb nq h, GwU Gi MwZ c_ Kvb wbw` we`yK wbw` mgq cici GKB w`K _K
AwZg Ki, Zvnj mB MwZK chve MwZ ej| GB MwZc_ evKvi, DcevKvi, mij iwLK I RwUj nZ cvi|
Nwoi KuvUvi MwZ, m~hi Pviw`K cw_exi MwZ BZvw` chve MwZi D`vniY|
chvqKvj (Time Period) :
chve MwZmb Kvb KYv h wbw` mgq cici Kvb wbw` we`yK wbw` w`K _K AwZg Ki mB mgqK
chvqKvj ej|
`b MwZ (Oscillation Motion):
chve MwZmb Kvb e hw` chvqKvji AaK mgq Kvb wbw` w`K Ges evwK AaK mgq GKB c_ Zvi wecixZ
w`K Pj ZvK Ze Gi MwZK `b MwZ ej| mij `vjKi MwZ, Kbgvb myikjvKvi MwZ, MxUvii Zvii MwZ
BZvw` `b MwZi D`vniY|
mij Qw`Z `b (Simple Harmonic Oscillation):
hw` Kvb ei MwZ hw` Ggb nq h, Gi Dci wqviZ ZiY me`v mvgvevb nZ KYvi miYi mgvbycvwZK I
wecixZgyLx nq, Ze ei H MwZK mij Qw`Z `b ej| Awevi mij `vjKi MwZ, Kbgvb myikjvKvi MwZ,
MxUvii Zvii MwZ BZvw` mij Qw`Z `b MwZi D`vniY|
mij Qw`Z `bi ewk (Charecteristics of Simple Harmonic Oscillation):
1| GwU GKwU chve MwZ
2| GwU GKwU `b MwZ
3| GwU GKwU mij iwLK MwZ
4| h Kvb mgq ZiYi gvb mvgvevb _K miYi gvbi mgvbycvwZK I wecixZgywL|
5| ZiY me`v GKwU wbw` we`y AwfgyLx|
Kv (Frequency):
GKK mgq hZjv c~Y `b mb nq KvK Kv ej| GK f ev n viv cKvk Kiv nq| Gi GKK Hz|
wevi (Amplitude):
mij Qw`Z `bkxj Kvb KYv Gi mvgvevb _K h Kvb GK w`K h mevP `~iZ AwZg Ki ZvK Gi wevi
ej| weviK a viv cKvk Kiv nq| Gi GKK wgUvi|
`kv (Phase):
mij Qw`Z `bkxj Kvb KYvi `kv ejZ H KYvi h Kvb gyn~ Z MwZi mvgK Aev A_vr KYvwUi miY, eM, ZiY,
ej BZvw` eySvq|
2
08| mij Qw`Z `b (Simple Harmonic Oscillation)
mij Qw`Z `bi eeKjbxq mgxKiY (Differential Equation of Simple Harmonic Motion ):
Avgiv Rvwb mij Qw`Z `bi ZiY miYi mgvbycvwZK Ges wecixZgyLx| KvRB mij Qw`Z `bi ejI
miYi mgvbycvwZK Ges wecixZgyLx ne| KvY KYvi Dci wqvkxj ej F Ges miY x nj mij Qw`Z `bi
F x
F kx GLvb k GKwU aeK| GB k K ejv nq ej aeK| Avevi wbDUbi MwZi wZxq m~ _K
Avgiv Rvwb, ei fi m I ZiY a nj ej F=ma ne|
A_vr, ma = F
ma kx
F kx
dv
dv
a
m kx
dt
dt
d dx
dx
v
m kx
dt dt
dt
2
d x
m 2 kx
dt
2
k
d x
2 x
m
dt
2
d x k
2 x 0 ... ... ... (1)
dt
m
k
k
Avevi Avgiv Rvwb,
ev, 2 GB gvb mgxKiY (1) G ewmq cvB,
m
m
2
d x
2 x 0 BnvB mij Qw`Z `bi eeKjbxq mgxKiY| GLvb K MwZi KwbK Kv ej|
2
dt
mij Qw`Z `bi eeKjbxq mgxKiYi mgvavb (Solution of Differential Equation of SHM) :
mij Qw`Z `bi eeKjbxq mgxKiY
d2x
2 x 0
2
dt
ai bB, Gi GKwU mgvavb nj, x A sin (t ) GLb GwU h, eeKjbxq mgxKiYi GKwU mgvavb Zv Avgiv
wbbv Dcvq hvPvB KiZ cvwi| mgxKiY x A sin (t ) K mgqi mvc cici `yB evi eeKjb Ki cvB,
dx
d
A sin( t )
dt
dt
dx
A cos (t )
dt
d2x
2 2 A sin (t )
dt
d2x
A sin (t ) x
2 2 x
dt
d2x
d2x
2
x
GB
gvb
2 x 0 mgxKiY ewmq cvB,
2
2
dt
dt
2
2
evgc = x x 0
ev, evgc = Wvbc
3
myZivs `Lv hvq eeKjbxq mgxKiY x A sin (t ) emvj mgxKiYwU wm nq| KvRB GwU mij Qw`Z `bi
eeKjbxq mgxKiYi GKwU mgvavb|
mij `vjK (Simple Pendulum) :

GKwU fvix AvqZbnxb eKYvK IRbnxb, bgbxq I AcmviYkxj myZv w`q
Szwjq w`j GwU hw` webv evavq Gw`K Iw`K `yjZ cvi Ze ZvK mij
`vjK ej| wK eve G iKg `vjK cvIqv me bq| ZvB GKwU nvjKv
myZvi mvnvh Kvb `p Aej^b _K GKwU fvix e Szwjq w`j ewU hw`
webv evavq Gw`K Iw`K `yjZ cvi Ze myZv mn GB evevK mij `vjK
ej| Wvb cvki wPwU mij `vjKi wP|
ee (Bob) : h fvix eK myZvi mvnvh Szwjq mij `vjK Zix Kiv nq ZvK ee ej| wP ee C
Syjb we`y (Point of suspension): h we`y _K myZvi mvnvh eeK Szjvb nq mB we`yK Szjb we`y ej| wP O
nQ Szjb we`y|
KvhKix `N : Szjbwe`y _K eei fviK` ch `~iZK mij `vjKi KvhKix `N ej| wP KvhKix `N OC=L
| `vjKi myZvi `N l Ges eei evmva r nj KvhKix `N L= l+r ne|
^ wevi w`Z mij `vjKi MwZ mij Qw`Z `b MwZ :
gbKwi, AB GKwU mij `vjK| B Gi fviK`| m Gi fi| `vjKwUK `vj w`j KwbK miY mw Ki AC
Aevb Avm| GLb C we`yZ Gi IRb mg Lvov wbPi w`K wqv Ki| GB IRbK `ywU cii j^ Dcvsk fvM Kiv
hvq| GKwU myZvi `N eivei CD -Gi w`K mgcos Ges AciwU mgsin Gi mv_ j^fve kK eivei CE
Gi w`K wqv Ki| mgcos DcvskwU myZvi Uvb T viv wbwq nq, myZivs GKgv KvhKix ej F nQ mgsin Ges Gi
w`K mgvevbi w`K|
F = mgsinhnZz KvhKi ej miYi wecixZ w`K ZvB FbvZK wP
eenvi Kiv nqQ| GKvhKix eji Rb ZiY a nj,
F = ma
ma = mgsin
a = gsin
Gi gvb Lye Kg nj, A_vr 4 Gi ekx bv nj siniwWqvbjLv hvq|
a = g
Pvc
Pvc
evmva
evmva
Pvc BC
a g
evmva AC
hnZz BC nQ miY x Ges AC nQ KvhKix `N L|
x
a g
L
g
g
a x
wK wbw` vb wbw` `vjKi Rb GKwU aeK| GK viv cKvk Kij
L
L
a g
GwU mij Qw`Z `bi kZ|

myZivs ^ wevi w`Z mij `vjKi MwZ mij Qw`Z `b MwZ, h
a 2 x ... ... ... (1)
g
L
ev,
g
L
myZivs mij `vjKi `vjbKvj ev chvqKvj

T
2
L
2
... ... ... ... (2) Bnv mij Qw`Z `b MwZi mgxKiY| dj mgxKiY (1) I (2) _K
ejv hvq, ^ wevi w`Z mij `vjKi MwZ mij Qw`Z `b MwZ (cgvwbZ)|
mij`vjKi m~ eYbv (Laws of Simple Pendulum):
1g m~, mgKvj m~ : KwbK wevi 4 Gi ekx bv nj Ges `vjKi KvhKix `N AcwiewZZ _vKj Kvb wbw` vb
GKwU mij `vjKi cwZwU `vjbi Rb mgvb mgq jvMe|
2q m~, `Ni m~: KwbK wevi 4 Gi ekx bv nj Kvb wbw` vb GKwU mij `vjKi `vjb Kvj Gi KvhKix
`Ni eMg~ji mgvbycvwZK| `vjbKvj T Ges KvhKix `N L nj
m~vbyhvqx, T L ne, hLb AwfKlR ZiY g = aeK|
3q m~, ZiYi m~: KwbK wevi 4 Gi ekx bv nj Ges `vjKi KvhKix `N AcwiewZZ _vKj Kvb vb GKwU
mij `vjKi `vjb Kvj H vbi AwfKlR ZiYi eMg~ ji evvbycvwZK| `vjbKvj T Ges AwfKlR ZiY g nj
m~vbyhvqx, T
1
ne, hLb KvhKix `N L = aeK|
g
4_ m~, fii m~ : KwbK wevi 4 Gi ekx bv nj Ges `vjKi KvhKix `N AcwiewZZ _vKj Kvb wbw`
vb GKwU mij `vjKi `vjb Kvj eei fi, AvqZb, Dcv`vb BZvwì Dci wbfi Ki bv| wewfb fi, AvqZb ev
Dcv`vbi eei Rb `vjbKvj GKB ne|
LT2 jL wPi cKwZ Kgb ne?
mij `vjKi 2q m~ _K Avgiv cvB,

T L
ev, T 2 L
T 2 aeK L
GKwU QK KvMR X Ai w`K L Ges Y Ai w`K T2 Gi AbylwK gvb vcb Ki GKwU jLwP AsKb Kij
jLwPwU g~jwe`y Mvgx GKwU mij iLv ne| BnvB LT2 jL wPi cKwZ|
5
mij `vjKi mvnvh AwfKlR ZiY ''g"Gi gvb wbYqi cwZ (Determination of acceleration due to gravity
"g" by simple Pendulum):
AwfKlR ZiY (Acceleration due to gravity): AwfKl eji cfve gyfve co ei eM ewi nviK AwfKlR
ZiY ej| AwfKlR ZiYK g viv cKvk Kiv nq| mij `vjKi `vjbKvji mgxKiY _K Avgiv Rvwb,
L
g
L
T 2 4 2
g
L
g 4 2 2 ... ... ... ... (3)
T
GB mgxKiY _K Kvb vb L KvhKix `Ni mij `vjKi `vjbKvj T
wbYq Ki H vbi AwfKlR ZiY g wbYq Kiv hvq|
T 2
mij `vjK Zix : vi mvnvh GKwU K _K Kvb k myZv viv GKwU z` fvix MvjK Szwjq mij `vjK Zix
Kiv nq| GB MvjKK ee ej|
KvhKix `N L wbYq: `vjKi Szjb we`y _K eei fviK` ch `~iZK mij `vjKi KvhKix `N L ej| c_g
GKwU wgUvi ji mvnvh myZvi Szjb we`y A_vr K _K eei Dcwic ch `~iZ l gc bIqv nq| Gici GKwU
ayeK Kvwjcvmi mvnvh eei evm wbYq Ki evmva r wbYq Kiv nq| Zvnj `vjKi KvhKix `N L=l+r |
`vjbKvj T wbYq: mij `vjKi GKwU c~Y `vjbi Rb h mgq jvM ZvK `vjb Kvj ej| `vjKwUK mvgvev
_K GKcvk Ggbfve GKUz Ub Qo `qv nq hvZ GwU `yjZ _vK Ges KwbK wevi 4 -Gi ekx bv nq| GKwU
_vgv Nwoi mvnvh 20 ev 25 wU `vjbi mgq wbYq Ki H mgqK `vjb msLv w`q fvM Ki GKwU `vjbi mgq
A_vr `vjbKvj T ei Kiv nq|
Mo
L
wbYq: myZvi `N cwieZb Ki `vjKi KvhKix `N L cwieZb Kiv nq Ges wewfb KvhKix `Ni Rb
T2
`vjbKvj L wbYq Ki cwZ
L
L
L
ei Ki Mo 2 wbYq Kiv nq| GB 2 Gi Mo gvb (3) bs mgxKiY ewmq g
2
T
T
T
Gi gvb wbYq Kiv nq|

jLwP _K L I T2 wbYq: GKwU QK KvMRi X Ai w`K L -Gi wewfb gvb Ges
Y Ai w`K AvbylwK T2 -Gi gvb vcb Ki jL Ab Kiv nq| jLwU g~jwe`y Mvgx
GKwU mij iLv nq| GB mij iLvi Dci h Kvb GKwU we`y P wbq P nZ X Ai
Dci PM Ges Y Ai PN j^ Uvbv nq| Zvnj h Kvb `N L=OM -Gi Rb
`vjbKvji eM T2 = ON cvIqv hvq|
djvdj: jL _K cv GB L I T2 -Gi gvb (3) bs mgxKiY ewmq g -Gi gvb wnme Kiv nq|
L
T2
OM
g 4 2
ON
g 4 2

mZKZv : 1| `vjKi KwbK wevi hvZ 4 Gi ekx bv nq m w`K j ivLv nq|
2| L Gi gvb h_v me ekx bIqv nq|
3| `vjvi mgq `vjK hvZ cvK bv Lvq m w`K j ivLv nq|
4| _vgv Nwo mwVK fve Lvjv I e Kiv nq|
mK `vjK: h `vjKi `vjbKvj 2 mK A_vr h `vjKi GK cv _K Aci cv hZ GK mK mgq

jvM ZvK mK `vjK ej| mK `vjK 1 mK GKwU Aa`vjb mb Ki|
wcs RwbZ `b: GKwU wcs Gi chvq Kvji mv_ ej aeK I fii ga mK wbbq:
Kvb wcs-Gi GK cv GKwU `p Aej^bi mv_ mv_ hy Ki GZ GKwU fi Szjvj wcswU Uvb Uvb Aevq _vKe|
AZtci fiwUK GKUz Ub Qo w`j GUv mij Qw`Z w`Z ne| A_vr, wcswU chvqg msKzwPZ I cmvwiZ ne
Ges fiwU Dci wbP w`Z ne| A_vr, wcswU chvqg msKzwPZ I cmvwiZ ne Ges fiwU Dci I wbP w`Z
ne| wP(K) bs wP wcswU ^vfvweK Aevq iqQ| hw` wcswUi mv_ m fi Szjvbv Aevq wcswU e cwigvY
cmvwiZ nq mvgvevq _vK| [wP (L)], Ze GB Aevq wcs -Gi Uvb
ne, To = mg ... ... ... (1)| wcswU hw` wwZvcKZvi mxgv AwZg bv Ki, Ze Ki m~vbymvi, To e
To= k e ... ... ... (2) GLvb, k njv wcs Gi ej aeK ev wcs aeK| AZGe fi Szjvbv Aevq (1) I (2) nZ
Avgiv cvB, mg = k e ... ... ... ... ... (3)
GLb m fiK wbPi w`K LvwbKUv Ub Qo w`j GwU Dci-wbP
`yjZ _vK| aiv hvK, Kvb GK mgq mvgvevb nZ fiwUi miY x
[wP (M)] Ges GB Aevq wcs-Gi Uvb, T k(x e) ... ... ... (4) ;
fiwUi ZiY a nj, F ma ... ... ... ...(5) mgxKiY eenvi Ki cvB,
mg T ma ... ... ... ...(6)
(6) bs mgxKiY mg I T Gi gvb ewmq cvB,
k e k(x e) ma
ma kx
k
a x
m
a 2 x ... ... ... ... (7)
k
2
m
(7) bs mgxKiY mij Qw`Z MwZi mgxKiY| AZGe m fiwU mij Qw`Z `b w`Z nq| G m fii
k
Ges chvq Kvj T 2 2 m ... ... ... ... (8)
m
k
m e
e
eenvi Ki cvB, T 2
mg = k e ... ... ... (3)
k g
g
KwbK Kv,
(8) bs mgxKiY chvq Kvji mv_ ej aeK I fii ga mK |
7
GKwU mij Qw`Z `bi KYvi hvwK kwi iwkgvjv cwZcv`b (Energy of Particle Executing Simple
Harmonic Motion):
aiv hvK, m fii GKwU eKYv mij Qw`Z MwZZ `bkxj| MwZi wevi A Ges KwbK Kv | KYvi
miY hLb x ZLb Gi eM, v A 2 x 2 ... ... ... ... (1)
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
ev, K k (A 2 x 2 ) ... ... ... ... (2)
2
MwZ kw : x Aevb KYvi MwZkw, K mv 2 m 2 (A 2 x 2 ) m
k
(A 2 x 2 )
m
wwZkw ev wefe kw : ga vb (x =0) _K x miYi Rb cZqbx eji wei h cwigvY KvR mb ne Zv

eZ wwZkw ic mwZ _vKe| cZqbx ej, F kx; awi miY mwKvix ej F; hv F Gi mgvb I wecixZgyLx|
F kx ;
AwZ A dx miYi Rb cZqbx eji wei KZ KvR F dx;
x
x2 x
gvU KvR = wwZkw U Fdx kx dx k x dx k
2o
o
o
o
x2
1
1
k 0 kx 2 ev, U kx 2 ... ... ... (3)
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
gvU kw, E K U k (A 2 x 2 ) kx 2 kA 2
1
E kA 2 ... ... ... ... ... (4)
2
AZGe, wbw` wevii Rb gvU kw ae _vK| Dciv mgxKiY _K Aviv Rvbv hvq h, EA 2
MwZkw, wwZkw I gvUkwi iL wP :
1
2
mgxKiY (2) Abyhvqx, K k (A 2 x 2 )

KYvwU x 0 Aevb AwZg Kvj mevP MwZkw jvf Ki|
1
kA 2 ... ... ... ... (5)
2
Avevi, MwZkwi mewbg gvb x A Z cvIqv hvq|
K min 0 ... ... ... ... (6)
1
mgxKiY (3) Abyhvqx, U kx 2 , x A nj, A_vr KYvi miY wevii mgvb nj wwZkw mevP nq|
2
1
U max kA 2 ... ... ... ... (7)
2
x 0, Aevb wwZ kw mewbg nq|
U min 0 ... ... ... ... (8)
mgxKiY (2) I (3) eenvi Ki, x Gi h Kvb gvbi Rb K I U wbYq Kiv hvq|
K max
Dciv wP nQ miYi AvcK wnme wwZkw, MwZkw Ges gvU kw|
c_g ci AsKi mgvavb


1| mij Qw`Z MwZZ Pjgvb GKwU ei wevi 0.01m I Kv
12Hz | ewUi 0.005m miY eM KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb,
v A2 x2
ev, v 2 f A2 x 2
GLvb,
ev , v 2 3.14 12 (0.01) (0.005) wevi, A = 0.01 m
Kv, f = 12 Hz
ev, v 75.36 0.0001 0.000025
miY, x = 0.005 m
ev , v 75.36 0.000075
eM, v = ?
2
ev , v 75.36 0.00866
ev , v 75.36 0.00866
v 0.6526 m s -1 (Ans.)
2| Kvb wcs Gi cv GKwU e Szjvj GwU 20cm cmvwiZ nq|
ewUK GKUz Ub Qo w`j Kv KZ ne?
Avgiv Rvwb,
T 2
e
g
gM
M (4R) 2
ev,
g E R 2 81M
g
16
M ...........(6)
g E 81
GLb (3) bs mgxKiY gvb ewmq cvB,
TM
2
TM
16
81
4
9
29
TM
4
T M 4 . 5 s (Ans.)
4| GKwU mij `vjKi `vjbKvj 25% evovZ Gi KvhKix `Ni

wKic cwiKZb KiZ ne?
0.2
9.8
ev, T 6.28 0.142857s
T 0.897142 s
ev , T 2 3 . 14
Avevi, f
g M M M R 2E
2
gE
RM ME
GLvb,
cmviY, e =20cm= 0.2m
Kv, f = ?
1
T
1
Hz
0.897142
f 1 . 11 Hz (Ans.)
f
3| GKwU mK `vjK f~-c mwVK mgq `q| P` c wbq

Mj Gi `vjbKvj KZ ne? cw_exi evmva Pì evmvai 4 b
Ges cw_exi fi Pì fii 81 b|
Avgiv Rvwb,
TE 2
Ges, TM 2
T
E
TM
L
.....( 1 )
gE
L
....(2)
gM
gM
......( 3 )
gE
GLvb,
f~-c `vjbKvj,TE = 2s
P`c `vjbKvj, TM = ?
awi, Pì evmva, RM = R
cw_exi evmva,RE = 4R
Pì fi, MM = M
cw_exi fi, ME = 81M
GM M
........(4)
R 2M
GM E
Ges, g E
........(5)
R 2E
Avevi, g M
T1
L1
T2
L2
GLvb,
`N, L1 = L
`N, L2 = ?
`vjbKvj, T1 =T
`vjbKvj,
T2 =T+T/4=5T/4
L
T
5T
L2
4
4T
5T
16 L
25 L 2
L2
L
L2
25
L
16
L 2 1.5625L Dit `N 1.5625 b KiZ ne?

5| 1m `N wewk GKwU mij `vjK cwZ mK 2 wU `vjb mb
Ki| AwfKlR ZiYi gvb wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
L
T 2
g
`N, L =1wgUvi
`vjbKvj,
L
g
L
g 4 2 2
T
T 2 4 2
g 4 9.87
1
s 0.5s
2
AwfKlR ZiY, g= ?
1
0.52
g = 157.92 ms-2 (Ans.)
TA
LA
TB
LB
6| GKwU mK `vjKi `N wbYq Ki|

Avgiv Rvwb,
T 2
L
g
T 2 4 2
`vjb Kvj, T =2 Sec

AwfKlR ZiY,
g = 9.8ms-2
`vjKi `N, L=?
L
g
gT 2
L 2
4
9.8 2 2
L
m
4 9.87
L 0.99 m (Ans.)
7| Kvb mij Qw`Z `b KYvi wevi 3cm Ges mevP eM
6.24cms-1 nj, KYvwUi chvqKvj KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb,
Vmax = A
GLvb,

Vmax 6.24 10 2
rad s 1
A
3 10 2
= 2 .08 rad s-1
Avivi, chvqKvj, T
wevi,
A = 3 cm = 310-2 m
mevP eM,
Vmax= 6.24cms-1
= 6.2410-2 ms-1
chvqKvj,T = ?
2 3.14
s
2.08
T 3 s (Ans.)
T
8| mij Qw`Z MwZ mb GKwU KYvi MwZi mgxKiY

Y=10sin (t + ), chvqKvj 30s Ges Avw` miY 0.05m nj
KYvwUi (i) KwbK Kv; (ii) Avw``kv wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
2
GLvb,
T
chvqKvj , T =30s
2 3.14
rad s 1
miY, Y = 0.05m
30
(i) KwbK Kv, =?
0 . 21 rad s 1
(ii) Avw` `kv =?
(ii) Y = 10sin (t + )
0.05 =10 sin (0 + )
0.05
Sin
0.005
10
0.286 (Ans.)
9| GKwU mij `vjK A Gi `N Aci GKwU mij `vjK B Gi
`Ni 4 Y| `vjK B Gi `vjb Kvj 2s nj A Gi `vjb Kvj
KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb,
(i)
GLvb,
`vjKi `N, LB=L awi
`vjKi `N, LA=4L
`vjb Kvj, TB = 2 s
`vjb Kvj, TA =?
TA
4L
2
L
T
A 2
2
TA 4s (Ans.)
10| mij Qw`Z MwZZ Pjgvb GKwU KYvi mevP eM 0.02ms-1Ges

wevi 0.004m nj KYvwUi chvq Kvj KZ?
Vmax = A
V
GLvb,
0.02
rad s 1
max
wevi, A = 0.004 m
A
0.004
= 5 rad s-1
mevP eM, Vmax = 0.02ms-1
2
chvqKvj T =?
Avivi, chvqKvj, T
2 3.14
T
s
5
T 1.256 s (Ans.)
11| 40cm `xN GKwU mij `vjK cwZ wgwbU 40 evi `vj Lvq| hw`
Gi `N 160cm nq Ze 60 evi `yjZ KZ mgq be?
Avgiv Rvwb,
T1
T2
L1
L2
GLvb,
`vjKi `N, L1= 40cm= 0.4m
`vjb Kvj, T1
60
3
s s
40
2
3
0. 4
`vjKi `N, L2= 160cm= 1.6m

2T2
1.6
`vjb Kvj, T2 =?
3
0.5
60 evi `yjZ mgq 60T2 =?
2T2
T2 3s
60T2 3 60s 180s 3 Minute (Ans.)
12| Kvb vb GKwU mK `vjKi `N 1m| h `vjK H vb

cwZ wgwbU 25 evi `vj `q Zvi `N ei Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb, `vjb Kvj, T1 =2s
T1
L1
`N, L1=1m
T2
L2
2 25
1
60
L2
`vjb Kvj, T2 =
60
s
25
`N, L2=?
25 1
36 L 2
36
L2
1.44 m (Ans.)
25
cvRgv Aev (Plasma State):

AZ DP Zvcgvvq c`v_K D Kij c`v_i cigvbyi wbDwKqvmK wNi _vKv BjKUbi GK ev GKvwaK BjKUb
gy nq hvq| BjKUb gy nIqvi dj c`v_wU FbvZK PvR hy gy BjKUb I abvZK PvRhy Avqbi mgw nq|
Kvb c`v_i G aibi mgvb msLK abvZK Avqb I FbvZK Avqbhy AwZ DP AvqwbZ MvmK ejv nq cvRgv
Aev|
AvtAvbweK ej: (Intermolecular force): mKj c`v_B z` z` KYv w`q MwVZ hv c`v_i me Y eRvq ivL| G me
y` KYvK AYy ej| c`v_ MVbi mgq AYyjv ciii cvkvcvwk _vK Ges Zvì ga AwZ z` cwigvbi duvKv
vb _vK| GB duvKv vbK AvtAvbweK ej vb ej| AvtAvbweK `~iZi cwigvb 10-9 _K 10-10m| AYyjv GB
cwigvb `~iZ _K ciiK GKwU ej AvKlY Ki| GB AvKlY ejK AvtAvbweK ej ej|
wwZvcKZv (Elasticity):
h agi dj eji wqvq weKZ e chy ej Acmvib cyevevq wdi Avm ev AvmZ Pvq, ZvK wwZvcKZv ej
Ges H eK wwZvcK e ej|
c~Y wwZvcK e (Absolute Elastic Body): evwnK ej AcmvwiZ nj hw` weKZ e wVK AvMi AvKvi I AvqZb
wdi cvq Zvnj H eK c~Y wwZvcK e ej|
wwZvcK mxgv (Elastic Limit): h gvbi ej ch Kvb e c~Y wwZvcK ei bvq AvPiY Ki A_vr mevcv ekx
h ej cqvM Ki ej AcmviY Kij ewU c~evevq wdi hvq ZvK eji mB mevP mxgvK wwZvcK mxgv ej|
`p e (Rigid Body): evwnK eji wqvq hw` Kvb ei weKvi bv nq Ze ZvK `p e ej|
cvwK e (Plastic Body): evwnK eji wqvq Kvb ei weKwZ NUj Ges chy eji AcmvwiZ nj hw` ei
weKZ Aev eRvq _vK Ze ZvK cvwK e ej|
weKwZ (Strain): evwnK eji wqvq Kvb ei KvwqK cwieZb nj ewU weKZ nqQ ejv nq| ei GKK gvvq
cwieZbi cwigvbK weKwZ ej| Kvb ei Avw` gvv x Ges weKwZi ci gvv y nj Gi weKwZ
y~x
ne,
x
weKwZi Kvb GKK ev gvv bB KviY Giv `yBwU GKB cKvi ivwki AbycvZ|
cxob (Stress): evwnK eji wqvq Kvb ei weKwZ NUj Gi Afi GKUv cwZwqvg~jK eji De NU, hv
eUvK c~evevq wdwiq AvbZ cqvm cvq| ei GKK i Dci wqviZ GB cwZwqv g~jK ejK cxob ej| A
dj F ej chy nj cxob =
F
ne| dji w`K I eji w`K GKB| ZvB ej I dji fvMdj w`K
A
wbic nq| ZvB cxob jvi ivwk|

e ji gvv MLT 2
1 2
ML T
2
d
ji
gvv
L
cxo bi gvv
09| wwZvcKZv
cxo bi GKK
(Elasticity)
e ji GKK
N
2 Nm 2 ev, Pa
d ji GKK m
cxobi Zvrch (Significance of Stress): Kvb ei cxob 5105 Nm-2 ejZ GB eywS h, ei cwZ 1m2 dji
Dci DyZ cwZivaKvix eji gvb 5105 N |
wwZvcK Kvw (Elastic Fatigue): Kvb Zvii Dci gvMZ chy cxobi nvm ew Kij ei wwZvcKZv ag nvm
cvq| Gi dj ej AcmviYi mv_ mv_ e AvMi Aev wdi cvq bv wKQyUv ìx nq| ei GB AevK wwZvcK
Kvw ej| ZLb Amn fvii Pq Kg fvi GgbwK wwZvcK mxgvi gaB ewU wQo hZ cvi|
Amnfvi: mevcv Kg h fvii wqvq Kvb e f ev wQo hvq, ZvK Amnfvi ej|
Amncxob: Amnfvii wqvq eZ h cxob nq, ZvK Amncxob ej| A_vr, Amncxob Amnfvi
dj
Ki m~ (Hooke's Law):
wwZvcK mxgvi ga ei cxob Gi weKwZi mgvbycvwZK|
A_vr, cxob weKwZ|
ev, cxob = ayeK weKwZ|
cxob
a eK
weK wZ
GB aeKi gvb ei Dcv`vb Ges GKKi cwZi Dci wbfi Ki| GB ae msLvK ei Dcv`vbi wwZvcK Yv
ev wwZvcK aeK ej|
wwZvcK bv (Elastic Constant) :
wwZvcK mxgvi ga ei cxob I weKwZi AbycvZ GKwU ae msLv| GB ae msLvK ei Dcv`vbi wwZvcK
Yvej|
Bqs Gi bv (Young's Modulus) :
wwZvcK mxgvi ga ei `N cxob I `N weKwZi AbycvZ GKwU ae msLv| GB ae msLvK ei Dcv`vbi
BqsGi Yvej| BqsGi bvK Y viv cKvk Kiv nq|
`N cxob
`N weK wZ
Bqs Gi Yv GKwU jvi ivwk| A cQì dj I L `N wewk GKwU Zvi Kvb `p Aej^b nZ Szwjq hw`
ZviwUi wbPi cv F ej cqvM Kiv nq Zvnj Zvii `N l ew cj,
F
l
F
FL
hw` ZviwUi wbP M fi Szjvb nq
`N weKwZ Ges `N cxob
myZivs Y A
l
L
A
Al
L
Zvnj. F=Mg, GLvb g=AwfKlR ZiY| Avevi ZviwUi evmva r nj dj A = r2| m
MgL
Y
hw` A =1GKK Ges l =L nq Ze mgxKiY Abymvi, F = Y nq|
r 2 l
BqsGi bv Y =
myZivs GKK cQì djwewk Kvb Zvii `N eivei h ej cqvM Kij `N weKwZ GKK nq A_vr ZviwUi
`N ew Avw` `Ni mgvb nq ZvK Bqs Gi Yv ej|
Gi GKK Nm-2 ev Pa| Gi gvv [ML-1T -2]
3
09| wwZvcKZv (Elasticity)
2
11
BqsGi Yv 210 Nm ejZ GB eywS h, 1m cQì djwewk BvZi ì `N eivei 210 N ej
cqvM Kij Gi `N ew Avw` `Ni mgvb nq|
11
-2
fvwbqvi cwZZ BvZi Zvii BqsGi Yv wbYq (Determination of Young's Modulus of Steel by Verneer Method )t
Zt wwZvcK mxgvi ga ei `N cxob I `N weKwZi AbycvZ GKwU ae msLv| GB ae msLvK ei Dcv`vbi
BqsGi Yvej| BqsGi bvK Y viv cKvk Kiv nq|
BqsGi bv Y =
Bqs Gi Yv GKwU jvi ivwk| A cQì dj I L `N wewk GKwU Zvi Kvb `p Aej^b nZ Szwjq hw`
ZviwUi wbPi cv F ej cqvM Kiv nq Zvnj Zvii `N l ew cj,
F
l
F
FL
`N weKwZ Ges `N cxob
myZivs Y A
hw` ZviwUi wbP M fi Szjvb nq
l
L
A
Al
L
Zvnj. F=Mg, GLvb g = AwfKlR ZiY| Avevi ZviwUi evmva r nj dj A = r2| m
Y
MgL
r 2 l
DcwiD mgxKiY Wvbw`Ki ivwkjv cixvi mvnvh ei Ki Avgiv Bqs Gi Yv wbYq KiZ cvwi|
hi eYbv: h c`v_i BqsGi Yv wbYq KiZ ne mB c`v_i GKB evmi `ywU Zvi AB I CD K GKwU `p
Aej^b _K Szjvb nq| AB cixvaxb Zvi I CD mnvqK Zvi| CD Zvii mv_ wgwjwgUvi `vMvwZ GKwU cavb
j Ges AB Zvii mv_ GKwU fvwbqvi j Ggbfve AvUKvb _vK hvZ fvwbqvi jwU cavb ji Mv eq
euvavnxb fve DVvbvgv KiZ cvi| CD Zvii ji wbP GKwU K jvMvbv _vK| GB Ki mv_ GKwU IRb Szwjq
CD ZviwUK UvbUvb Ki ivLv nq|
`N wbYq : GKwU wgUvi ji mvnvh cixvaxb Zvi A_vr ABGi Szjb we`y A _K
fvwbqvi ji k~b `vM O ch `N AO gc bqv nq| GwU nj Zvii Avw` `N, L|
evmva wbYq : z MRi mvnvh AB Zvii wewfb RvqMvq evm gc wbq Mo evm d wbYq Kiv
nq| GLb Mo evmK `yB w`q fvM Ki evmva r cvIqv hvq|
Amnfvi wbYq: evmva wbYqi ci cQì dj A=r2 ei Kiv nq| GLb cQì
djK Zvii Amn cxob w`q b Kij Amn fvi cvIqv hvq| AB Zvi Amn fvii AaK
ev ZviI Kg fi Pvcvj, wwZvcK mxgv AwZg Kie bv|
fvi I `N mcmviY wbYq: GLb cavb j I fvwYqvi ji cvV `L bqv nq| GwU nQ
Avw` cvV| Gici AB Zvii K Avav kg IRb Szjvb nq| dj AB Zvii `N ew nIqvq
fvwbqvi jwU wbP bg hvq| GB Aevq cavb j I fvwbqvi ji cvV bIqv nq|
GB cvV I Avw` cvVi cv_KB nj Avav kg fvii Rb Zvii `N cmviY| Gic fve g^q
Avav kg Ki fvi ew Ki cwZ cavb j I fvwbqvi ji cvV bIqv nq| cwZeviB
cv cvV _K Avw` cvV weqvM Ki gvU fvii Rb mcmviY wbYq Kiv nq| Gici GKwU GKwU
Ki Avav kg fvi bvwgq cZK evi cvV bqv nq| GZ `N nvm cvIqv hvq| Gi dj cZK
fvii Rb `ywU Ki cvV cvIqv hve| GKwU fvi ewi mgq AciwU fvi nvmi mgq| GB `yB
cvVi Mo _K mswk fvii Rb `N mcmviY cvIqv hvq| Gfve wewfb fvi Ges Zvi Rb `N ew wbYq Kiv
nq|
09| wwZvcKZv
(Elasticity)
jL AsKb: X A eivei fvi M Ges Y A eivei `N eivei l wbq

jLwP Ab Kij g~jwe`y Mvgx GKwU mij iLv cvIqv hve| GB jLi
Dci h Kvb GKwU we`y P bIqv nq| P _K OX Gi Dci PQ j^ Uvbj
OQ=M fvii Rb PQ=l `N ew cvIqv hve|
djvdjt GLb Y
MgL
mgxKiY , M, g, L, r I l Gi ewmq wnmve Kij Y Gi gvb cvIqv hve|
r 2l
mZKZv:
1| Zvi `ywU GKB c`v_i Ges GKB `Ni nIqv DwPZ|
2| c_g wKQy IRb Pvwcq UviwUK UvbUvb Ki wbZ nq|
3| wcQb wU cwinvi Ki zMRK GKB w`K Nyivb nq|
4| Amn fvii AaK ev Zvi Kg fvi Pvcvb nq|
AvqZb bv (Bulk Modulus) t
wwZvcK mxgvi ga ei AvqZb cxob I AvqZb weKwZi AbycvZ GKwU ae msLv| GB ae msLvK ei Dcv`vbi
AvqZb Yvej| AvqZb bvK B viv cKvk Kiv nq|
AvqZb bv,
F
FV pV
AvqZb cxob
A
B
v
Av
v
AvqZb weK wZ
V
F
A p
msbgZv (Compressibility) t wwZvcK mxgvi ga ei AvqZb weKwZ I AvqZb cxobi AbycvZK msbgZv ej|
msbgZv, AvqZb weK wZ
AvqZb cxob
1
1
AvqZb cxob
B
AvqZb weK wZ
bv (Modulus of rigidity)
`pZvi bv ev KvwVbi
t
wwZvcK mxgvi ga ei eeZb cxob I eeZb weKwZi AbycvZ GKwU ae msLv| GB ae msLvK ei Dcv`vbi
`pZvi bv ev KvwVbi bv ej| `pZvi bv ev KvwVbi bv K n viv cKvk Kiv nq|
`pZvi bv,
F
eeZ b cxob
F
n
A
eeZ b weK wZ
A
cqmbi AbycvZ (Poisson's Ratio):

wwZvcK mxgvi ga ei cvk weKwZ I `N weKwZi AvbycvZ GKwU ae msLv| GB ae msLvK ei Dcv`vbi
cqmbi AbycvZ ej| A_vr cqmbi AbycvZ K viv cKvk Kiv nq|
A_vr, cqmbi AbycvZ, =
evLv: evKvi cQ` wewk Kvb Zvii `N L I evm D nj Ges evwnK eji cfve Gi
`N ew l I evm d cwigvb Kg Mj, `N weKwZ
l
d
Ges cvk weKwZ
L
D
d
dL
evmi cwieZ evmva w`qI cqmbi AbycvZK cKvk Kiv hvq|
cqm bi AbycvZ, D
l
Dl
L
aivhvK, Zvii Avw` `N L0 Ges evmva r| evwnK eji cfve Gi `N ew L Ges evmva nvm r nj,
09| wwZvcKZv
(Elasticity)
r
r L 0
cqm bi AbycvZ , r
GLvb FbvZK wP viv
L
r L
L0
eySvb nQ h, L abvZK nj r FbvZK ne Ges L FbvZK nj r abvZK ne| A_vr ej cqvM `N ew
L
r
`N weKwZ
Ges cvk weKwZ
L0
r
cj evmva nvm cve Avi `N nvm cj evmva ew cve| weKwZ GKB cKvi `ywU ivwki AbycvZ ej Gi Kvb GKK
I gvv bB| Avevi cqmbi AbycvZ I `yBwU GKB cKvi ivwki AbycvZ ej GiI Kvb GKK I gvv bB|
Zvii mcmvib KZKvR (Work done in stretching wire) ev mwZ wefe kw (Elastic Potential Energy) wbYq ev,
Kvb ei GKK AvqZb mwZ wwZvcK wefe kw cxob I weKwZi bdji AaK Gi cgvYt
gb Kwi, L `N I A cQì dj wewk GKwU ZviK Kvb `p Aej^b _K Szwjq GZ F ej cqvM Kivi
dj Gi `N dl cwigvb ew cj| myZivs Zvi mwZ wefe kwi cwieZb ev KZKvR ne = ej `N ew
KZ KvR dW Fdl
GB mgxKiYK l=0 _K l=l GB mxgvi ga mgvKjb Ki mwZ gvU wefe kw ev KZKvR cvB,
l
W Fdl ... ... ... ... (1)

0
Bqs Gi bv _K Avgiv Rvwb h, Y
FL
Al
hLvb L Zvii Avw` `N Ges A Zvii cQì dj Ges l
YAl
(1) bs mgxKiY F Gi gvb emvj,
L
l
YAl
W
dl
L
0
`N ew, F ej F
YA
l dl
L 0
l
YA l 2
W
L 2 0
YA l 2
W
L 2
1 YAl 2
W
2 L
GKK AvqZb mwZ wefe kw ev GKK AvqZb KZ KvR
W
V
1 YAl 2 1
2 L
V
2
1 YAl
1
2 L
AL
2
1 Yl
2 L2
1 Yl l
2 L L
[ V AL]
09| wwZvcKZv
(Elasticity)
1
F Yl
l
cxob weKwZ KviY
cxob Ges = weKwZ

2
A L
L
1
GKK AvqZb mwZ wefe kw ev GKK AvqZb KZ KvR cxob weKwZ
2
A_vr GKK AvqZb mwZ wefe kw cxob I weKwZi bdji AaK (cgvwYZ)
BvZ ivevii Pq ekx wwZvcK (Steel is more elastic than Rubber):
GK UzKiv ivevii wdZ Uvbj mnRB j^v nq| wK GKwU BvZi Zvi Uvbj Zv mnR j^v nq bv| GKB cQì
dj I `N wewk `ywU wfb ei ga h eZ hZ ekx cwZiva eji mw nq mB ei wwZvcKZv ZZ ekx|
cwZiva ej chy eji mgvb ej wbw` weKwZ mw KiZ h eZ hZ ekx ej cqvM KiZ nq ZvK ZZ ekx
wwZvcK ejv nq| GB wnme `Lv hvq h, GKB `N I cQ` wewk ivevi I BvZi Zvi mgvb `N ew
KiZ ivevii Zzjbvq BvZi Zvi ej cqvM KiZ nq AbK ekx| G Rb ivevii Zzjbvq BvZi wwZvcKZv
AbK ekx|
awi, GKB `N L Ges GKB cQì dj A wewk GKwU BvZ I GKwU ivevii Zvi mgcwigvb ej F
cqvM Kivq Zvì `N ew h_vg ls I lr nj|
FL
... ... ... ... (1)
Al s
FL
... ... ... ... (2)
Ges ivevii Bqs-Gi Yv, Yr
Alr
Ys FL Al r
Yr Al s FL
Y l
s r wK l r l s Ys Yr myZivs BvZ ivevi Acv ekx wwZvcK|
Yr ls
myZivs BvZi Bqs-Gi Yv, Ys
wwZvcK wefe kw:

Kvb ei weKwZ NUvbvi Rb ewUi Dci ewn ej cqvM KiZ nq| ej cqvM e weKZ nj H ej
viv KvR mvw`Z nq| mvw`Z G KvR eZ wefe kw ic mwZ _vK| G kwK wwZvcK wefe
kw ej|
c_g ci AsKi mgvavb

9| wwZ vcKZv (Elasticity)

4| GKwU Zvii Bqs Gi bv 2.351011 Nm-2 Ges ZviwUi evm
2mm| ZviwUi `N 0.25% ew KiZ nj KZ ej cqvM KiZ ne?
GLvb,
Avgiv Rvwb,
1| 1 eM wgwjwgUvi cQì dj wewk GKwU BvZi

Zvii `N kZKiv 2 fvM ew KiZ KZ ej cqvM KiZ ne?
BvZi Bqs Gi bv 21011 Nm-2 |
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
Y
FL
Al
YA l
L
2 1011 1106 2x
F
x 100
F
cQì dj, A = 1 mm
=110-6 m2
Avw` `N, L = x (awi)
`N ew, l x 2
100
Bqs Gi bv, Y = 21011 Nm-2
ej F = ?
F 4 0 00 N (Ans.)
2| 110-10 m2 cQì djwewk GKwU BvZi Zvi
KZ ej cqvM Kij Gi `N wb ne [ Y=21011 Nm-2 ]
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
FL
Al
YA l
F
L
2 1011 11010 x
F
x
Y
F 2 0 N (Ans.)
cQì dj,
A = 110-10 m2
Avw` `N, L = x (awi)
`N ew,
l (2 x x ) x
Bqs Gi bv,
Y = 21011 Nm-2
ej, F = ?
3| 6 m `xN Ges 1mm2 cQì dj wewk GKwU Zvii

cv 20kg Gi GKwU fi Szwjq Ìqv nj| Zvii Dcv`vbi
Bqs Gi bv 2.351011 Nm-2 nj ZviwU KZUzKz ew cve?
FL
Y
Al
FL
l
YA
20 9.8 6
2.35 1011 1 10 6
l 5 10 3 m (Ans.)
l
GLvb,
Avw` `N, L = 6 m
cQì dj,
A = 1mm2 = 110-6 m2
Bqs Gi bv,
Y = 2.351011 Nm-2
ej, F = 20kg-Wt
= 20 9.8 N
`N ew, l ?
evm, d = 2mm
evmva, r=1mm=0.001m
cQì dj
A=r
(0.001)2 m2
=3.1410-6 m2
11
6
2.35 10 3.14 10 0.25x Avw` `N, L=x (awi)
F
x 0.25
x 100
`N ew, l
m
F 1844 . 75 N (Ans.)
100
Y 2.35 1011 Nm 2
ej, F ?
FL
Al
YA l
F
L
Y
5| GKwU Zvii Bqs Gi gvbv 21011 Nm-2 ZviwUi `N 15% ew

KiZ ch
y cxob wbYq Ki|
FL
Al
F Yl

A L
F 2 1011 x 15

A
x 100
F
3 1010 Nm 2 (Ans)
A
Y
GLvb,
awi Avw` `N, L = x
`New, l x 15
100
Y 2 1011 Nm 2
cxob,
F
?
A
6| 200cm j^v Ges 1mm2 cQì dj wewk GKwU BvZi

Zvii `N 110-3 m ew KiZ cqvRbxq KvRi cwigvb 0.05J |
Zvii Dcv`vbi BqsGi bv wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
1 YAl 2
W
2 L
1 Y 10 6 (10 3 ) 2
0.05
2
2
0.05 2 2
Nm 2
1 10 -12
Y 2 1011 Nm -2 (Ans.)
Y
GLvb,
Avw` `N, L = 200cm=2m
cQì dj,
A = 1mm2 = 110-6 m2
KvR, W = 0.05 J
`N ew, l = 110-3m
Bqs Gi bv, Y = ?
7| 6m `xN Ges 2mm2 cQì dj wewk GKwU Zvi 10kg

Gi GKwU fi Szjvb AvQ| hLb fiwU mwiq bIqv nq ZLb Zvii `N
nq 5.9975 m| Zvii Dcv`vbi BqsGi bv wbYq Ki|
GLvb,
Avgiv Rvwb,
Avw` `N, L = 5.9975 m
FL
Y
`N ew,
Al
l = (6 5.9975)m
MgL
= 0.0025m
Y
Al
cQì dj,
10 9.8 5.9975
A = 2mm2 = 210-6 m2
Y
fi M = 10 kg
2 10 6 0.0025
Bqs Gi bv, Y = ?
11
-2
Y 1.18 10 Nm
(Ans.)
9| wwZ vcKZv (Elasticity)
8| 1m `xN Kvb Zvii evm 510-3m Zvii `N eivei GKwU

ej cqvM Gi `N 110-2m ew cvq| cqmbi AbycvZ 0.2
nj Zvii evm -Gi nvm wbYq Ki|
GLvb,
Avgiv Rvwb,
dL
Dl
d 1
5 10 1 10 2
d 0.2 5 10 3 1 10 2
d 10 5 m(Ans.)
0.2
Avw` `N, L = 1m
evm, D = 510-3m
`N ew, l = 110-2m
cqmbi AbycvZ, = 0.2
evm nvm d=?
9| 200cm j^v Ges 1mm2 cQì dj wewk GKwU BvZi

Zvii `N 110-3 m ew KiZ cqvRbxq KvRi cwigvb wbYq Ki|
Zvii Dcv`vbi BqsGi bv Y 2 1011 Nm-2
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
1 YAl 2
2 L
2 1011 10-6 (10-3 )2
W
22
W 0.05 J(Ans.)
W
Avw` `N, L = 200cm=2m

cQì dj,
A = 1mm2 = 110-6 m2
`N ew, l = 110-3m
Y 2 1011 Nm -2
KvR, W = ?
cUvb (Surface Tension):

Kvb Zij ci Dci hw` GKwU iLv Kbv Kiv nq Ze H iLvi cwZ GKK `N iLvi mv_ j^fve Ges ci
kKic iLvi Dfq cvk h ej wqv Ki ZvK H Ziji cUvb ej| Kvb Ziji ci
Dci l `Ni iLvi mv_ j^fve Ges ci kKic iLvi Dfq cvk F ej wqv Ki
Ze H Ziji cUvb T
F
ne| Gi GKK Nm-1 | cvwbi cUvb 7210-3 Nm -1 ejZ
l
GB eywS h, cvwb c 1m j^v GKwU iLv Kbv Kij H iLvi mv_ j^fve Ges ci kK
ic iLvi Dfq cvk 7210 -3N ej wqv Ki| cUvbi gvv nQ
MLT 2
ej
MT 2
Gi gvv| A_vr,
L
`N
ckw (Surface Energy):

mgv Aevq Kvb Ziji gyZji GKK dj ewi Rb mb KvRi cwigvb Z_v GKK dj mwZ
wefekwKB ckw ej| Kvb Ziji gy Zji dj A cwigvb ew KiZ hw` W cwigvb KvR mb nq
W
ne| Gi GKK Jm-2 ev Nm-1| myZivs `Lv hvQ ckw Avi cUvbi GKK GKB| ckwi
A
ML2T 2
KvR
gvv nQ
Gi gvv| A_vr,
MT 2
2
dj
L
ckw I cUvbi ga mK (Relation between Surface Energy and Surface Tension):
Znj ckw E
gb Kwi, ABCD GKwU Zvii dg| Gi BC evwU AB I DC ev eivei Aeva PjvPj

KiZ cvi| ZviwUK mvevb cvwbZ Wyweq Zzj Avbj Gi gvSLvb GKwU cvZjv c`v
AvUK _vKe| GB c`v cUvbi Rb dgi cZK evK wfZii w`K UvbZ _vK
wK BC ev Qvov Aci evjv AvUKbv _vKvq mjv wi _vKe| Gi dj cUvbi
Rb BC evwU AD evi w`K AMmi ne| myZivs BC evK Gi wbR vb ivLvi Rb
wecwiZ w`K ej cqvM KiZ ne| BC evi `N l Ges Ziji cUvb T nj, BC
Zvii Dci AD Gi w`K gvU ej ne, F=lT+lT=2lT (KviY Dci I wbP `ywU c AvQ)| myZivs BC evK Gi
Aevb wi ivLZ nj Gi Dci cUvbi wecixZgyLx F=2lT ej cqvM KiZ ne| GLb BC ZviK z` `~iZ b
mwiq BC Aevb AvbZ mvw`Z KvR ne,
W=Fb
ev, W=2lTb Gi dj c`vi Dci Ges wbP Dfq ci cwZwUi dj lb cwigvb Ki ew cve|
myZivs ABCD c`vi gvU dj ew cve A=2lb|
W
2lTb
cUvbi wei cwZ GKK dj ewZ KZKvR ev, ckw, E
T GB kw c mwZ ne|
A 2lb
myZivs, Kvb Zji ckw Zvi cUvbi mgvb|

cUvbi AvbweK gZev` (Molecular Theory on Surface Tension):
cUvb GKwU AvbweK NUbv ej GK AvbweK gZev` viv evLv Kiv hvq| wevbx jvcvm mec_g mevcv wbfihvM
Z c`vb Kib ej GK jvcvmi AvbweK Z ej|
jvcjvmi aviYv gZ, Zij c`v_i AYy mg~ni AvKlY eji RbB cUvbi De
nq| mevwaK h `~iZ ch `ywU AYyi gaKvi cviwiK AvKlY ej A_vr mshyw
ej Abyf~Z nq ZvK AvYweK cvjv ej| Kvb GKwU AYyK K` Ki AvYweK cvjvi
mgvb evmva wbq Kvb MvjK Kbv Kij, H MvjKK H AYyi cfve MvjK ej|
KvY AYyi cfve MvjKi ga Ab h AYy _vK H AYy Zvì AvKlY Ki| Ges
2
10| cevnx c`v_ (Fluid Substance)
wbRI Zvì viv AvK nq| cfve MvjKi evBii Kvb AYy cfve MvjKi cfve MvjKi gawZ AbywU viv AvK
nq bv| gb Kwi, A, B I C GKwU Ziji cfve MvjK mn wZbwU AYy| A AbywU cfve MvjKmn Ziji wfZi, B AYywU
Ziji gy Zji GKUz wbP Ges C AYywU wVK Zij Zj AewZ| A AYyi cfve MvjK Zij wbgwZ _vKvi dj
MvjKi gaKvi Abvb AYy viv Pvwiw`K mgfve AvK nIqvq H AYyi Dci mskw eji jw k~b nq| B AYyi
cfve MvjK Zij AvswkK wbgwZ _vKvi dj cfve MvjKi Dcii Aavsk wbPi Aavsk Acv Kg AYy _vK|
Gi dj B AYyi Dci wqvkxj wbgyLx msmw ej DagyLx msmw ej Acv ekx ne| KvRB B AYyi jw mskw
ej wbgyLx| C AYywU Zij c`v_i gy Zj AewZ| KvRB C AYyi Dci Ab Kvb AYy bv _vKvq H AYywU wbPi
w`K AvK ne| A_vr Gi Dci jw ej wbgyLx|
Zij c PQ nZ cfve MvjKi evmvai mgvb `~iZ RS Zj Kbv Kij G `yZji gvSi mKj AYyB mskw eji
Rb wbPi w`K AvKlY Abyfe Kie| KvRB PQ Zji Dci AewZ AYymgyni Dci wbgyLx ej mevwaK nIqvq GwU
wbgyLx ej Abyfe Kie| dj ZjwU Zvi wbR^ dj KgvZ Pvq Ges msKzwPZ nZ cqvm cvq| G cqvm _KB
Zij c`v_i kK eivei GKwU Uvb ej mw nq| GB Uvb ejB Ziji cUvb ev Zj Uvb|
k KvY (Angle of Cotact) :
KwVb I Ziji k we`y _K e Zij Zj AwZ kK KwVb c`v_i
mv_ Ziji wfZi h KvY Drcb Ki ZvK D KwVb I Ziji k KvY
ej| wP nQ k Kvb| h me Zij c`v_ KwVb c`v_K wfRvq Zvì
ejvq ejvq k Kvb m~KvY nq| KvP I cvwbi ejvq k KvYi gvb
cvq 8 nq| h me Zij c`v_ KwVb c`v_ K wfRvq bv Zvì ejvq k
KvY yj Kvb nq| KvP I we cviì ejvq k KvYi gvb cvq 139 nq|
KwkK bj I KwkKZv (Capillary tube and Capillarity) :
AwZ m~ I mylg wQ`wewk bjK KwkK bj ej| Kvb KwkK KvP bji GK cv Ziji ga Lvov Ki
XyKvj bji wfZi wKQy Zij Ziji gy Zj _K Dci DV hvq A_vr Ziji DaivnY A_vr Awac nq ev wbP
bg Avm A_vr Ziji Aebgb A_vr Aec nq | KwkK bj Ziji G iKg Awac ev AecK Ziji
KwkKZv ej| Ziji cUvbi Rb G iKg nq _vK|
Zij c`v_i cUvb wbYqi Z (Theory of meserment of Surface tension):
GKwU KwkK bjK cvwb ev H RvZxq Kvb Ziji wfZi Wyevj `Lv hvq h bji ga Zij LwbKUv Dci DV Ges
Gi Zj AeZj AvKvi aviY Ki|
gb Kwi, Zij I KwVbi kKvY = | Zij Zj hLvb bji
ga bjK k KiQ mLvb bji evmva =r|
Zij Zj _K bji wfZii Ziji wb cv ch DPZv = h|
Ziji NbZ =Ges Ziji c Uvb =T|
bji wfZii Ìqvj Ges Ziji k we`y nZ e Zij
Zj kK Uvbj H kK eivei cUvb T wfZii w`K wqv Kie|
KwkK bji wfZii emva r nj cwiwa ne 2r A_vr bji wfZii
k iLvi `N ne 2r| dj cUvbi Rb bji Ìqvj kK
eivei wfZii w`K 2rT ej Abyfe Kie| ÌqvjI Ziji Dci Gi
wecixZ evBii w`K mgvb ej 2rT cqvM Kie| GB ej 2rT K `ywU j^ Dcvsk wefvwRZ Kij Lvov Dcii
w`K 2rTcos Ges Gi mv_ j^fve AbyfywgK eivei 2rTsin evBii w`K Dcii wP Abyhvqx wqv Kie| bji
evmi wecixZ w`K wqv Kivq 2rTsin eji Dcvsk wj ciiK bvKP Ki `q| AZGe Ziji Dci gvU
DagyLx ej ne 2rTcos|
3
hnZz GB DagyLx eji cfve Zij KwkK bji ga Dci DVZ _vK myZivs hLb Zij i IRb
GB DagyLx eji mgvb nq ZLb mvgvev mw nq A_vr bji ga Zij wi nq hvq| bji e Aski AvqZb v
nj Zij i gvU AvqZb = r2h + v
Ges GB Ziji IRb = (r2h + v)g
AZGe mvgvevq,
2rTcos(r2h + v)g
(r 2 h v) g
... ... ... (1)
2r cos
GLb, v= ABCD wmwjvii AvqZb AEB AaMvjKi AvqZb
1 4
v r 2 . r . r 3
2 3
2
v r 3 r 3
3
1 3
v r
3
(1) bs mgxKiY v Gi gvb ewmq cvB,
1
(r 2 h r 3 ) g
3
T
2r cos
r
r 2 (h ) g
3
T
2r cos
r
r (h ) g
r
3
T
GLb KwkK bj hw` mi nq A_vr r Gi gvb LyeB Kg nq, Zvnj h Gi Zzjbvq
K
2 cos
3
rhg
Dcv Kiv hvq| m, T
, we cvwb I cwivi KvPi gaKvi kKvY cvq 0 nIqvq cvwbi Rb
2 cos
rhg
... ... ... (2)
cos 1 aiv nq| m cUvb T
2
myZivs r, h, I g Gi gvb Dciv mgxKiY ewmq cUvb T wbYq Kiv hvq| hw` Ziji cUvb Rvbv _vK Zvnj
2T
... ... ... (3)
KwkK bj h DPZv ch cvwb DVZ cvi Zvi mgxKiY, h
rg
T
KwkK bj cwZZ Zij c`v_i cUvb wbYq (Determination of Surface Tension of liquid by capillary Tube Method) :
KwkK bj cwZZ Zij c`v_i cUvb wbYqi mvaviY m~ nj
r
rg h
3
T
2 cos
GLvb, T = cUvb
r = KwkK bji evmva
=Zij c`v_i NbZ
= k KvY
h = KwkK bji wfZi Zij c`v_i DPZv,
g = AwfKlR ZiY
h me Zij KvP wfRvq Ges h me Zij c`v_i ejvq k Kvb cvq k~b Zvì cUvb wbYq KwkK bj

eenvi Kiv nq| cvwb I KvPi k KvY cvq k~b| myZivs cos= cos0 = 1|
mvaviYZ h>>r myZivs h Gi Zzjbvq Avgiv r/3 K Dcv KiZ cvwi|
T
rhg
... ... ... (1) cixvq GB mgxKiY nZ cUvb wbYq Kiv nq|
2
KvhcwZ: GKwU weKvi cvwb wbq v I aviKi mvnvh `ywZbwU KvPi KwkK bj
wekl eevq hy Kiv nq, hb KwkK bj jvi wKQy Ask weKvii cvwbZ wbgwZ
nq Ges bjjv wPvbyhvqx Lvovfve Aevb Ki| GKwU muyPK aviKi mv_ Ggb fve
hy Kiv nq hb myPui AMfvM cvwbi Zj k Ki| Gici GKwU vggvb `~iweb hì
mvnvh KwkK bj cvwbi wb Zj dvKvm Kiv nq Ges `~iweb hì Dj^ ji
cvV bIqv nq| Gfve cwZwU KwkK bj DwZ cvwbi wb Zji cvV bIqv nq|
Gici weKviwU mwiq myu Pi AMfvMi cvV bIqv nq| Gici cvwbi DP Zji cvV nZ
m~uPi AMfvMi cvV weqvM Ki cvwb i DPZv h wbYq Kiv nq| Gi ci cvwbi DPZvi vb avivj dvBj w`q
bj KU djv nq| AZtci `~iweb hì mvnvh bji evm gcwbq Zv nZ evmva r cwigvc Kiv nq|
cixvMvii cvwbi Zvcgvvq -Gi gvb Rb wbq (1) bs mgxKiY ewmq cvwbi cUvb T wbYq Kiv nq| Gfve
cwZwU KwkK bji Rb cUvb wbYq Ki Mo cUvb wbYq Kiv nq|
mZKZv (Caution) :
1| mylg wQ`hy KwkK bj bIqv DwPZ|
2| cixvaxb Zij hb Kvb cKvi Zj ev Pwe RvZxq c`v_ bv _vK mw`K j ivLv DwPZ|
3| KwkK bjjvK Zij Lvov fve Wyevb DwPZ|
cUvbi Dci Zvcgvvi cfve (Effect of Temperature on Surface Tension):
Zvcgvv ewZ Ziji NbZ nvm cvq A_vr AYymgyni gaKvi `~iZ ew cvq| dj Ziji mskw ej nvm cvq|
myZivs Zvcgvv ewZ Ziji cUvb nvm cvq| hw` 0C Zvcgvv I C Zvcgvvq Ziji cUvb h_vg T0 I T
nq Ze, T T0 (1 ) GLvb GKUv aeK, GK cUvbi DZv Yv ej|
cUvbi msKU Zvcgvv (Critical Temperature): h Zvcgvvq Kvb GKwU Ziji cUvb k~b nq ZvK H Ziji
cUvbi msKU Zvcgvv ej|
mv`Zv (Viscosity): h agi ìb cevwni wewfb ii AvcwK MwZZ evavi mw nq ZvK H cevwni mv`Zv ej|
NlY hgb `ywU KwVb c`v_i AvcwK MwZK evav `q, mv`Zv Zgwb cevwni `ywU ii AvcwK MwZZ evav `q
Ges MwZ evnZ KiZ Pv Ki| mv`ZvK ZvB At NlYI ejv nq|
mv`Zv bv (Coefficient of Viscosity) : gb Kwi, AB GKwU wi KwVb Zj| Gi Dci w`q GKwU cevnx
MwZkxj| cevnxi AwZ wbKUeZx `ywU i CD I EF Kbv Kwi|
AB nZ CD Gi `~iZ = x
AB nZ EF Gi `~iZ = (x+dx)
CD ii eM= v
EF ii eM= v+dv
cwZ GKK `~iZ eMi cwieZbi nvi ev eM Aeg =
dv
dx
awi, mv` ej F| mv` ej msv wbDUbi m~ wbic t

(1) mv` ej Zij ii dji mgvbycvwZK|
A_vr, F A hLb,
dv
ae|
dx
(2) mv` ej eM Aegi mgvbycvwZK|
10| cevnx c`v_
A_vr, F
(Fluid Substance)
dv
hLb, A ae|
dx
m~q GKwZ Ki cvB,

dv
dx
dv
F A
... ... ... (1) GLvb, GKwU ae msLv| GB ae msLvK mv`Zv ev mv`Zv bv ev mv`Zv mnM
dx
(Coefficient Of Viscocity) ej|
F dv
dv
(1) bs mgxKiY nZ cvB,
... ... ... (2) hw` A=1 GKK Ges eM Aeg
1 GKK nq Ze (2) bs
A dx
dx
mgxKiY nZ cvB, F mv`Zv bvi msv wbic,
FA
GKK eM Aeg eRvq _vKv Aevq AwZ wbKUeZx `ywU Zij ev Mvm ii ga cwZ GKK dj h cwigvb
mvèj kK eivei wqv Ki, ZvK H cwievnxi mv`Zv bv ej|
F dx ej `~ iZ MLT 2 L
1 1

2
ML T
A dv dj eM L L / T
F dx
N m
ej `~ iZ
2
Gi GKK t
Nm 2 s ev, Pa s
A dv dj eM m ms 1
Zvrch (Significance): cvwbi mv`Zv mnM 10 -3 Nm -2 s ejZ GB eywS h, 1 m2 dj wewk cvwbi `ywU i cii
1m `~iZ AewZ nj Gì wfZi 1ms -1 AvcwK eM eRvq ivLZ 10 -3 N eji cqvRb nq|
Gi gvv t
mv`Zvi Dci Zvcgvvi cfve (Effect of Temperature on Viscosity):

Zvcgvv evoj Ziji mv`Zv Kg| `LvMQ h, 10 C Zvcgvvq cvwbi mv`Zv mnMi h gvb cvIqv hvq, 80 C
Zvcgvvq m gvb nq GK ZZxqvsk| Zvcgvvi Dci mv`Zvi wbfikxjZv wbict
log A
B
T
GLvb, nj Ziji mv`Zv mnM, T Ziji Kjwfb Zvcgvv Ges A I B nj aeK|
wK Zvcgvv evoj Mvmi mv`Zv evo| Mvmi mv`Zv mnM Zvi Kjwfb Zvcgvvi eMg~ji mgvbycvwZK|
A_vr, T
mv`Zvi Dci Pvci cfve (Effect of Pressure on Viscosity):
Pvc ew cj Zij c`v_i mv`Zv ew cvq| Mvmi mv`Zv Pvci Dci wbfjkxj bq|
vK&m Gi m~ (Stoke's Law) :
AwaK mgmZ I AmsKvPbxq Kvb cevnxi gaw`q co GKwU z` MvjKi Dci g`b ej, cevnxi cveM v Gi
mgvbycvwZK, mv`Zv bv -Gi mgvbycvwZK Ges MvjKi evmva r Gi mgvbycvwZK|
evLv t Kvb e Zij ev Mvmi ga w`q AwfKl eji cfve wbP coZ _vKj ewU Zvi msk _vKv Zij ev
Mvmi iK wbRi mv_ Ub wbq Pj| dj Mvmi wewfb ii ga AvcwK eM mw nq| wK gvagi mv`Zv
H AvcwK MwZK g`xf~Z Kivi Pv Ki dj ei Dci g`b wqv Ki| co ei eM hZB ew cvq mv`Zv
RwbZ wecixZgyLx ej Z_v g`b ej I ZZ ew cvq| ^ mgqi ga evav `vbKvix ej MwZ mwKvix eji mgvb nq
dj e mgeM coZ _vK| GB mgeM K cvwK eM ej| r evmvai Kvb z`Kvi MvjK mv`Zv bvi
Kvb Zij ev Mvmxq c`v_i gaw`q v cvwK eM coZ _vKj vK&m Gi m~vbymvi, mv`Zvi Rb evav`vb Kvix
ej ev g`b ej, F r v
F k r v GLvb k mgvbycvwZK aeK| vKm& MvwbwZK weklbi mvnvh cgvb Kib h, k = 6
F 6 r v
10| cevnx c`v_
(Fluid Substance)
vK&m Gi m~ cwZcv`b t
awi, r evmvai Kvb z` MvjK mv`Zv bvi Kvb cevnx (Zij ev Mvm) Gi ga w`q v cvwK eM coZ
_vKj mv`Zvi Rb GKwU evav`vbKvix ej MwZi wecixZ wqv Kie| hyw hy fve ejv hvq h, g`b ej F
wbwjwLZ ivwkjvi Dci wbfikxjt
F ei evmva, r
F gvagi mv`Zv ,
F cveM, v
gbKwi, F kr x y v z ... ... ... (1) GLvb k GKwU gvv wenxb aeK Ges x, y I z AvZ m~PK| GLb GB mgxKiYi
Dfq cvki gvv mgvb ne| AZGe
F r x y v z
y
z
x
MLT 2 L ML1T 1 LT 1
MLT 2 Lx M y L yT y Lz T z
MLT 2 Lx y z M y T y z
M, L I T -Gi Rb Dfq cvki m~PK mgvb ai cvB,
y =1 ... ... ... ... (2)
x y+ z = 1 ... ... (3)
y z= 2 ... ... ... (4)
(4) bs mgxKiY y Gi gvb ewmq cvB,
1z= 2
z =1
(3) bs mgxKiY yI z Gi gvb ewmq cvB,
x1 +1=1
x =1
(1) bs mgxKiY x, y I z Gi gvb ewmq cvB,
F kr 1 1v1
F kr v
F 6r v GB mgxKiYwU vKm& mec_g cwZcv`b Kib ZvB Gi bvg nq vKm& Gi mgxKiY|
cv-eM ev A-eMi ivwk gvjv:

Kvb e Zij ev Mvmi ga w`q AwfKl eji cfve wbP coZ _vKj ewU Zvi msk _vKv Zij ev Mvmi
iK wbRi mv_ Ub wbq Pj| dj Mvmi wewfb ii ga AvcwK eM mw nq| wK gvagi mv`Zv H
AvcwK MwZK g`xf~Z Kivi Pv Ki dj ei Dci g`b wqv Ki| co ei eM hZB ew cvq mv`Zv RwbZ
wecixZgyLx ej Z_v g`b ej I ZZ ew cvq| ^ mgqi ga evav `vbKvix ej MwZ mwKvix eji mgvb nq dj e
mgeM coZ _vK| GB mgeM K A-eM ev cvwK eM ej|
awi, A-eM v | v Gi Rb ivwkgvjv cwZcv`b KiZ PvB|
gbKwi, wbgyLx ej Z_v MvjKi IRb W
DagyLx ej Z_v ceZv U Ges
DagyLx evav`vbKvix ej Z_v mv`-cvrUvb F|
Avw`Z wbgyLx ej W DagyLx ej (U+F) Gi Pq eo| dj MvjKwUi wbgyLx ZiY _vK|
MvjKwUi eM ewi mv_ mv`-cvrUvb I ew cvq| dj (U+F) GK mgq W Gi mgvb nq|
ZLb MvjKwUi bxU ZiY k~b nq| MvjKwU ZLb ae ev mgeM wbP cwZZ nq| G ae eMK ejv nq AeM v|
10| cevnx c`v_

GLb hw` cevnxi NbZ f I MvjKi NbZ s nq Zvnj,
(Fluid Substance)
4
4
3
3
cevnxi mv`Zv mnM nj, F = 6rv
MvjKi IRb, W r 3 s g Ges U r 3 f g

vK&mi m~vbymvi MvjKwU AeM cv nj,
F+U=W
4
4
6rv r 3 f g r 3 s g
3
3
4
4
6rv r 3 s g r 3 f g
3
3
4 3
6rv r g ( s f )
3
2
2r ( s f ) g
v
BnvB A eMi ivwkgvjv|
9
vK&mi m~i mvnvh Ziji mv`Zv mnM wbYq (Determinition of Co-efficient of Viscosity by Stoke's law):
h Ziji mv`Zv mnM wbYq KiZ ne Zv GKwU eo AvKvii gvc PvO bqv nq| GLb r
evmvai QvU MvjK (hgb ejweqvwis) GB Zij Lyeaxi Qo `qv nq| MvjKwU GK mgq
A-eM cv nq wbP bvgZ _vK|
A `vM _K B `vM ch c_ hZ MvjKwUi h mgq jvM Zv _vgv Nwoi mvnvh wbYq
Kiv nq| awi GB mgq t| gb ivLZ ne A hb Ziji ek wfZi nq hvZ MvjKwU A Aevb
cQvi c~eB A-eM cv nq|
AB
, GLb hw` cevnxi NbZ f I MvjKi NbZ s nq Zvnj Avgiv cvB,
t
2
AB 2r ( s f ) g
GLvb, g AwfKlR ZiY|

t
9
GLb MRi mvnvh MvjKi evmva r Gi gvb ei Kif Ges s Gi gvb Rb
2r 2 ( s f ) gt
G ewmq Gi gvb mnRB wbYq Kiv hvq|
wbq Gi gvb wbv mgxKiY
9 AB
mskw ej (Cohesive Force) :
G, v
GKB c`v_i wewfb AYyi ga cviwiK AvKlY ejK mskw ej ejv nq|
Avmb-ej (Adhesive Force):
wewfb c`v_i AYyi wfZi cviwiK AvKlY ejK Avmb ej ej|
c_g ci AsKi mgvavb

10| cevwn c`v_ (Fluid)
1| GKwU Zvii IRb bMb ai GK 25C Zvcgvvi cvwbi

DcwiZj _K 0.05m j^v GKwU AbyfywgK ZviK mevwaK
7.30103 N ej Ub DVvb hvq| cvwbi cUvb wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
F
T
ej, F = 7.3010 3N
2L
Zvii `N, L=0.05m
7.30 10 -3
2 0.05
T 0.073 Nm -1 (Ans.)
T
cvwbi cUvb, T=?
2T
rg
ev, h
2 72 10 -3
0.1 10 -3 10 3 9.8
h 0.1469 m (Ans.)
r = 0.1 mm
= 0.110 -3 m
cvwbi cUvb, T=7210 -3 Nm -1
cvwbi NbZ kgm -3
cvwbi DPZv, h = ?
3| 200mm evmvai GKwU avZe MvjK GKwU Ziji gaw`q

2.110-2ms-1 cv eM coQ| Ziji mv`ZvsK 0.003 kg
m-1s-1| Ziji mv` ej wbYq Ki|
GLvb,
Avgiv Rvwb,
evmva, r =200 mm=0.2m
F = 6rv
eM, v=210-2ms-1
F = 63.140.20.003 2.110-2 N mv`ZvsK. =0.003 kg m-1s-1
F = 2.3710-4 N (Ans.)
mvèj, F ?
4| 2mm evmi GKwU cvwbi MvjKK fO `k j mgAvqZb
z` duvUv Zix Kij wK cwigvb KvR mb ne| [cvwbi cUvb
=72 10 -3 Nm-1]
Avgiv Rvwb.
KvR W= dji cwieZb cUvb
KvRW A T
W 4( Nr 2 - R 2 )T
GLb,
4
4
10 r 3 R 3
3
3
6
10 2 r R 3
R
r
100
10 3
r
m 10 5 m
100
5| 0.8 10-3 m evmvai GKwU KwkK KvPbj cvi` Wyevj bji

ga cviì Aebgb 6.753 10-3 m nq| KvPi mv_ cviì k
KvY KZ? cviì cUvb 4.7 10-1 Nm-1 Ges NbZ 13.6 103 kg
m-3 |
GLvb, evmva r = 0.8 10-3 m
Avgiv Rvwb,
cviì Aebgb, h = 6.753 10-3 m
2| 0.2mm evmi GKwU bj cvwbi Avivnb wbYq Ki| cvwbi

cUvb =72 10-3 Nm -1I cvwbi NbZ 103 kgm -3|
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
rhg
T
bji evm, d = 0.2 mm
2
bji evmva,
ev, h
W 8.95 10 5 J (Ans.)
GLvb,
eo dvUvi evm D = 2mm
eo dvUvi evmva, R= 1mm
= 110 -3m
QvU dvUvi evmva, r =?

cvwbi cUvb, T=7210 -3 Nm -1
mvw`Z KvR, W=?
dvUvi msLv, N=106
hgr
2 cos
cviì cUvb, T = 4.7 10-1 Nm-1

cviì NbZ, 13.6 103 kgm-3
cviì
3 k KvY,3 = KZ?
3
6.75310 13.6 10 9.8 0.8 10

2cos
3
6.75310 13.6 103 9.8 0.8 103
cos
2 4.7 101
cos 0.765991353
cos 1 (0.765991353)
140 (Ans.)
4.7 101
6| 2 10-4 m evmvai GKwU jvnvi ej Zvwcb Zji wfZi w`q 4

10-2 ms-1 cv eM coQ| hw` jvnv I Zvwcb Zji NbZ h_vg
7.8103 kgm-3 Ges
GLvb, evmva r = 2 10-4 m
3
-3
0.8710 kgm nq, Ze Zvwcb cv eM, v = 4 10-2 ms-1
Zji mv`ZvsK wbYq Ki|
jvnvi NbZ , s7.8103 kgm-3
Avgiv Rvwb,
Zji NbZ , f0.87103 kgm-3
mv`ZvsK=?
2 r 2 ( s f )g
9v
2(2 10 4 ) 2 (7.8 103 0.87 10 3 ) 9.8
9 4 10 2
0.0151 kg m -1s 1 (Ans.)
7| GKwU bji evmva 0.1mm | GK 60 10-3 Nm -1 cUvb Ges

800 kgm -3 NbZi GKwU Zj Wyevj KwkK bj KZ DPZvq Zj
DVe| k KvY 20|
GLvb,
rhg
bji evmva, r = 0.1mm
T
= 0.110 -3 m
2cos
-3
c
Uvb,
T=6010
Nm -1
T2cos
h
NbZ kgm -3
rg
k KvY, =20|
60 10 -3 2 cos 20 0
cvwbi DPZv, h = ?
h
0.1 10 -3 800 9.8
60 10 -3 2 0.93969262
h
0.1 10 -3 800 9.8
h 0.1438m (Ans.)
W 4 3.14{10 6 (10 5 ) 2 - (10 -3 ) 2 } 72 10 -3 J
:
= +
:
PV=
:
Pv= , , =
:

=
100%

,
0.160C 273.16k (4.58mm )
109

-23
PV= KT K 1.3810

-1
JK |
Co2 31.1 C
Co2 73 atm
Co2 2.17 ..
O2 1190C
O2 50 atm
O2 2.320 ..
H2 -2400C
H2 13 atm
H2 32.2 ..
eqj -Gi m~ ev, wi DZvq Pvc I AvqZbi ga mK (Boyle's Law or, Relation between Pressure and
Volume at constant temperature):
wi DZvq GKwU wbw` fii Mvmi AvqZb Gi Pvci evvbycvwZK|

evLv: aivhvK, T Kjwfb Zvcgvvq P Pvc GKwU wbw` fii Mvmi AvqZb V; Zvnj eqj Gi eYbv
Abymvi,
1
P
1
P
PV K ... ... ... ... (1) GLvb, K GKwU mgvbycvwZK aeK| hw` wi Zvcgvvq P1, P2, P3, ........, Pn Pvc
GKwU wbw` fii Mvmi AvqZb h_vg V1, V2, V3, ..............,Vn nq, Ze mgxKiY (1) Abymvi Avgiv wjLZ cvwi,
P1V1=P2V2=P3V3=.........= PnVn = K ... ... ... ... (2) BnvB eqj- Gi m~i MvwYwZK evLv|
V K
Pvjm -Gi m~ (Charle's Law):

m~i eYbv: wi Pvc cwZ wWwM DZv cwieZb GKwU wbw` fii Mvmi AvqZb, Gi k~b wWwM AvqZbi
1
ev,
273
0.00366 Ask cwiewZZ nq|

evLv: aiv hvK, wi Pvc 0C DZvq GKwU wbw` fii Mvmi AvqZb Vo; Zvnj cwZ 1C DZv ewZ Mvmi
1
1
Ask ew cvq| hw` DZv 1C nvi Kg hvq, Ze Mvmi AvqZb
Ask Kg hve|
AvqZb
273
273
V
1C DZvq Mvmi AvqZb Vo o
2C DZvq Mvmi
C DZvq Mvmi
273
2Vo
Abyicfve,
AvqZb Vo
273
V
AvqZb Vo o
273
V
V Vo o
273
V Vo 1
273
273
V Vo
GLb Zvcgvvi AvRvwZK GKK 273 C = T
273
Ges 273C =To K wjLj Dciv mgxKiY `vovq,
T
V Vo
To
ev,
V
T
Vo To
ev mvaviY fve VT A_vr wi Pvc
GKwU wbw` fii Mvmi AvqZb -Gi cig Zvcgvvi mgvbycvwZK|

cig k~b Zvcgvv (Absolute Zero temperature):
h Zvcgvq ZvwK fve Mvmi AvqZb k~b nq, hvi wbP Kvb Zvcgvv _vKv me bq, KviY Zvnj Mvmi AvqZb
FbvZK nZ nq, hv Ame, mB Kbv hvM ZvcgvvK cig k~b Zvcgvv ej|
aiv hvK, wi Pvc 0C DZvq GKwU wbw` fii Mvmi AvqZb Vo; Zvnj cwZ 1C DZv nvm Mvmi AvqZb
1
Ask Kg hve| dj C Zvcgvvq H Mvmi AvqZb V nj Pvjmi m~ _K cvIqv hvq,
273
Vo
V Vo
273
11| Zvc I Mvm (Heat and Gas)
wK hw` 273C nq Ze H Zvcgvvq Mvmi AvqZb nq
V-273 Vo 1
273
0
273
myZivs `Lv hvq,
273C Zvcgvvq Kvb Mvmi AvqZb k~b| Zvcgvv Aviv Kwgq hw` 274C Kiv nq Ze Dciv m~vbymvi
Mvmi AvqZb ne
V- 274 Vo 1
V
274
o A_vr
273
273
AvqZb FbvZK nq| wK FbvZK AvqZb A_nxb, GwU Ame I
Aeve, Zv nZ cvi bv| KvRB Kvb ZvcgvvB 274C _vKZ cvi bv| myZivs mewb KbvhvM h Zvcgvv Zv
nj 273C Gi wbP Kvb Zvcgvv _Kv me bq| GRb GB 273C ZvcgvvK mewb Zvcgvv ev cigk~b
Zvcgvv ej|
ibvi m~ ev, Pvc Gi m~ (Law of Pressure):
m~i eYbv: wi AvqZb cwZ wWwM DZv cwieZb GKwU wbw` fii Mvmi Pvc, Gi k~b wWwMi Pvci
1
ev,
273
0.00366 Ask cwiewZZ nq|
evLv: aiv hvK, wi AvqZb 0C DZvq GKwU wbw` fii Mvmi Pvc Po; Gi Zvnj cwZ 1C DZv ewZ Mvmi
Pvc
1
1
Ask ew cve| hw` DZv 1C nvi Kg hvq, Ze Mvmi Pvc
Ask Kg hve|
273
273
P
1C DZvq Mvmi Pvc Po o
2C DZvq Mvmi Pvc
273
2Po
Po
273
C DZvq Mvmi Pvc Po
Abyicfve,
Po
273
Po
273

P Po 1
273
273
P Po
GLb Zvcgvvi AvRvwZK GKK 273 C = T
273
P
T
T
ev mvaviY fve PT A_vr wi
Ges 273C =To K wjLj Dciv mgxKiY `vovq, P Po
ev,
To
Po To
P Po
AvqZb GKwU wbw` fii Mvmi Pvc -Gi cig Zvcgvvi mgvbycvwZK|
Av`k Mvm (Ideal Gas): h me Mvm MwZ Zi gwjK ^xKvhmg~n, eqj, Pvjm I Pvci m~ cyivcywi gb Pj Ges
gqvii cK Abyhvqx evqyk~b vb cmviYi ìb Zvcgvvi Kvb nvm NUbv; ZvìK Av`k Mvm ej|
Zvcgvvi cig j (Absolute scale of temperature):
cig k~b ZvcgvvK k~b ai Zvcgvvi h j cYqb Kiv nqQ, ZvK Zvcgvvi cig j ej| wevbx jW
Kjwfb mec_g GB j cYqb Kib ej K Zvcgvvi Kjwfb j I ej| Zvcgvvi GB j AvR
vwZK fve
^xKZ| GB j Abymvi Zvcgvvi GKK wWwM Kjwfb ejv (K) nq|
mjwmqvm j Kvb Zvcgvv C nj Kjwfb j neT = () |
cgvY Zvcgvv ev ^vfvweK Zvcgvv (Standard temperature):

h Zvcgvvq ^vfvweK Pvc cvwb Rg eid nq, A_ev eid Mj cvwbZ cwibZ nq ZvK cgvY Zvcgvv ev ^vfvweK
Zvcgvv ej| cgvY Zvcgvv nj 0C ev, 273.16 K, Ze eenvwiK 273 K weePbv Kiv nq|
cgvY Pvc ev ^vfvweK Pvc (Standard Pressure) :
mgy` mgZji 45 Avsk 273 K DZvq 1 eMwgUvi i Dci `vqgvb 0.76 wgUvi we cviì IRbK cgvY
Pvc ev ^vfvweK Pvc ej| ^ vfvweK Pvc, P 0.76 m Hg Pvc|
P = 0.76 13.61039.8 Nm-2
P = 1.013105 Nm-2 = 1.013105 Pa|
PV=RT ev, PV= nRT Gi cgvb ev, Av`k Mvmi mvaviY mgxKiY cwZcv`b:
mvaviY fve h mKj Mvm eqj I Pvjm-Gi m~ gb Pj ZvìK Av`k Mvm ej| gb Kwi P Pvc T Zvcgvvq
GKwU wbw` fii Mvmi AvqZb V, Zvnj Avgiv cvB,
1
P
VT
[ eqji m~ ]
[Pvjm-Gi m~]
T
P
PV KT ... ... ... ... ... (3) GLvb K GKwU mgvbycvwZK aeK| 1 Mvg AYy ev, 1 gvj mKj
Mvmi Rb K Gi gvb AcwiewZZ _vK| ZvB wevbxiv GK mveRbxb Mvm aeK R viv cKvk Kib| myZivs 1 gvj
Mvmi Rb PV RT ... ... ... ... (4) GLb 1 gvj Mvmi cwieZ m fii Mvm weePbv Kwi, hvi AvqZb V Ges
m~q GK Ki cvB, V
AvbweK fi M ; Zvnj (4) bs mgxKiY V Gi cwieZ

P
V
m
V
m
eenvi Ki cvB,
M RT
PV
m
M
RT
PV nRT ... ... ... ... (5)
m
M n Mv mi gvj msLv
(5) bs mgxKiY Av`k Mvmi mvaviY mgxKiY|
Zvcgvv I Pvci mv_ Mvmi NbZi mK: wi Zvcgvvq Kvb Mvmi NbZ Gi Pvci mgvbycvwZK I wi Pvc
Kvb Mvmi NbZ Gi cigZvcgvvi evvbycvwZK:
m fiwewk Kvb Mvmi p1 Pvc Ges T1K Zvcgvvq hw` AvqZb V1 Ges NbZ nq, Ges H Mvmi p2 Pvc Ges
T2K Zvcgvvq AvqZb V2 Ges NbZ nq Ze,
1 m / V1 ev, V1 m / 1
Ges 2 m /V2 ev, V2 m / 2
Avgiv Rvwb,
p1V1 p2V2
GB mgxKiY V1 Ges V2 Gi ewmq cvB,

T1
T2
p1m p2 m
T1 1 T2 2
p1
p
2
1T1 2T2
T T
1 1 2 2 a eK ... ... ... (1)
p1
p2
T
a eK GB mK Pvc I Zvcgvvi mv_ NbZi cwieZb wb`k Ki|
A_vr,
p
hw` Zvcgvv wi _vK A_vr T1 T2 nq Ze (1) bs mgxKiY _K cvIqv hvq,
1 2
a eK
p1 p2
a eK p a eK p myZivs wi Zvcgvvq Kvb Mvmi NbZ Gi Pvci mgvbycvwZK|

p
Avevi hw` Pvc wi _vK, A_vr p1 p2 nq Ze, (1) bs mgxKiY _K cvB,
1T1 2T2 a eK
1

myZivs wi Pvc Kvb Mvmi NbZ Gi cigZvcgvvi evvbycvwZK|
T
Mvmi MwZZi gwjK ^xKvh mg~n (Fundamental Assumption of kinetic theory of Gas) :
(1) cwZwU Mvm mgvb fii AmsL KYvi mg^q MwVZ| KYvjvK Mvmi AYy ej| Mvwmq Abyjv me`v MwZkxj
_vK Ges Giv wbDUbi MwZm~ gb Pj|
(2) GKB Mvmi AYyjv m`k; wK wewfb Mvmi Abymgyn cii _K wfb|
(3) AYyjvi ciii cwZ Ges cvi Ìqvji cwZ Kvb AvKlb ev weKlb bB| Gì kw myYUvB MwZkw|
(4) cvi AvqZbi Zzjbvq Mvwmq AYyjvi AvqZb AwZ bMY|
(5) Mvwmq AYyjvi cviwiK avv myY ZvrwbK| A_vr, msNli dj mgqi AcPq nq bv|
(6) Mvwmq Abyjv ciii mv_ avv Lvq| cici `ywU avvi gaeZx `~iZ AYyjv mgeM mij c_ Pj|
1
3
MwZZ _K Pvci iwkgvjv A_vr PV mnc 2 Ges P
2E
Gi cgvY (Expression of pressure form kinetic
3V
theory of gas) :
gb Kwi, mgvb `N c I DPZv l wewk cyivcywi wwZvcK Kvb NbK n msLK Av`k Mvmi AYy iqQ| cwZwU
AYyi fi m Ges Gì Mo eMeMi eMg~j c| GKwU AYyi K_v weePbv Kiv hvK| AYywUi MwZeM c1| hw` X, Y I Z
A eivei c1 Gi Dcvsk h_vg u, v I w nq, Ze Avgiv cvB, c12 u 2 v 2 w 2 ... ... (6) AZGe, AYywU
X A eivei u eM Pje Ges Kvb GK mgq NbKi A Ìqvj [wP bs -1] avv wè|
wwZ vcKZvi KviY AYywU u eMB wecixZ w`K wdi Avme Ges
Zvnj
l
u
l
mK ci NbKi B Ìqvj avv wè|
u
mK fieMi cwieZb `vovq, mum(u) = 2mu| myZivs AYywUi fieMi cwieZbi nvi
2mu 2mu 2
, GKB fve `Lvbv hvq h, Y I Z A eivei AYywUi fieM cwieZbi nvi h_vg
l/u
l
2mv 2
2mw 2
Ges
| AYywUi gvU fieMi cwieZbi
l
l
2mu 2 2mv 2 2mw 2
nvi
l
l
l
2m 2
u v2 w 2
l
2m 2
c1
l
[mgxKiY (6) Abymvi]
hw` 2q, 3q, 4_,............., n Zg AYyi MwZeM h_vg, c2, c3, c4, ............cn nq, Ze GKB fve `Lvb hvq h,
2m 2 2m 2 2m 2
2m 2
c2 ,
c3 ,
c 4 .............. ,
cn
l
l
l
l
2m 2 2m 2 2 m 2 2 m 2
2m 2
cn |
c4 ..............
c3
c2
c
AYyjvi gvU fieMi cwieZbi nvi, F
l
l
l
l
l 1
AYyjvi fieMi cwieZbi nvi h_vg
2m 2
c1 c22 c32 c42 .............. cn2
l
2mn c12 c22 c32 c42 .............. cn2
l
n
c 2 c 22 c32 c42 .............. c n2

GLv b, c 1
n
c-K AYyyjvi Mo eMeMi eMg~j ej| GLb Mvwmq AYyjvi Dci wqviZ gvU ej F,
2mn 2
c
l
Mvmi Pvc P nj msvbymvi, P
gvU ej
gvU dj
F
6l 2
2mnc 2
P
6l 3
wK l3 = NbKi AvqZb= Mvmi AvqZb = V awi,
mnc 2
3V
1
(cgvwYZ|)
3
2 1
1M 2 1 2
ev, PV Mc 2 fi M mn ev, P
c c
3 2
3
3V
2E
1
E Mc 2 (cgvwYZ)
P
3V
2
ev, PV mnc 2
2
E A_vr Mvmi Pvc Gi GKK AvqZbi MwZkwi `yB -ZZxqvsk|
3
wK GKwU Mvm AYyi Rb, PV KT
Avevi, GK gvj Mvmi Rb, PV RT
2E
2E
KT [GLvb, K evRgvb aeK]
RT
3
3
3
3
E KT
E RT
2
2
ET Mvmi Mo MwZkw Mvmi cig Zvcgvvi mgvbycvwZK|
V GKK nj P
Mo eM eM I g~j Mo eM eMt Kvb Mvmi mKj AYyi eMi eMi MoK Mo eMeM ej| Kvb Mvmi n msLK
c12 c22 c32 c42 .............. c n2
n
Avevi Kvb Mvmi mnj AYyi eMi eMi Mogvbi eMg~jK g~j Mo eM eM ej|Kvb Mvmi n msLK
AYyi cwZwUi eM h_vg, c1, c2, c3, .........cn nj AYyjvi Mo eM eM c 2
AYyi cwZwUi eM h_vg, c1, c2, c3, .........cn nj, c 2
c12 c22 c32 c42 .............. c n2

n

Mogy c_ ev Mo wbeva `~iZ (Mean free path):
cici `ywU msNli gaeZx `~iZ K Mogy c_ ev Mo wbeva `~iZ ej| wP A we`y _K
GKwU AYy B Z wMq Ab AYyi mv_ avv LvQ Ges BC c_ hvQ| C we`yZ Avevi Avi
GKwU AYyi mv_ avv Lq CD c_ hvQ| AB, BC, CD, DE BZvw` cZKwU `~iZB gy
c_| ewki fvM B h Kvb `ywU gy c_ mgvb nq bv| ZvB, Kvb AYyi KqKwU msNli
gaeZx `~iZi Mo wbj h `yiZ cvIqv hvq ZvK H AYyi Mogy c_ ev Mo wbeva `~iZ ej|
l
|
N
Mogy c_i (Mo wbeva `~iZ) ivwkgvjv (Equation of mean free path) : Mo gy c_ Mvmi NbZi evvbycvwZK:
gb Kwi, Kvb Mvmi cwZ GKK AvqZb AYyi msLv n Ges cwZwU AYyi evm | Avgiv h AYywUi Mo gy c_ wbYq
hw` N avvq AYy gvU l `yiZ AwZg Ki Ze Mo gy c_,
KiZ PvB wnmvei myweavi Rb Kejgv mB AYywUK MwZkxj ai evwK AYywjK wi weePbv KiwQ|
wPvbyhvqx Avgiv C AYywUi Mo gy c_ wbYq KiZ PvB| C AYywU l `~iZ AwZg Kivi ci
Ab h mKj AYyi K` C AYywUi K` _K `~i [wP A I B AYyq] A_ev, Acv
Kg `~iZ _vKe Zvì mv_ avv Lve| A_vr evmva I l `Ni GKwU wmwjvii ga
h mKj AYyi K` _vKe Zvì mv_ avv Lve| GB wmwjvii AvqZb l| GLb GKK
AvqZb AYyi msLv n I l AvqZb Abyi msLv ne nl | A_vr l `~iZ AwZg Kivi
mgq C AYywU nl msLK evi avv Lve| hnZz h Kvb AYyi cici `ywU msNli gaeZx `~iZjvi Mo wbj h
AwZv `~ iZ
1
l
2 ... ... ... (7)

2
n
avv msLv
n l
BnvB Kwmqvmi gZ Mo gy c_i ivwkgvjv| GLb aiv hvK, GKwU AYyi fi m| hnZz GKK AvqZb AYyi msLv n|
KvRB GKK AvqZb AYyi fi = mn = Mvmi = , (7) bs mgxKiYi ni I jeK m w`q Y Ki cvB,
`~iZ cvIqv hvq ZvK Mo gy c_ ej| AZGe Mo gy c_,
1 m
m
m
1
2
2 KviY m, I
2
n m mn
ae| myZivs Mo gy c_ Mvmi NbZi evvbycvwZK| wK
Mvmi NbZ, Mvmi Pvci mgvbycvwZK Ges cig Zvcgvvi evvbycvwZK| KvRB Mo gy c_ Mvmi Pvci
evvbycvwZK Ges cig Zvcgvvi mgvbycvwZK| G KviY Mo gy c_ Mvmi NbZ, Pvc I cig Zvcgvvi Dci wbfi
Ki|
Mo gy c_i Abvb ivwkgvjv:
Kwmqvmi cwZZ Mo gy c_ MYbv wbfyj bq| KviY, h AYyi Mo gy c_ wbYq Kiv nqQ mwU Qwow Ab
AYywjK wi aiv nqQ| wK cKZc mKj AYyB MwZkxj| evj&Rgvb mKj Mo eM mgvb ai Mo gy c_i h
3
... ... ... (8) ci gvIqj Zuvi eM eUbi m~i mvnvh Mo gy c_i
4 2 n
1
... ... ... (9)
h ivwkgvjv wbYq Kib Zv nj,
2 2 n
ivwkgvjv wbYq Kib Zv nj,
m ev t Kvb Ae vb Zij msjM evK H Zvcgvvq m ev ej|

Am ev t hw` Kvb Ae vb wKQy ev _vK wK Kvb Zij bv _vK Ze H evK Am ev ej|
wgK
1|
2|
3|
4|
m ev I Am evi ga cv_K :
m ev
Am ev
Kvb Ae vb Zij msjM evK H hw` Kvb Ae vb wKQy ev _vK wK Kvb Zij bv
Zvcgvvq m ev ej|
_vK Ze H evK Am ev ej|
m ev eqji m~ gb Pj bv|
Am ev eqji m~ gb Pj|
m ev Pvjm-Gi m~ gb Pj bv|
Am ev Pvjm-Gi m~ gb Pj|
Zvcgvv ew Ki m evK Am Zvcgvv Kwgq Am evK m ev
ev icvwiZ Kiv hvq|
icvwiZ Kiv hvq|
wkwkivsK (Dew point) :

h Zvcgvvq Kvb wbw` AvqZbi evqy Gi ga AewZ Rjxq ev viv m nq, A_vr h Zvcgvvq wkwki mw nq
ev A`k nq ZvK mB ZvcgvvK wkwkivsK ej| Kvb vb evqyi wkwkivsK 16C ejZ GB eywS h, D vb 16C
DZvq Gi ga AewZ Rjxq ev viv evqy m nq, A_vr 16C DZvq wkwki RgZ ev A`k nZ i Ki|
cig Av`Z
v (Absolute Humidity):
Kvb vb GKK AvqZbi evqyZ h cwigvb Rjxq ev _vK ZvK H vbi cig Av`Z
v ej| Kvb vbi cig
-3
-3
3
-3
Av`Z
v 510 Kgm ejZ GB eywS h, H vbi 1m evqyZ 510 Kg Rjxq ev AvQ|
AvcwK Av`Z
v (Relative Humidity):
wbw` Zvcgvvq wbw` AvqZbi evqyZ h cwigvb Rjxq ev AvQ Ges H Zvcgvvq D AvqZbi evqyK
Rjxqev viv m KiZ AviI h cwigvb Rjxq evi cqvRb Zvì AbycvZK D vbi AvcwK Av`Zv
ej| GK R viv cKvk Kiv nq Ges kZKivq cKvk Kiv nq| msvbymvi, AvcwK Av`Zv
wK wbw` Zvcgvvq Kvb vbi Rjxq evi Pvc H vbi Rjxq evi fii mgvbycvwZK
wK Kvb Zvcgvvq Kvb vb Rjxq evi Pvc H vb wkwkivsK m Rjxq evi Pvci mgvb|
wkwkivsK m Rjxq evi PvcK f, evqyi Zvcgvvq m Rjxq evi PvcK F w`q cKvk Kij,
f
f
ne| AvcwK Av`ZvK mvaviYZ kZKiv wnme cKvk Kiv nq, R 100 %
F
F
Zvrch : evqyi AvcwK Av`Zv 60% ejZ GB eywS h, evqyi Zvcgvvq GKwU wbw` AvqZbi evqyK m KiZ h
cwigvb Rjxq ev cqvRb, Zvi kZKiv 60 fvM Rjxq ev evZvm AvQ|
R
nvBMvwgUvi (Hygrometer) :
h hi mvnvh Kv vbi AvcwK Av`Zv wbYq Kiv nq ZvK nvBMvwgUvi ev AvcwK Av`Zv gvcK h ej|
Av` I evj nvBMvwgUvii mvnvh AvcwK Av`Zv wbYq (Determination of Relative
Humidity by Wet and Dry Bulb Hygrometer) :
hi eYbv : GB hi cavb Ask njv GKB iKg `yBwU cvi` _vgvwgUvi T1 I T2|
_vgvwgUviqK GKwU KvVi dg Dj^ fve cvkvcvwk vcb Kiv nq| T1
_vgvwgUvii evjK ivLv nq| GwU evqyi DZv wb`k Ki| T2 _vgvwgUvii evji mv_ gmwjb ev wjjbi cjZ
Rovbv _vK Ges GB cjZ GKwU cv ivLv cvwbi ga Wyevb _vK| cvwb gmwjb ev wjjb eq Dci DV T2 Ges
_vgvwgUvii evjK me mgq wfRv ivL|
KvhcYvjx t h vbi AvcwK Av`Zv wbYq KiZ ne mB vb AvcwK Av`Zv gvcK
hK bIqv nq Ges _vgvwgUvii cvV iKW Kiv nq| hw` I Av` evj _vgvwgUvii cvV
h_vg 1C I 2C mswk vbi wkwkivsK C nq, Ze Mmvii m~vbymvi cvB,
1 =G(1 2)
= 1 G(1 2) ... ... ... (8)
GLb G K MBmvi Drcv`K ej| GLb 1C A_vr evqyi Zvcgvvq MBmvii ZvwjKv nZ G
Gi gvb Rb wbq (8) bs mgxKiYi evqyi wkwkivsK C wbYq Kiv nq| Gici ibvi
m Rjxqev Pvc ZvwjKv nZ wkwkivsK A_vr C G m Rjxqev Pvc f Ges
f
evqyi Zvcgvvq A_vr 1C G m Rjxqev Pvc F Rb wbq, R 100%
F
mgxKiY f I F Gi gvb ewmq AvcwK Av`Zv R wbYq Kiv nq|
mZvKZv (Caution) : GB cixvq wbic mZKZv Aej^b Kiv nq:
1| mye`x _vgvwgUvi eenvi Kiv nq|

2| _vgvwgUvii cvi` wi nj cvV wbZ nq|
3| cjZi wb cv hvZ me`v cvwbZ wbgwZ _vK mw`K j ivLZ nq|
GKB Zvcgvvq XvKv Acv PMvg ekx A^wKi eva nq t

PMvg mgyì wbKU AewZ ej mLvb AvcwK Av`Zv ewk| XvKv mg~`_K AbK`~i nIqvq ^vfvweK fve
mLvbKvi AvcwK Av`Zv Kg| Avgiv Rvwb, evqygji AvcwK Av`Zv eo Mj evvqbi nvi Kg hvq| dj
XvKvq kixi _K wbMZ Nvg `Z Kve I kixi _K ekx myZvc Mnb Kie; dj `n kxZj nq I ^w jvM|
PMvg kixi _K wbMZ Nvg Kg Kve I evvqbi Rb Kg myZvci cqvRb ne| dj XvKv Acv PMvg ekx
A^wKi eva ne| A_vr hLvb AvcwK Av`Zv ekx mLvb ekx A^w eva ne|
elvKvj Acv kxZ Kvj wfRv Kvco ZvovZvwo Kvq :
kxZKvji Zvcgvv elvKvj Acv Kg nIqv mZI evvqb `Z nq ej ZvovZvwo Kvco Kvq| evvqb wbfi Ki
AvcwK Av`Zvi Dci| elvKvj AvcwK Av`Zv ekx _vK| kxZKvj evZvm AvcwK Av`Zv Kg _vK ej wfRv
Kvco _K evvqb `Z nq, dj Kvco ZvovZvwo Kvq|
`ycy ii AvMB wkwki wZivwnZ nq :

m~hv`qi ci mgq evovi mv_ mv_ evqy D nZ _vK| dj evqy Am nq co| Am evqy wkwkiK l
bq| G KviY `ycyii AvMB wkwki wZivwnZ nq|
kxZKvj VvU wMmvwib jvMvbv nq :
kZKvj evqygj Rjxq evi cwigvb AZ Kg _vK| dj evqy h Kvb vb _K Rjxq ev msMn Ki| `ni
AvbveZ Aski AcvKZ Kvgj vb jv _K evqygj Rjxq ev Ub bq| Gi dj Avgvì VuvU dU hZ
Pvq| VvU wMmvwib jvMvj cvwbi evvqb evav mw Ki dj VuvU dvU bv|
c_g ci AsKi mgvavb


1| Kvb Mvm AYyi evm 310-10 m Ges cwZ NbwgUvi AYyi
msLv 61020 nj AYyi Mo gy c_ wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
1
n 2
evm, 3 10
1
3.14 6 1020 (3 10-10 ) 2
-10
cwZ NbwgUvi Abyi msLv,

n = 610 20 /m3
Mo gyc_, ?
5.8910 3 m (Ans.)
2| Kvb Mvm AYyi evm 310-10 cm Ges cwZ NbwgUvi AYyi
msLv 61020 nj AYyi Mo gy c_ wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
1
n 2
evm, =31010cm
=310 12 m
1
3.14 6 10 (310 -12) 2
20
58 .976 m (Ans.)
cwZ NbwgUvi Abyi msLv,

n = 61020 /m3
Mo gyc_ ?
3| Kvb GKw`bi wkwkiv 10C I AvcwK Av`Zv 67.30% |

H w`bi evqyi m ev Pvc KZ? [10C Zvcgvvq m
Rjxq ev Pvc 13.6410-3 mHg]
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
f
100%
F
wkwkiv evPvc,
f = 13.6410-3 mHg
evqyi Zvcgvvq m evPvc,
13.64103
67.3%
100 % F = ?
F
AvcwK Av`Zv, R = 67.30%
13.6410
100
67.3
F 20.27 103 mHg (Ans.)
4| 0.64m cvi` Pvc Ges 39C Zvcgvvq Kvb Mvmi

AvqZb 5.7 10-4 m3 | cgvY Pvc I Zvcgvvq Mvmi AvqZb
KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
P1V1 P2 V2
T1
T2
PVT
V2 1 1 2
T1P2
Pvc, P1 = 0.64 m Hg
Zvcgvv, T1
=39C=(39+273)= 312K
AvqZb, V1 = 5.7 10-4 m3
Pvc, P2 =0.76 m Hg
0.64 5.7 10 4 273 Zvcgvv, T2 = 273K
V2
AvqZb, V2 =?
312 0.76
V2 4.2 10 4 m3 (Ans.)
5| Kvb GKw`bi wkwkivsK 7.4C Ges K Zvcgvv 18.6C|

AvcwK Av`Zv wbYq Ki| [7C, 8C, 18C I 19C Zvcgvvq
m Rjxq ev Pvc h_vg 7.5 10-3 m, 8.2 10-3 m, 15.6
10-3 m Ges 16.5 10-3 m cvi`|]
7C _K 8C A_vr
1C Zvcgvv evoj ev Pvc evo = (8.27.5)10-3 m cvi`|
0.4C = 0.710-3 0.4 m cvi`|
0.2810-3 m cvi`|
7.4C Zvcgvvq A_vr
wkwkivsK m Rjxq ev Pvc f = (7.5+0.28)10-3 m cvi`|
= 7.7810-3m cvi`|
Avevi, 18C _K 19C A_vr
1C Zvcgvv evoj ev Pvc evo = (16.5 -15.6)10-3 m
cvi`|
0.6C = 0.910-30.6 m cvi`|
0.5410-3 m cvi`|
18.6C Zvcgvvq A_vr
evqyi Zvcgvvq m Rjxq ev Pvc F = (15.6+0.54)10-3m cvi`
= 16.14 10-3 m cvi`|
f
100%
F
7.78 10 -3
R
100%
16.14 10 -3
R 48.2 % (Ans.)
AvcwK Av`Zv R
6| 0C Zvcgvvq Kvb Mvmi Pvc 3105 Pa nj 60C Zvcgvvq

Gi Pvc KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb,
P1V1 P2 V2
T1
T2
PVT
P2 1 1 2
V2 T1
3 105 V 333
V 273
P2 3.66 105 Pa (Ans.)
P2
GLvb,
Pvc, P1 = 3105 Pa
Zvcgvv, T1 =0C=(0+273)=
273K
AvqZb, V1 = V2 = V= ?
Zvcgvv, T2
=60C=(60+273)= 333K
Pvc, P2=?
7| Kvb GKw`b wm I evj&e Av`ZvgvcK hi evj&e Gi cvV

30C Ges wm evj&e Gi cvV 28C| AvcwK Av`Zv wbYq Ki|
30C G MBmvii Drcv`K 1.65 Ges 26C, 28C Ges 30C
Zvcgvvq m Rjxqev Pvc h_vg 25.2510-3m, 28.45103
m Ges 31.8510-3m cvi` Pvc |
evj&e Gi cvV 1= 30C A_vr evqyi Zvcgvv = 30C
wm evj&e Gi cvV 2 = 28C
MBmvii Drcv`K G = 1.65
awi wkwkivsK =
Avgiv Rvwb,
1 G (1-2)
ev, 1 G (1-2)
ev, 1.65 ()
ev,
C
evqyi Zvcgvv 30C G m Rjxqev Pvc F = 31.85103
m cvi`
26C _K 28C A_vr
2C Zvcgvv evoj ev Pvc evo = (28.4525.25)10-3 m
cvi`|
ev,1C
ev, 0.7C
-3
3.2 10
m cvi`|
2
-3
= 3.2 10 0.7 m cvi`|
2
10-3 m cvi`|
C Zvcgvvq A_vr
wkwkivsK m Rjxq ev Pvc f = (25.25 + )10-3 m
cvi`|
= 26.37 10-3 m cvi`|
f
AvcwK Av`Zv, R 100%
F
26.37 10 -3
100%
ev, R
31.85 10 -3
R 82.79 % (Ans.)
8| Kvb nì Zj`k _K cvwbi DcwiZj Avmvq GKwU evqy
ey`&ey&`& AvqZb cuvPb nq| evqygji Pvc 105 Nm-2 nj nì
MfxiZv KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb,
P1V1 = P2V2
GLvb awi,
ev, ( P2 + hg)V = P25V nì Zj`k eyèyì AvqZb, V1 = V
ev, P2 + hg = 5P2
nì c eyèyì AvqZb, V2 = 5 V
ev, hg = 5P2 P2
cvwbi NbZ, 103 kg m-3
ev, hg = 4P2
ev, h
4P2
g
4 10 5
ev, h 3
10 9.8
h 40.81 m (Ans.)
nì Zj`k Pvc, = P1

nì c evqygji Pvc, P2 = 105 Pa
nì MfxiZv, h = ?
P1 = P2 + h MfxiZvq cvwbi Pvc
P1 = P2 + hg
9| hw` R = 8.31 JK-1mol-1 nq Ze 72cm cvi` Pvc Ges 27C

Zvcgvvq 20g AwRbi AvqZb wbYq Ki|
GLvb,
Mvm ayeK, R=8.31 JK-1mol-1 Pvc,
P = 72cmHg
= 0.72 mHg
= 0.7213.61039.8 Pa
= 95961.6 Pa
Zvcgvv, T = 27 C
= (27+273)K=300K
Avgiv Rvwb,
PV nRT
ev, V n
ev, V
RT
P
20 8.31 300
32
95961.6
gvjmsLv, n
V 16.236963 10 3 m 3 (Ans.)
20
32
AvqZb, V = ?
10| ^vfvweK Zvcgvv I Pvc bvBUvRbi NbZ 1.25Kg- m-3 nj

100C Zvcgvvq bvBUvRb AYyi Mo eMeMi eMg~j wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
1T1
T2
1.25 273
373
3
2 = 0.914879356 kg m
Avevi,
2
GLvb,
Zvcgvv, T1 = 0C =273 K
NbZ, = 1.25Kg-m-3
Zvcgvv T2 = 100C=373 K
P =1.013105Nm-2
C= ?
3P
3 1.013 10 5
576.34 ms 1 (Ans.)
2
0.91487935 6
11| 27C Zvcgvvq cwZ gvj wnwjqvg Mvmi MwZkw wbYq Ki|
(R= 8.31 JK-1 mol-1)
GLvb,
Avgiv Rvwb,
Zvcgvv T1 = 27C
3
E RT
=(273+27) K=300 K
2
R= 8.31 JK-1 mol-1
3
cwZ gvj MwZkw E= ?
E 8.31 300J
2
E = 3739.5 J
12| Kvb nì Zj`k _K cvwbi DcwiZj Avmvq GKwU evqy ey`&ey& ì&
evm wZb b nq| evivwgUvi cvi` i DPZv 75cm nj nì
GLvb awi,
MfxiZv KZ?
nì Zj`k eyèyì evm = 2x
Avgiv Rvwb,
nì Zj`k eyèyì evmva= x
P1V1 = P2V2
nì Zj`k eyèyì AvqZb, V1 4 x 3 V
3
ev, ( P2 + hg)V = P227V nì c eyèyì evm = 6x
nì c eyèyì evmva=3x
ev, P2 + hg = 27P2
nì c eyèyì AvqZb, V2 43 (3x) 3
ev, hg = 27P2 P2
V2 27 43 x 3 27V
ev, hg = 26P2
cvwbi NbZ, 103 kg m3
26P2
ev, h
nì Zj`k Pvc, = P1
g
nì c evqygji Pvc,
26 99930.6
P2 =0 .75135969.8 Pa
ev, h
= 99930.6Pa
3
10 9.8
nì MfxiZv, h = ?
h 265.122 m (Ans.)
P1 = P2 + h MfxiZvq cvwbi Pvc

P1 = P2 + hg
13| ^vfvweK Zvcgvv I Pvc Kvb Ave Mvmi NbZ

0.0892Kg m-3 nj Mvmi AYyi Mo eMeMi eMg~j wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
3P
GLvb,
C
Zvcgvv, T = 0C =273 K
3 1.013 105
C
0.0892
3 1.013 105
C
0.0892
C 1845.79 ms 1 (Ans.)
NbZ, = 0.0892Kg m-3

P =1.013105Nm-2
Mo eMeMi eMg~j C =?
14| Kvb Mvm AYyjvi Mo gy c_ 610-8 m I AYyi evm

2.510-10 m, cwZ NbwgUvi AYyi msL wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
1
2
evm, 2.5 10 -10 m
n
Mo gyc_, 610-8 m
1
n
cwZ NbwgUvi Abyi msLv, n= ?
2
n
1
3.14 6 10 (2.5 10-10 ) 2
-8
n 8 . 49 10
25
/m 3 (Ans.)
15| Kvb GKw`bi wkwkivsK 7.6C Ges K Zvcgvv 16C|

AvcwK Av`Zv wbYq Ki| [7C, 8C I 16C Zvcgvvq
m Rjxq ev Pvc h_vg 7.5 10-3 m, 8 10-3 m Ges
13.5 10-3 m cvi`|]
7C _K 8C A_vr
1C Zvcgvv evoj ev Pvc evo = (87.5)10-3 m cvi`|
0.6C = 0.510-3 0.6 m cvi`|
0.310-3 m cvi`|
7.6C Zvcgvvq A_vr
wkwkivsK m Rjxq ev Pvc f = (7.5+0.3)10-3 m cvi`|
= 7.810-3m cvi`|
16C Zvcgvvq A_vr
evqyi Zvcgvvq m Rjxq ev Pvc F = 13.5 10-3 m
cvi`|
f
100%
F
7.8 10 -3
R
100%
13.5 10 -3
AvcwK Av`Zv R
R 57.78 % (Ans.)
16| GKwU I Av` evj&e nvBMvwgUvi hi I Av` evji

Zvcgvv h_vg 20C I 12C nj wkwkivsK I AvcwK
Av`Zv wbYq Ki| (20C G MBmvii Drcv`K 1.79 Ges 20C
Ges 5.68C Zvcgvvq Rjxq evi mevP Pvc h_vg 17.6
mmHg Ges 6.856 mmHg )
evj&e Gi cvV 1= 20C A_vr evqyi Zvcgvv = 20C

wm evj&e Gi cvV 2 = 12C
MBmvii Drcv`K G = 1.79
awi wkwkivsK =
Avgiv Rvwb,
1 G (1-2)
ev, 1 G (1-2)
ev, 20 -1.79 (20-12)
ev, 20 14. 32
5.68C
evqyi Zvcgvv 20C G m Rjxqev Pvc, F = 17.6 mmHg
wkwkivsK 5.68 C G m Rjxq ev Pvc, f = 6.856 mmHg
f
100%
F
6.856
ev, R
100%
17.6
R 38.95 % (Ans.)
AvcwK Av`Zv, R
&Di : wkwkivsK =5.68C I AvcwK Av`Zv = 38.95 %

17| wi Pvc KZ Zvcgvvq Kvb Mvm AYyi Mo eMeMi eMg~j
^vfvweK Pvc I Zvcgvvi Mo eMeMi eMg~ ji wY ne?
3RT1
.........(1)
M
3RT2
I C2
....(2)
M
Avgiv Rvwb, C1
C2
T2
2C1
C1
T1
C1
T2
T1
GLvb,
cv_wgK Zvcgvv ,
T1 = 273K
kl Zvcgvv, T2 =?
C2 = 2C1
T2
T
4 2
T1
273
T2 4 273K 1092 K ( Ans.)
4
18| Kvb Mvm AYyi evmva 3.910-10 m Ges cwZ Nb mwUwgUvi

AYyi msLv 2.691019 nj AYyi Mo gy c_ wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
1
n 2
1
3.14 2.69 1019 (7.8 10-8 ) 2
6
1.9410 cm
1.9510 8 m (Ans.)
evm, 2 3.9 10 -10 m

2 3.9 10-10 100 cm
7.8 10-8 cm
cwZ Nb mwUwgUvi Abyi msLv,
n = 2.691019/cm3
Mo gyc_, ?
19| ^vfvweK Zvcgvv I Pvc bvBUvRbi NbZ 1.25Kg- m-3 nj

Gi Mo eMeMi eMg~j wbYq Ki|
GLvb,
Avgiv Rvwb,
3P
3 1.013 10 5
C
1.25
C 493 . 07 ms 1 (Ans.)
Zvcgvv, T = 0C =273 K
NbZ, = 1.25Kg-m-3
P =1.013105Nm-2
C=?

) ,
)
)
) ,
0
) , B.T.U - - C, F, K R

0
) 0 C 100 C
0
) 32 F 212 F
0
) 0 R 80 R
)
0
237 K, 373 K
0
98.4 F 36.89 C
0
100 C 373 K 0 C 273 K, -273 C 0 K.

2 -2
[ML T ]|

, -,
0
357 C -39 C,

0
-130 C 78 C,

,

,

Zvcgvv (Temperature):
ei Zvcxq AevK ei Zvcgvv ej| Zvcgvv ejZ e KZUzKz Mig ev Vvv Zv eySvq| ZvcgvvK ev T viv
cKvk Kiv nq| Zvcgvvi GKK C, K, F BZvw`|
Zvc (Heat): Zvc GK cKvi kw| hv cqvM Kij e Mig nq Ges wbMZ Kij e Vvv nq ZvK Zvc ej| ZvcK
Q ev H viv Kiv nq| Zvci GKK Ryj ev Kvjwi| 1 Kvjwi = 4.2 Ryj|
c`v_i DZvwgwZ ag I DZvwgwZK c`v_ (Thermometric Property and Thermometric Substance ):
c`v_i KZKjv ag Zvcgvv cwieZbi mv_ mv_ cwiewZZ nq| hgbt Zvcgvv ewZ Ziji AvqZb evo,
Mvmi Pvc ew cvq, cwievnxi iva ew cvq BZvw`| c`v_i h me ag Zvcgvvi mv_ wbqwgZ cwiewZZ nq mB me
agK DZvwgwZ ag ej| h mKj c`v_i ga DZvwgwZ ag we`gvb ZvìK DZvwgwZK c`v_ ej| c`v_i
DZvwgwZ ag KvR jvwMq _vgvwgUvi wbgvb Kiv nq|
a we`y (Triple Point): GKwU wbw` Pvc h Zvcgvvq Kvb c`v_ KwVb, Zij I evqexq GB wZb ic mvgvevq
_vK ZvK H c`v_i a we`y ej|
cvwbi a we`y (Triple Point of water): h wbw` Zvcgvvq I Pvc cvwb KwVb (eid), Zij (cvwb) I evqexq
(Rjxqev) GB wZb Aevq _vKZ cvi ZvK cvwbi awe`y ej| cvwbi a we`yi Zvcgvv 0C ev, 273.16K Ges
GB we`yZ wbw` Pvc 4.58 mmHg| GLvb K nj Kjwfb, Avi Kjwfb nj Gm AvB cwZZ Zvcgvvi GKK|
1
K 1K ev GK Kjwfb ej| Kjwfb Zvcgvvi Dci wfw Ki
273.16
cigk~b Zvcgvv nQ 0 K, eid we`y 273.16K Ges xg we`y 373.16K|
Kjwfb (Kelvin) : cvwbi a we`y Zvcgvvi
Zvcgvvi cig j ev, Zvcgvvi AvRvwZK j (Absolute scale of Temperature or, International Scale of
Temperature): cigk~b Zvcgvv A_vr 273C ZvcgvvK 0 (k~b) ai Ges gwjK eeavbK 100 fvM Ki
Zvcgvvi h j Kbv Kiv nq ZvK Zvcgvvi cig j ev Zvcgvvi AvRvwZK j ej| Zvcgvvi cig j
Abyhvqx a we`yi Zvcgvv 273K I cvwbi zUbv 373K|
wb wi we`y (Lower fixed point): h Zvcgvvq cgvb Pvc we eid cvwbi mv_ mvgvevq _vKZ cvi A_vr h
Zvcgvvq we eid MjZ i Ki ZvK wb wi we`y ev eid we`y (Ice Point) ej|
Da wi we`y (Upper fixed point): h Zvcgvvq cgvb Pvc we cvwb Rjxq evi mv_ mvgvevq _vKZ cvi
A_vr h Zvcgvvq we cvwb Rjxq ev cwiYZ nZ i Ki ZvK Da wi we`y ev xg (Steam Point) we`y ej|
gwjK eeavb (Fundamental Interval): Da wi we`y I wb wi we`yi gaeZx Zvcgvvi eveavbK gwjK
eeavb ej| GB eeavbK myweav RbK KZKwj mgvbfvM wef Ki GK GKwU fvMK DZv vcK msLv viv
wPwZ Ki Zvcgvvi j wbaviY Kiv nq|
_vgvwgUvi (Thermometer) : h hi mvnvh Kvb ei Zvcgvv ev DZv cwigvc Kiv nq ZvK _vgvwgUvi ej|
_vgvwgUvi AbK cKvii nq _vK, Gi ga cavbZt mjwmqvm, Kjwfb, dvibnvBU DjLhvM|
2
12| Zvcgvv (Temperature)
cvi` _vgvwgUvii MVb (Construction of Mercury Thermometer ):
h _vgvwgUvi cviì AvqZb cmviY KvR jvwMq Zvcgvv gvcv nq ZvK cvi` _vgvwgUvi ej| Zvcgvv ew cj
cviì AvqZb ew cvq Ges Zvcgvv nvm cj AvqZb nvm cvq G bxwZi Dci cvi` _vgvwgUvi cwZwZ|
MVb : GwU mi wQ`wewk Ges mgvb evmi GKwU k KvP bj wekl| bji GK cv GKwU PvvKwZ Kz _vK Ges
Aci cv e _vK| Kz I bji wKQy Ask we cvi` c~Y _vK| bji Mvq j `vMvwZ _vK| h ei Zvcgvv
gvcZ ne ZvK Kzi msk Avbj cvi` AvqZb eo h `vM ch cQvq Zv-B ei Zvcgvv|
cZ cYvjx : c_g m~ I mymg wQ`wewk GKwU KvP bj bIqv nq| bji GKcv GKwU evj B Ges Aci cv A
Lvjv _vK| bjwUK GKwU vi mvnvh Lvov fve vcb Ki Lvjv gyL GKwU dvbj F emvbv nq| dvbj wKQy
I we ci` Xvjv nq| bji wQ` Lye m~ nIqvq cvi` bji wfZi cek KiZ cvi bv| GKwU wwiU jv ev
eybmb evwZ w`q evjwUK A Zvc cqvM Kij evj I bji wfZii evqyi AvqZb ew cvq Ges wKQy evqy cviì
gaw`q eyèy` AvKvi ei nq hvq| vjwUK Vvv Kij evj I bji Aewk evqyi AvqZb Kg
hvq Ges evqyi Pvc wKQy cvi` bji wfZi cek Ki| Gfve chvqg Mig I Vvv Ki bj
I evj m~Y fwZ Kiv nq| Gi ci dvbjK mwiq wbq cvi` bv dvUv ch evjwUK Mig Kiv
nq| dzU Aevq cviì AvqZb ew cvIqvq DwZ cvi` ev bji wfZii evqyK ei Ki
`q| Zxe I mi AwMwkLvi mvnvh bj Mwjq e Ki Ìqv nq| evj Vvv nq KZvcgvvq
Gj cvi` m~Y evj I bji wKQy Ask c~Y Ki ivL Ges bji evKx Ask evqyk~b Aevq _vK|
`vMvb : Zvcgvv cwigvci Rb _vgvwgUvii bj GKwU `vMKvUv ji cqvRb nq| j
Zwii Rb `ywU wbw` ZvcgvvK wi aiv nq| GìK _vgvwgUvii wiv ej| cvi`
_vgvwgUvi eidi MjbvK wbwiv Ges cvwbi zUbvK Eawiv aiv nq|
wb wiv wbYq : GKwU dvbj wKQy we Mj eid UzKiv wbq Zvi ga _vgvwgUvii evj cek
Kivbv nq| GZ evji cvi` mzwPZ nq, dj KwkK bj cviì DPZv KgZ _vK| bj
cviì DPZv GKwU wbw` vb Gm wi nj KvPi Mvq `vM KU H vbK wPwZ Kiv nq| cvi` kxli GB
AevbB wbwiv wb`k Ki|
Dawiv wbYq : cvi` _vgwgUvii Dawiv wbYqi Rb Rb wncmvwgUvi bvgK h eenvi Kiv nq| Gici
_vgvwgUviK wncmvwgUvii Zvgvi cv Ggbfve ivLv nq hvZ Gi evj cv iwZ cvwb k bv Ki| cvwb fwZ
cvK eybmb evwZ ev wwiU jvi mvnvh Zvc Ìqv nq dj wKQyYi ga cvwb dzUZ _vK Ges Drcb Rjxq
ev _vgvwgUvii evjK D Ki| bji Afi cvi` cmvwiZ nq Ges GK mgq evi Zvcgvvi mgvb nq, ZLb
cvi` bji ga GK vb wi nq| G Aevq cvi`kxli D Aevb bji Mvq GKwU `vM KvUv nq| GUvB
_vgvwgUvii Da wiv| Da I wb Dawivi gaeZx vbK 100 I 180 fvM fvM Ki h_vg mjwmqvm I
dvibnvBU _vgvwgUvi wnmve eenvi Kiv hvq|
_vgvwgUvi cvi` eenvii myweav (Advantage to use Mercury in a Thermometer) t
1| GwU GKwU Dj PKPK c`v_, ZvB mnR KvPi bji wfZi `Lv hvq|
2| cvi` KvP bji Mvq jM _vK bv|
3| cvi` -39C Zvcgvvq Rg Ges 357C Zvcgvvq dzU| myZivs Zvcgvvi `xN cwimi GwU Zij Aevq _vK|
dj gvUvgywU - 30C _K 350C ch Zvcgvv gvcv hvq|
4| cvi` we Aevq cvIqv hvq|
5| cvi` Zvc mycwievnx c`v_ ej AwZ`Z Kvb e _K Zvc kvlb Ki cmvwiZ nq|
6| cviì cmviY mylg ZvB Zvcgvv ewi Rb Gi AvqZb cmviY me mgvb nq|
_vwgi (Thermistor): _vwgi GKwU Aacwievnx c`v_i Zix eev hv w`q

Zvcgvv cwigvc Kiv hvq| GB ZvcgvwK b nj e`ywZK iva| DZv ewi
mv_ mv_ _vwgii e`ywZK iva myPKxq nvi nvm cvq| GB _vgvwgUvi Abvb
iva _vgvwgUvii Zzjbvq AbK ekx mye`x nq| GB _vgvwgUvii mvnvh70C
_K 300 C ch Zvcgvv cwigvc Kiv hvq| Zvcgvv cwigvc Kivi Rb _vwgiK
gvb Ki wbZ nq|
Zvc-hyMj (_vgvKvcj) I mxeK wqv (Thermocouple & Seebeck-effect): `ywU wfb avZzi Zvii `yB cv Rvov
jvwMq Gi ga GKwU MvjfvbvwgUvi Afy Ki hw` eZbx Zix Kiv hvq
Ges Zvi `ywUi mshvM j `ywUZ (Junctions) Zvcgvvi eeavb mw Kiv hvq,
Zvnj H eZbxZ Zwor cevwnZ ne, GB Zwor cevnK Zvc Zwor cevn ej|
1821 wLv mxeK me c_g NUbvwU c_g cZ Kib| ZvB G NUbvK mxeK
wqv (Seebeck-effect) ej| `ywU wfb Zvi viv m G eevK ejv nq Zvc-hyMj
(Thermocouple) Ges eZbxZ h ZwoPvjK kwi De nq ZvK Zvcxq
ZwoPvjK kw (Thermo electromotive force) ejv nq|
wbic Zvcgvv (Neutral Temperature): Zvc-hyMji kxZj mshvMK 0C Zvcgvvq iL D mshvMK h,
Zvcgvvq ivLj eZbxZ Zvcxq ZwoPvjK kwi gvb mevwaK nq mB ZvcgvvK wbic Zvcgvv ej| Zvgv I
jvnv hyMji Rb G Zvcgvv 275 C|
Drg Zvcgvv (Inversion Temperature): Zvc-hyMji kxZj mshvMK 0C Zvcgvvq iL D mshvMK h
Zvcgvvq ivLj Zvc ZwoPvjK kwi gvb k~b nq ZvK H hyMji Drg Zvcgvv ej| Zvgv I jvnv hyMji Rb G
Zvcgvv 550 C|
cgvY Zvcgvv ev ^vfvweK Zvcgvv (Standard temperature):
h Zvcgvvq ^vfvweK Pvc cvwb Rg eid nq, A_ev eid Mj cvwbZ cwibZ nq ZvK ^vfvweK Zvcgvv ej|
^vfvweK Zvcgvv nj 0C ev, 273.16 K, Ze eenvwiK 273 K weePbv Kiv nq|
Zvc Zwor _vgvwgUvi ev Zvc hyMj ev _vgvKvcji mvnvh Zvcgvv wbYq (Determination of Temperature By the
help of Thermocouple): g~jbxwZ: _vgvKvcjK _vgvwgUvi wnme eenvi Kiv hvq| Zvcxq ZwoPvjK kw
_vgvKvcji mshvMqi Zvcgvvi cv_Ki Dci wbfi Ki| hw` _vgvKvcji GKwU mshvMK eidi msk 0
C Zvcgvvq ivLv nq Ges Aci mshvMK Kvb DPZi Zvcgvv C G ivLv nq Zvnj eZbxZ h ZwoPvjK kwi
De nq Zv wbv mgxKiY _K cvIqv hvq| Zvcxq ZwoPvjK kw E nj,
E=+ ... ... ... (1) GLvb, I `ywU aeK hvì
gvb _vgvKvcji cKwZi Dci wbfi Ki| E,I Gi gvb Rb Gi gvb
wbYq Kiv nq|
eZbx mshvM : wPvbyhvqx cUbwkIwgUvii A I B we`yi mv_ GKwU AvwgUvi
A, evUix Ba, Pvwe K Ges cwieZbkxj iva Rh kYx mgevq hy Kiv nq|
evUix Ba Gi abvZK cv A we`yi mv_ hy _vK| GLb Zvgv I jvnvi Zvi
w`q Zix _vgvKvcji D mshvM ji mv_ h Zvgvi Zvi _vK, mB
4
Zvii gy cvK A -Z Ges kxZj mshvM ji mv_ hy Zvgvi Zvii gy cvK MvjfvbvwgUvii G -Gi
gaw`q RwKZ hy Kiv nq|
cixv: Pvwe K e Ki cUbwkIwgUvi AB Zvi Zwor cevn Pvjbv Kiv nq| Gi ci cwieZbkxj ivai gvb Ggb
fve mgw^Z Kiv nq hvZ RwKwUK A we`yZ k Kivj MvjfvbvwgUvii KuvUv h wec `q B we`yZ k Kivj
Zvi wecixZ w`K wec `q| aiv hvK, RwKwUK C we`yZ k Kivj MvjfvbvwgUvii Kvb wec nq bv A_vr C
we`yB fvimvg we`y| GLb A I C Gi gaKvi Zvii `N l cwigvc Kiv nq Ges AvwgUvi _K we`yr cevni gvb I
wbYq Kiv nq|
wnmve (Calculation) : Zvcxq ZwoPvjK kw E nj
E= l `Ni Aski Zvii wefe cv_K
=I l `Ni Aski Zvii iva
cUbwkIwgUvii cwZ GKK `Ni iva nj l `Ni Zvii iva ne l |
E=I l Avevi cUbwkIwgUvii m~Y Zvii A_vr L `Ni Zvii iva R nj
IlR
GB mgxKiYi Wvb w`Ki me ivwk Rvbv _vKvq m Zvcxq ZwoPvjK kwi gvb wbYq Kiv hve| Gevi (1)
L
bs mgxKiY E,I Gi gvb ewmq Gi gvb wbYq Kiv nq|
cvBivwgUvi (Pyrometer) : h hi mvnvh DP Zvcgvv cwigvc Kiv nq ZvK cvBivwgUvi ej| cvBivwgUvi
mvaviYZt `yB aibi nq _vKt h_v (1) c~Yw ewKiY cvBivwgUvi (Total radiation pyrometer ) (2) AvjvK
cvBivwgUvi (Optical pyrometer)
c~Y wewKiY cvBivwgUvi (Total radiation pyrometer) t c~Y wewKiY cvBivwgUvii mvnvh Kvb e nZ wewKwiZ
Zvckw cwigvc Ki wdvbi m~ cqvM Ki Zvcgvv wbYq Kiv nq| dix (Fery) c_g c_g GB aibi cvBivwgUi
Zix Ki Zvcgvv cwigvc Kib ej GK dixi cvBivwgUvi I ejv nq|
hi MVbt GB h GKwU AeZj `cY M iqQ hv Zvgvi
cvZ w`q Zix| cvZi Dci Zj wbKj avZzi cjc Ìqv| `cbi
gvSLvb GKwU wQ` AvQ hvi wcQb Awfb E hy _vK| M-Gi myL
GKwU QvU wQ` D iqQ hvi wcQbB GKwU avZe djK S _vK| `cY
AwfgyLx djKi c Kvjv cjc `qv _vK| wQ` D `ywU AaevKvi `cY
viv MwVZ| S-Gi wcQb c _vgvKvcj T hy _vK| _vgvKvcj Drcb
ZwoPvjK ej cwigvci Rb GwU wgwjfv wgUvii mv_ hy _vK|
djKwUi Dci ei wewKwiZ iwk hvZ mivmwi AvcwZZ bv nZ cvi mRb
djKwU GKwU ev Ave ivLv nq| GKwU zi mvnvh myY eevwU mvgb
wcQb mivbv hvq|
KvhbxwZ t h ei Zvcgvv wbYq Kiv nq mwU nZ AvMZ iwk AeZj `cbi mvnvh cwZwe^ wQ` D-Gi
gaw`q S-Gi Dci AvcwZZ nq| Awfb E-G PvL iL ZvKvj mwVK dvKvwms nj wQ` D evKvi `Lve| mwVK
dvKvm bv nj D `yB Aavsk mi hvq| `cb mvgb wcQb mwiq dvKvwms Kiv nq|
Zvcgvv wbYq t wgwjfv wgUvii cvV V, Drmi Zvcgvv T Ges djK S -Gi Zvcgvv T0 nj, wdvbi m~
Abymvi, V (T 4 T 4 ), GLvb, wdvb aeK|
0
myZivs, V I T0 cwigvc Ki GB cvBivwgUvii mvnvh ARvbv Zvcgvv wbYq Kiv hvq|
5
AvjvK cvBivwgUvi (Optical pyrometer) : G cvBivwgUvii mvnvh h ei Zvcgvv wbYq KiZ ne mB ei
cwZweî DjZvi mv_ e`ywZK evwZi wdjvgU F-Gi mv_ DjZvi Zzjbv Kiv nq| O G hi Awfj j
I E Awfb| wdjvgU F-Gi gaw`q wewfb Zwor cevn
cvwVq wdjvgUK wewfb Zvcgvvq D Kiv nq| Zwor
cevn cwieZb Kivi Rb GKwU wiIvU (Rh) Ges cevn gvv
cwigvci Rb GKwU AvwgUvi A _vK| S Gi mvnvh
Awfj O Gi Aevb Ggb fve wbqwZ KiZ ne hvZ e
_K weKxY iwk F wdjvgUi Dci K`xf~Z nq Ges mLvb
Drmi GKwU cwZwe^ mw nq| wdjvgUi ga Zwor cevn Pvwjq
R jvj KvPi gvag Awfb EGi gaw`q wdjvgUK j Kiv
nq| Zwor cevngvv ekx nj wdjvgU cwZweî Pq Dj ne| Avi hw` Zwor cevni cwigvb Kg nq Zvnj
cwZweî Zzjbvq wdjvgU Kvjv `Lve| wiIvUi mvnvh cevngvv wbqb Ki wdjvgU A`k KiZ nq| G
Aevq wdjvgUi Zvcgvv Drmi Zvcgvvi mgvb ne| G Aevq AvwgUvi _K cevngvvi cvV bIqv nq|
wdjvgUi gaw`q cevwnZ Zworcevn gvvi gvb hw` I nq, Zvnj wdjvgUi Zvcgvv Z_v Drmi Zvcgvv TK
wbi mgxKiY nZ Rvbv hvq| I = a+bT+cT2 GLvb a, b I c wZbwU aeK| hwUK wZbwU Rvbv Zvcgvvq gvwZ
Ki a, b I c Gi gvb wbYq KiZ nq| AvwgUviK gvwZ KiI mivmwi Drmi Zvcgvv wbYq Kiv hvq|
G hi mvnvh 600 C _Z 1500 C ch Zvcgvv gvcv hvq| N~bvqgvb eKjv (Rotating sector) eenvi Ki G
cvBivwgUvii mvnvh AviI DP Zvcgvv cwigvc Kiv hvq|
Zvcgvvi wewfb ji ga mK (Relation among different scales of temperature) t

mjwmqvm, dvibnvBU I Kjwfb ji cviwiK mK wbYqi Rb GKwU cvi` _vgvwgUvi AB
bB hvi eid we`y I xg we`y h_vg A I B `vMi mv_ wgj hvq| aiv hvK, Kvb Zvcgvvq
AB _vgvwgUvii cvi`kxl hLb M Aevb Avm ZLb mjwmqvm, dvibnvBU I Kjwfb j
Zvcgvv h_vg C, F I K|
Avgiv wjLZ cvwi,
MA
C0
F 32
K 273
BA 100 0 212 32 373 273

C
F 32 K 273
100
180
100
C F 32 K 273
BnvB mjwmqvm, dvibnvBU I Kjwfb ji cvwiK mKi ivwkgvjv|

5
9
5
GK wi we`yi cwicwZ _vgvwgwZi g~j mgxKiY cwZcv`b t aivhvK, h Kvb GKwU _vgvwgUvi ZvcwgwZK ag X1
Zvcgvv T1 Gi mgvbycvwZK| MvwbwZKfve, T1 X1 T1 aX1 GLvb a GKwU aeK|
AZGe, GKB _vgvwgUvii `ywU Zvcgvvi ZvcwgwZK ag Zzjbv Ki cvB,
T1 X1
... ... ... ... (1) GLvb, T1 Zvcgvvq ZvcwgwZK ag X1 I T2 Zvcgvvq ZvcwgwZK ag X2
T2 X 2
cvwbi awe`yZ A_vr 273.16K Zvcgvvq ZvcwgwZK ag Xtr Ges h Kvb Zvcgvv T Z ZvcwgwZK ag X nj (1)
T
X
X
bs mgxKiY Abymvi cvB,
T
273.16 K
273.16 X tr
X tr
l
(K) cvi` _vgvwgUvii X Gi j cvi` i `N l nj, T 273.16 K
l tr
V
273.16 K
Vtr
P
(M) wi AvqZb Mvm _vgvwgUvii X Gi j ZvcwgwZK ag PvcP nj, T 273.16 K
Ptr
R
(N) iva _vgvwgUvii X Gi j ZvcwgwZK ag iva R nj, T
273.16 K
R tr
E
(O) Zvc Zwor _vgvwgUvii X Gi j ZvcwgwZK ag ZwoPvjK ej E nj, T
273.16 K
E tr
(L) wi Pvc Mvm _vgvwgUvii X Gi j ZvcwgwZK ag AvqZb V nj, T
`yB wi we`yi cwicwZ _vgvwgwZi g~j mgxKiY cwZcv`b :

h Zvcgvvq cgvb Pvc we eid cvwbi mv_ mvgvevq _vKZ cvi A_vr h Zvcgvvq we eid MjZ i Ki
ZvK wb wi we`y (Lower fixed point) ev eid we`y (Ice Point) ev wngv (Freezing Point) ej| h Zvcgvvq
cgvb Pvc we cvwb Rjxq evi mv_ mvgvevq _vKZ cvi A_vr h Zvcgvvq we cvwb Rjxq ev cwiYZ
nZ i Ki ZvK Da wi we`y (Upper fixed point) ev xg (Steam Point) we`y ev zUbv (Boiling Point) ej|
Da wi we`y I wb wb wi we`yi gaeZx Zvcgvvi eveavbK gwjK eeavb (Fundamental Interval) ej| G
eeavbK KZKjv mgvb fvM fvM Ki GK GKwU j MVb Kiv nq| cwZwU fvM 1 Zvcgvv wb`k Ki| aiv hvK,
eid we`y I xg we`yZ Kvb GKwU ZvcwgwZK c`v_i agi gvb h_vg Xice I Xsteam| Ab h Kvb () Zvcgvvq
H agi gvb X| gwjK eeavbi fvM msLv =n ; X Gi cwieZb Zvcgvvi cwieZbi mgvbycvwZK|
n fvM Z_v n Zvcgvv ewZ X Gi ew X steam X ice n X steam X ice kn ... ... ... (1)
Avevi, fvM Z_v Zvcgvv ewZ X Gi ew X X ice X X ice k ... ... ... (2)
(1) I (2) nZ
X X ice
X X ice
n `yB wi we`yi cwicwZ GwUB _vgvwgwZi g~j mgxKiY|

n X steam X ice
X steam X ice
c_g ci AsKi mgvavb

12| Zvcgvv (Tmperature)
1| GKwU ae AvqZb _vgvwgUvi T Kjwfb Zvcgvvq Pvc cvIqv

Mj 6.5104 Pa| cvwbi a we`yZ Pvc 5103Pa nj T Gi
gvb wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
P
T T 273.16 K
cvwbi a we`yZ Pvc,
Ptr
Ptr = 5103Pa
4
6.510
ev, T
273.16K wbbq DZvq Pvc, 4
3
PT = 6.510 Pa
5 10
wbbq Zvcgvv, T = ?
T 3551.08 K (Ans.)
2| GKwU iva _vgvwgUvi eid I wg we`yZ h_vg 4.5I
9.5 iva c`kb Ki| GwU GKwU Zij vcb Kij 6.1 iva
c`kb Ki| ZijwUi Zvcgvv wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
R R0
100 C eid we`yZ iva, R0 = 4.5

R 100 R 0
wg we`yZ iva, R100 =9.5
6.1 4.5
Zij iva R = 6.1
100 C
ZijwUi Zvcgvv ?
9.5 4.5
1.6
100 C 32C (Ans.)
5
3| GKwU wUc~b _vgvwgUvi mvaviY evq~Pvc MwjZ eid 4C

Ges ev 98C cvV `q| _vgvwgUviwU 42C cvV w`j
cKZ Zvcgvv KZ?
gbKwi, cKZ Zvcgvv = C
cv Zvcgvv wb
C0
ckgZ,
Da wb
100 0
100 38
C
42 4
C
ev, C
94
100 98 4
C= 40.42 C ( Ans.)
4| Kvb Zvcgvvq mjwmqvm I dvibnvBU j GKB cvIqv

hvq?
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
C F 32
C= F = x awi,
9
x x 32

5
9
9 x 5x 160
9x 5x 160
4x 160
160
4
x 40 C 40 F (Ans.)
x
5| GKwU wUc~b _vgvwgUvi wbwi we`y 4C Ges Da wi we`y

98C| _vgvwgUviwU 51C cvV w`j dvibnvBU j Zvcgvv KZ
ne?
gbKwi, cKZ Zvcgvv = F
F 32
cv Zvcgvv wb
212 32
Da wb
F 32
51 4
212 32 98 4
F 32 47
180
94
47 180
F 32
94
F 90 32
F 122F (Ans.)
ckgZ,
6| GKwU wUc~b _vgvwgUvi mvaviY evqyPvc MwjZ eid 2CGes

ev 96C cvV `q| _vgvwgUviwU 49C cvV w`j dvibnvBU I
Kjwfb j KZ cvV cvIqv hve?
gbKwi, cKZ Zvcgvv h_vg = F I K
cv Zvcgvv wb K 273
F 32
Da wb
212 32
373 273
K 273
F 32
49 2
212 32 96 2 373 273

F 32 47 K 273
180
94
100
F 32 1 K 273

180
2
100
180
F 32
2
F 32 90
F 90 32 122F
ckgZ,
Avevi,
1 K 273
2
100
K 273 50
K 50 273
K 323K
c_g ci AsKi mgvavb
7| Kvb& Zvcgvvq mwUMW I dvibnvBU j cvVi cv_K

10nq?
awi, mjwmqvm j cvV, C= x
dvibnvBU j cvV = x 10 x 10 ev, x 10
Avgiv Rvwb,
C F 32
1g , mjwmqvm j cvV, C= x
5
9
Ges dvibnvBU j cvV, F = x 10
x x 10 32

5
9
9 x 5x 110
9 x 5x 110
4x 110
110
x
4
x 27.5 C
dvibnvBU j, x 10 27.5 10 17.5F

wZxq , mjwmqvm j cvV, C= x
Ges dvibnvBU j cvV = x 10
x x 10 32
5
9
9 x 5x 210
9 x 5x 110
4x 210
210
x
4
x 52.5 C
dvibnvBU j, x 10 52.5 10 62.5F
Dit -27.5C I -17.5F Ges -52.5C I -62.5F
Zvc MwZwe`vi 1g m~ (First Law of Thermodynamics):

Ryji gZ hLbB Kvb KvRi dj Zvc Drcb nq ev Zvci dj KvR mvwaZ nq ZLb KvR I Zvc ciii
mgvbycvwZK|
evLv: gb Kwi, W cwigvb KvRi dj Q cwigvb Zvc Drcb nj| G m~ gZ,
WQ
W = J Q GLvb J GKwU ae msLv| GB ae msLvK Zvci hvwK mgZv ev Ryj ayeK ej|
wevbx Kwmqvmi gZ hLbB Kvb e ev msvq Zvc mieivn Kiv nq ZLbB GB Zvci wKQy Ask e ev
msvi Aw bwnZ kw ewZ evq nq evKx Ask evwnK KvR mv`b LiP nq| MwYZi fvlvq
dQ = dU + dW GLvb dQ = gvU c` Zvc dU = Aw bwnZ kwi cwieZb I dW = evwnK
mvw`Z KvR|
wevbx njR Gi gZ kw Awebki | kw mw ev webvk Kiv hvq bv| Kej GK kw Ab GK ev
GKvwaK kwZ icvwiZ Kiv hvq| hLbB GK kw A`k ne ZLbB Aci kwi Avwefve NUe| ZvB GB weki gvU
kwi cwigvb AcwieZbxq|
Dciv msMv nZ h, kwi eq Qvov KvR Kiv me bq| Ggb Kvb h Avwevi Kiv me bq hv kw Qvov
PjZ cvi|
Zvci hvwK mgZv (Mechanical equivalent of heat) : Ryji Zvc MwZwe`vi 1g m~ nZ Avgiv h mgxKiY cvB Zv
nj W = JQ D mgxKiY Q = 1 Kvjwi nj W = J nq | A_vr 1 Kvjwi Zvc mybic KvR icvwiZ nj hZUzKz
KvR nq ZvK Zvci hvwK mgZv ej| hvwK mgZvK J viv cKvk Kiv nq| J Gi gvb 4.2 Ryj/ Kvjwi| J = 4.2
Ryj/ Kjwi ejZ GB eywS h, 1 Kvjwi Zvc KvR icvwiZ nj 4.2 Ryj KvR mvw`Z nq|
ZvcMZxq cwqv (Thermodynamic Process ): Pvc P, Zvcgvv T I AvqZb V ivwkjvK Zvc MZxq vbvsK ev Zvc
MZxq Pj ivwk ej| Zvc MZxq vbvsKi mvnvh KvY eevi Aev cKvk Kij, m AevK Zvc MZxq Aev ej|
h cwieZbi KviY Zvc MZxq vbvsKi gvb cwiewZZ nq m cwieZbK ZvcMZxq cwqv ej|
ZvcMZxq vbvsK (Thermodynamic co-ordinates): ZvcMZxq AvjvPbvi Rb Kvb eevi Aev Pvc P , AvqZb V
I cig Zvcgvv T Gi mvnvh cKvk Kiv nq| GB ivwk wjK ZvcMZxq vbvsK ej|
ZvcMZxq Aev (Thermodynamic State): ZvcMZxq AvjvPbvi Rb Kvb eevi Aev Pvc P , AvqZb V I cig
Zvcgvv T Gi mvnvh cKvk Kiv nq| GB ivwk wjK ZvcMZxq vbvsK ev Zvc MZxq Pj ivwk ej| ZvcMZxq
vbvsKi mvnvh KvY eevi Aev cKvk Kij m AevK ZvcMZxq Aev ej|
ZvcMZxq mvgvev (Thermodynamic Equilibrium): Kvb wewQb eevi Pov AwePj AevK ZvcMZxq mvgvev
ej| mvgvevq eevi mKj we`yZ ZvcMZxq vbv A_vr Pvc P , AvqZb V I cig Zvcgvv T Gi gvb mgvb|
ZvcMZxq wmg ev eev (Thermodynamic system): ZvcMZxq wmg ejZ Zj ev ebx viv mxgve Kvb wbw`
cwigvb eK eySvq| hgb GKwU wcb hy wmwjvi A_ev GKwU ejyb Ave Mvm|
2
13| Zvc MwZwe`vi 1g m~ (First Law Of Thermodynamics)
A kw (Internal Energy): Kvb eevi Afixb kwB A kw| eevi GB kw Abvb kwZ icvwiZ
nZ cvi| GB kw c`v_i Afixb MVbi Dci wbfi Ki| A kw AYyjvi wefe kw I MwZkwi hvMdj|
Zvc cqvM ev Zvc Acmvib viv A kwi cwieZb NUvbv hvq| Avevi ei Dci KvR Ki ev ei viv
KvR mvw`Z nj A kwi cwieZb nq| A kwi cwieZb aygv eevi cv_wgK I Pzov Aevi Dci wbfi
Ki| MvmK msbwgZ Kij A kwi ew cvq Avevi MvmK cmvwiZ Kij A kw nvm cvq|
i Zvc cwqvq MvmK msbwgZ Kij Gi Zvcgvv ew cvq - Gi KviY:

i Zvc cwieZb Mvmi Zvcgvv KLbB wi _vK bv| A_vr iZvc cwqvq Mvm Kvb Zvc Mnb ev eRb Ki bv|
wK Mvm Zvc Mnb eRb bv KijI Mvmi At kw wi _vK bv| hLb MvmK msbwgZ Kiv nq ZLb Mvmi KvR
mv`b Kiv nq| GZ Mvmi kw ew cvq A_vr Mvmi At kwi ew NU| KviY G Mvm Zvc eRb KiZ
cvi bv| G Rb Gi Zvcgvv ew cvq|
Mvmi AvcwK Zvc I gvjvi ZvcaviY gZvi (gvjvi AvcwK Zvc) ga mK (Relation between specific
heat of gas and molar thermal capacity of gas):
1 gvj Mvmi Zvcgvv 1K evovZ h cwigvb Zvci cqvRb ZvK gvjvi Zvc aviY gZv ev gvjvi AvcwK Zvc
ej| Kvb Mvmi n msLK gvji Zvcgvv T cwigvb evovZ hw` Q Zvci cqvRb nq Ze
1 gvj Mvmi Zvcgvv 1K evovZ Zvc jvMe
Q
nT
gvjvi Zvc aviY gZv C Q
nT
1 KwR Mvmi Zvcgvv 1K evovZ h cwigvb Zvci cqvRb ZvK Mvmi AvcwK Zvc ej| Kvb Mvmi m KwR
Mvmi Zvcgvv T cwigvb evovZ hw` Q Zvci cqvRb nq Ze
Q
1 kg Mvmi Zvcgvv 1K evovZ Zvc jvMe
mT
Mvmi AvcwK Zvc Q
mT
GLv b gvj msLv n
Q
m
e i fi
C
m
M AvbweK fi
T
M
Q
ev, C M
mT
ev, C M Mv mi Av cw K Zvc
A_vr gvjvi Zvc aviY gZv = AvbweK fi Mvmi AvcwK Zvc

Mvmi AvcwK Zvc: 1 KwR Mvmi Zvcgvv 1K evovZ h cwigvb Zvci cqvRb ZvK Mvmi AvcwK Zvc
ej|
wi Pvc Mvmi AvcwK Zvc (Specific heat of Gas at constant Pressure):
Pvc wi iL 1 KwR fii Mvmi Zvcgvv 1K ew KiZ hZUzKz Zvc cqvM KiZ nq ZvK wi Pvc Mvmi
AvcwK Zvc ej|
3
wi AvqZb Mvmi Avcwc Zvc (Specific heat of Gas at constant Volume):
AvqZb wi iL 1 KwR fii Mvmi Zvcgvv 1K ew KiZ h cwigvb Zvci cqvRb nq ZvK wi AvqZbi
Mvmi AvcwK Zvc ej|
wi Pvc Mvmi gvjvi AvcwK Zvc ev gvjvi Zvc aviY gZv (Molar specific heat of Gas at constant
Pressure):
Pvc wi iL 1 gvj Mvmi Zvcgvv 1K ew KiZ hZUzKz Zvc cqvM KiZ nq ZvK wi Pvc Mvmi gvjvi
AvcwK Zvc ev gvjvi Zvc aviY gZv ej| GK Cp viv cKvk Kiv nq|
wi AvqZb Mvmi gvjvi Avcwc Zvc ev gvjvi Zvc aviY gZv (Molar specific heat of Gas at constant
Volume):
AvqZb wi iL 1 gvj Mvmi Zvcgvv 1K ew KiZ h cwigvb Zvci cqvRb nq ZvK wi AvqZbi Mvmi
gvjvi AvcwK Zvc ev gvjvi Zvc aviY gZv ej| GK Cv viv cKvk Kiv nq|
GKwU Av`k Mvmi Rb Cp I Cv Gi ga mK (Relation between Cp and Cv ) ev , Cp Cv = R Gi cgvY:
gb Kwi wcb hy GKwU wmwjvii ga P Pvc, T Zvcgvvq, V AvqZb 1 gvj Av`k Mvm AvQ| (wP wb)
Gevi Mvm wKQy Zvc c`vb Kiv nj| G Zvc Mvmi Zvcgvv I Pvc ew Kie Ges AvqZb I ew cZ PvBe| dj
wcbwU Dcii w`K DVZ Pv Kie| wcbK c~ei Aevb ivLZ nj A_vr AvqZb wi ivLvi Rb wcbi
Dci wKQy IRb PvcvZ ne| gb Kwi dQ Zvc cqvM Kiv nj Ges wcb dP IRb Pvwcq Mvmi AvqZb V
AcwiewZZ ivLv nj|
dQ Zvc Mnb Ki Mvmi Zvcgvv hw` dT cwigvb ew cvq|
Zvnj, dQ = 1. Cv dT
[ MnxZ Zvc = fi Avt Zvc DZv ew ]
ev, dQ = Cv dT... ... ... ... ... (1)
Avevi Zvc MwZwe`vi 1g m~
dQ dUdW
Cv dT =dU dWewnt KvRi cwigvb I (1) bs mgxKiY nZ dQ Gi gvbewmq]
dU =Cv dT ... ... ... ... ...

Gevi wcbi Dci _K cv_wgK IRb iL AwZwi dP IRb Zzj wbj wcb Dcii w`K DVZ _vKe A_vr
AvqZb ew cve| [wP - M]| AvqZb ewi Rb Mvmi wKQy KvR KiZ nQ| Mvmi At kw evq G KvR KiZ
nq ej At kw nvm cvq dj Zvcgvv I nvm cvq| wi Pvc Mvmi Zvcgvv dT ewi Rb Mvm h cwigvb KvR
KiQ Zvi mgZzj Zvc cqvM KiZ ne| A_vr G h AwZwi Zvc mieivn KiZ ne Zvi cwigvb PdV| GLvb
Mvmi AvqZb ewi cwigvb dV Ges c` wi Pvc P| G mieivnKZ Zvc dQ
13| Zvc MwZwe`vi 1g m~
(First Law Of Thermodynamics)
dQ = 1. Cp dT
dQ = Cp dT... ... ... ... ... (3)
Avevi Zvc MwZwe`vi 1g m~wU nj

dQ = dU + dW
[ dW = PdV ]
dQ = dU + PdV
[3 bs nZ dQ Ges 2 bs nZdU Gi gvb ewmq|]
Cpd Cv dT + PdV
ev, Cpd Cv dT = PdV
ev, Cp Cv d = PdV ... ... ... ... ... ... (4)
Avevi, gvjvi Mvm aeK R nj, 1 gvj Mvmi Rb Avgiv Rvwb,
PV = RT ... ... ... ... ... ... ... (5)
(5) bs mgxKiYK T Gi mvc eeKjb Ki cvB,
d
PV d RT
dT
dT
dV
dT
ev, P
R
[P I R ae]
dT
dT
dV
R
ev, P
dT
PdV = RdT ... ... ... ... ... ... ... (6)
(4) bs mgxKiY (6) bs mgxKiYi gvb ewmq cvB,
Cp Cv d = RdT
Cp Cv = R ... ... ... ... ... ... ... (7) BnvB CpI Cv ga mK|
CpI Cv I AYycvZK viv cKvk Kiv nq| A_vr C P hnZz Cp Cv = R Avevi R abvZK msLv
CV
CpCv , Avevi CpCv ej Gi gvb me mgq 1 Gi ekx|
i Zvcxq cwieZb Mvmi Pvc I AvqZbi ga mK (Relation between Pressure and volume in an adiabatic
Process) A_vr PV = aeK Gi cgvb I Zvcgvv I AvqZbi ga mK TV 1 a eK |
gb Kwi, 1 gvj MvmK dQ cwigvb Zvc Ìqvi dj Gi AvqZb I DZvi cwieZb h_vg dV I dT nq| Zvc
MwZwe`vi 1g m~ _K cvB,
dQ = dU +dW
dQ = dU + PdV ... ... ... ... ... ... (1) [ dW = PdV ]
wK Avgiv Rvwb, 1 gvj Mvmi At kwi ew dU nj wi AvqZb gvjvi AvcwK Zvc Cv Ges Zvcgvv ew dT
Gi Y dji mgvb, A_vr dU = Cv dT ... ... ... ... ... ... ... (2)
(1) bs mgxKiY dU = Cv dT ewmq cvB,
dQ = Cv dT + PdV ... ... ... ... ... ... (3)
wK i Zvcxq cwqvq dQ = 0, (3) bs mgxKiY dQ = 0 ewmq cvB,
Cv dT + PdV = 0 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... (4)
1 gvj Av`k Mvmi Rb Avgiv Rvwb,

PV = RT ... ... ... ... ... ... ... (5)
GB mgxKiYK AiKjb Ki cvB,

PdV +VdP = RdT
PdV VdP
ev, dT
Gi GB gvb (4) bs mgxKiY ewmq cvB,
R
ev,
ev,
ev,
ev,
PdV VdP
Cv
PdV 0
R
CvPdV + CvVdP + RPdV = 0

CvPdV + CvVdP + (Cp Cv)PdV = 0
CvPdV + CvVdP + CpPdV CvPdV = 0
CvVdP + CpPdV = 0
ev, VdP
Cp
Cv
[ Dfq cK Cv viv fvM Ki|]
PdV 0
ev, VdP + PdV = 0

ev ,
dV
dP

0
V
P
CP
CV
[ Dfq cK PV viv fvM Ki| ]
Gevi Dfq cK mgvKjb Ki cvB,

LogeP + LogeV = aeK
ev, LogeP +LogeV= LogeK
ev, LogePV = LogeK
ev, PV K
PV a eK (cgvwYZ|) ... ... ... ... ... ... (6)
Avgiv Rvwb, PV = RT
P
RT
... ... ... ... ... ... (7)
V
Avevi Avgiv Rvwb, PVaeK ... ... ... ... ... (6)
RT
V a eK
V
[(7) bs nZ gvb ewmq|]
RTV 1 a eK
TV 1 a eK ( cgvwYZ )
[R meRbxb Mvm aeK]
BnvB Mvmi i Zvc cwieZb AvqZb I Zvcgvvi ga mK|
Cp I Cv Gi gvb wbYq (Calculation of Cp and Cv):

T cwigvb DZv ewi Rb GKwU Av`k Mvmi At kwi ew U nj, U = Cv T GLvb Cv wi
AvqZb Mvmi gvjvi AvcwK Zvc| GKwU GK civgvYyK Mvmi At kw aygv Gi AcmviY MwZ kwi KviY
nq| Mvmi MwZZ nZ Avgiv Rvwb,
3
2
At kw U RT
dT DZv ewi Rb At kw dU cwigvb ew Kij,
3
RdT
2
3
Cv dT R dT
2
dU
Cv
Cv
dU Cv dT
3
R
2
3
8.31 J mol 1 K 1
2
[ R = 8.31 J mol-1 K-1]
C v 12.5 J mol K
Avevi, Cp Cv = R
Cp = R +Cv
Cp = (8.31 +12.5) J mol-1 K-1
Cp =20.81 J mol-1 K-1
Gi iZ (Zvrch):
CpI Cv I AYycvZK viv cKvk Kiv nq| A_vr C P , wekl iZc~Y f~wgKv cvjb Ki| Mvm ki
CV
eM wbYq Gi iZ iqQ| i Zvc cwieZb -Gi cqvRbxZv AvQ| Zv Qvov Mvmi hvRZv mwKZ Z_
_K cvIqv hvq| GK cvigvYyweK Mvmi Rb =1.33 Ges wcvigvYyweK Mvmi Rb =1.41I wZb cvigvYyweK
Mvmi Rb =1.66| -Gi Mvmi cigvbyi msLvi Dci wbfikxj ej Kvb Mvmi AYyZ KqwU cigvYy AvQ Zv Gi gvb wbYq Ki Rvbv hvq| hnZz Cp Cv = R Avevi R abvZK msLv CpCv , Avevi CpCv ej Gi gvb
me mgq 1 Gi ekx|
iZvc jL mgv jL Acv Lvov (An adiabatic Carve is Steeper than Isothermal Curve) :
iZvc cwieZbi , Avgiv Rvwb,
PV = aeK, GB mgxKiY K eeKjb Ki cvB,
PV 1dV V dP 0
PV 1dV
V
PV 1
dP

V
dV Q
P
dP
dP
... ... ... (1)

V
dV Q
cybivq, mgv cwieZb, PV = aeK, GB mgxKiY K eeKjb Ki cvB,

PdV + VdP = 0
P
dP
... ... ... (2)

V
dV T
mgxKiY (1) K (2) viv fAM Ki cvB,
AZGe,
dP
P
dV Q
V
P
dP
V
dV T
dP
dV Q
dP
dV T
Zvcxq iLvi Xvj

ev, i ZvcxqiLvi Xvj = mgv iLvi Xvj
m gv iLvi Xvj
wK Gi gvb 1 Acv ekx| myZivs, mgxKiY (3) _K ejv hvq h, iZvc jLi Xvj ev bwZ (Slope) mgv
jLi Xvj ev bwZi | h jL wPi Xvj hZ ekx m jLwP ZZ ekx Lvov| myZivs iZvc jL mgv jL Acv
Lvov|
7
mgv cwqv (Isothermal Process):
Pvc cwieZb Kivi dj hLb Kvb Mvmi AvqZbi cwieZb nq, wK Zvcgvvi Kvb cwieZb nq bv, m cwieZbK
mgv cwieZb ej| h cwqvq G cwieZb msNwUZ nq ZvK mgv cwqv ej|
iZvcxq cwqv (Adiabatic Process):

h cwieZb Mvmi Pvc I AvqZbi cwieZb nq wK cwqvaxb Mvm Zvc MnY ev eRb KiZ cvi bv, m cwieZbK
i Zvcxq cwieZb ej Ges h cwqvq G cwieZb msNwUZ nq ZvK iZvcxq cwqv ej|
mgv I iZvc cwqvi ga cv_Kt
wgK
mgv cwqv
iZvc cwqv
wi Zvcgvvq h cwqv mvw`Z nq ZvK h cwqv mv`b Kvj cwieki mv_ Zvci
1|
mgv cwqv ej|
Av`vb c`vb nqbv ZvK iZvc cwqv ej|
2|
mgv cwqvq Zvcgvv wi _vK|
iZvc cwqvq Zvcgvv cwiewZZ nq|
3|
GUv axi cwqv
GUv `Z cwqv|
4|
mgv cwqvq PV = aeK nq|
iZvc cwqvq PV = aeK nq|
5|
mgv jL Kg Lvov|
iZvc jL AwaK Lvov|
mgv cwqvq Kvb wmg KZK KZ KvR wmg mieivnKZ Zvc kwi mgvbt
aiv hvK, Avgvì wmg nQ GKwU MvmfwZ wmwjvi hvi mv_ GKwU bobg wcb
jvMvbv AvQ| wmwjvi Ìqvji ga w`q kw wmg cek KiZ wK^v wmg
_K ewiq hZ cvi|
hw` wmg Lye axi axi kw mieivn Kiv hvq Zvnj Mvm Pvc I AvqZbi cwieZb
ne hwÌ Gi Zvcgvvi Kvb cwieZb ne bv| Gic cwieZbK mgv cwieZb ej|
Gi dj Mvmi h cmviY nq mgv cmviY ej|
mgv cwqvq pV iwLK wP `Lvb nqQ| GB iwLK wPK mgviL ej|
mgv cwqvq DZv wi _vK ej wmgi At kwi Kvb cwieZb nq bv| A_vr dU = 0 |
myZivs, Zvc MwZwe`vi c_g m~ _K cvB, dQ = 0 + dW dQ dW A_vr mgv cwqvq Kvb wmg KZK KZ
KvR wmg mieivnKZ Zvc kwi mgvb| mgv cwqvq p1V1 p2V2 ne|
c_g ci AsKi mgvavb

13| ZvcMwZwe`vi 1g m~ (13. First Law Of Thermodynamics)
1| wcbhy GKwU wmwjvi wKQy Mvm Ave AvQ|

Mmi Pvc 400Pa-G wi iL wmg axi axi
800J Zvckw mieivn Kivq 1200J KvR mvw`Z
nq| Mvmi AvqZb cwieZb Ges At kwi
cwieZb wbYq Ki|
GLvb,
Avgiv Rvwb,
Pvc, P = 400Pa
Q = U +W
Zvc, Q = 800J
KvR,W = 1200 J
ev, U =Q W
U = ?
ev, U =800J 1200 J AvqZb cwieZb, V =?
U =400 J
At kwi cwieZb FbvZK nIqvi A_ wmgi

At kw nvm cve|
Avevi,
W = PV
W
P
1200 3
V
m
400
V 3m 3 (Ans.)
V
2| 27C Zvcgvvi Kvb wbw` cwigvb Mvm nVvr

cmvwiZ nq wb AvKvi jvf Ki| P~ov Zvcgvv
KZ? [ =1.4]
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
T1V1 1 T2 V21
T2 V1 1
T1 V2 1
T V
2 1
T1 V2
T
V
2
300 2V
Zvcgvv, T1 = 27 C
= (27+273)K = 300K
AvqZb, V1 = V (awi)
AvqZb, V2 = 2V
Zvcgvv, T2 = ?
=1.4
1.4 1
T2 300 0.5 0.4 K

T2 227.36 K (227.36 - 273)C - 45.64C (Ans.)
3| 1 evqygjxq Pvc Kvb MvmK iZvcxq cwqvq

AvqZb wb Kij H Mvmi P~ov Pvc KZ ne?[
]
Avgiv Rvwb,
P1V1 = P2 V2
V
ev, P2 P1 1
V2
GLvb,
evqygji Pvc,
P1 =1.013105 Pa
AvqZb, V1 = V (awi)
AvqZb, V2 = 2V
Pvc, P2 =?

V
ev, P2 1.013 10
2V
1.41
ev, P2 1.013 105 0.51.41

P2 = 38120.37 Pa (Ans.)
4| ^vfvweK Zvcgvv I Pvc Kvb MvmK mgv

cwqvq wb AvqZb cmvwiZ Kij H Mvmi P~ov
Pvc KZ ne?
Avgiv Rvwb,
P1V1 P2 V2
T1
T2
PVT
P2 1 1 2
T1V2
0.76 V 273
P2
273 2V
P2 0.38mHg (Ans.)
GLvb,
Pvc, P1 = 0.76 m Hg
Zvcgvv, T1 =0C= (0+273)
= 273K = T2
AvqZb, V1 = V (awi)
AvqZb, V2 = 2V
Pvc, P2 =?
5| ^vfvweK Pvc 100 m3 AvqZbi GKwU Mvm

5103 J Zvc w`j Mvmi AvqZb 100.2 m3 nq| H
Mvmi KZ KvRi gvb wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
KZKvR W = PV
Pvc, P = 1.013105 Nm-2
Avw` AvqZb, V1 = 100 m3
W = PV2V1)
3
W =1.013105(100.2 100)J
W =1.013105 0.2 J
5
W =1.01310 0.2 J
W = 20260 J (Ans.)
kl AvqZb, V2 = 100.2 m
chy Zvc, Q = 5103 J
KZKvR W =?
13| ZvcMwZwe`vi 1g m~ (13. First Law Of Thermodynamics)
6| GKwU wmwjvii ga ivLv wKQy cwigvb Mvm

cwieki Dci 200 J KvR mv`bi mgq cwiek
_K 500 J Zvckw kvlY Ki| Mvmi At
kwi cwieZb KZ ne?
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
Q = U +W
kvwlZ Zvc, Q =500 J
U = Q W
KZKvR, W =200 J
U =
At kwi cwieZb, U= ?
U = J (Ans.)
At kwi cwieZb abvZK nIqvi A_ wmgi
At kw ew cve|
7| 27C Zvcgvvi Kvb wcvigvbweK Mvmi Pvc nVvr

wb Kiv nj, Pvc cwieZbi ci Zvcgvvi cwieZb KZ
ne?
Avgiv Rvwb,
1-
T1P1
1-
2 2
T P
T P
2 1
T1 P2
1-
1-1.4
T P 1.4
2 1
T1 2P2
GLvb,
Zvcgvv, T1 = 27 C
= (27+273)K = 300K
Pvc, P1 = P (awi)
Pvc, P2 = 2P
Zvcgvv gvvi cwieZb ,
T T2 T1 ?
wcvigvbweK Mvmi
0.2857
T
1
2
300 2
T2 300 0.5 0.2857 K
T2 365.70 K
T T2 T1 (365.70 300) K 65.70 K 65.70C ( Ans.)
Zvc wewKiY (Heat Radiation):

Zvcgvvi KviY Kvb e _K wbtmZ wewKiYK ejv nq Zvc wewKiY (Thermal Radiation)| e Zvc ay wewKiYB
Ki bv, kvlY I Ki| Kvb ei Zvcgvv AwePjfve ew Kiv nj wbwjwLZ NUbv wj NU
(1) Zvcgvv hZ ew cve wbtmZ Zvc wewKiYi cwigvb I ZZ evoZ _vKe|
(2) Zvcgvv hZ ekx ew cve eYvjxi Dj Ask _K wb:mZ wewKiYi Zi`N I ZZ ekx nvm cve|
(3) D e _K wb:mZ wewKiY ewU Kvb c`v_ w`q Zix Ges Gi AvKwZ I ci cKwZi Dci I wbfikxj|
D`vniY îc ejv hvq, 2,000K Zvcgvvq cwjk Kiv Pv UvObi c _K wbMZ wewKiYi nvi 23.5104Wm-2 |
gwjeWbvgi Rb GB nvi 19.2104Wm-2| cwZ cwU AgmY nj wb:miYi nvi ew cvq|
weKxY Zvc (Radiant Heat ):
wewKiY cwZZ h Zvc GK e _K Ab eZ ev GKvb _K Ab vb mvwjZ nq, ZvK weKxY Zvc (Radiant
Heat ) ejv nq|
weKxY Zvci ewk (Characteristics of Radiant Heat) :
weKxY Zvc kwi ga wbwjwLZ ewk cwijwZ nq|
(1) weKxY Zvc k~Y vbi gaw`q Pjv Pj KiZ cvi|
(2) AvjvK kwi gZ weKxY Zvc I mijiLvq Pj|
(3) AvjK iwki gZ weKxY Zvc cwZdjb I cwZmiYi m~ gb Pj|
(4) weKxY Zvc Avji eM Pj|
(5) AvjvK iwki gZ weKxY ZvcI wecixZeMxq m~ (Inverse square law) gb Pj| A_vr Kvb Zvc Drm _K
weKxY Zvci cvej Drm _K ei `~iZi eMi evvbycvwZK| R1 `~iZ cvej I1 I R2 `~iZ cvej I2 nj
I 1 R22
I 2 R12
(6) AvjvK iwki gZ weKxY Zvc kwi I ewZPvi (Interference) AceZb (Diffraction) I cvjvivqb
(Polarization) nq|
Av`k K e (Perfect Black Body):
hLb Kvb weKxY Zvc Kvb ei Dci AvcwZZ nq ZLb Gi wKQy Ask ei c cwZdwjZ nq, wKQy Ask kvwlZ nq,
Ges evKx Ask ei wfZi w`q evBi Pj hvq | hw` weKxY Zvci r fMvsk cwZdwjZ nq, a fMvsk kvwlZ nq Ges t
fMvsk evBi Pj hvq Ze, r+a+t=1. hLb r = 0, t = 0, ZLb a = 1, A_vr mg wewKiYB kvwlZ nq| Gi _K c~Y
wewKiK ev Av`k Kei msv cvIqv hvq|
Av`k K ei msv (Definition of Perfect Black Body):
hw` Kvb ei AvcwZZ weKxY Zvci Kvb Ask cwZdwjZ ev mvwjZ bv Ki meUzKzB kvlY Ki, Zvnj m eK
Av`k Ke ejv nq| Zi `Ni AvjvK ejv hvq, h e mKj Zi `Ni weKxY Zvc kvlb Ki, ZvK Av`k
Ke ej| Ke Dg kvlK I Dg wewKiK|
2
14| Zvc wewKiY (Heat Radiation)
Av`k K ei D`vniY (Example of Perfect Black Body):
Av`k Ke wnme h me eK weePbv Kiv nq, Zvì KvbwUBAv`k Ke bq|
Gì kvlYgZv 100% Gi KvQvKvwQ ej Gì Ke ej weePbv Kiv hvq| hgb
Kvjv cvwUbvg 98% AvcwZZ wewKiY kvlY KiZ cvi| wevbx dix GKwU Kei
cwiKbv Kib| wbP Zv eYbv Kiv nj| GwU GKwU `yqvj wewk duvcv MvjK| fZii
`qvj fylv Kvwj gvLvbv _vK Ges evBii w`KUv wbKj cvwjk Kiv _vK| `y`qvji
gaeZx vb evqyk~b Kiv nq hvZ cwienb I cwiPjb cwZZ Zvc b bv nq| GB
MvjKi GKwU m~ wQ` nj A | wQì wecixZ w`K GKwU wXwe C _vK hb AvMZ weKxY Zvc mivmwi cwZdwjZ nq
evBi hZ bv cvi| A wQ` w`q wewKiY MvjKi ga cek Ki| H wewKiY cvi Ìqvj nZ evi evi cwZdwjZ
nq kvwlZ nq| hLb GB MvjKK GKwU wbw` DZvq D Kiv nq ZLb GwU GKwU Av`k Kei gZ AvPiY Ki
Ges A wQ`c_ h wewKiY ewiq Avm ZvK K wewKiY ev c~Y wewKiY ejv nq|
wewKiY gZv: wbw` Zvcgvvi Kvb ei GKK dj nZ cwZ mK weKxY Zvci cwigvb I GKB
Zvcgvvq Kei GKK dj nZ cwZ mK weKxY Zvci cwigvb, G `yGi AbycvZK wewKiY gZv ej|
AvcwK wewKiY gZv: Kvb ei wewKiY gZv Ges GKwU K ei wewKiY gZvi AbycvZK H ei AvcwK
wewKiY gZv ej|
kvlY gZvt Kvb wbw` mgq Kvb e weKxY Zvci h cwigvb kvlY Ki Ges H mgq ei Dci h cwigvb weKxY
Zvc AvcwZZ nq, Zvì AbycvZK kvlb gZv ej|
wdvbi m~ (Steafan's Law): wevbx wdvb KKvqv _K weKxY Zvci GKwU m~ `b| Zuvi m~wU nj
Kvb KKvqv ei GKK dj _K cwZ mK weKxY Zvci cwigvb Gi cig Zvcgvvi PZz_ NvZi
mgvbycvwZK|
evLv: Kvb KKvqv ei cwZ GKK dj _K cwZ mK weKxY Zvci cwigvb E Ges ei cig Zvcgvv ev
Kjwfb cKvwkZ Zvcgvv T nj wdvbi m~vbyhvqx,
E T4
ev, E = T4, GLvb wdvb aeK| Gi gvb, =5.710-8 Wm-2K-4| e Av`k KKvqv bv nj E Gi gvb ne, E =
eT4 | GLvb e nj ewUi AvcwK wewKiY gZv| e gvb 0 _K 1 Gi ga| Av`k KKvqvi , e=1 |
ewUi A dj _K cwZ mK weKxY Zvci cwigvb ne, E = A eT4| ewU _K t mgq weKxY Zvci cwigvb
ne, E = A eT4t | T Zvcgvvi KKvqvwU hw` T0 Zvcgvvi e viv cwiewZ _vK Ze cwZ GKK dj _K
cwZ mK weKxY Zvckwi cwigvb ne E = T4T04) | KKvqv bv nj E Gi gvb ne, E = eT4T04)
wbDUbi kxZjxKiY m~ (Newton's Law of cooling):

Kvb e wewKiYi Rb h nvi Zvc nvivq Zv ei Zvcgvv I cvwicvwkK Zvcgvvi cv_Ki
mgvbycvwZK| Zvcgvvi cv_K hLb Kg ne ZLb G m~ chvR ne|
evLv:
Kvb ei Zvcgvv , Gi cvwicvwkKi Zvcgvv nj Zvc eRbi nvi,
dQ
( 0 )
dt
14| Zvc wewKiY (Heat
ev,
Radiation)
dQ
K( 0 ) ... ... ... ... ... (1)
dt
GLvb K nj GKwU mgvbycvwZK aeK| Gi gvb ei dj I cKwZi Dci wbfi Ki| hw` ei fi m, AvcwK
Zvc s Ges dt mgq ei Zvcgvv hw` d nvm cvq, Ze e KZK ewRZ Zvc, dQ=msd
e KZK ewRZ Zvci nvi ,
dQ
d
ms
dt
dt
(1) bs mgxKiY D gvb ewmq cvB,
d
K( 0 )
dt
d K
ev,
( 0 )
dt ms
d K
ev,
( 0 )
dt ms
d
ev,
K ( 0 )
dt
ms
[K
K
a eK ]
ms
d
( 0 )
dt
A_vr, Kvb ei Zvcgvv nvmi nvi, Z_v kxZjxKiYi nvi Gi wbR^ Zvcgvv Ges cwicvki Zvcgvvi cv_Ki
mgvbycvwZK| G Rb GB m~K wbDUbi kxZjxKiY m~ ej|
wdvbi m~ _K wbDUbi kxZjxKiY m~ (Newton's law of cooling from Steafan's law) cwZcv`b:
wdvbi m~vbyhvqx, T Zvcgvvi Kvb eK hw` To Zvcgvvi Kvb e viv cwiewZ _vK, Zvnj KKvqvwU h
nvi Zvc nvivq Zv nj, E Ae (T 4 T04 ) GLb ( T 4 T04 ) K Drcv`K weklY Kij cvIqv hvq,
E Ae (T 2 T02 )(T 2 T02 )
E Ae (T To )(T To )(T 2 T02 )
E Ae (T To )(T 3 TT02 T 2T0 T03 ) ... ... ... ... (2)
wK wdvbi m~ mKj Zvcgvvq chvR njI wbDUbi kxZjxKiY m~ ZLb chvR ne ne hLb (T-To) Gi gvb
mvgvb nq| A_vr, (T To ) 0 , A_vr T I To Gi gvb cvq mgvb nq| m To = T aij, (2) bs mgxKiY `vovq,
E Ae (T To )(T 3 TT 2 T 2T T 3 )
E Ae (T To )(4T 3 )
E Ae 4T 3 (T To )
E K (T To ), hLvb Ae 4T 3 K (GKwU aeK)|

E (T To ) A_vr, Zvcgvvi cv_K Kg nj ei ewRZ Zvci nvi ev kxZjxKiYi nvi ev
kxZjxKiYi nvi ei Zvcgvv I cvwicvwkKi Zvcgvvi cv_Ki mgvbycvwZK| GwUB wbDUbi kxZjxKiY m~|
AZGe wdvbi m~ _K wbDUbi kxZjxKiY m~ cwZcvw`Z|
14| Zvc wewKiY (Heat
Radiation)
wfqbi miY m~:

Rvgvb wevbx wfqb 1896 wLv Ke wewKiYi ZvcMwZwe`vi m~ cqvM Ki Zvcxq wevKiYi wewfb Zi
`Ni ga kwi eUb m^ m~ cYqY Kib| m~wU wbic:
Ke nZ wewKwiZ mevwaK Zvckwi Rb Zi`N Kei cig Zvcgvvi evvbycvwZK| hw` Kei mevwaK
kwi Rb Zvi Zi`N mGes cig Zvcgvv T K nq Ze wfqbi m~vbymvi,
m
1
T
1
[GLvb, b = fxb aeK]
T
m T b
m b
GLvb, aeK b =2.89810-3 mK

m T 2.898 10 3 G mgxKiY K wfqbi miY m~ ejv nq|
wkZjxKiY cwZZ Zij c`v_i AvcwK Zvc wbYqi cwZ eYbv (Determination of Specific heat of liquid by
cooling method):
KvhcYvjxt GKwU I cwivi KvjwiwgUvi wbq fi wbbq Kiv nq| KvjwiwgUvii
cvq AaK K Zvcgvvi Pq 25C _K 30C ekx Zvcgvvi Zij c`v_ viv
c~b Kiv nq| Gici KvjwiwgUviK Acwievnx c`v_i Dci vcb Ki Zij
c`v_wUK C _K C Zvcgvvq bv bvgv ch Acv Kiv nq| Zij c`v_wUi
Zvcgvv C _K C ch bg AvmZ h mgq jvM Zv c IqvPi mvnvh
wbbq Kiv nq| Gi ci Zijmn KvjwiwgUvii fi wbYq Kiv nq| 2q I 1g fii
cv_K _K Zij c`v_i fi cvIqv hvq|
Gici mgAvqZb Mig cvwb wbq Gi Zvcgvv I C _K C G bg AvmZ h mgq jvM Zv cwigvc Kiv nq|
Gi fi wbbq Ki Lvwj KvjwiwgUvii fi weqvM Ki cvwbi fi ei Kiv nq|
wnmve I Mbbv:
gbKwi, KvjwiwgUvii fi = m1 Kg
Zij c`v_i fi = m Kg
cvwbi fi = m2Kg
KjwiwgUvii Dcv`vbi AvcwK Zvc = S1 JKg-1K-1
Zij c`v_i wbbq AvcwK Zvc = S JKg-1K-1
cvwbi AvcwK Zvc = S2 JKg-1K-1
C _K C Zvcgvvq bg kxZj nZ Zij c`v_i mgq jvM = t1 Sec
C _K C Zvcgvvq bg kxZj nZ cvwbi mgq jvM = t2 Sec
ms (1 2 ) m1s1 (1 2 ) 1
JS
t1
(ms m1s1 )(1 2 ) 1
JS
t1
m s ( ) m1s1 (1 2 ) 1
JS
Ges cvwb I KvjwiwgUvii Zvc eRbi nvi 2 2 1 2
t2
(m s m1s1 )(1 2 ) 1
2 2
JS
t2
Zij c`v_ I KvjwiwgUvii Zvc eRbi nvi

kxZjxKiY Aev GKBic _vKvq Zvc eRbi GB nvi mgvb, A_vr
(ms m1s1 )(1 2 ) (m2 s2 m1s1 )(1 2 )
t1
t2
(ms m1s1 ) (m2 s 2 m1s1 )
ev,
t1
t2
( m s m s )t
ev, ms m1s1 2 2 1 1 1
t2
(m s m s )t
ev, ms 2 2 1 1 1 m1s1
t2
s
1 (m2 s 2 m1s1 )t1

m1s1 Jkg 1 K 1
m
t2
mZKZv (Caution):
(1) h AvqZbi Zij wVK mB GKB AvqZbi cvwb AekB wbZ ne|
(2) mwVK Zvcgvv cvwi mv_ mv_ c IqvP Pvjy I e Kiv DwPr|
(3) mye`x wbw viv mwVK fve IRb Kiv DwPr|
(4) mye`x _vgvwgUvi viv Zvcgvv bIqv DwPr|
Mxb nvDR I Gi cqvRbxqZv (Green House and its necessity):
kxZ cavb `k MvQcvjv msibi Rb KvP w`q wbwgZ NiK Mxb nvDm ej| GwU G cKvi Zvc duv`
(Heat trap)| Mxb nvDm GKwU wbw` Zvcgvv eRvq iL kvK mw Drcv`b Kiv nq| G Qvov Mxb nvDm eeZ nq
`yvc Dw`, jZvj BZvw` msibi KvR| kxZ cavb `k Dby Dw` I jZvj m~h _K weKxb Zvc Mnb Ki
D njI evqy cevn ev cwiPjb evqymvZ viv Vvv nq| Mxb nvDm evqyi Zvcgvv me cvq GKB mgvb _vK ej Gi
ga evqy cevn _vK bv| KviY, KvPi Nii evBi _K evqy cek hgb KiZ cvi bv, Zgwb ei nZI cvi bv|
myZivs Gi fZi ivLv Dw` I jZvj Ges wfZiKvi evqygj m~hi Zvc Mig njI Zv Avi Vvv nq bv| KviY m~h
_K Avmv z` Zi`Ni Zvc wewKiY KvPi Ni cek KiZ cvi, wK KvPi Ni Gi cKwZ cwiewZZ nq `xN
Zi`N wewk nq ej KvPi Ìqvj f` Ki hZ cvi bv| dj Mxb nvDmi wfZiKvi mewKQy Mig _vK|
fxbi miY m~ vivI Gi evLv Kiv hvq| fxbi m~ _K Avgiv Rvwb h, K e _K weKxY Zvc kwi
Rb Zi`N Kei cig Zvcgvvi evvbycvwZK| weKxY mevwaK kwi Rb Zvci Zi`N m Ges cig
Zvcgvv T nj fxbi m~vbymvi m 1 | KvPi Nii ejvq, m~h _K Avmv wewKiY Zvcgvv T ekx _vK dj m
T
z` _vK| GB Zi jvi f`b gZv (Penetrating power) ekx nIqvq Giv Abvqvm KvP f` Ki Mxb nvDmi
wfZi hZ cvi| H Zvc D nq fZii MvQcvjv BZvw` h Zvc wewKiY Ki Zvi T Kg hvq dj m eo hvq|
GB `xN Zi`Ni Zvci f`b gZv Kg nIqvq Giv KvP f` Ki evBi hZ cvi bv| dj Ni Mig _vK Ges
fZii Dw` I evqygjK GKwU wbw` Zvcgvvq _vK|
Mxb nvDm wqv (Green House effect) mnRB fxbi miY m~ viv evLv Kiv hvq| Mxb nvIm wqv ejZ
AwZwi Kveb WvBAvBW wbtmiYi dj cw_exi `xNgqv`x DKiY ev, D nIqvK eySvq| Kveb WvBAvBWi ag
nj ^ ev z` Zi`Ni wewKiY Gi wfZi w`q hZ cvi bv| m~h AZ D Aevq Zvc wewKiY Ki| dj T
ekx nIqvq GB wewKiY m z` nq| GB z` Zi`Ni wewKiY mnR evqygji Kveb WvBAvBWi wfZiw`q
cw_exZ Avm| cw_ex GB wewKiY kvlY Ki D nq| cw_ex hLb c~bivq Zvc wewKiY Ki ZLb Zvi Zvcgvv, T
m~hi Zvcgvv _K AbK Kg _vKvq GB wewKiY m `xN nq| GB `xN Zi`Ni wewKiY cw_exi Kveb
WvBAvBWi duv`K cwiq hZ cvi bv, GZ cw_exZ Zvc AvUKv co, dj Mxb nvDm wqv msNwUZ nq
`xNgqv`x DKiY NU|
6
Av`k K e Dg kvlK I Dg wewKiK Gi evLv t
Kvb ei Dci AvcwZZ wewKiY hw` e KZK myY kvwlZ nq, Ze H eK K e ev KKvqv ej| KKvqv
wewKiY wbtmZ Ki, ZvK KKvqv wewKiY ej| KKvqvi GKwU wekl ewk njv Gi Dci AvcwZZ wewKiY
KKvqv KZK hgb m~Y kvwlZ nq, Zgwb kxZj cwiek KKvqv Zvi kvwlZ wewKiY m~Yi c wewKwiZ Ki|
ZvB Av`k K e Dg kvlK I Dg wewKiK|
ivbvi cv wnme bZzb PKPK cvi Pq cyivbv KvwjgvLv cv ekx DchvMx :

Kvwj gvLv cv ekxi fvM Zvc kvlb Ki D nq| wK bZzb PKPK cv ekx Zvc kvlb KiZ cvi bv;
ekxi fvM Zvc PKPK Zj _K cwZdwjZ nq hvq| KvwjgvLv cvi Zvc kvlb gZv ekx ej ivbvi KvR ekx
DchvMx|
Migi w`b mv`v cvkvK I kxZi w`b Kvjv cvkvK Avivgc`: mv`v is Zvcxq wewKiYi Dg cwZdjK| mv`v
cvkvK m~hi ZvcK cwZdwjZ Ki wdwiq `q, ZvB mv`v cvkvK mnR D nq bv| Avi Kvjv is Dg kvlK|
dj Kvjv cvkvK m~hi Zvc kvlb Ki D nZ cvi| ZvB Migi w`b mv`v cvkvK Ges kxZi w`b Kvjv
cvkvK Avivgc`|
gi Aj w`b cP Mig I ivZi ejv Zxe kxZ Abyf~Z nq :
gi Aji evqy _vK| evqy Zvc ^Q| w`bi ejv m~hi Zvc mnRB f~-c cuQvq I f~-c AZ
D nq| dj gi Aj w`b cP Mig eva nq|
Avevi ivZi ejv f~-c Zvc wewKiY Ki| evqyi gaw`q mnRB Zvc evqygj f` Ki Pj hvq| dj
f~-c kxZj nq hvq| ZvB ivZi ejv gi Aj Zxe kxZ Abyf~Z nq|
gNgy ivZ Acv gNvQb ivZ ekx Mig Abyf~Z nq:
w`bi ejv f~-c m~hZvc kvlb Ki D nq Ges ivZi ejv Zvc wewKiY Ki kxZj nq| gNgy ivZ
f~-c mnRB Zvc wewKiY Ki kxZj nq hvq| wK Rjxq ev Zvc AmQ ej f~-ci Zvc gNi ga w`q
mvwjZ nZ cvi bv| dj gNvQb ivZ ekx Mig eva nq|
c_g ci AsKi mgvavb


1| 250gm fii GKwU Zvgvi KvjwiwgUvi ivLv 5gm cvwb
60C nZ 40C Zvcgvvq kxZj nZ 80 mK mgq jvM|
GKB KvjwiwgUvi mgvb AvqZbi 6gm fii Kvb Zij c`v_
60C nZ 40C Zvcgvvq kxZj nZ mgq jvM 70 mK|
Zij c`v_wUi AvcwK Zvc wbYq Ki| [Zvgvi AvcwK Zvc
380Jkg-1K-1 cvwbi Av.Zvc 4200Jkg-1K-1]
GLvb,
KvjwiwgUvi fi, m1 = 250gm = 0.25 Kg
cvwbi fi, m2 = 5gm = 0.005 kg
Zvgvi AvcwK Zvc, s1 = 380 Jkg-1K-1
cvwbi Avt Zvc, s2 = 4200 Jkg-1K-1
cvwbi mgq, t2 = 80 Sec
KjwiwgUvi I cvwbi Zvcgvv cv_K, = C =
KjwiwgUvi I Ziji Zvcgvv cv_K,C = 20C
Ziji fi, m = 6gm = 0.006kg
Ziji mgq, t1 = 70 Sec
Ziji Avt Zvc, s = ?
Avgiv Rvwb,
KjwiwgUvi I Zij KZK Zvc nvmi nvi =
KjwiwgUvi I cvwb KZK Zvc nvmi nvi
m 1 s1 (1 2 ) ms(1 2 ) m 1 s1 (1 2 ) m 2s 2 (1 2 )
t1
t2
m 1 s1 ms
m 1s1 m 2 s 2
t1
t2
0.25 380 0.006 s 0.25 380 0.005 4200
70
80
95 0.006 s 95 21
70
80
KjwiwgUvi I Ziji Zvcgvv cv_K, C = 2C

Ziji fi, m= 0.2kg
Ziji mgq, t1 = 300 Sec
Ziji Avt Zvc, s =?
Avgiv Rvwb,
KjwiwgUvi I Zij KZK Zvc nvmi nvi =
KjwiwgUvi I cvwb KZK Zvc nvmi nvi
m 1 s1 (1 2 ) ms(1 2 )
t1
m 1 s 1 ms
t1
m 1 s1 (1 2 ) m 2 s 2 (1 2 )
t2
m 1s1 m 2s 2
t2
42 0.2 s 42 0.3 4200
600
300
42 0.2 s 42 1260
1
2
1302
42 0.2s
2
0.2s 651 42
609
s
0.2
s 3045 Jkg 1K 1 (Ans.)
116 70
80
0.006s 101.5 95
6. 5
s
0.006
s 1083.33Jkg 1K 1 (Ans.)
95 0.006s
2| mgAvqZbi cvwb I GKwU Zij c`v_i fi h_vg 0.3kg

Ges 0.2kg| Zvì GKB KvjwiwgUvi ci ci iL 50C _K
30C-G kxZj KiZ h_vg 600s Ges 300s mgq jvM|
KvjwiwgUii ZvcaviKZ 42 Jkg-1 nj Ziji AvcwK Zvc
wbYq Ki| [ cvwbi AvcwK Zvc 4200Jkg-1K-1 ] GLvb,
KvjwiwgUvii ZvcaviKZ, m1s1 = 42 JK-1
cvwbi fi, m2 = 0.3 kg
cvwbi Avt Zvc, s2 = 4200 Jkg-1K-1
cvwbi mgq, t2 = 600 Sec
KjwiwgUvi I cvwbi Zvcgvv cv_K =C =
3| GKwU K Kvqvi dj 410-9 m2| GwU 1500K Zvcgvvq wK

nvi kw wewKiY Kie? [ 5.710-8 Wm-2K-4 ]
GLvb
Avgiv Rvwb,
E
AT 4
t
E
4 109 5.7 108 15004
t
E
1.15425 10 -3 W (Ans.)
t
dj, A= 410-9 m2
Zvcgvv, T = 1500K
5.710-8 Wm-2K- 4
wewKwiZ kwi nvi, E/t = ?
4| 400K Zvcgvvq GKwU e 300K Zvcgvvq GKwU K e viv

cwiewZ| eqi gaeZx vb evqy k~b| c_g ewUi cwZ GKK
dj _K Zvc wewKiYi nvi wbYq Ki|
GLvb
Avgiv Rvwb,
dj, A= 1 m2
E
A(T 4 To4 )
Zvcgvv, T = 400K
t
Zvcgvv, To= 300K
E
1 5.7 108 4004 - 3004 5.710-8 Wm-2K- 4
t
E
-8
10
5.7 10 1.75 10 W
t
E
997.5W (Ans.)
t
5| 0.3m evmvai GKwU avZe MvjK 25W gZv wewk Zvc

wewKiY Ki| Gi Zvcgvv wbYq Ki| [10-8 Wm-2K-4 ]
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb
E/t = AT4
dj,
A= 4r2
25 = 1.1304 5.6710-8T4
= 43.140.32m2
25
= 1.1304 m2
T4
8
wewKwiZ kwi nvi,
6.409 10
4
E/t = 25W
T 390054058.4
5.6710-8 Wm-2K- 4
T 140.53K (Ans.)
Zvcgvv T = ?
6| 2000K Zvcgvvi GKwU fvî evwZi wdjvgU kw wewKiY
KiQ| jvi ci dj 510-5m2 Ges Gi AvcwK
wewKiY gZv 0.85 nj wewKwiZ kwi nvi wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
E
AeT 4
t
E
5 10 5 0. 85 5. 67 10 8 2000 4
t
E
38.556W (Ans.)
t
GLvb
dj, A= 510-5m2
Zvcgvv, T = 2000K
5.6710-8 Wm-2K- 4
wewKwiZ kwi nvi,E/t = ?
AvcwK wewKiY
gZv, e = 0.85
7| 510-5m2 dji GKwU KKvqv 2000 K Zvcgvvq

cwZ mK KZUv kw wewKiY Kie?
GLvb
[ 5.710-8 Wm-2K- 4]
dj, A= 510-5m2
Avgiv Rvwb,
4
E AT t
E 5 10 5 5 .7 10 8
E 45.6 J (Ans.)
Zvcgvv, T = 2000K
5.710-8 Wm-2K- 4
4
2000 1 mgq t = 1 s
wewKwiZ kwE = ?
8| 127C Zvcgvvq GKwU e 27C Zvcgvvq GKwU K e

viv cwiewZ| eqi gaeZx vb evqy k~b| c_g ewUi cwZ
GKK dj _K Zvc wewKiYi nvi wbYq Ki| [
5.6610-8 Wm-2K- 4 ]
GLvb
Avgiv Rvwb,
E
A(T 4 To4 )
t
E
15.66108 4004 - 3004
t
E
990.5W (Ans.)
t
dj, A= 1 m
Zvcgvv, T = 127C
=400K
Zvcgvv, To= 27C
=300K
5.6610-8 Wm-2K- 4
9| Kvb Mxb nvImi ga 3200C Zvcgvvq 832110-10 m Zi

`Ni mevP cwigvY kw weKxY nj fxbi aeK KZ ne?
Avgiv Rvwb,
m T b
b m T
b 832110 10 3473
b 2.9 10 3 mK (Ans.)
GLvb,
Zvcgvv,T3200C
=(3200+273)K
=3473K
Zi `N m832110-10 m
fxbi aeK, b=?
10| Kvb ei ci dj 0.1m2| ewUK 1000K Zvcgvvq

D Kij GwU NUvq KZ kw wewKiY Kie? (e = 0.7)
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb
E AeT 4 t
E 0.1 0.7 5.7 108 10004 3600
E 14364000 J (Ans.)
dj, A= 0.1m2
e=0.7
Zvcgvv, T = 1000K
5.710-8 Wm-2K- 4
mgq t = 3600 s
wewKwiZ kw E = ?
11| `ywU K ei wbMZ Zvckwi AbycvZ 16 t 1| wZxq ei

Zvcgvv 3000K nj c_g ei Zvcgvv KZ?
E1 : E 2 16 : 1 , T2 3000K , T1 ?
Avgiv Rvwb, E1 AT14 I E 2 AT24
E1 AT14
E 2 AT24
16
T4
1 4
1 3000
4
2 T
1
1 3000
T1 6000K (Ans.)
12| Kvb e _K mevP wewKibi mvP wewKiYi Zi `N
2010-6m | ewUi Zvcgvv wbYq Ki| fxbi aeK
2.89810-3mK
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb
fxbi aeK,
b=2.89810-3mK
Zi `N,
m = 2010-6m
Zvcgvv T=?
mT b
b
T
b
T
m
2.898 10 -3
T
20 10 -6
T 144.9K (Ans.)

- , , , ,

0
0 C (-100C)

-
0
39 C, 52 C 56 C

, ,
, ,
, - ,

*
L

, 273.16 k
-2
4.6 mm (Hg) 610.616 Nm iv) (Sub Imitation Pressure)
Mjbv (Melting Point):

Kvb KwVb c`v_ Zvc cqvM KiZ _vKj cgvY Pvc h wbw` Zvcgvvq KwVb c`v_wU MjZ i Ki Ges myY
Mjb kl bv nIqv ch H Zvcgvv wi ZvK H KwVb c`v_i Mjbv ej|
Mjbvi Zvrch (Significance of Melting Point) : eidi Mjbv 0C ejZ GB eywS h, cgvY Pvc 0C Zvcgvvq
eid Mj cvwbZ cwibZ nIqv i Ki Ges m~Y eid bv Mjv ch Gi Zvcgvv evo bv|
wngv (Freezing Point) :
cgvY Pvc h wbw` Zvcgvvq Zij c`v_ RgZ i Ki Ges myY Zij bv Rgv ch H Zvcgvv wi ZvK cgvY
Pvc H Zij c`v_i wngv ej|
wngvi Zvrch (Significance of Freezing Point) : cvwbi wngv 0C ejZ GB eywS h, cgvY Pvc 0C Zvcgvvq
cvwb Rg eid cwibZ nIqv i Ki Ges m~Y cvwb RgvU eau eid cwibZ bv nIqv ch Gi Zvcgvv Kg bv|
zUbv (Boiling Point) :
Zij c`v_ Zvc cqvM KiZ _vKj cgvY Pvc h wbw` Zvcgvvq Zij c`v_ ev cwiYZ nZ i Ki Ges myY
Zij ev cwiYZ bv nIqv ch H Zvcgvv wi ZvK cgvY Pvc H Zij c`v_i zUbv ej|
zbvi Zvrch (Significance of Boiling Point) : cvwbi zUbv 100C ejZ GB eywS h, cgvY Pvc 100C
Zvcgvvq cvwb Rjxq ev cwibZ nIqv i Ki Ges m~Y cvwb ch evxf~Z bv nIqv ch Gi Zvcgvv evo bv|
myZvc ev AvcwK myZvc (Latent Heat or Specific Latent Heat ) t
Zvcgvvi cwieZb bv NwUq GKK fii Kvb ei GK Aev _K Ab Aevq icvwiZ nZ h Zvc Mnb ev eRb
Ki ZvK H c`v_i Aev cwieZbi myZvc ev AvcwK myZvc ej|
m fii Kvb ei Aev cwieZbi Rb MnxZ ev ewRZ Zvc Q nj, Gi Dcv`vbi AvcwK myZvc
Q
, Gi GKK Jkg-1 | AvcwK myZvc PvicKvii nq _vK| h_v t
m
1. Mjbi AvcwK myZvc (Specific Latent Heat of Fusion):
2. KwVbxfebi AvcwK myZvc (Specific Latent Heat of Solidification):
3. evxfebi AvcwK myZvc (Specific Latent Heat of Vaporization):
4. Nbxfebi AvcwK myZvc (Specific Latent Heat of condensation):
l
Mjbi AvcwK myZvc (Specific Latent Heat of Fusion): Mjbv Zvcgvv wi iL GKK fii Kvb KwVb
c`v_K KwVb Aev _K Zij Aevq icvwiZ KiZ h Zvci cqvRb nq ZvK H c`v_i Mjbi AvcwK
myZvc ej| GK lf viv cKvk Kiv nq| Zvcgvvi cwieZb bv NwUq m fii Kvb KwVb c`v_K Zij icvwiZ
Q
ne|
m
Mjbi AvcwK myZvci Zvrch (Significance of Specific Latent Heat of Fusion): eid Mjbi AvcwK
myZvc 3,36,000 J kg-1| eid Mjbi AvcwK myZvc 3,36,000 J kg-1 ejZ GB eywS h, 0C Zvcgvvi 1kg
eidK 0C Zvcgvvi 1kg cvwbZ cwiYZ KiZ 3,36,000 J Zvc cqvM KiZ nq|
KiZQ Zvci cqvRb nj Mjbi AvcwK myZvc, l f
2
15| Aevi cwieZb (Change Of State)
evxfebi AvcwK myZvc: zUbv Zvcgvv wi iL GKK fii Kvb Zij c`v_K Zij Aev _K evqexq
Aevq icvwiZ KiZ h Zvci cqvRb nq ZvK H c`v_i evxfebi AvcwK myZvc ej| GK lv viv cKvk
Kiv nq| Zvcgvvi cwieZb bv NwUq m fii Kvb Zij c`v_K Mvmxq Aevq icvwiZ
Q
ne|
m
evxfebi AvcwK myZvci Zvrch (Significance of Specific Latent Heat o vaporization): cvwbi evxfebi
AvcwK myZvc 22,68,000 J kg-1| cvwbi evxfebi AvcwK myZvc 22,68,000J kg-1 ejZ GB eywS h, 100C
Zvcgvvi 1kg cvwbK 100C Zvcgvvi 1kg Rjxqev cwiYZ KiZ 22,68,000 J Zvc cqvM KiZ nq|
KiZQ Zvci cqvRb nj Mjbi AvcwK myZvc, lv
eid Mjbi AvcwK myZvc wbYq (Determination of Specific Latent Heat of Fusion of Ice):
ebYv t GKwU I cwivi KvjwiwgUvi bIqv nq| Gici Gi fi cwigvc Kiv nq| KvjwiwgUvii `yB-ZZxqvsk
mvgvb Mig cvwb viv c~Y Ki Avevi fi gvcv nq| GB `yB fii cv_K _K Mig cvwbi fi cvIqv hvq| GKwU mye`x
_vgvwgUvii mvnvhMig cvwbi Zvcgvv wbYq Kiv nq| Gici KqK UzKiv eidK cwivi cvwb w`q ayq Pvl KvMR
w`q wKq wbq cvwbZ ZvovZvwo Qo `qv nq| Gici bvobx viv Av Av bvovb nq| GB Aevq eid MjZ
_vK Ges cvwbi Zvcgvv gk KgZ _vK| myY eid Mj hIqvi ci wgkYi mewb Zvcgvv mye`x _vgvwgUvii
mvnvh gvcv nq| Gici cvwbi Zvcgvv K Zvcgvvq cuQj cybivq KvjwiwgUvi cvwbmn KvjwiwgUvii fi gvcv
nq| ZZxq fi _K wZxq fi weqvM Ki eidi fi wbYq Kiv nq|
wnmve I MYbvt gbKwi,
KvjwiwgUvii fi = m1 kg
Mig cvwbi fi = m2 kg
eidi fi = m kg
KvjwiwgUvi I Migcvwbi Zvcgvv = C
wgkYi mewb Zvcgvv = C
KvjwiwgUvii Dcv`vbi AvcwK Zvc = S1 Jkg-1K-1
cvwbi AvcwK Zvc = S2 Jkg-1K-1
eid Mjbi AvcwK myZvc = lf Jkg-1
GLvb KvjwiwgUvi I Migcvwb Zvc eRb Ki Avi eid Zvc Mnb Ki|
KvjwiwgUvii Zvcgvv C _K C G bg AvmZ ewRZ Zvc,
H1=m1S1() J
Ges Mig cvwbi Zvcgvv C _K C G bg AvmZ ewRZ Zvc,
H2=m2S2() J
eid KZK Zvc MnY `yB chvq mb nq| c_gZ, C Zvcgvvi eid C Zvcgvvi cvwbZ cwiYZ nZ I C
Zvcgvvi eid Mjv cvwb C Zvcgvvi cvwbZ cwiYZ nZ|
C Zvcgvvi m kg eid C Zvcgvvi cvwbZ cwiYZ nZ eid KZK MnxZ Zvc,
H3=mlf J
C Zvcgvvi m kg eid Mjv cvwb C Zvcgvvi cvwbZ cwiYZ nZ eid Mjv cvwb KZK MnxZ Zvc,
H4=mS2() J = mS2 J
AbKvb Dcvq Zvci Av`vb c`vb bv nj,

gvU MnxZ Zvc= gvU ewRZ Zvc
H3 + H4 =H1 + H2
mlf + mS2 m1S1() + m2S2()
m(lf + S2)= (m1S1+ m2S2) ()
(m S m2 S 2 ) (1 - )
(m S m2 S 2 ) (1 - )
(l f S 2 ) 1 1
l f 1 1
S 2 Jkg 1
m
m
15| Aevi cwieZb
(Change Of State)
mZKZv (Caution) :
1| eid cvwbZ djvi mgq hb nvZ w`q bv aiv nq, Zv bv nj nvZ _K Zvc wbq wKQy eid Mj hZ cvi|
2| eid Mjbi mgq KjwiwgUvi Rvwj Ìqv bvobx eenvi Kiv DwPr KviY Gi mvnvh eid cvwbi bxP ivLZ nq|
3| KjwiwgUviK AcwievnK c`v_ viv XK ivLZ ne hvZ cwienb RwbZ KviY Kvb Zvc q bv nq|
4| KvjwiwgUvi mye`x _vgvwgUvi evenvi KiZ ne hvZ Zvcgvvi cwieZb mv_ mv_ aiv co|
cvwbi evxfebii AvcwK myZvc wbYq (Determination of Specific Latent Heat of Vaporization of Water) t
ebYv t GKwU eqjvi B -Z cvwb Mig Kiv nq| eqjvii gyL KK w`q AvUKvb _vK Ges euvKv bj A KKi ga cek
Kivbv _vK| A Gi Aci cv GKwU ev duvì ga cek Kivbv _vK| ev duv`wU GKwU KvPi bj wekl| Gi
Dci GKwU Ges bxP `yBwU wQ` Iqvjv KK jvMvb _vK| Dcii
KK w`q A bjwU ev duv` cek Kivbv nq| wbPi KK w`q bj C I D
cek Kivbv nq| C bj w`q ev duv` Rgv nIqv cvwb ei Kiv nq| D
bjwUi Aci cv KvjwiwgUvi K Z cek Kivbv _vK| KvjwiwgUvi I
eqjvii gvSLvb GKwU c`v P vcb Kiv nq hb KvjwiwgUviwU eqjvi
D Kivi mgq Zvc Mnb KiZ bv cvi| bvowb S mn KjwiwgUvi K
wbq Gi fi ei Kiv nq| Gi `yB-ZZxqvsk cvwbc~Y Ki Gi fi bIqv
nq| GB `yB fii cv_K _K cvwbi fi ei Kiv nq| GKwU _vgvwgUvi
T Gi mvnvh Gi Zvcgvv wbYq Kiv nq| Gi ci ev A bji gaw`q
ev dv` cek Ki Ges D bji ga w`q AvMZ ev KjwiwgUvii
cvwbi msk Gm Nbxf~Z nq Ges Zvc eRb Ki| GB Zvc MnY Ki KjwiwgUvi I cvwbi Zvcgvv ew cvq| Gi
wKQyb ci D bj mwiq cvwbi mevP Zvcgvv `L bqv nq| Gici cvwb mn KvjwiwgUvii fi bIqv nq| ZZxq
fi _K wZxq fi ev` w`j Nbxf~Z evi fi cvIqv hvq|
wnmve I MYbv : gb Kwi,
KjwiwgUvii fi = m1 Kg
KjwiwgUvi iwZ cvwbi fi = m2 Kg
Nbxf~Z evi fi = m Kg
KjwiwgUvi I cvwbi cv_wgK Zvcgvv = C
wgkbi mevP Zvcgvv = C
KjwiwgUvii Dcv`vbi AvcwK Zvc = S1 J kg-1K-1
cvwbi AvcwK Zvc = S2 J kg-1K-1
cvwbi evxfebi AvcwK myZvc = lv J kg-1
m fii ev `yB chvq Zvc eRb Ki| c_gZ, 100C Zvcgvvi ev 100C Zvcgvvi cvwbZ cwiYZ nZ Zvc
eRb Ki| wZxqZ, 100C Zvcgvvi cvwb C Zvcgvvi cvwbZ cwiYZ nZ Zvc eRb Ki|
100C Zvcgvvi ev 100C Zvcgvvi cvwbZ cwiYZ nZ ewRZ Zvc,
H1 = mlv J
100C Zvcgvvi cvwb C Zvcgvvi cvwbZ cwiYZ nZ ewRZ Zvc,
H2 = mS2( ) J
KjwiwgUvi KZK MnxZ Zvc, H3 = m1S1(1) J
cvwb KZK MnxZ Zvc, H4 = m2S2(1) J
AbKvb Dcvq Zvci Av`vb c`vb bv nj,
15| Aevi cwieZb
(Change Of State)
MnxZ Zvc = ewRZ Zvc

H1+H2=H3+H4
mlv+ mS2( )= m1S1(1)+ m2S2(1)
m{lv+ S2( )}= (m1S1+ m2S2)(1)
(m S + m2 S 2 )( - 1 )
lv + S 2 (100 - ) = 1 1
m
(m S + m2 S 2 )( - 1 )
lv = 1 1
- S 2 (100 - ) Jkg 1
m
mZKZv (Caution) t
1| ev Lye axi axi Zix KiZ ne Zv bv nj ev duvì AvMg bj w`q evi mv_ wKQy cvwb ev duv` cek
KiZ cvi |
2| ev duvì AvMvg bjwUK fvj fve Zzjv ev AbKvb AcwievnK c`v_ viv XK w`Z ne hvZ c_ Kvb ev
Nbxf~Z bv nZ cvi |
3| KjwiwgUviK AcwievnK c`v_ viv XK ivLZ ne hvZ cwienb RwbZ KviY Kvb Zvc q bv nq|
4| KvjwiwgUvi mye`x _vgvwgUvi evenvi KiZ ne hvZ Zvcgvvi cwieZb mv_ mv_ aiv co|
cvwbi awe`y (Triple tip of Water) t
h wbw` Zvcgvvq I Pvc cvwb KwVb (eid), Zij (cvwb) I evqexq (Rjxhev) GB wZb Aevq _vKZ cvi ZvK
cvwbi awe`y ej| GB we`yZ wbw` Zvcgvv 0C ev, 273.16K Ges GB we`yZ wbw` Pvc 4.58 mmHg|
msKU Zvcgvv (Critical temperature) t
mevP h Zvcgvvq _vKj Kvb MvmK aygv Pvc cqvM Ki Zij cwiYZ Kiv hvq mB ZvcgvvK msKU
Zvcgvv ej| cvwbi msKU Zvcgvv 647K|
`kv (Phase) :
Kvb wmgi GKwU wbw` Ask, hvi Dcv`vbMZ MVb me Awfb Ges fZ wePvi Abvb Ask _K c_KhvM A_vr
Kvb hvwK cwqvq Abvb Ask nZ mnR c_K Kiv hvq, ZvK `kv ej|
`kv wP (Phase Diagram) t
Kvb c`v_i m evPvc ebvg Zvcgvv wbq jLwP Ab
Kij h jLwP cvIqv hvq ZvZ `kv wP ej|
cvwbi `kv wP (Phase Diagram of water) t
GKwU QK KvMR X -A Zvcgvv Ges Y-A m evPvc
vcb Ki `kvwP Ab Kiv nj|
h Zvcgvvq cvwb Ges Rjxq ev mn-Aevb _vK, m
Zvcgvv ebvg m Rjxq evi Pvc wbq jLwP Ab Kij
h jLwP cvIqv hvq ZvK OP iLv viv m~wPZ Kwi| G iLvi
bvg ev iLv| h Zvcgvvq eid Ges Rjxq ev mn-Aevb
_vK, m Zvcgvv ebvg m Rjxq evi Pvc wbq jLwP
Ab Kij h jLwP cvIqv hve, ZvK OQ iLv viv m~wPZ
Kwi| G iLvi bvg nvidv iLv| Avevi h Zvcgvvq eid
Ges Zij cvwb mn-Aevb _vK m Zvcgvv ebvg m Rjxq evi Pvc wbq jLwP Ab Kij h jLwP
cvIqv hve ZvK OR iLv viv m~wPZ Kwi| GB iLvi bvg eid iLv|
5
Dciv wZbwU iLv GKwU mvaviY we`y O- Z Q` KiQ| GB mvaviY we`yK a we`y ej| mvaviY fve
ejv hvq h, h Zvcgvvq Kvb c`v_i KwVb, Zij Ges ev GKwU wbw` Pvc ZvcMZ mnAevb _vK ZvK D
c`v_i a we`y ej|
msKU Zvcgvvt
mevP h Zvcgvvq _vKj GKwU MvmK aygv Pvc cqvM Zij cwiYZ Kiv hvq ZvK H Mvmi msKU Zvcgvv
ej|
ev I Mvm t
evt
evqexq Aevq Kvb c`v_i Zvcgvv hw` msKU Zvcgvvi Pq Kg nq Ze ZvK ev ej| hgbt Rjxq ev,
evwgb ev, B_vbj ev BZvw`|
Mvmt
evqexq Aevq Kvb c`v_i Zvcgvv hw` msKU Zvcgvvi Pq ekx nq Ze ZvK Mvm ej| hgbt AwRb Mvm,
nvBWvRb Mvm BZvw`|
evvqb I zUb I Gì ga cv_K t
evvqb t h cwqvq Kvb wbw` Pvc Kvb Zij c`v_ h Kvb Zvcgvvq Gi Dcwi gy Zj nZ axi axi ev
cwiYZ nq ZvK evvqb ej|
zUb : h cwqvq Kvb wbw` Pvc Kvb Zij c`v_ Gi zUzbv Zvcgvv wi iL Ziji mgM Ask nZ `Z ev
cwiYZ nq ZvK zUb ej|
cv_K
evvqb
zUb
1| Kej gv gy Zj nZ axi axi ev cwiYZ nq| 1| Ziji mgM Ask nZ `Z ev cwiYZ nq|
2| h Kvb Zvcgvvq NU|
2| wbw` Pvc I wbw` Zvcgvvq NU|
3| ev Pvc, evwnK Pvci Pq Kg|
3| ev Pvc, evwnK Pvci mgvb
4| eyèy` mw nq bv|
4| eyèy` mw nq|
5| evvqbi nvi Ziji gy Zji dji Dci
5| zUbi nvi, Zvc mieivni nvii Dci wbfi Ki|
wbfi Ki|
6| evvqbi mgq Ziji Zvcgvv nvm cvq|
6| zUbi mgq Ziji Zvcgvv wi _vK|
c_g ci AsKi mgvavb


1| 0C Zvcgvvi 0.02kg eidK 100C Zvcgvvi ev
cwibZ KiZ KZ Zvc jvMe? [eid Mjbi myZvc
=336000Jkg-1 , cvwbi AvcwK Zvc =4200Jkg-1K-1 Ges
evi myZvc = 2260000 Jkg-1]
0C Zvcgvvi eidK 0C Zvcgvvi cvwbZ cwibZ KiZ
Zvc jvM Q1 = fi Mjbi myZvc
= 0.02336000 J = 6720 J
0C Zvcgvvi cvwbK 100C Zvcgvvi cvwbZ cwibZ KiZ
Zvc jvM Q2 = fi Avt Zvc Zvcgvvi cv_K
= 0.02 4200 (1000) J
= 8400 J
100C Zvcgvvi cvwbK 100C Zvcgvvi ev cwibZ KiZ
Zvc jvM Q3 = fi evxfebi myZvc
= 0.02 2260000 J = 45200 J
gvU cqvRbxq Zvc Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
= (6720+8400+45200) J
= 60320 J (Ans.)
2| 263K Zvcgvvi 0.02kg eidK 373K Zvcgvvi ev
cwibZ KiZ KZ Zvc jvMe? [eidi AvcwK Zvc
=2100Jkg-1K-1 eid Mjbi myZvc = 336000Jkg-1 , cvwbi
AvcwK Zvc =4200Jkg-1K-1 Ges evxfebi AvcwK
myZvc = 2260000 Jkg-1]
263K = (263273)C = 10C
373K = (373273)C = C
10C Zvcgvvi eidK 0C Zvcgvvi eid cwibZ KiZ
= 0.02 2100 {0 (10)} J
= 420J
= 0.02336000 J = 6720 J
= 0.024200(100 0) J
= 8400 J
100C Zvcgvvi cvwbK 100C Zvcgvvi ev cwibZ KiZ
Zvc jvM, Q4 = fi evxfebi myZvc
= 0.02 2260000 J = 45200 J
gvU cqvRbxq Zvc, Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4
= (420+6720+8400+45200) J
= 60740 J (Ans.)
3| 5C Zvcgvvi 0.005kg eidi mv_ 90C Zvcgvvq 0.005

kg cvwb wgkvj wgkbi Pzov Zvcgvv KZ ne? [eidi AvcwK Zvc
=2.1 103Jkg-1K-1 eid Mjbi myZvc =3.36 105 Jkg-1 ,
cvwbi AvcwK Zvc = 4.2 103 Jkg-1K-1 ]
gb Kwi, wgkbi Pyov Zvcgvv ne C
5C Zvcgvvi eidK 0C Zvcgvvi eid cwibZ KiZ

Zvc jvM Q1 = fiAvt ZvcZvcgvvi cv_K
= 0.0052.1103{0(5)} J
= 52.5 J
0C Zvcgvvi eidK C Zvcgvvi cvwbZ cwibZ KiZ
= 0.0053.36 105 J = 1680 J
0C Zvcgvvi cvwbK C Zvcgvvi cvwbZ cwibZ KiZ
= 0.0054.2103(-0) J
= 21 J
Zvc eRb Ki Q4 = fiAvt ZvcZvcgvvi cv_K
= 0.0054.2103(90- J
= (1890-21 J
ckgZ, Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = Q4
52.5 + 1680 + 211890-21
2118901680-52.5
42157.5

157.5
C 3.75C (Ans.)
42
4| 100C Zvcgvvi 500g Rjxqev Nbxf~Z nq 30C Zvcgvvi

cvwbZ cvwbZ cwibZ nIqvi Rb KZ Zvc eRb KiZ ne? [cvwbi
AvcwK Zvc = 4200 Jkg-1K-1 evxfebi AvcwK myZvc =
2.26 106 Jkg-1]
500g = 0.5Kg
100C Zvcgvvi RjxqevK 100C cvwbZ cwibZ KiZ
Zvc eRb Ki Q1 = fi evxfebi myZvc
= 0.52.26106 J = 1130000 J
Zvc eRb Ki Q2 = fi Avt Zvc Zvcgvvi cv_K
= 0.5 4200(10030) J
= 147000 J
gvU cqvRbxq Zvc = (1130000 + 147000) J
= 1277000 J (Ans.)
c_g ci AsKi mgvavb
5| 0C Zvcgvvi 2.1 Kg eid 40C Zvcgvvi 5.9 Kg

cvwbi mv_ wgwkZ Kiv nj| wgkbi P~ov Zvcgvv KZ ne?
gbKwi wgkbi Zvcgvv

= 2.1336000 J = 705600 J
0CZvcgvvi cvwbK C Zvcgvvi cvwbZ cwibZ KiZ
=2.1 4200 (0) J
= 8820 J
Zvc eRb Ki Q3 = fi Avt Zvc Zvcgvvi cv_K
= 5.94200(40) J =(991200 24780 J
ckgZ, MnxZ Zvc = ewRZ Zvc
Q1 + Q2 = Q3
705600 + 8820991200 24780
882024780991200 705600
33600285600
285600
8.5C(Ans)
33600
6| mgcwigvb Mig cvwb Ges 0C Zvcgvvi eid GKmv_ wgkvb

nj| myY eid Mj cvwb nIqvi ci wgkbi DZv 0C nj|
Mig cvwbi DZv KZ wQj? (eid Mjbi AvcwK myZvc
=3.36105 Jkg-1Ges cvwbi AvcwK Zvc = 4.2 103 Jkg1 -1
K )
gb Kwi, eidi I Mig cvwbi fi wQj = m Kg I
Mig cvwbi DZv KZ wQjC
0C Zvcgvvi eidK C Zvcgvvi cvwbZ cwiYZ KiZ
= m3.36 105 J = 3.36 105 m J
C Zvcgvvi Mig cvwbK C Zvcgvvi cvwbZ cwiYZ KiZ
Zvc eRb Ki Q2 = fiAvt ZvcZvcgvvi cv_K
= m 4.2103( 0) J
= m 4.2103 J
ckgZ, MnxZ Zvc = ewRZ Zvc
3.36 105 m J= m 4.2103 J
3.36 105
C
4.2 103
C (Ans.)
7| 50C Zvcgvvi 0.03 kg cvwbZ 0C Zvcgvvi 0.02kg

eid wgkvb nj wgkbi djvdj wK ne? [cvwbi Av: Zv: 4200
Jkg-1K-1 Ges eid Mjbi myZvc =3.36105 Jkg-1]
50 C Zvcgvvi cvwbK 0 C Zvcgvvi cvwbZ cwibZ KiZ
ewRZ Zvc, Q1 = fiAvt ZvcZvcgvvi cv_K
= 0.034200(50-0) J
= 6300J

= 0.023.36105 J
= 6720 J
cvwb KZK ewRZ Zvc, eid MjZ cqvRbxq Zvci Pq Kg nIqvq
mg eid Mje bv| gb Kwi m kg eid Mje|
ckgZ, m3.36105 = 6300
6300
kg 0.01875 kg
3.36 105
Di wgkbi P~ov Zvcgvv ne 0 C Ges 0.01875 kg eid Mje,

evKx (0.020.01875) kg = 0.00125kg eid
(0.03+0.01875)kg=0.04875kg cvwbi Dci fvme|
8| 50C Zvcgvvi 0.03 kg cvwbZ -10C Zvcgvvi 0.02kg eid

wgkvb nj wgkbi djvdj wK ne? [cvwbi Av: Zv: 4200 Jkg-1K-1
Ges eid Mjbi myZvc = 3.36105 Jkg-1]
50 C Zvcgvvi cvwbK 0 C Zvcgvvi cvwbZ cwibZ KiZ
ewRZ Zvc, Q1 = fiAvt ZvcZvcgvvi cv_K
= 0.034200(50 0) J
= 6300J
-10C Zvcgvvi eidK 0C Zvcgvvi eid cwibZ KiZ
= 0.022100{0(10)} J
= 420J
= 0.023.36105 J
= 6720 J
cvwb KZK ewRZ Zvc 6300J, eid MjZ cqvRbxq Zvc
(420+6720) J=7140J Gi Pq Kg nIqvq mg eid Mje bv| gb
Kwi m kg eid Mje|
ckgZ, 420 + m3.36105 = 6300
6300 - 420
kg 0.0175 kg
3.36 10 5
Di: wgkbi P~ov Zvcgvv ne 0 C Ges 0.0175 kg eid Mje,

evKx (0.02-0.0175) kg = 0.0025kg eid (0.03+0.0175)kg =
0.0475kg cvwbi Dci fvme|
9| A_ev, mgvb fii 0C Zvcgvvi eid I dzU cvwb GK wgwkZ
Kiv nj| GZ m~Y eid cvwbZ cwiYZ nj Ges wgkbi Zvcgvv
10C nj| eid Mjbi AvcwK myZvc wbYq Ki| [cvwbi AvcwK
Zvc 4200Jkg-1K-1]
gb Kwi, eid I cvwbi fi m, I eid Mjbi AvcwK myZvc=lf
eid KZK MnxZ Zvc= mlf+m4200(10-0)
cvwb KZK ewRZ Zvc= m4200(100-10)
ckgZ, mlf+m4200(10-0) = m4200(100-10)
lf+420010 = 420090
lf= 378000-42000=336000Jkg-1 (Ans.)
cZvMvgx cwqv (Reversible Process):

h cwqv wecixZgyLx nq cZveZb Ki Ges myLeZx I wecixZgyLx cwqvi cwZ i Zvc I KvRi djvdj mgvb I
wecixZ mB cwqvK cZvMvgx cwqv ej| eid Zvc kvlY Ki cvwbZ cwiYZ nq| Avevi mB cvwb _K Zvc
mgcwigvb Zvc AcmviY Kij Zv cybivq eid cwiYZ nq| GwU cZvMvgx cwqvi GKwU D`vniY|
AcZvMvgx cwqv (Irreversible Process):
h cwqv wecixZgyLx nq cZveZb KiZ cvi bv A_vr myLeZx I wecixZgyLx cwZ i Zvc I KvRi djvdj mgvb
I wecixZ nq bv mB cwqvK AcZvMvgx cwqv ej| `ywU ei ga NlYi dj h Zvc mw nq Zv GKwU
AcZvMvgx cwqv KviY Nlbi wei h KvR nq ZvB Zvc cwiYZ nq Ges H ZvcK KvbfveB KvR icvwiZ
Kiv hvq bv|
cZvMvgx cwqv I AcZvMvgx cwqvi ga cv_K (Distinction between reversible and irreversible process):
cZvMvgx cwqv
AcZvMvgx cwqv
1| h cwqv wecixZgyLx nq cZveZb Ki Ges 1| h cwqv wecixZgyLx nq cZveZb KiZ cvi bv
myLeZx I wecixZgyLx cwqvi cwZ i Zvc I KvRi A_vr myLeZx I wecixZgyLx cwZ i Zvc I KvRi
djvdj mgvb I wecixZ mB cwqvK cZvMvgx cwqv djvdj mgvb I wecixZ nq bv mB cwqvK
ej|
AcZvMvgx cwqv ej|
2| KvhwbevnK e cv_wgK Aevq wdi Avm|
2| KvhwbevnK e cv_wgK Aevq wdi AvmZ cvi
bv|
3| GwU GKwU axi cwqv|
3| GwU GKwU `Z cwqv|
4| GB cwqvq wmgi ZvcMZxq mvgvev eRvq 4| GB cwqvq wmgi ZvcMZxq mvgvev eRvq
_vK|
_vK& bv |
Bwb (Engine):
h h Zvc kw hvwK kwZ icvwiZ nq ZvK Zvc Bwb ej| Bwb cavYZ `yB cKvi h_vt- 1| A`nb Bwb I
2| ewn`nb Bwb|
ZvcMwZwe`vi wZxq m~ (Second Law of Thermodynamics):
Kbvi weewZ: Kvb wbw` cwigvb Zvc kwK myYic hvwK kwZ icvi mg Ggb h wbgvb me bq|
Kwmqvmi weewZ: evBii kwi mvnvh Qvov Kvb ^qswq hi c wb DZvi e nZ DPZi DZvi eZ
Zvci vbvi me bq|
cvi weewZ: Ggb Kvb Bwb Zix me bq, hUv Kvb e _K Zvc MnY Ki Aweivgfve KvR cwiYZ Kie A_P
cwieki Kvb cwieZb ne bv|
Kjwfbi weewZ: Kvb eK Gi cwicvki kxZjZg Ask nZ AwaKZi kxZj Ki kwi Aweivg mieivn cvIqv
me bq|
2
16| Zvc MwZwe`vi 2q m~ (Second Law Of Thermodynamics)
Bwbi Zvcxq `Zv (Efficiency of a Engine): Kvb Zvc Bwb viv KvR icvwiZ Zvc kwi cwigvb Ges Bwb
viv kvwlZ Zvc kwi AbycvZK Bwbi Zvcxq `Zv ej| GK viv cKvk Kiv nq| msv gZ,
Zvcxq `Zv,
Bwb viv icvwiZ Zvc kw

Bwb viv kvwlZ Zvc kw
evLv t Kvb Bwb hw` T1 Zvcgvvq Zvc Drm _K Q1 Zvc kvlY Ki Ges T2 Zvcgvvq Q2 Zvc eRb Ki, Zvnj
Bwb viv KvR icvwiZ Zvc kwi cwigvb = (Q1-Q2)|

Q1 Q2
| Bwbi Zvcxq `ZvK kZKivq cKvk Kij Zvcxq `Zvi ivwkgvjv ne,
Q1
Q Q
Q
ev, 1 2 100 % 1 2 100 %
Q1
Q1 Q1
T
Zvc Zvcgvvi mgvbycvwZK, A_vr, Q1T1 Ges Q2T2 dj, 1 2 100 %
T1
Q1 Q2
100 %
Q1
KYvi Bwb (Carnot's Engine): ZvckwK hvwK kwZ icvwiZ Kivi Rb mv`x Kbv mKj `vlwU gy h
Av`k hi Kbv Kib ZvK Kbv Bwb ej|
Kbv Bwb GKwU Av`k Bwbi aviYvgv, eve Gi icvi me nqwb| Kbv Bwbi PviwU Ask| Ask PviwU (1)
wmwjvi (2) ZvcDrm (3) Zvc MvnK (4) Zvc AiK e ; wb wPmn wewfb Ask eYbv Kiv nj|
wmwjvi (Cylinder): GKwU wmwjvi C| wmwjviwUi Ìqvj m~Y Zvc AiK c`v_ Ges Zj`k m~yY Zvc cwievnK
c`v_ viv Zix| Gi wfZi m~Y Zvc AiK c`v_ Zix GKwU wcb P NlYnxbfve PjvPj KiZ cvi| wmwjvii
wfZi KvhwbevnK e wnme Av`k Mvm bqv nq|
ZvcDrm: DP Zvc aviYgZv mb GKwU D e hv T1 Zvcgvvq AvQ Ges Zvci Drm wnme KvR Ki| Gi
Zvcgvv me`v wi _vK, Zvci Av`vb c`vb Zvcgvv KLbv cwieZb nq bv|
Zvc MvnK: DP Zvc aviYgZv mb T2 Zvcgvvq GKwU kxZj e hv Zvc MvnK wnme KvR Ki| Gi ZvcgvvI
me`v wi _vK, Zvci Av`vb c`vb Zvcgvv KLbv cwieZb nq bv|
Zvc AiK e: m~Y Zvc AiK c`v_i Zix GKwU Avmb hvi Dci wmwjviwU emvb _vK|
3
Kbvi P (Carnot's Cycle): h wekl cwqvq KvR Kij GKwU Av`k Zvc Bwb Z_v Kbv Bwb Aweivg kw
mieivn KiZ cvi ZvK Kbv P ej| Kbv P cZvMvgx cwqvi gvag KvhwbevnK e Drm _K Zvc Mnb Ki
GKwU wbw` Pvc, AvqZb I Zvcgvv nZ Avi Ki GKwU mgv cmviY I GKwU iZvcxq cmviY Ges GKwU mgv
mvPb I GKwU iZvcxq mvPbi gvag Zvci wKQy Ask KvR icvi Ki Ges evKx Ask Zvc MvnK eRb Ki
Avw` Aevq wdi Avm| Av`k MvmK PviwU chvqi gaw`q AwZg Kivbv nq|
c_g chvq (First Operation): c_g wmwjvi C K Zvc Drmi Dci emvbv
nq| Lye Amgqi ga wmwjvi Ave Mvmi Zvcgvv Drmi Zvcgvvi mgvb
nq|aiv hvK, GB Aevq Mvmi Pvc I AvqZb h_vg P1I V1 nq hv wb`kK
wPi A we`y viv wb`k Kiv nqQ| GLb Av`k MvmK mgv cwqvq
cmvwiZ nZ w`j cwqv kl Gi Pvc I AvqZb h_vg P2I V2 nq hv
wb`kK wPi B we`y viv wb`k Kiv nqQ| AB iLv viv Mvmi mgv
cmviY `Lvbv nqQ Ges KZ KvR, W1=ABGE i dji mgvb|
wZxq chvq (Second Operation): Gevi wmwjvi C K Zvc-AiK Avmbi Dci emvbv nq Ges Ave MvmK
iZvcxq fve cmvwiZ nZ Ìqv nq| cwqv kl Mvmi Pvc I AvqZb h_vg P3I V3 nq hv wb`kK wPi C
we`y viv wb`k Kiv nqQ| i Zvcxq cmviYi dj Mvmi Zvcmvv nvm cq Zvc MvnKi Zvcgvv T2 Gi mgvb
nq| wP BC iLv viv Mvmi i Zvcxq cmviY `Lvbv nqQ Ges GB cmviY KZ KvR, W2=BCHG i
dji mgvb|
ZZxq chvq (Third Operation): Gevi wmwjvi C K ZvcMvnKi Dci ewmq Avevi Mvmi Pvc ew Kij wcb
viv Mvmi Dci KvR mvw`Z ne| dj Mvmi At kw ew cve| wK Ave Mvm ew cv At kw
Zvcic ZvcMvnK eRb Ki Zvcgvv ZvcMvnKi mgvb A_vr T2 eRvq ivLe| GB Aevq Ave Mvmi Pvc I
AvqZb h_vg P4 I V4 nq hv wb`kK wPi D we`y viv wb`k Kiv nqQ| wP CD iLv mgv msKvPb wb`k
Ki Ges GB mvPbi dj KZ KvR, W3=CDFH i dji mgvb|
PZz_ chvq (Fourth Operation): kl chvq wmwjvi C K cybivq Zvc-AiK Avmbi Dci emvbv nq Ges
iZvcxqfve Ave Mvmi Dci Pvc evovbv nq| dj Gi AvqZb nvm cvq| Ave Mvmi Dci KvR mvw`Z
nIqvq Gi Zvcgvv ewcq cybivq Drmi Zvcgvv T1 Gi mgvb nq| GB Aevh Mvmi Pvc I AvqZb cybivq
h_vg P1 I V1 nq hv wb`kK wPi A we`y wb`k Ki A_vr Ave Mvm Avw` Aevq wdi Avm| wP DA iLv
Ave Mvmi i Zvcxq mvPb `Lvbv nqQ dj KZ KvR, W4=DAEF i dji mgvb|
GLvb W1 I W2 Ave Mvm viv KZ KvR ej abvZK ne Ges W3 I W4 Ave Mvmi Dci KZ KvR ej FbvZK
ne| dj Ave e viv gvU KZ KvR,
W= W1+ W2 - W3 - W4
W= ABGE + BCHG - CDFH - DAEF
W= ABCD i dji mgvb| myZivs GKwU Kbv P KvhwbevnK e viv mvw`Z KvR wb`kK wP `ywU
mgv iLv I `ywU iZvcxq iLv viv Ave i dji mgvb|

GbUwc (Entropy): Kvb wmg kw _vKjB h ZvK cqvRbxq KvR jvMvbv hve Ggb Kvb wbqZv bB| GUv
wbfi Ki wmgi ZvrwYK Aevi Dci| Avgiv Rvwb Kvb MvmK iZvcxq cwqvq mzwPZ Kij Mvmi Dci
h KvR Kiv nq Zvi dj Mvmi Atkw I Zvcgvv eo hvq| Avevi iZvcxq cwqvq Kvb MvmK cmvwiZ
4
nZ w`j MvmK wKQy KvR KiZ nq| dj Mvmi Atkw I Zvcgvv Kg hvq| myZivs `Lv hvq h, iZvcxq
cwqvq Mvmi Atkw I Zvcgvv DfqiB cwieZb nq| wK mgv cwqvq hgb Zvcgvv wi _vK iZvcxq
cwqvq Zgwb Kvb GKwU ivwk wi _vK| Kwmqvm GB ivwkwUi bvg `b GbUwc| iZvcxq cwqvq ei h Zvcxq
ag wi _vK ZvK GbUwc ej| GbUwc GKwU fZ ivwk, GK S viv cKvk Kiv nq|
hw` Kvb wmg T Zvcgvvq dQ cwigvb Zvc MnY ev eRb Kivi dj GbUwci cwieZb ds nq Ze
ds
dQ
ne|
T
Kvb wmgi kw icvii AgZv ev AmveZvK ev icvii Rb kwi AcvZvK GbUwc ej|
GbUwci evLv nj ei iZvcxq cwqvq GbUwc wi _vK:
Kvb ei GbUwci cig gvb AvRI Rvbv me nqwb| Ze Kvb e hw` Zvc Mnb ev eRb Ki, Zvnj ei GbUwci
cwieZb nq| Kvb wmgi Zvcgvv mvc MnxZ ev ewRZ Zvc cwieZbi nvi viv GbUwci cwieZb cwigvc Kiv
nq|
hw` Kvb wmg T Zvcgvvq dQ cwigvb Zvc MnY ev eRb Kivi dj GbUwci cwieZb ds nq Ze
ds
dQ
ne|
T
Dciv mgxKiY nZ `Lv hvq h, iZvcxq cwqvq hnZz KvhwbevnK ei mv_ evBii Zvci Kvb Av`vb c`vb
nqbv KvRB, dQ=0 | myZivs iZvcxq cwqvq GbUwci cwieZb, dS
dQ 0
0 A_vr iZvcxq cwqvq
T
T
GbUwci cwieZb nq bv A_vr iZvcxq cwqvq GbUwci wi _vK| myZivs Kvb ei GbUwc ejZ Avgiv Ggb GKUv
fZ ivwkK eywS hv ei iZvcxq cZvMvgx cwqvq me`v wi _vK| GbUwci cwieZbi GKK JK-1 |
cZveZx cwqvq GbUwc wi _vK I AcZveZx cwqvq GbUwc ew cvq t
cZveZx cwqvq GbUwc wi _vK:
Kbvi P GKwU cZveZx cwqv| GZ `ywU mgv iLv I `ywU iZvcxq iLv viv m AB I CD `ywU mgv iLv
Ges BC I DA `ywU i Zvcxq iLv| hnZz iZvcxq cwqvq GbUwc wi _vK myZivs mgv AB I CD Gi
GbUwci cwieZb NUe|
AB Gi Zvc Q1 I Zvcgvv T1 nj GbUwci cwieZb, ds1
Q1
T1
Ges CD Gi Zvc Q2 I Zvcgvv T2 nj GbUwci cwieZb, ds2

gvU GbUwci cwieZb ds ds1 ds2
wK cZvMvgx cwqvq KbvP,
Q2
T2
Q1 Q2
T1 T2
Q1 Q2
T1 T2
G gvU GbUwci cwieZb, ds ds1 ds2
Q1 Q2
0 A_vr cZveZx cwqvq GbUwci cwieZb k~b|

T1 T2
myZivs cZveZx cwqvq GbUwc wi _vK|
5
AcZveZx cwqvq GbUwc ew cvq:
aiv hvK, `ywU ey A I B cwicvki cfve _K gy Aevq ciii msk AvQ| eq Ges Gì mshvMj Zvc
mycwievnx| eqi Zvcgvv h_vg T1 I T2 ; T1 T2 ; Zvc D e _K kxZj eZ mvwjZ ne| m Zvc Avi D
eZ wdi Avme bv| AZGe GwU GKwU AcZveZx cwqv|
awi, AwZ A mgq dQ cwigvb Zvc A _K B Z mvwjZ nq| A e dQ cwigvb Zvc nvivq, B
e dQ cwigvb Zvc ARb Ki| A ei GbUwc nvm

mgM eevq gvU GbUwci cwieZb, ds
dQ
dQ
; B ei GbUwc ew
;
T1
T2
dQ dQ
T2
T1
G, gvU GbUwci cwieZb GKwU abvZK ivwk; KviY, T1 T2 |

AZGe, AcZveZx cwqvq GbUwc ew cvq| A_ev Abfve ejv hvq,
^ZtzZ cwqv mw`KB msNwUZ nq h w`K GbUwc ew cvq|
c_g ci AsKi mgvavb

16| ZvcMwZwe`vi 2q m~ (Second Law Of Thermodynamics)

1| GKwU Kbv Bwbi Drmi Zvcgvv 400K, GB Zvcgvvq
GKwU Drm _K GwU 840J Zvc Mnb Ki Ges wmsK 630J Zvc
eRb Ki| wmsKi Zvcgvv I Bwbi Kg`Zv wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
Q1 Q 2
100%
Q1
840 630
100%
840
210
100%
840
25% (Ans)
GLvb,
Zvcgvv, T1 = 400K
Zvc, Q1 = 840 J
Zvc, Q2 = 630 J
Kg`Zv,
wmi Zvcgvv, T2 = ?
Avevi,Avgiv Rvwb,
T1 T2
100%
T1
400 T2
100%
400
400 T2
25
4
100 400 T2
T2 400 100
T2 300K (Ans.)
25%
1000
100%
3400
29.41% (Ans)
3| GKwU Bwbi Kg `Zv 65%| Gi wb Zvcvavii (MvnKi)

Zvcgvv 27C | Gi DP Zvcvavii (Drmi) Zvcgvv wbYq
Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
T1 T2
100%
T1
65 T1 300
100
T1
100T1 30000 65T1
100T1 65T1 30000
35T1 30000
4| GKwU Bwb 3400J Zvc Mnb Ki I 2400J Zvc eRb Ki|

BwbwU viv mvw`Z KvRi cwigvb I Bwbi `Zv wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
W Q Q
1
2
Zvc, Q1 = 3400 J
W (3400 2400 ) J
Zvc, Q2 = 2400 J
W 1000 J ( Ans .)
KvR, W =?
Q Q
Kg`Zv,
2 100%
1
Q
1
3400 2400
100%
3400
2| GKwU Kbv Bwb 327C Ges 27C DZvi ga KvR

KiQ| Gi Kg `Zv KZ?
GLvb,
Avgiv Rvwb,
DP Zvcvavii Zvcgvv,
T1 T2
T1 = 327C
100%
=(327+273)K
T1
= 600 K
600 300
wb
Zvcvavii
Zvcgvv,
100%
600
T2 = 27C = (27+273)K
0.5 100%
= 300 K
Kg`Zv,
50 % (Ans.)
65%
30000
35
T1 857.14K
T1 (857.14 - 273)C 584.14C (Ans.)
T1
wb Zvcvavii Zvcgvv,
T2 = 27C
= (27+273)K
= 300 K
Kg`Zv,
DP Zvcvavii
Zvcgvv, T1 = ?
5| GKwU Bwb 25C Ges 225C Zvcgvvi ga KvhiZ| Bwbi

Zvc Drm _K 4200J Zvc Mnb Ki| Bwb viv mvw`Z KvRi
cwigvb wbYq Ki|
GLvb,
Avgiv Rvwb,
DP Zvcvavii Zvcgvv,
T1 = 225C
Q1 T1
= (225+273)K
Q 2 T2
= 498 K
Q1T2
wb
Zvcvavii
Zvcgvv,
Q2
T2 = 25C
T1
= (25+273)K
4200 298
= 298 K
Q2
498
MnxZ Zvc, Q1 = 4200J
Q 2 2513.25J
KZ KvR, W = ?
Avevi,
W Q1 Q 2
W 4200 2513.25
W 1686.74 J (Ans.)
6| GKwU KYv Bwb 800K I 400K Zvc gvvq h `Zvq KvR Ki,
wVK mg`Zvq KvR Ki T K Ges 900K Zvcgvv| Zvcgvv T wbYq
Ki|
GLvb, 1g
Avgiv Rvwb,
DP Zvcvavii Zvcgvv,
T1 T2
T1 = 800K
100%
T1
wb Zvcvavii Zvcgvv,
T2 = 400K
800 400
100%
Kg`Zv,
800
16| ZvcMwZwe`vi 2q m~ (Second Law Of Thermodynamics)
0.5 100%
50%
Avevi,
T T
4 3 100%
T4
T 900
50%
100%
T
T 900
1
2
T
2T 1800 T
T 1800 K ( Ans.)
GLvb, 2q
wb Zvcvavii Zvcgvv,
T3 = 900K
Kg`Zv,
DP Zvcvavii Zvcgvv,
T4 = T=?
7| 10C Zvcgvvi 5kg cvwbK 100C Zvcgvvq DxY KiZ

GLvb,
GUwci cwieZb wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
fi, m = 5kg
T2 dQ
Zvcgvv,T1 = 10C
dS
T1
=(273+10)K=283K
Zvcgvv,T2 = 100C
msdT
T1
T
T2 5 4200 dT
dS
T1
T
dS
T2
dS 21000lnT
=(273+100KC=373K
GUwci cwieZb dS=?
T2
T1
dS 21000 (ln T2 ln T1 )
T
dS 21000 ln 2
T1
373
dS 21000 ln
283
dS 21000 0.276131522
dS 5798.76 JK 1 (Ans.)
8| 0C Zvcgvvi 3kg eidK 0C Zvcgvvi cvwbZ cwiYZ
KiZ GbUwci cwieZb KZ ne? [eid Mjbi AvcwK myZvc
=336000 Jkg-1]
dQ
Avgiv Rvwb, dS
T
mlf
ev, dS
T
dQ
dS
T1 T
T2 msdT
dS
T1
T
T2 1 4200 dT
dS
T1
T
T2
GLvb,
eidi fi, m = 3kg
Mjbi AvcwK myZvc
lf=336000 Jkg-1|
Zvcgvv T= (0+273)K=273 K
GbUwci cwieZb dS=?
ev, dS 3 336000
273
dS 3692.3JK 1 (Ans)
9| 0C Zvcgvvi 1kg cvwbK 100C Zvcgvvq DxY KiZ
GUwci cwieZb wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
dS 4200lnT
T2
T1
dS 4200 (ln T2 ln T1 )
T
dS 4200 ln 2
T1
373
dS 4200 ln
273
dS 4200 0.312106624
dS 1310.84JK 1 (Ans.)
GLvb,
fi, m = 1kg
Zvcgvv, T1 = 0C
=(273+0)K=273K
Zvcgvv, T2 = 100C
=(273+100)K=373K
GUwci cwieZb dS=?
10| GKwU Kvbv Bwbi Zvc MvnKi Zvcgvv 7C Ges `Zv 50%|
Bwbi `Zv 60% KiZ nj Zvc Drmi Zvcgvv KZ ew KiZ
ne?
Avgiv Rvwb,
T1 T2
100%
T1
T 280
50% 1
100%
T1
50 T1 280
100
T1
100T1 28000 50T1
50T1 28000
1
T1
28000
50
GLvb,
MvnKi Zvcgvv,
T2 = 7C
= (7+273)K
= 280 K
Kg`Zv,
Drmi Zvcgvv, T1 = ?
Kg`Zv,
T1/ T1 ?
T1 560K
T1/ T2
100%
T1/
T / 280
60% 1 /
100%
T1
60 T1/ 280
100
T1/
100T1/ 28000 60T1/

40T1/ 28000
28000
T1/
40
/
T1 700K
Zvcgvv ew
= T1/ T1 (700 560) K 140K ev, 140C (Ans.)
k (Sound):
h evwnK KviY Avgvì Kvbi keb Bw`q kwZi Abyf~wZ RvMvq ev RvMvZ Pv Ki ZvK k ej| k GK cKvi
kw hv Kvb Kbkxj e _K Drcb nq Ro gvagi mvnvh Avgvì Kvb cwQq kwZi Abyf~wZ RvMvq ev
RvMvZ Pv Ki|
k hfve Drcb nq (Production of Sound):
evZvm Kvb ei Kbi dj k Drcb nq| Ze hw` GB ki Kv 20Hz _K 20,000Hz ch nq Ze Avgiv
Drcb k bZ cvB| Avi hw` Drcb 20Hz Gi Kg ev 20,000Hz Gi ekx nq Ze Drcb k Avgiv bZ cvB bv|
GB Rb 20Hz _K 20,000Hz ch Kv wewk k ZiK AwWI ev kebxq k Zi ej|
kveZvi mxgv, Kv ev wdKvqw, Zi, Avo Zi, jw^K Zi, Zi `N, Zi eM, wevi, `vjb Kvj,`kv, Zi
eM, ki eM Ges KwbK Kv Gi msv I evLv:
kveZvi mxgv (Limit of Audibility):
h k Avgiv bZ cvB Zvi Kv 20 Hz _K 20,000 Hz Gi ga nq| G Rb GK keZvi mxgv ej| A_vr
keZvi mxgv nj h k Zii Kv 20 Hz _K 20,000 Hz Gi ga|
Kv (Frequency):
Kvb Kgvb e cwZ mK hZwU c~b Kb mb Ki ZvK ZvK H Kgvb ei Kv ej| GK n ev f viv
cKvk Kiv nq| Kv ev wdKvqxi GKK Hz ev, cy/s|
Zi (Wave):
wwZvcK gvagi KYv wji mgwMZ Kbi dj m Av`vjbK Zi ej| Zi cavbZ `yB cKvi (1) Avo Zi
ev Abyc Zi (2) jw^K Zi ev Aby`N Zi
(1) Avo Zi ev Abyc Zi (Transverse Wave):
h mg Zii Ro gvagi KYv wji Kbi w`K Zi cevni w`Ki mv_ mgKvY ev j^ fve nq mB
mg ZiK Avo Zi ev AYyc Zi ej| AvjvK Zi AYyc Zii D`vniY|
(2) jw^K Zi ev Aby`N Zi (Longitudinal Wave):
h mg Zii Ro gvagi KYv wji Kbi AvwfgyL ev mgvivj Zi cevwnZ nq mB mg ZiK jw^K
Zi ev Aby`N Zi ej| k Zi jw^K Zii D`vniY|

17| Zi I k (Waves & Sound)
Zi `N (Wave Length):
Kgvb ei GKwU c~Y Kb m Zi h `~iZ AwZg Ki ZvK Zii Zi `N ej| Zi
`NK viv cKvk Kiv nq| Zi `Ni GKK wgUvi ev wdU| Zi cevnKvj ZiwZ GKwU KYvi N wU c~Y
Kbi mgq AeKvk Zi S `~iZ AwZg Kij
S
ne|
N
Zi eM (Wave Velocity):
wbw` w`K Zi GKK mgq h `~iZ AwZg Ki ZvK Zi eM ej| GK V viv cKvk Kiv nq| t mgq wbw`
w`K Kvb Zi d `~iZ AwZg Kij Zi eM V
d
ne| Gi GKK ms-1|
t
wevi (Amplitude):
Kvb GKwU Kgvb KYvi mvgvevb _K h Kvb GKw`K mevwaK h `~iZ AwZg Ki ZvK Gi wevi ej|
weviK a viv cKvk Kiv nq| wevi Gi GKK wgUvi|

`jbKvj ev chvqKvj (Time Period):
Kvb GKwU gvag GKwU c~Y Zi mw KiZ KbiZ Zi Drmi h mgq jvM ZvK H Kgvb ei `vjbKvj ev
chvqKvj ej| GK T viv cKvk Kiv nq| t mK Zi Drm N wU c~b Kb w`j `vjbKvj T
t
N
ne|
`kv (Phase):
Zii ga GKwU KYvi Kvb gyn~ Zi Aevb Ges Gi MwZi Aev I w`K hv viv cKvk Kiv nq ZvK `kv ej| GRb
`kv Kvb GKwU Kgvb ei Aev cKvk Ki|
Zi gyL (Wave Front):
Kvb Zii Dci AewZ mg`kv mb KYv wj h Zj Aevb Ki ZvK ZigyL ej| Avo Zii Zi
kxl I Zi cv` AewZ mKj KYv mg `kvq _vK| A_vr Zvì `kv GKB|
ki eM (Velocity of Sound):
k GKK mgq wbw` w`K h `~iZ AwZg Ki ZvK ki eM ej| GK V viv cKvk Kiv nq| t mgq d `~iZ
AwZg Kij eM V
d
ne| Gi GKK ms-1|
t
KwbK Kv (Angular Frequency):

mgqi mv_ `kvi cwieZbi nviK KwbK Kv ej| GKwU c~b Kb T mgq `kvi cwieZb myZivs KwbK
Kv
2
2f KwbK Kvi GKK rad s-1
T
v = f mK wU cgvb A_ev, ki eMi mv_ Kv I Zi `Ni mK vcb (Relation Between v and ):

Zi mwKvix Kvb Kbkxj KYvi GKwU c~Y Kb w`Z h mgq jvM, mB mgqK chvqKvj T ej| T mgq Zi
h `~iZ AwZg Ki ZvK Zi `N ej|

T mgq Zi AwZg Ki `~iZ
GKK mgq Zi AwZg Ki

`~iZ
T
wK Zi GKK mgq h `~iZ AwZg Ki ZvK Zi eM ej| Zi eM v nj

v
Avevi, Kbkxj e GKK mgq hZjv c~Y Kb mb Ki ZvK Kv ej|

chvqKvj T nj, T mK `q GKwU `vjb dj 1 mK `q 1/T wU `vjb |
KvK f viv cKvk Kij,
f
myZivs v
1
T
A_vr v = f (cgvwYZ)
T
mij `vjMwZ (Simple Harmonic Motion):

Kvb wbw` mgq ci ci GKB cKvi MwZi cybivew NUj mB MwZK mij `vj MwZ ej| hw` Kvb ei `vj MwZ
GKwU c_ Ggb fve nq h, `vjvqgvb ewUi ZiY Gi MwZc_i GKwU wbw` we`ygywL nq Ges GB ZiY we`ywU _K
`vjvqgvb ewUi mibi mgvbycvwZK nq Ze H ic MwZK mij `vj MwZ ej|
mij `vjMwZi ewk mg~n (Characteristics Simple Harmonic Motion):
(1) G MwZ mij iwLK MwZ
(2) G MwZ `vj MwZ
(3) G MwZ mb ei ZiY me`v mvgvevb _K miYi mgvbycvwZK
(4) G MwZ chvq MwZ
(5) G MwZ mb ei ZiYi w`K me`v mvgvevb _K miYi wecixZ gywL|
(6) G MwZ mb ei ZiY me`v Gi MwZ c_i GKwU wbw` we`y AwfgywL|
Avo Zi I jw^K (`xNj) Zii cv_K (Distinction between Transverse wave and longitudinal wave) t
wgK
Avo ev Abyc Zi
jw^K ev `xNj Zi
wwZ vcK gvagi KYvwji Av`vjbi dj m wwZ vcK gvagi KYvwji Av`vjbi dj m
1
Zi hw` KYvwji MwZc_i mv_ mgKvY Zi hw` KYvwji MwZc_i mv_ mgvivj cevwnZ
cevwnZ nq Ze H ZiK Avo Zi ej|
nq Ze H ZiK jw^K Zi ej|
2
Zi cevni dj gvag Zi P~ov I Zi cv` Zi cevni dj gvag msKzwPZ i I cmvwiZ i
Gi mw nq|
mw nq|
3
gvag Zi cevn m ci ci `ywU Zi P~ov ev Zi cevn m GKwU msKzwPZ I GKwU cmvwiZ i
Zi cv` Gi gaeZx `~iZK Zi `N ej|
Gi wgwjZ `NK Zi `N ej|
4
AvKwZi ag mb gvag GB Zii Drcw nq| AvqZbi wwZvcK ag mb gvag GB Zii
Drcw nq|
5 gvag Gi mgeZb nZ cvi|
gvag Gi mgeZb nq bv|
Avo Zii MVb wP wbic
jw^K Zii MVb wP wbic
6

wi Zi (Stationary wave):
Kvb gvagi GKwU mxwgZ Ask cii wecixZ gyLx Zii wevi I `vjbKvj hw` mgvb nq Ze Gì wgwjZ
wqvq H Ask h b~Zb Zii Drcw nq ZvK wi Zi ej|
GKwU Uvbv Zvii Kv_vI AvNvZ Kij G aibi Zi Zvi eq `yB cvi w`K AMmi nq Ges `yB cv _K
cwZdwjZ nq wdi Avm| D Zvi m Zi GKwU wi Zii
D`vniY|wi Zii Kvb Kvb we`yi wevi k~b Ges Kvb Kvb
we`yi wevi mevwaK| h we`y wji wevi mevwaK [A wPwZ we`y wj]
ZvìK my` we`y Ges h we`ywji wevi k~b [N wPwZ we`y wj]
ZvìK wb` we`y ej|
wi Zii cv_K ewkt
(K) GB Zi gvagi Kvb GKwU mxwgZ Ask Drcb nq|
(L) AMmi bv nq GKB Ask mxgve _vK|
(M) Zii wewfb we`yZ Kbi wevi mgvb bq|
(N) Zii my` we`yi wevi Zi mwKvix g~j Zii wevii wb-Gi mgvb|
(O) ci ci `ywU jyci miY cii wecixZ w`K nq|
(P) wi we`y KYvjv Qvov mKj KYvi MwZ mij Qw`Z `b MwZ|
Pjgvb ev AMMvgx Zi (Progressive wave or travelling wave) :
Kvb Zi hw` weZ gvagi GK i nZ Abi
gvMZ mvwjZ nq myLi w`K AMmi nq Ze mB
ZiK AMMvgx Zi ej| gy evqyZ cevngvb k
Zi Ges mvaviY cvwbi Zi AMMvgx jw^K Zii D`vniY|
Pjgvb ev AMMvgx Zii cv_K ewkt
(K) Kvb gvagi GKB cKvi Kb GB Zii Drcw nq|
(L) Gi eM gvagi NbZ I wwZvcKZvi Dci wbfi Ki|
(M) gvagi KYv jv KLvbv wi _vK bv|
(O) Zi cevn gwagi wewfb Aski Pvc I NbZi GKB cKvi cwieZb NU|
(P) Zi gyLi Awfj^ eivei kw enb Ki G Zi cevwnZ nq|
(Q) gvagi cwZwU KYvi Kv I wevi GKB nq Ges Zviv GKB aibi Kb KwZ nq|
wi I Pjgvb (AMMvgx) Zii cv_K (Distinction between Stationary and progressive wave :
wi Zi
Pjgvb (AMMvgx) Zi
1| Kvb gvagi GKwU mxwgZ Ask cii wecixZ 1| Kvb Zi hw` weZ gvagi GK i nZ Abi
gyLx Zii wevi I `vjbKvj hw` mgvb nq Ze gvMZ mvwjZ nq myLi w`K AMmi nq Ze mB
Gì wgwjZ wqvq H Ask h bZzb Zii Drcw ZiK AMMvgx Zi ej|
nq ZvK wi Zi ej|
2| Zii wb` we`y Qvov Ab we`yi MwZ mij `vj 2| ZiwZ wewfb we`yi MwZ mij `vj MwZ|
MwZ|
3| Zii AvKvi GK vb wi _vK|
3| Zii AvKvi GK vb wi _vK bv|
4| Zi cevn gvagi KYv wj cZK c~Y Kb 4| Zi cevn gvagi KYv wj KLbv wi Aev cv nq
`yBevi wi Aev cv nq|
bv|
5| wi Zii wPt
5| Pjgvb Zii wPt

Pjgvb (AMMvgx) Zii mgxKiY cwZcv`b Ki ev,
2
y A sin (vt x) mgxKiY cwZcv`b :
Pjgvb (AMMvgx) Zii mgxKiY (Equation of travelling or progressive wave) :

gvagi KYv jv mij Qw`Z w`Z nj Pjgvb Zii De nq|
GKwU KYv _K Av`vjb cieZx KYvZ cQZ wKQy mgq jvM|
myZivs Zii AwfgyL eivei KYvwji `kvi cwieZb NUZ _vK|
gbKwi, GKwU Pjgvb Zi O _K C eivei GQ| [cvk wP]
hnZz gvagi KYvjv mij Qw`Z `b GQ, mnZz O KYvi
MwZK wbPi mgxKiY viv cKvk Kiv hvq|
y = a sin t
GLvb, y = t mgq OBC iLv ev mvgvev _K KYvwUi miY|
a = KYvi wevi
= KYvi KwbK Kv
hw` KYvwUi Kv f nq Ze f
y = a sin ft .........................................(1)
Avevi O KYvwU hLb mvgvev AwZg Ki ZLb B KYvwUI GKB w`K mvgvev AwZg Ki| myZivs Giv mg`kv
mb| mg`kv mb cii `ywU KYvi gaeZx `~iZ nQ Zi `N | GLvb = OB| GLvb O we`y _K B
we`yZ hvIqvi mgq `kvi cwieZb nq | AZGe, O we`y _K x `~iZ P we`yZ hvIqvi mgq `kvi cv_K 2 x
GLb P we`yZ AewZ KYvi miY y nj,
y = a sin (t )
y a sin t
x

x
y a sin 2ft

2vt 2
y a sin
x

2
vt x
y a sin
2
Zi Wvb w`K _K evg w`K Mj KYvwUi miY ne, y a sin vt x
wi Zii mgxKiY cwZcv`b ev, y A sin
2f
v
2
vt mgxKiY cwZcv`b :
wi Zi: Kvb gvagi GKwU mxwgZ Ask mgvb wevi I Zi `Ni `ywU
Pjgvb Zi GKB gvbi eM wecixZ w`K _K AMmi nq GK Acii Dci
AvcwZZ nq h Zii De nq ZvK wi Zi ej|
GKwU Zvii GK cv GKwU `p Aej^b ea Ab cv ai Dci wbP AvovAvwofve `vjvj GKwU Zi Zvi
eq AMmi ne Ges ecv cwZdwjZ nq wdi Avme| GB cwZdwjZ Zi hLb bZzb Pjgvb Zii Dci AvcwZZ
ne ZLb wi Zii De ne| GB Zi Zvi eq AMmi bv nq eis Zvii H Aski ga Drcb I wejy nq|
Zii Dei mgq `Lv hvq h, Zvii Kvb Kvb RvqMvq, hgb N1, N2, N3 BZvw` we`yZ Kvb `b bB, Avevi
Kvb Kvb hvqMvq, hgb A1, A2, A3 BZvw` `b me mgq mevwaK| h mg we`yZ Kvb `b bB ZvìK wb`
we`y (Nodes ) ej Ges h mg we`yZ `b mevwaK m mKj we`yK my` we`y (Antinodes ) ej|

gb Kwi, GKB wevi a Ges GKB Zi `N wewk `ywU Pjgvb Zi eM v wbq GKB A X eivei cii wecixZ
w`K AMmi nQ| h ZiwU X A eivei Wvbw`K MwZkxj Zvi Rb x we`yZ t mgq Kvb KYvi miY y1 Ges evg
w`K MwZkxj Zii Rb H KYvi miY y2 nj Avgiv Rvwb,
2
(vt x )
2
I y 2 a sin (vt x ) myZivs KYvwUi jw miY y ne
y1 a sin
y = y1 + y2
2
2
( vt x ) a sin
( vt x )
2
2
y a sin
(vt x ) sin
( vt x )
y a sin
2 vt x vt x
2 vt x vt x
y 2a sin
cos

2
2

2
2
y 2a sin vt cos
x

2
y A sin vt ... ... ... ... (1)
GLvb wevi, A 2a Cos
2
x
Dciv mgxKiYwU wi Zi cKvk Ki| wewfb we`yZ x Gi gvbi Dci wbfi Ki wevii gvb I wewfb ne|
my` we`y (Anti Node): h mKj we`yZ jw wevi mvP A_vr A 2a ne mB mKj my` we`y Zix ne|
A_vr h mKj we`yZ cos
2
x 1 ne mB mKj we`yZ my` we`y Zix ne| myZivs h mKj we`yZ
2x
0, , 2 ............., n, ne| hLvb, (n = 0, 1, 2, 3 . . ....... . . .) |
n
2
ev, x 0, , , . . .. . . . . . .
, hLvb, (n = 0, 1, 2, 3 . .. . .. . .)
2
2 2
2 4
2n
, hLvb, (n = 0, 1, 2, 3 . .. . .. . .) mB mKj we`yZ my` we`y Zix
ev, x 0, , , . . .. . . . . . .
4 4
4
ne| myZivs wi Zii h mKj we`y Gi Rvo wbZK `~i AewZ mB mKj we`yZ my` we`y mw ne|
4
wb` we`y (Node): h mKj we`yZ jw wevi k~Y A_vr A 0 ne mB mKj we`yZ wb` we`y Zix ne| A_vr
2
x 0 ne m mKj we`yZ wb` we`y Zix ne| myZivs h mKj we`yZ
2x 3 5
, , ............., (2n 1) , ne| hLvb, (n = 0, 1, 2, 3 . . . . . . .) |
2 2 2
2
3 5
ev, x , , . . .. . . . . . . (2n 1) , hLvb, (n = 0, 1, 2, 3 . . . . . . .) mB mKj we`yZ wb` we`y

4 4 4
4
Zix ne| myZivs h mKj we`y Gi eRvo wbZK `~i AewZ mB mKj we`yZ wb` we`y mw ne|
4
h mKj we`yZ cos

ki ewZPvi (Interference of Sound):

GKB w`K Pjgvb mgvb Kv I wevi wewk `ywU k Zii DcwicvZbi dj Kvb vb bxieZv I Kvb vb
cejZi ki mw nj H NUbvK ki ewZPvi ej| ewZPvi `yB cKvi| (1) MVbg~jK ewZPvi I (2) asmvZK
ewZPvi
(1) MVbg~jK ewZPvi (Constructive Interference): ki ewZPvi cejZi k nj ZvK MVbg~jK ewZPvi ej|
(2) asmvZK ewZPvi (Destructive Interference): ki ewZPvi Av`Kvb k bv nj ZvK asmvZK
ewZPvi ej| k Zii ewZPvii Rb k kwi webvk nqbv eis kwi cybeUb nq|
ewZPvii MvwbwZK weklb (Mathematical deduction of Interference):
gbKwi GKB wevi a Ges GKB Zi `N wewk `ywU Pjgvb Zi GKB eM v wbq PjZ _vKj Kvb GK mgq
Zviv GK we`yZ wgwjZ nq| Zi `ywUi Rb H we`yZ AewZ Kvb KYvi t mgq ci miY h_vg y1 I y2 nj,
2
( vt x 1 );
2
y 2 a sin ( vt x 2 ); GLvb, c_g ZiwU H we`yZ hZ x1 c_ Ges wZxq Zi x2 c_ AwZg Ki|
GLb `ywU Zii DcwicvZbi dj Gì jw miY y nj,

y = y1 + y2
2
2
ev, y a sin ( vt x 1 ) a sin ( vt x 2 )
2
2
ev, y a sin (vt x1 ) sin ( vt x 2 )
2 vt x1 vt x 2
2 vt x 1 vt x 2
ev, y 2a sin
cos
2
2

2
x x
ev, y 2a cos x 2 x 1 sin vt 1 2

2

2
x x
ev, y A sin vt 1 2
GLvb, wevi A 2a cos x 2 x 1

2
y1 a sin
Dciv mgxKiY _K `Lv hvq h, `ywU Zii DcwicvZbi dj GKwU bZzb Zi Drcb nq hvi wevi
A 2a cos
x 2 x 1 Ges gvb Drmqi c_ cv_Ki Dci wbfi Ki|
MVbg~jK ewZPvi (Constructive Interference) : h mKj we`yZ Zi `ywU GKB `kvqA_vr mg `kvq wgwjZ ne, m
me we`yZ jw wevi mevP ne A_vr A 2a ne| dj ki ZxeZv mevP ne ev MVbg~jK ewZPvi Drcb ne|
myZivs h mKj we`yZ, cos ( x 2 x 1 ) 1 ne|
(x 2 x 1 ) 0, , 2, 3. ... ....... n ne [ n = 0, 1, 2.3, ........]
ev, (x 2 x1 ) 0, , 2, 3, ... ....... n ne [ n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ........]

2 4 6
( x 2 x1 ) 0, , , , ... ....... 2n ne [ n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ........]

2 2 2
2
A_vr h mKj we`yZ Zi `ywUi c_ cv_K Gi Rvo wbZK ne mB mKj we`yZ MVbg~jK ewZPvi Drcb ne|
2
ev,

asmvZK ewZPvi (Destructive Interference) : h mKj we`yZ Zi `ywU wecixZ `kvq wgwjZ ne, m me we`yZ
jw wevi k~b ne A_vr A 0 ne| dj ki ZxeZv k~b ne ev asmvZK ewZPvi Drcb ne|
3 5
ev, ( x 2 x 1 ) , , , . ... .......(2n 1) ne [ n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ........]

2 2 2
2
3 5
( x 2 x 1 ) , , , ... ....... (2n 1) ne [ n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ........]

2 2 2
2
A_vr h mKj we`yZ Zi `ywUi c_ cv_K Gi weRvo wbZK ne, mB mKj we`yZ asmvZK ewZPvi mw ne|
2
myZivs h mKj we`yZ, cos ( x 2 x 1 ) 0 ne|
ki ewZPvi c`kbi cixv (Experiment on Interference) :

KzBKi cixv viv GKwU k ZiK Kvb GKwU we`y _K `ywU LvZ cevwnZ nZ w`q Dchy `kv cv_K cybivq
Aci GKwU we`yZ AvcwZZ Ki ki ewZPvi mw Kiv nq| [wP wb]
GB cixvq U AvKwZi `yB gyL Lvjv bj ABP I DEF jIqv nq|
ABP bji `yB evZ `ywU cvk bj M I N AvQ| DEF bji `yB
evi ga ABP bji ev `ywU cek Kivbv hvq|
cixv: GKwU myikjvKvK kvwqZ Ki M bji gyL aiv
nq| GZ myi kjvKv _K k Zi AB I DEF cevwnZ nq N bj
w`q ei nq hvevi mgq P we`yZ wgwjZ ne| GB `yB c_ cevngvb Zii Kv, wevi I RvwZ Awfb nIqvq Giv
N bj GKB iLvq miY mw Kie| GLb DEF bjwUK evBii w`K Ub A_ev wfZii w`K Vj ABP I AEP
c_i `~iZi cv_K evovj ev Kgvj N bji gyL ki wZeZvi wbwjwLZ cwieZb j Kiv hvq| (K) hLb ABP I
AEP Gi ga c_i `Ni cv_K Zi `Ni AhyM wbZK ne ZLb (AEP~ABP) = /2, 3/2, 5/2 BZvw` ne
ZLb ZLb Zi `ywU P we`yZ wecixZ `kvq wgwjZ nIqvq N bji gyL Kvb k kvbv hvebv| GUvB ki askKvix
ewZPvi| (L) hLb ABP I AEP Gi ga c_i `Ni cv_K k~b ev Zi `Ni hyM wbZK ne ZLb
(AEP~ABP) = 0, 2/2, 4/2, BZvw` ne ZLb Zi `ywU P we`yZ mg`kvq wgwjZ nIqvq N bji gyL Rvivj k
kvbv hve| GUvB ki MVb g~jK ewZPvi|
h h KviY k (Pjgvb) AMMvgx jw^K Zi ev, k GKwU AMMvgx jw^K Zii cgvY (Prof of Sound is a Kind of
longitudinal wave):
k GKwU AMMvgx jw^K Zi Gi ^c wbwjwLZ NUbv mg~n cwijwZ nq|
(1) Zi mwi Rb ei Kb cqvRb k mwi Rb I ei Kb cqvRb|
(2) Zi mvjbi Rb gvag vbvwiZ nq bv k mvjbi Rb I gvag vbvwiZ nq bv|
(3) Zi mvjbi Rb mgqi cqvRb k mvjbi Rb I mgqi cqvRb|
(4) cZK Zii cwZdjb, cwZmiY, ewZPvi Ges AceZb nq| ki I G me nq|
(5) Mvwmq gvag k ZivKvi mvwjZ nq| Gi mgeZb nq bv| mgeZb Kej gv Avo Zi nq| Dciv NUbv
viv cgvwYZ nq h, k GKwU AMMvgx jw^K Zi|
c_g ci AsKi mgvavb


1| evqy I cvwbZ 300 Hz Kvi GKwU k Zii Zi
`Ni cv_K 4.18m| evqyZ ki eM 350ms-1 nj cvwbZ
ki eM KZ?
GLvb,
Avgiv Rvwb,
Kv, f = 300Hz
w a 4.18
evqyZ ki
v
v
w a 4.18
eM, va = 350 ms-1
f
f
cwbZ ki eM, Vw = ?
vw
va
4.18
wa = 4.18 m
f
f
v
350
w 4.18
300
300
vw 4.18 1.1666666300
1
v w 1604 ms (Ans.)
2| `ywU myikjvKvi Kv h_vg 128Hz Ges 384Hz| evqyZ
kjvKv `zwU nZ m Zi `Ni AbycvZ wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
V = f11= f22
1 f 2
2 f1
384
1
2 128
1 : 2 3 : 1 (Ans.)
Kv, f1= 128Hz

Kv, f2 = 384 Hz
1t2 =?
VP VQ
P Q
300
350
Q 0.1 Q
350 Q 35 300 Q
y ASin(2ft
GLvb,
ki eM, VP=300ms-1
ki eM,VQ=350ms-1
Zi `N cv_K,
QPm
PQ
50Q= ?
50 Q 35m (Ans.)
2
x) .......(2) Av`k mgxKiY Gi mv_
Zzjbv Ki cvB,
wevi, A = 5m
2f = 200 Kv, f = 200/2 Hz = 100 Hz
2 2 3.14
2
1.57
1.57
1.57
Zi `N, m
Zi eM, V = f100 4 m /s = 400 m/s (Ans.)
1
1
s 0.01s (Ans)
chvqKvj, T
f 100
5| evZvm `ywU myi kjvKvi viv m ki Zi `N h_vg 50cm
Ges 70cm c_g myi kjvKvi KvsK 350Hz nj wZxq myi kjvKvi
Kv KZ ne?
GLvb,
Avgiv Rvwb,
Zi `N, 1= 50cm
V = f1f22
f1 1
Zi `N, 2 = 70cm
f2
2
KvsK, f1 = 350Hz
f2
3| P I Q `ywU gvag ki eM h_vg 300ms-1 Ges

350ms-1 | gvag `ywUZ ki Zi `Ni cv_K 0.1m nj
myi kjvKvi 50 Kb k Q gvag KZ`yi hve?
Avgiv Rvwb,
V = f f
4| GKwU Pjgvb Zii mgxKiY t

y = 5 Sin(200t1.57x) ; GLvb me KqwU ivwk Gm AvB GKK
c`| ZiwUi wevi, Kv, eM I chvq Kvj wbYq Ki|
y = 5 Sin(200t1.57x) .............(1) c` mgxKiY
350 50
Hz
70
KvsK, f2 = ?
f 2 250 Hz (Ans.)
6| Kvb myi kjvKv GKwU gvag 5cm `Ni Ges 350ms-1 eMi
Zi Dcb Ki| Aci GKwU gvag Zi eM hw` 332.5ms-1 nq Ze
H gvag myi kjvKvi 100 Kb k KZ`yi hve|
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
ki eM, V1=350ms-1
V1 V2
f
Zi `N 1= 5cm
1 2
=0.05m
350 332.5
-1
ki
eM,
V
=332.5ms
2
0.05
2
100 Kb AwZv `~iZ
332.5 0.05
1002=?
m
350
332.5 0.05 100
m
1002
350
100 2 4.75 m (Ans.)
c_g ci AsKi mgvavb

100 50m (Ans.)
7| Kvb gvag 480Hz Ges 320Hz Kvi `ywU ki Zi

`Ni cv_K 2m nj gvag ki eM KZ|
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
2 1 2
Kv, f1= 480Hz
V V
Kv, f2 = 320Hz
2
f 2 f1
2m
2
V
V
2
320
480
480 V 320 V
2
320 480
160V
2
320 480
ki eM, V=?
3. 9
f
f
vw
345
3. 9
320
320
v w 3.9 1.078125320
160V 2 320 480

V
10| 320 Hz Kvi myi kjvKv nZ cvwbZ I evqyZ Drcb Zii

Zi `Ni cv_K 3.9m| evqyZ ki eM 345ms-1 nj cvwbZ
ki eM KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
w a 3.9
Kv, f = 320Hz
v w va
evqyZ ki eM, Va = 345 ms-1
3. 9
cwbZ ki eM, Vw = ?
f
f
wa = 3.9m
vw
va
2 320 480
160
V 1920 ms1 (Ans.)
v w 1593 ms 1 (Ans.)
8| Kvb myi kjvKvi Kv 700Hz, evqyi Zvcgvv 30C nj

100 Kb k KZ`yi hve| 0C Zvcgvvq ki eM
332ms-1
GLvb,
v v 0 (1 )
ki eM, vo = 332ms-1
1
Zvcgvv, = 30C
30
v 332 1
100 = ?
11| `ywU myi kjvKvi Kvi cv_K 118 Hz| evqyZ kjvKv `ywU h
Zi mw Ki, Zvì GKwUi `ywU c~Y Zi `N AciwUi wZbwU c~Y
Zi `Ni mgvb| kjvKv qi Kv wbYq Ki|
273
v 332 (1 0.109890109 )
v 332 1.10989011
v 349.76ms 1
Avevi,
v f
349.76 700
349.76
700
349.76 100
100
700
100 49.96m (Ans.)
VA VB
A B
V B
A A
VB
5V 0. 1
A
V
A 0.5m
100 100 0.5m
Avgiv Rvwb,
V f1 1 f 2 2
1 f 2
2 f 118
1
2 f1
3
f1
3f1 354 2f1
f1 354Hz I f 2 (354 118)Hz 236Hz
12| GKwU Zvii Dc Drcb Abyc Zii
x
t
, GLvb xGes y mwUwgUvi
0.5 50
mgxKiY y 0.5 sin 2
Ges t mK cKvk Kiv nqQ| ZiwUi wevi, Zi `N, KvsK I

chvqKvj wbYq Ki|
9| A gvag ki eM B gvag ki eMi Pq 5 Y ewk|

B gvag GKwU ki Zi `N 10cm nj A gvag Drmi
100 evi Kb k KZ`yi hve?
Avgiv Rvwb, f
f1 f 2 118Hz f 2 (f1 118)Hz
2
3 1 2 2 1
2 3
GLvb,
awi, ki eM, VB=V
ki eM,VA=5V
Zi `N,B=10cm=0.m
100A= ?
x
t

0.5 50
2t 2x
y 0.5 sin
K
0.5 50
2x
Av`k mgxKiY, y a sin 2ft

Gi mv_ Zzjbv

1
Ki cvB, wevi a=0.5cm,I f
Hz 2 Hz
0. 5
1 1
1
1
50cm T 0.5Sec( Ans.)
I
f 2
50
GLvb c` mgxKiY: y 0.5 sin 2
ki ZxeZv (Intensity of Sound):

k mvjbi c_ j^fve AewZ GKK dji gaw`q cwZ mK cevwnZ k kwi cwigvb K ki ZxeZv
ej| A dj cwZ mK k kwi cwigvb P nj ki ZxeZv I
P
| Gi GKK Wm-2
A
cgvY ZxeZv (Standard Intensity):

1000 Hz Kv wewk 10 -12 Wm-2 ZxeZvK cgvY ZxeZv ej|
ZxeZv jej (Intensity Level): Kvb ki ZxeZv I cgvY ZxeZvi AbycvZi jMvwi`gK ej GKK H ki
ZxeZv jej ej| Kvb ki ZxeZv I Ges cgvY ZxeZv Io nj ej GKK ZxeZv jej ne, log I Bell
I0
ZxeZv jeji GKK ej ev Wwmej|

ej ev Wwmej (Bel or Desibel):
Kvb ki ZxeZv I cgvY ZxeZvi AbycvZi jMvwi`gK ej GKK H ki ZxeZv jej ej| ZxeZv jeji
GKK ej ev Wwmej| cgvY ZxeZv _K 10 b ZxeZv mb Kvb ki ZxeZv jej K 1 ej ej| GK eji
`k fvMi GK fvMK GK Wwmej ej| Kvb ki ZxeZv I Ges cgvY ZxeZv Io nj Wwmej GKK ZxeZv jej
ne, 10log I dB
I0
myi (Tone) : Kvb Drm _K wbtmZ k hw` GKwU gv Kv _vK Zvnj mB kK myi (Tone) ej| hgb,
myikjvKv _K wbtmZ k, KviY Gi GKwUB Kv|
î (Note) :
Kvb Drm _K wbtmZ ki ga hw` GKvwaK Kv _vK Zvnj mB kK î (Note) ej| A_vr î nQ
GKvwaK myii mgw| Avgiv h Mvb evRbv wb Zv î, KviY Zv AbK jv myii mgw|
gjwW ev îgvayh (Melody):
hw` KqKwU k GKi ci GK DPvwiZ nq GKwU myihy ki mw Ki Ze ZvK gjwW ev îgvayh ej|
ki Y ev RvwZ: (Quality or Timbre of sound):
h ewki viv GKB ZxeZv I ZxZvi `ywU kK cii _K Avjv`v Kiv hvq ZvK ki Y ev RvwZ ej? GK
mv_ KqKwU ev`h hgb envjv, wMUvi, euvwk BZvw` hw` GKB ZxeZv I ZxZvq evRvbv nq ZvnjI Avgiv Kvb&
myiwU Kvb& hi Zv Avgiv mnRB eySZ cvwi| ki Y ev RvwZi Rb GUv nq _vK|
gwjK myi (Fundamental Tone):
Kvb îi ga we`gvb myi jvi ga hvi Kv mePq Kg ZvK g~j myi ev gwjK myi ej| hgb Kvb AMvb
_K wbtmZ wbbv Kv jv h_vg 256, 268, 502, 512, 620, 768, 1280 Hz | Gi ga 256 Hz g~j myi|
Dcmyi I nvigvwbK (Overtone and Harmonic):
Kvb îi ga we`gvb myi jvi ga hvi Kv mePq Kg ZvK g~j myi ev gwjK myi ej| Ab mKj myi hvi
Kv g~j myii Pq ekx ZvìK Dcmyi ej| hgb Kvb AMvb _K wbtmZ wbbv Kv jv h_vg 200,
250, 400, 475, 600, 720, 800, 1280 Hz | Gi ga 200 Hz g~j myi| 200 Hz Kv Qvov Ab mKj Kv hgb
250, 400, 475, 600, 720, 800, 1280 Hz Kv Dcmyi| Avevi Dc myi jvi Kv hw` g~jmyii Kvi mij
wbZK nq, Zvnj mB mKj DcmyiK mggj ev nvigvwbK ej, hgb 200 Hz Gi wb 400 Hz, wZb b 600 Hz,
Pvi b 800 Hz, KvRB 400 Hz, 600 Hz I 800 Hz Kv wj nvigvwbK| dj mKj nvigvwbK Dcmyi wK mKj
Dcmyi nvigvwbK bq| Dcmyi hw` g~j myii Kvi wb nq Ze wZxq nvigvwbK, wZbb nj ZZxq nvigvwbK,
Pvib nj PZz_ nvigvwbK BZvw` ej| Avevi Kvb myii Kv hw` Ab GKwU myii Kvi wb nq Zvnj
wZxqwUK c_gwUi AK (Octave) ej hgb, 400 Hz, 200 Hz Gi AK, 800 Hz, 400 Hz Gi AK|
2
18| k (Sound)
myi hy I myi ewRZ k (Musical Sound and Noise):
h mg k Avgvì bZ fvj jvM ZvìK Avgiv mykve ev myimg k ej| Avevi h jv Avgvì KvQ
weiwKi Aevi mw Ki ZvìK Kjie ev myi ewRZ k ej|
myi weivg (Musical Intervel): `ywU myii Kvi AbycvZK myi weivg ej| aiv hvK, A,B,I C wZbwU myii Kv
h_vg f1,f2I f3 BZvw`| Zv nj, BI AGi ga myi weivg

ga myi weivg ne,
f
f2
CI BGi ga myi weivg 3 GB Aevq C I AGi
f1
f2
f3
f
f
3 2 myZivs `Lv hvQ h, `ywU ki myi weivg Gì gaeZx myi weivg jvi b
f1
f 2 f1
dji mgvb|
mgZvb (Harmony): KZjv k hw` GK m Drcv`b nq HKZvbi mw Ki, Ze ZvK mgZvb ej|
îMvg (Musical Scale): îMvg ejZ Avgiv wbw` Kv ev ZxZvi KqKwU mvRvbv myiK eywS| h Kvb myi I
Zvi AK ev wY Kvwewk myii ga KqKwU wbw` myi Avgvì Kvb mnR mvov `q| GB myi jvi ga
mgmsMwZ eRvq _vK ej Giv mxZ Ymb nq| Gic mgmsMwZc~Y myimgwK îMvg ej| îMvgi mePq QvU
Kvi m~Pbv myiK UvwbK ev cavb myi ej| GB îMvg AvUwU geagvb Kvi mgmsMwZc~Y myi _vK ej GK
WvqvUvwbK îMvg ej| evsjvq jv h_vg mv i Mv gv cv av wb mv |
exU (Beat):
cvq mgvb ZxeZv Ges KvsK wewk `ywU Drm _K GKB mgq k Drcb Kij Giv ciii mv_ wgj GKwU jw
k mw Ki| GB jw ki ZxeZv Kvb g~Z nvm cvq Ges Kvb g~Z ew cvq| ki ZxeZvi GB chvqwgK nvm
ewK exU ev îK ev AwaK ej| exUK N viv cKvk Kiv nq| `ywU Kbkxj ei Kv h_vg n1 I n2
nj Ges n1 > n2 nj exU N = n1 - n2 ne| Avi hw` n2> n1nq Ze exU N = n2 - n1 ne| A_vr exU N = n1 ~ n2|
`ywU Kbkxj ei Kvi cv_KB exU|
exU MVbi Kkj (Formation of Beat):
cvq mgvb ZxeZv I Kv wewk `ywU myikjvKv bIqv nq| GLb GìK ivevi cvWviv AvNvZ Kij k
[wP bs - 1]
Drcb nq gvagi wfZi w`q mvwjZ nZ _vKe| Gi dj gvagi Kvb GK we`yZ Zi `ywU Kvb GK mgq
mg`kvq wgwjZ ne [ wP bs - 1]| gvagi h we`yZ Zi `ywU GKB `kvq wgwjZ nq mLvb Dcwi cvZbi dj jw
Zii wevi Zi qi wevii hvM dji mgvb ne dj ki cvej eo hve| wP Zi `ywUK mi iLv viv
I jw ZiK gvUv iLv viv `Lvbv nqQ| hnZz mgqi mv_ mv_ Ziq GwMq hvq ZvB cwZwbqZ Ziqi
`kvi cwieZb nq| ZvB hLb wecixZ `kvq wgwjZ ne ZLb jw Zii wevi Zi qi wevii weqvM dji mgvb
ne dj ki cvej Kg hve| Gfve jw Zii chvq wgK nvm ew NU exU Drcb nq|
18| k (Sound)
MvwbwZK weklbi viv exU mwi eLv (Mathematical Analysis of Beat):

gbKwi mgvb wevi I Kvi mvgvb cv_K wewk `ywU Zi GKB w`K AMmi nQ| t mgq ci Kvb wbw` we`yZ
Ziqi miY h_vg Y1 I Y2 nj,
Y1 a sin 2 n1 t
Y2 a sin 2 n 2 t
GLvb, a = Zii wevi, n1 I n2 njv Zi `ywUi Kv (n1 > n2)
DcwicvZbi bxwZ Abymvi, mgq t Z jw miY
Y = Y1+Y2
Y a sin 2 n 1 t a sin 2 n 2 t
Y a( sin 2 n 1 t sin 2 n 2 t)
n n2
n n2
Y 2a sin 2 1
t cos 2 1
t
2
2
n n2
Y A sin 2 1
t ......................(1)
2
n1 n 2
t
2
(1) bs mgxKiY mij Qw`Z `b Zii mgxKiY hvi wevi A 2a cos 2
n1 n 2
t 1 ne|
2
GLb jw wevi A Gi gvb mevwaK ne A_vr A= 2a ne hLb cos 2
n n2
2 1
t 0, ,2 .............m BZvw`
2
1
2
m
t 0,
BZvw`
,
.............
n 1 n 2 n1 n 2
n1 n 2
G mgq k Zii wevi mePq ekx ne A_vr 2a ne|
n n
Avevi jw Zii wevi mePq Kg ne A_vr A= 0 ne, hLb cos 2 1 2 t 0 ne|
2
3 5
n n2
( m = 0,1,2,3 BZvw` )
2 1
t , , ..................(2m 1)
2 2 2
2
2
1
3
5
t
,
...... BZvw` |
,
2(n 1 n 2 ) 2(n 1 n 2 ) 2(n 1 n 2 )
G mgq k Zii wevi me Pq Kg ne A_vr k~b ne Ges k Kvb kvbv hve bv|
3
1
1
2(n1 n 2 ) 2(n 1 n 2 ) n 1 n 2
1
1
mK|
0
n1 n 2
n1 n 2
AZGe cici `ywU wbtk AeKvk =

Avevi cici `ywU cej ki AeKvk =
A_vr
1
n1 n 2
mK|
mK nq 1 wU exU
1''
'' (n1 n2) wU exU| A_vr exU msLv Kvi cv_Ki mgvb|
18| k (Sound)
exU Mbbv Ki myikjvKvi ARvbv Kv wbbq (Determination of unknown frequency by counting Beat):
ARvbv Kv wbbqi Rb `ywU myikjvKv bIqv nq| Gì Kv h_vg n1 I n2| n2 Rvbv AvQ| n1 AvRvbv Kv
| n1 wbbq KiZ ne|
cixv cwZ (Procedure):

c_g myikjvKv `ywUK GKB mv_ AvNvZ Ki Uweji Dci aiv nq| exU ev îK mw nj cwZ mK exU Mbbv
Kiv nq|
wnmve I Mbbv (Calculation):
gbKwi cwZ mK Drcb exUi msLv = N
Avgiv cvB, N = n1 ~ n2
GLb ARvbv Kv n1 Rvbv Kv n2 Acv QvU ev eo nZ cvi| myZivs ARvbv Kv
n1 = n2 N
GLb ARvbv Kv n1 Gi gvb n 2 N ev n 2 N KvbwU ne Zv wbbqi Rb fvi evovbv cwZ wb ewbZ nBj|
fvi evwoq ev gvg jvwMq: cixvaxb myikjvKvi Mvq wKQy gvg jvwMq kjvKv `ywUK GK kvwqZ Ki cwZ mK
Drcb exUi msLv Mbbv Kiv nq| gvg jvMvbvi dj myi kjvKvi fvi evoe dj Gi ^vfvweK Kv Kge| GZ
exU N Gi Pq KgZI cvi evoZI cvi| GB cixvq exUi msLv N Gi Pq evoj eySZ ne ARvbv Kv n1
AvMB Kg wQj GLb gvg jvMvbvi dj Kv AviI Kg hvIqvq `yB myikjvKvi Kvi cv_K ew cvq| dj
n1<n2 , AZGe n1 = n2 N ne| Avevi gvg jvMvbvi dj exUi msLv N Gi Pq Kgj eySZ ne ARvbv Kv n1
AvM ekx wQj GLb gvg jvMvbvi dj Kv Kg hvIqvq `yB myikjvKvi Kvi cv_K Kg hvq| dj n1>n2
AZGe n1 = n2 N ne|
wmv : AvZ Kvi myi kjvKvi Mvq fi hy Kij hw` exUi msLv ew cvq Ze ARvbv Kv Rvbv Kv
Acv Kg ne Ges exUi msLv Kg nj ARvbv Kv Rvbv Kvi Pq ekx ne|
evqyi gaw`q k mvjbi Kkj (Mechanism for the propagation of sound in air):
GKwU wUDwbs dK ev myi kjvKv jB| wUDwbs dK viv ivevi cvW AvNvr Kij Gi ev `ywU mvgb I wcQb AMmi nq|
hLb Kvb GKwU ev OB (wP bs -1 ) mvgbi w`K AMmi nq A_vr A Aevb _K C Aevb hvq ZLb Bnv mvgbi
evqyiwjK g g AvNvZ Ki| dj evqyi wjI H fve msKzwPZ nq Ges kw kl bv nIqv ch GB msKvPb
GK i _K Ab i mvwjZ nZ _vK| K wP OB evi mvgb KZKwj mg`~ieZx mgvivj iLv AsKb Ki
KZKwj GKB aibi evqyi wb`k Kiv nqQ| L wP Nb iLv wj viv PQ Ask k
18| k (Sound)
cevn msKvPb NUQ wb`k Kiv nqQ| evwU hLb wcQbi w`K AMmi nq A_vr C Aevb _K A Aevb hvq
ZLb AvNvZ ev avv AcmvwiZ nq| evqyi wj wwZvcKZv agi Rb c~ei Aevb wdi Avm| M wP PQ Ask
cmviY NUQ `Lvbv nqQ Ges c~ei PQ Aski weZZ msKzwPZ i AMmi nq QR Ask wMqQ `Lvbv nqQ|
GB msKvPb I cmviY evq~i NbZ I wwZ vcKZvi wbfi Ki| wUDwbs dKi Abevi I GKB Aev NU| A_vr
k mvjbi mgq evqy i wj GKevi msKywPZ Avi GKevi cmvwiZ nq|
AZGe wmv GB h, evqyii msKvPb I cmvib k evqyi K Aej^b Ki jw^K ZivKvi AMmi nq Ges
kvZvi Kvb cwQq kwZi Abyf~wZ RvMvq ev RvMvZ Pv Ki| BnvB evqyi ga w`q k mvjbi Kkj|
UvbvZvi Avo Kbi , V
T
1 T
cgvY:
ev, f
2l
T Uvb ivLv CC ZviwUK `Ni mv_ mgKvY Ub Qo w`j Zvi Avo Kbi De ne| dj Zvii wePyZ
Aski kxl AEB GKwU ePvci Ask aviY Kie [wP cvk] awi Avo Zi evg _K Wvb V eM cevwnZ nQ|
GLb kxl E Gi wbKU we`yi evKvi MwZi Rb cqvRbxq K`gyLx ej A I B we`yi Uvb T _K cvIqv hvq| A I B
we`yZ chy Uvbqi PO eivei wqvkxj cZK Dcvski gvb TSin | A_vr PO eivei gvU wqvkxj ej 2TSin|
PO-Gi j^ eivei wqvkxj T Gi Dcvsk `ywU cii mgvb I wecixZgyLx nIqvq ciiK bvKP Ki è| GLb AE
= BE Ges AEB Pvci eZvi K` O, OA Ges OB hvMKi A I B we`yZ `ywU kK Uvbv nj| kKqK wcQb
ewaZ Kivq Zviv OE-Gi ewaZvski Dci P we`yZ wgwjZ nq|
awi AOE = AEB Pvci `N = S, Zvii GKK `Ni fi = , AEB Pvci eZvi evmva = R myZivs Zvii
Dci m Zi MwZi mvc Zvii evKvi MwZi Rb cqvRbxq K`gyLx eji gvb ne
SV 2
2Tsin
R
SV 2
2T
R
SV 2
S2
2T
R
R
T
V2
[ Lye QvU ]
Pvc AE S 2

evmva ' R R
T
Mg
h nZz T Mg
................................(1)
hLb ZviwU g~j myi Drcb Ki ZLb l ev, = 2 l | wK Avgiv Rvwb V = f V = 2fl
2
bs mgxKiY V Gi gvb ewmq cvB,
V
2fl
Kv f
1
2l
... ... ... ... ... ... (3) (cgvwYZ|)
18| k (Sound)
UvbvZvii Avo Kbi m~ wj (Laws of transverse vibration of stretched string) eYbv I evLv:
T Uvb Uvbv l `Ni Kvb Zvi Avo Kb mw Kij Zvii Kv, f
1
2l
T
hLb m Zvii GKK `Ni fi|
m
1g m~t `Ni m~ :
Kvb Kgvb Zvii Uvb (T) Ges cwZ GKK `Ni Zvii fi (m) AcwiewZZ _vKj, Zvii Kv (f) Gi `N (l)
Gi evvbycvwZK ne| A_vr `N evoj Kv Kge Ges `N Kgj Kv evoe| A_vr
1
l
hLb T I m
ae _vK|
2q m~t Uvbi m~:
Kvb Kgvb Zvii `N (l) Ges cwZ GKK `Ni Zvii fi (m) AcwiewZZ _vKj, Zvii Kv (f) Gi Uvb (T)
Gi eMg~ji mgvbycvwZK ne| A_vr Uvb Pvib Kij Kv wb ne A_vr f T hLb l I m ae _vK|
3q m~t fii m~:
Kvb Kgvb Zvii `N (l) Ges Uvb (T) AcwiewZZ _vKj, Zvii Kv (f) Gi GKK `Ni Zvii fi (m)Gi
eMg~ ji evvbycvwZK ne| A_vr GKK `Ni Zvii fi Pvib Kij Kv AaK ne A_vr
1
m
hLb l
I T ae _vK|
UvbvZvii Avo Kbi Kv h h welqi Dci wbfi Ki :
Uvbv Zvii Avo Kbi Kv wZbwU welqi Dci wbfi Ki h_v: 1| Zvii `N 2| Zvii Uvb I 3| Zvii GKK
`Ni fi|
UvbvZvii Avo Kbi h Kvb `ywU m~ cgvYi cwZ eYbv :
mbvwgUvii eYbv (Description of Sonometer) :
1 wgUvi j^v GKwU duvcv AvqZKvi KvVi ev viv mbvwgUvi Zix| GB evi DcwifvM GKwU Zvi Uvbvb _vK|
Zvii GK cv evi cv AvUKvbv KwcKji Dci w`q Pj MQ| Zvii GB cv GKwU K AvUKvbv _vK| hvi
dj cqvRbxq IRb Pvwcq ZviwUK Uvb Kiv nq| Zvii bxP `ywU wi mZz B I B1 `ywU Pjbkxj mZz C I C1 | mZz
`ywU Zvii bxP Nl Pj Ges mvnvh Kgvb Zvii `N cwieZb Kiv hvq|
evi Dci Avb Avi GKwU Zvi _vK, hv cqvRb Zzjbvi KvR eenvi
Kiv nq|2q ZviK c_g Zvii mgvivj Ki Uvbvb nq| mZzi gaeZx
wPt mbvwgUvi
`~iZ cwieZb Ki Abybv` mw Kiv nq|
1g m~t `Ni m~i cgvY (Varification of 1st law i.e. law of length) :
c_g ARvbv Kvi KqKwU myi kjvKv jIqv nq| hvì Kv h_vg f1, f2 I f3 BZvw`| Gici mbvwgUvii
cixvg~jK Zvi wKQy IRb Pvcvb nq| Gici GKwU nvjKv KvMRi UzKiv C I C1 mZzi gvS ewmq wUDwbs dK
AvNvr Ki mbvwgUvii Dci Pc ai C I C1 Gi gaeZx `~iZ Kgekx Ki Abybv` mw Kiv nq| G mgq KvMRi
UzKiv wQUwKq gvwUZ co Mj Zvii Kv wUDwbs dKi Kvi mgvb nq| Gici C I C1 Gi gaeZx `~iZ
gc bIqv nq| Abyicfve Abvb myi kjvKvi ejvq I GKB fve `N wbbq Kiv nq|
18| k (Sound)
wnmve I MYbv (Calculation):

awi f1, f2, I f3 BZvw` Kvi myi kjvKvwj h_vg Zvì l1, l2, I l3, BZvw` `N Abybv` mw Ki| cixvq
`Lv hvq h, f1 l1 = f2 l2= f3 l3 ...........................= ayeK|
ev, f l = ayeK
ev, f a yeK
1
l
1
l
GZ `Ni m~ cgvwYZ nq|
2q m~t Uvbi m~i cgvY (Varification of 2nd law i.e. law of tension):
G cixvq c_g mvnvhKvix Zvii GK cv DchvMx Uvb Ub ivLv nq| ci cixbxq ZviwUi Szjvb cv GKwU
IRb Pvcvb nq| awi, ZLb cixbxq Zvi Uvb T1| GLb cixbxq ZviwUK Ub Qo w`j GwU KwZ ne Ges
mvnvhKvix ZviK evaK Kb KwZ Kie| GB Aevq mvnvhKvix Zvii Pjgvb mZz Gw`K Iw`K mwiq Ggb
GK vb Avbv nq hb Zvii w`Z Aski Kv cixbxq Zvii Kvi mgvb nq| awi G Aevq mvnvhKvwi
Zvii `N l1| cybivq cixbxq Zvii `N wVK iL Gi Uvb cwieZb Ki T2 Kiv nq Ges c~ei bvq mvnvh Kvix
Zvii l2 `Ni mv_ mgmyi Avbv nq|
wnmve I MYbv (Calculation):
cixvq `Lv hve h,
T1 l22
........................(1)
T2 l12
wK Kv `Ni evvbycvwZK A_vr
f 2 l2
f1 l 2
l2
ev, 12 22 .........................(2) (1) bs mgxKiY _K 22 Gi

f 2 l1
l1
f 2 l1
gvb (2) bs mgxKiY ewmq cvB
f 12
2
f2
T1
T2
f1
T1
Av_vr Kv Uvbi eMg~ji mgvbycvwZK (cgvwYZ)|
f2
T2
exU I ewZPvii ga cv_K

exU
1| cvq mgvb ZxeZv Ges KvsK wewk `ywU Drm _K
GKB mgq k Drcb Kij Giv ciii mv_ wgj
GKwU jw k mw Ki| GB jw ki ZxeZv Kvb
g~Z nvm cvq Ges Kvb g~Z ew cvq| ki ZxeZvi
GB chvqwgK nvm ewK exU ej|
2| Zi `ywUi ga `kv cv_K mgqi mv_ cwiewZZ
nq|
3| jw Zii Kv exU mwKvix Ziqi Kvi
Mo gvbi mgvb|
4| ki cvej mgqi mv_ cwiewZZ nq|
ewZPvi
1| GKB w`K Pjgvb mgvb Kv I wevi wewk `ywU k
Zii DcwicvZbi dj ay c_ cv_Ki Rb Kvb
vb bxieZv I Kvb vb cejZi ki mw nj H
NUbvK ki ewZPvi ej|
2| Zi `ywUi ga `kv cv_K mgqi mv_ AcwiewZZ
_vK|
3| jw Zii Kv ewZPvi mwKvix Ziqi
DfqiB Kvi mgvb|
4| ki cvej mgqi mv_ cwiewZZ nq bv|
gy Kb: h Kvb AvKvi, MVb ev AvKwZi eK Av`vwjZ Kij Zv GKwU wbR^ Kv iv Ki w`Z nq| GB
`bK wbeva ev gy Kb ej|
AvivwcZ ev ciek Kb: Kvb ei Dci AvivwcZ chve `bi Kv ei ^vfvweK Kbi Kvi Pq
wfbZi nj ewU c_g AwbqwgZfve KwZ nq ci AvivwcZ Kbi Kv KwZ nZ _vK| GB aibi
KbK AvivwcZ ev ciek Kb ej|
18| k (Sound)
mbvwgUvii mvnvh myikjvKvi ARvbv Kv wbYq:

Z t Kvb myikjvKvi Kv hw` GKwU Uvbv Zvii wbR^ Kvi mv_ wgj hvq Zvnj Abybv` mw nq, dj ZviwU
mevP wevi KuvcZ _vK| GLb Zvii Uvb T, GKK `Ni Zvii fi nj hw` Zvii l `Ni mv_ myi kjvKvi
Kvi Abybv` mw nq Zvnj Zvii Kv Z_v myikjvKvi Kv, f
1
2l
cixv: c_g mbvwgUvii Zvi M fi Szwjq Uvb Kiv nq| Gevi GKwU
myikjvKvK Kuvwcq mbvwgUvii evi Dci aiv nq| GZ Ki myikjvKvi Kb
Zvi mvwjZ nq Ges Zvi Avo Kbi mw nq| GLb mviYkxj mZzwUK mwiq Ggb Aevb ivLv nq hvZ Ki
myikjvKv I Zvii Kbi ga mgmyi mw nq A_vr Abybv` mw nq| mgmyi mw nqP wKbv Zv wbYqi Rb QvU GK
UzKiv KvMR Zvii Dci fvuRKi ewmq w`j hw` myikjvKvi Kbi Rb KvMRi UzKiv co hvq Zvnj mgmyi mw
nqQ aiv nq| GB Avq Zvii `N gc bIqv nq| aiv hvK GB `N l|
GLb cixYxq ZviwU mbvwgUvi _K Lyj wbq wgUvi ji mvnvh Zvii `N L Ges wbwi mvnvh fi m
wbYq Kiv nq|
wnmve I MYbv:
Zvii Uvb, T mg
m
L
T 1 MgL
GB mgxKiY l,M,g,L I m Gi gvb ewmq f wbYq Kiv nq|
2l
m
GKK `Ni Zvii fi,

GLb Kv, f
1
2l
mZKZv:
(1) myikjvKvK Lye AvjZvfve mbvwgUvii evi Dci aiv nq|
(2) myikjvKv hvZ Kgvb ZviK k bv Ki m w`K j ivLv nq|
(3) myikjvKvi mv_ Abybv`x Zvii `N mwVK fve wbYq Kiv nq|
(4) Zvii `N I fi mwVK fve wbYq Kiv nq|
(5) Lye QvU AvKvii KvMRi UyKiv bIqv nq|
c_g ci AsKi mgvavb

18| k (Sound)
1| 1m I 1.01m Zi `Ni `ywU k Zi Kvb Mvmxq gvag

6 mK 20 wU exU Drcb Ki| D Mvmxq gvag ki eM
wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
f1
V
1
f1
V
Hz
1
Ges
f2
V
V
Hz
f2
1.01
2
Zi `N, 1m
Zi `N, 1.01m
20 10
exU,
6
3
ki eM, V= ?
Avevi, N = f1 f2
10 V
V

3
1 1.01
10 1.01V 1V
3
1 1.01
10 0.01 V
3 1 1.01
10 1.01 1
ms
V
3 0.01
V 336.67ms 1 (Ans.)
2| 60cm I 60.5cm Zi `Ni `ywU k Zi Kvb Mvmxq

gvag 4 mK 19 wU exU Drcb Ki| DMvmxq gvag ki
eM wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
f1
V
1
f1
V
Hz
60
Ges
f2
V
V
f 2
Hz
2
60.5
Avevi, N = f1 f2
19 V
V
4 60 60.5
19 60.5V 60V

4
60 60. 5
19
0.5 V
4 60 60. 5
19 60 60.5
cm s 1
V
4 0.5
V 34485 cm s 1
V 344.85m s 1 (Ans.)
3| Kvb kYx K ki ZxeZv 10-8 Wm-2 nj ki ZxeZv jej

Wwmej wbYq Ki|
GLvb,
Avgiv Rvwb,
cgvY ZxeZv, Io = 10-12Wm-2
I
kYx Ki ZxeZv, I=10-8Wm-2
10log dB
Io
ZxeZv jej, ?
10 -8
10 -12
10 log 10 4
40 dB (Ans.)
10log
4| 20cm `xN GKwU Zvi Kvb GKwU myikjvKvi mv_ HKZvb AvQ|
Uvb w`b Kij HKZvb AvbZ KZ `Ni cqvRb ne?
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
1 T1
Zvii cv_wgK `N, l1=20cm
f1
Ges
2l1
Zvii cv_wgK Uvb, T1=T (awi)
Zvii kl Uvb, T2=2T
1 T2
f2
Zvii kl `N, l2 = ?
2l
ckvbymvi, f1 = f2
T1
1
2l1
T
2T
20
l2
1
2
20
l2
1
2l2
T2
l2 20 2 20 1.414
l 2 28.28 Cm (Ans)
5| 0.5m j^v GKwU ZviK 50N ej viv Uvbv nj| hw` Zvii fi
0.005kg nq Ze Gi gwjK Kv wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
1
f
2l
GLvb,
Zvii `N, l = 0.5m
Zvii Uvb, T = 50N
GKK `Ni Zvii fi,
1
50
Hz
2 0.5 0.01
1
f
5000 Hz
2 0.5
f 70.71Hz (Ans.)
f
0.005
kg m 1
0.5
0.01 kg m 1

Kv, f =?
c_g ci AsKi mgvavb

f1 96 ( f1 4) 97
96 f1 97 f1 388
GLvb,
f1 388
Zvii `N, l = 25cm
f1 388 Hz
6| 25cm `Ni GKwU Zvi 5kg-wt eji viv Uvbv nj| ZviwU
_K Drcb g~jmyii Kv wbYq Ki| [ZviwUi 1wgUvi `Ni
fi = 4.9 gm Ges g = 9.8ms-2]
Avgiv Rvwb,
1
f
2l
= 0.25m
Zvii Uvb, T = 5 kg wt.
= 59.8N
GKK `Ni Zvii fi,
1
5 9.8
Hz
f
2 0.25 4.910-3
1
f
10000Hz
2 0.25
f 200 Hz (Ans.)
4.9 10
Kv, f =?
Ges f2 =(f1 4) Hz = (388 4) Hz = 384 Hz (Ans.)
kg m
7| `ywU GKB iKg Uvbv Zvi mg Kvi Avo Kb KwZ

nQ| GKwU Zvii Uvb 2% ew Ki KwZ Kij cwZ mK
3 wU exU Drcb nq| Zvi `ywUi cviwK Kv KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb,
T2
f2
T1
f1
GLvb, Zvii Uvb T1=T awi

T2
Zvii Uvb, T2 T
100
T 51T
T
1. 02 T
50 50
exU N=3
Kv, f1=?
f2
1.02T
f1
T
f
2 1.02
f1
f
2 1.009950494
f1
f 2 1.009950494f1.......(1)
Avevi, f2 f1 = N
1.009950494f1 f1 = 3
0.009950494f1 = 3
3
f1 301.49 Hz (Ans.)
0.009950494
Avevi, f 2 1.009950494f1
f 2 1.009950494 l 301.49Hz 304.49Hz (Ans.)
f1
8| `ywU myikjvKvK GKB mgq kvwqZ Kij cwZ mK 4 wU

exU Drcb nq| GKwU wbw` Uvb Kiv Zvii 96cm `Ni mv_
GKwU myikjvKv Ges 97cm `Ni mv_ Aci myikjvKv
HKZvwbK nq| myikjvKv `ywUi Kv wbYq Ki|
l1 = 96 cm `Ni mv_ HKZvwbK myikjvKvi Kv awi f1
Hz
l2 = 97 cm `Ni mv_ HKZvwbK myikjvKvi Kv f2 =
(f1 4) Hz
KviY `N ekx nj exUi mgvb Kv Kg nq|
Avgiv Rvwb,
f1l1 = f2l2
f1 96 ( f1 4) 97
9| `yBwU m`k Zvi HKZvb AvQ| 0.36m `N wewk GKwU Zvi

100kg IRb viv Uvbv Ìqv AvQ| Aci ZviwU 220kg IRb viv Uvbv
Ìqv _vKj Gi `N ei Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
f1 f 2
1
2 l1
T1
1
2l2
T2
GLvb,
Zvii `N, l1 = 0.36m
Zvii Uvb, T1= 100 kgwt
Zvii Uvb, T2= 220 kgwt.
Kv, f1 = f2
Zvii `N, l2=?
1 100 1 220
0.36
l2
1
1
10 14.83
0.36
l2
0.36 14.83
l2
m 0.5339m 0.534m (Ans)
10
10| `ywU myi-kjvKv GK kvwqZ Kij Giv cwZ mK 5 wU exU

mw Ki| hw` Gì GKwUi Kv 275Hz nq Ze AciwUi Kv
KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
f 2 f1 N
f 2 275 5
f 2 280 or 270Hz
exU, N = 5
Kv, f1 =275Hz
Kv, f2 =?
11| `ywU myi-kjvKv A I B GK kvwqZ nIqvq cwZ mK 5 wU

exU mw Ki| A Z LvwbKUv gvg jvwMq IRb evovj exU msLv Kg
hvq| B Gi Kv 256Hz nj A Gi Kv KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
fA fB N
hnZz A Z gvg jvwMq IRb evovj exU, N = 5
Kv, fB =256Hz
exU Kg| dj gvg jvMvbvi c~e A
Kv, fA =?
Gi Kv ekx wQj| gvg jvMvbvi
KviY Kv Kg hvIqvq `yB myi
kjvKvi Kvi cv_K Kg ej exU
Kg| dj fA > fB
A_vr fA = fB + N
fA = 256 + 5
fA = 261 Hz (Ans.)
12| Kvb Ki ki ZxeZv 110-7 Wm-2| ki ZxeZv wb nj
bZzb ZxeZv jej wbYq Ki|
GLvb,
Avgiv Rvwb,
cgvY ZxeZv,
I
2 10log 2 dB
Io = 10-12Wm-2
Io
kYx Ki ZxeZv,
I1 = 110-7 Wm-2
2 10 -7
2 10log
wb ZxeZv,
10-12
I2 = 210-7 Wm-2
bZzb ZxeZv jej, ?
c_g ci AsKi mgvavb
2 10 log200000
2 53.01 dB (Ans.)
13| 50cm I 51cm `N wewk GKgyL e `ywU bj AMvb bj

cwZ mK 3 wU exU mw Ki| evqyZ ki eM wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
1 gyL e bj Kv
bji `N, l1 = 0.5m
V
V
bji `N, l2 = 0.51m
f1
I f2
4 l1
4l2
exU, N =3
Avevi Avgiv Rvwb,
ki eM, V=?
f1 f2 = N
V
V
3
4l1 4l 2
V
V
3
4 0.5 4 0.51
V
V
3
4 0.5 4 0.51
V 0.51 0.50

3
4 0.5 0.51
V 0.01
3
4 0.5 0.51
3 4 0.5 0.51
V
0.01
V 306 ms 1
14| wbw` `Ni GKwU mbvwgUvii Zvi wbw` ej viv Uvbv

AvQ| hw` Uvbv ej Pvib Ges GKB mv_ Zvii `N w`b Kiv
nq Ze Kvi wKic cwieZb ne|
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
1 T1
f1
Zvii kl Uvb, T2=4T
2l1
Zvii cv_wgK `N, l1=l (awi)
1 T
T
Zvii kl `N, l2 = 2l
f1
2l 2l f1t f2=?
Avevi, f 2
f2
1
2l 2
1
2 2l
T2
4T 2 T
4l
f1
T 4l
f1 : f 2 1 : 1 A_vr Kvi Kvb
f 2 2l 2 T
15| GKwU Uvbv Zvii `N cwieZb bv Ki Gi Uvb Pvib Kiv nj|

Zvii Kvi KZ cwieZb ne?
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
1 T1
f1
Zvii kl Uvb, T2=4T
2l1
Zvii `N, l1= l2 = l (awi)
1 T
T f2=? f1
f1
2l
Avevi, f 2
f 2
1
2l
1
2l 2
2l
T2
4T 2 T
2l
2l 1
f1
T
f 2 2l 2 T 2
f 2 2f1 A_vr Kv wb nq hve|
16| GKwU myi-kjvKv 512Hz Kvi GKwU myi-kjvKvi mv_ 4 wU
exU Ges 514Hz Kvi Aci GKwU myi-kjvKvi mv_ 6wU exU Drcb
Ki| myi-kjvKvwUi Kv KZ?
gb Kwi myi kjvKvi Kv = f|
c_g kZ, 512 f 4..........(1)
Zxq kZ, 514 f 6..........(2)
hvM Ki, 1026 2f = 10
1026 10
1016
f
f
508Hz (Ans.)
2
2
17| `ywU myi-kjvKv A I B GK kvwqZ nIqvq cwZ mK 5 wU
exU mw Ki| A -Gi evZ GKL Zvi Rovj Avevi Zviv 5 wU exU
mw Ki| B Gi Kv 320Hz nj A Gi Kv KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb,
fA fB N
GLvb,
hnZz A Z Zvi Rwoq IRb
evovj exU c~ei mgvb nq| dj Zvi Rovbvi
exU, N = 5
c~e A Gi Kv ekx wQj|
Kv, fB =320Hz
dj fA > fB
Kv, fA =?
A_vr fA = fB + N
fA = 320 + 5
fA = 325 Hz (Ans.)
cwieZb ne bv|
ki `wZ mwKZ wbDUbi m~ (Newton's Formula for Speed of Sound):

m~t Kvb gvag ki `wZ gvagi wwZvcK bvi eMg~ji mgvbycvwZK Ges gvagi NbZi eMg~ji
evbycvwZK| wbDUb MvwYwZK fve GB m~K wbbv mgxKiYi mvnvh cKvk Kib t
E
... ... ... ... (1) GLvb, E = gvagi wwZvcK Yv, = gvagi NbZ, v = ki eM
Mvmxq ev evqy gvag m~i ict Mvmxq c`v_i wwZ vcK Yv E, AvqZbi wwZvcK Yv B wb`k Ki|
v
myZivs Mvmxq gvag ki `wZ mwKZ wbDUbi m~i ic ne, v
B
GLvb, B = gvagi AvqZbi wwZvcK
Yv, = Mvmi NbZ, v = ki eM

B = p cwZcv`b t awi, Kvb wbw` fii Mvmi Pvc p Ges AvqZb V | Zi wqvq GB Pvc I AvqZbi cwieZb
NU| wbDUbi avibv wQj GB Pvc I AvqZbi cwieZb mgv cwqv| myZivs eqji m~vbyhvqx,
pV =aeK
GB mgxKiYK V Gi mvc eeKjb Kij, A_vr
d
(pV) 0
dV
dV
dp
p
V
0
dV
dV
dp
pV
0
dV
p
dp
AvqZb cxob AvqZbi
dV AvqZb weK wZ
V
wwZvcK Yv = B
p = B
GLvb FbvZK wP Pvc ewcj AvqZb nvm ev Pvc nvm cj AvqZb ew evSvq| m~ gZ evqyZ ki eM
v
B
p
p
1.013 105
280 ms1 GLvb, p = evqyi Pvc=1.013105 Nm-2, = evqyi NbZ =1.293 kgm-3 wK
1.293
cgvY Zvcgvv I Pvc evqyZ ki eM 332ms-1| GLvb _K avibv Kiv nq h, wbDUbi m~i Kv_vI fyj AvQ|
jvcjvm KZK wbDUbi m~i mskvabx (Correction of Newton's law by Laplace):
wbDUbi m~ gZ evqyZ ki `wZ 280 ms-1| GB gvb cixv j gvbi Pq AbK Kg nIqvq eySv hvq h,
Zvi m~ cqvMi mgq wbDUb h avibv Ki wQjb ZvZ wKQy fyj wQj| 1817 mvj wevbx jvcjvm wbDUbi Abygvbi
v
fyj ei KiZ mg_ nb Ges Mvmxq gvag ki `wZ mwKZ m~i mskvab Kib| jvcjvmi gZ Mvmxq gvag
k mvjbi mgq wbDUb gvagi Zvcgvvi Kvb Zvcgvvi Kvb cwieZb nqbv ej h Abygvb Ki wQjb Zv wVK
wQjbv| Avi ZvB Mvmi h AvqZb Yv B, Pvc p-Gi mgvb ei Ki wQjb Zv wVK nqwb| jvcjvm ejb Pvc ewi
dj evqyii mvPb nIqvi dj h Zvci De nq, mB Zvc wewKwiZ nIqvi AvMB cieZx cmviY i nq| dj
Zvcgvv Kvb gZB wi _vKZ cvi bv| myZivs GB cwieZb mgv cwieZb bq ej GLvb eqji m~ pV = aeK
chvR nZ cvi bv| GB cwieZb i Zvcxq cixeZb | GB cwqvq Pvc I AvqZbi mK pV=aeK| GLvb
= wi Pvc I wi AvqZb Mvmi AvcwK Zvci AbycvZ| w cigvbyK Mvmi Rb Gi gvb 1.41|
pV=aeK, GB mgxKiYK V Gi mvc eeKjb Ki cvB,
ki `wZ (Speed Of Sound)
2
d
(pV ) 0
dV
dV
dp
pV 1
V
0
dV
dV
dp
pV 1 V
dV
V dp
p 1
V
dV
dp
p V 1
dV
dp
dp
AvqZb cxob
= AvqZbi wwZvcK Yv=B GLvb FbvZK wP Pvc
p V
p
dV
dV
AvqZb weK wZ
V
B
p
ewcj AvqZb nvm ev Pvc nvm cj AvqZb ew evSvq| m~ gZ evqyZ ki eM v
p
1.41 1.013 10 5
v
332.4 ms 1 GLvb, p = evqyi Pvc=1.013105 Nm-2, = evqyi NbZ =1.293
1.293
-3
kgm | myZivs jvcjvmi mskvabi dj m~i mvnvh ZvwZK fve ki `wZi h gvb cvIqv hvq Zv cixv j
gvbi mv_ wgj hvq| GB fve jvcjvm wbDUbi m~i mskvab Kib|
ki `wZi Dci Pvci cfve (Effect of Pressure on speed of Sound):
m fii Kvb Mvmi Dci Pvc hw` p1 _K p2 Z AvqZb h_vg V1 _K V2 -Z cwiewZZ nq| GB cwieZbi
mgq hw` Zvcgvv wi _vK, Zvnj eqji m~vbyhvqx,
p1V1= p2V2
m
m
p1
p2
1
2
p
p
1 2 aeK
1 2
GLb ki `wZ, v
m
m
I V2
V1
1
2
p
1.41p
m~ hnZz
AbycvZwU me`v wi _vK, myZivs wi Zvcgvvq Kvb Mvmi Pvc
cwiewZZ nj ZvZ ki `wZi Kvb cwieZb nq bv| A_vr wi Zvcgvvq ki `wZi Dci Pvci Kvb cfve bB|
ki `wZi Dci Zvcgvvi cfve (Effect of Temperature on speed of Sound):
Mvmi Zvcgvvi cwieZb nj Gi NbZi I cwieZb nq| myZivs ki `wZi I cwieZb nq| awi, p1 Pvc, T1
Kjwfb Zvcgvvq Kvb Mvmi NbZ Ges D Mvm ki `ywZ v1| GLb p2 Pvc, T2 Kjwfb Zvcgvvq hw` H
Mvmi NbZ nq Ges ZLb Mvm ki `ywZ v2 nj,
v1
p1 Ges v
2
1
v1
p1 2
v2
1 p 2
p 2
2
p1 2
... ... ... (1)
p2 1
GLb Mvmi cmviY _K Avgiv Rvwb,

p1
p
2
1T1 2T2
pT
2 2 1
1 p1T2
GB gvb (1) bs mgxKiY ewmq cvB,

v1
p pT
1 2 1
v2
p 2 p1T2
v1
T1
v2
T2
v T A_vr Mvm ki `wZ Kjwfb Zvcgvvi ev cig Zvcgvvi eMg~ji mgvbycvwZK|
Avevi, 0C Zvcgvvq ev, ToK Zvcgvvq evZvm ki `wZ v0 Ges C ev, TK Zvcgvvq evZvm ki `wZ v nj
v
T
wK T=(Ges T0=
v0
T0
1
v
273
2

1
wc`x Dccvì mvnvh wevi Ki Ges DPZi NvZ wewk c` mg~n Dcv Ki cvB,
v0
273
273
1
v v 0 1 .
...............
2 273

v v 0 1
546
v v 0 1 0.00183
v 332ms 1 1 0.00183 ( 0 C Zvcgvvq evZvm ki `wZ 332ms-1|
v 332ms 1 (0.61 ms 1 ) myZivs `Lv hvQ h, evqyZ cwZ wWwM mjwmqvm Zvcgvv ewi Rb ki `wZ
0.61ms-1 ev 61 cm s-1 ew cvq|
ki `wZi Dci Av`Zvi cfve (Effect of Humidity on speed of Sound):
Av` evqy A_vr evqyZ Rjxqev _vKj Gi NbZiI cwieZb nq; myZivs ki `wZiI cwieZb nq| Av` evqy ev Rjxq
evc~Y evqyi NbZ evqyi NbZi Zzjbvq Kg A_vr evqyZ Rjxq ev hZ eo hvq Gi NbZ ZZ Kg hvq| Avevi
ki `wZ NbZi eMg~ji evbycvwZK| myZivs evqyZ Rjxq ev ewk _vKj ki `wZ eo hvq|
gbKwi, wbw` Pvc p I Zvcgvv -Z I Av` evhyi NbZ h_vg d I m Ges I Av` evqyZ ki
`wZ h_vg vd I vm| myZivs v d
p
Ges v m
d
p
m
vm
p d
vd
m p
ev, v m v d
d
m
d
m
d , m Gi Pq eo nIqvq vm , vd Gi Pq eo|
myZivs Av` evqyZ ki `wZ evqyZ ki `wZi Pq ekx|

GK gyL e bji Lvjv gyL Avjvob mw Kij Gi ga evqyi Kbi cKwZ (Vibration of Air Column in a
Closed Pipe):
GK gyL e bji Lvjv gyL duz w`j ev Avjvob mw Kij bji wfZii evqyi gaw`q k jw^K ZivKvi e
gyLi w`K mvwjZ ne Ges e gyL _K cwZdwjZ nq Lvjv gyLi w`K AMmi ne| dzu Gi g~j `b I evqyi
Kbi ga Abybv` nj evqy AwaK wevi KuvcZ _vK Ges myi Rvivjv ne| GB Aevq bji Lvjv gyL me`v
GKwU my` we`y (A) Ges e gyL GKwU wb` we`y (N) wPvbyhvqx mw ne| evqyi Kb Abymvi bji wfZi
GKvwaK my` I wb` we`yi mw nZ cvi| evqyi mnRZi Kb [wP bs-(K)] aygv e gyL GKwU wb`
we`yI Lvjv gyL GKwU my` we`y MwVZ ne| wK cii msjM
GKwU wb` we`y I GKwU my` we`yi gaeZx `~iZ Zi
`Ni Aski mgvb| myZivs bji `N l Ges Kb m
ki Zi `N IKv nj l
Ges N 0
V V
...........(2)
0 4l
l ......(1)
[ V = f]
GLvb V ki eM | bji GB myiB g~j myi ev c_g nvigvwbK| GB bj AviI Rvi dzu w`j bji evqy m
jw^K Zii `N nvm cve Ges evqyi Kb ew cve| evqyi 2q mve Kb [wP bs-(L)] Lvjv gyLi
my` we`y Ges e gyLi wb` we`yi ga GKwU my` we`y I GKwU wb` we`y MwVZ ne| awi evqy i GB
Kb m myii Zi `N 1 Ges Kv N1, Zvnj l 31 1 4l 0 Ges
4
N1
V
V
3V
3N 0
1
0
0
3
GB
myiK c_g Dcmyi ev ZZxq nvigvwbK ej|

bji mve Kb [wP bs-(M)] Lvjv gyLi my` we`y Ges e gyLi wb` we`yi ga `ywU my` we`y I `ywU
wb` we`y MwVZ ne| KvRB GB Kb m myii Zi `N 2 Ges Kv N2, nj l
Ges
N2
V
V
5V
5N 0
2
0
0
5
5 2
4l
2 0
4
5
5
GB myiK wZxq Dcmyi ev cg nvigvwbK ej|
Dciv mgxKib _K `Lv hvq h, GKgyL e bj h mg myi mw nq Zvì Zi `N 0

Nn
4l
Ges Kv
(2n 1)
V V (2n 1)
(2n 1) N 0 GLvb n = 0, 1, 3, ........BZvw` h Kvb c~b msLv| GK gyL e bj aygv

0
4l
eRvo nvigvwbK wj Drcb nZ cvi A_vr 2q, 4_, 6 BZvw` nvigvwbK wj AbycwZ _vK|
`yB gyL Lvjv bji GKwU Lvjv gyL Avjvob mw Kij Gi ga evqyi Kbi cKwZ (Vibration of Air
Column in a Open Pipe):
Dfq gyL Lvjv bji GK cv duz w`j ev Avjvob mw Kij bji wfZii evqyi gaw`q k jw^K ZivKvi
Ab cv mvwjZ nq| Ab cv DcwZ nj GB Zi nVvr cmvwiZ nIqvi myhvM cvq| GB KviY bji Lvjv gyL
me`v my` we`y (A) Ges Kb f` bji gvSLvb GK ev GKvwaK wb` we`y (N) wPvbyhvqx mw ne|
evqyi mnRZi Kb [wP bs-(K)] `yB gy cv my` we`y Ges `yB
my` we`yi gvS GKwU wb` we`y _vKe| G Zi `N o Ges
bji `N l I nj Kv nj l
Ges N 0
V V
...........(2)
0 2l
l ......(1)
[ V f]
GLvb V ki eM | bji GB myiB g~j myi ev c_g nvigvwbK|

GB bj AviI Rvi dzu w`j bji evqy m jw^K Zii Zi`N
nvm cve Ges evqyi Kb ew cve| evqyi 2q mve Kb
[wP bs-(L)] gvU wZbwU my` we`y Ges gvS Lvb `ywU wb` we`y MwVZ ne| awi evqy i GB Kb m myii
Zi `N 1 Ges Kv N1, Zvnj l 1 1 2l 0 Ges
2
N1
V
V
2V
2N 0
1
0
0
2
GB myiK c_g Dcmyi
ev wZxq nvigvwbK ej|
ZZxq mve Kb [wP bs-(M)] gvU PviwU my` we`y Ges gvS Lvb wZbwU wb` we`y MwVZ ne| KvRB GB
Kb m myii Zi `N 2 Ges Kv N2, nj l
V
V
3V
2l
3 2
3 N 0 GB
2 0 Ges N 2
2 0
0
3
3
2
3
myiK wZxq Dcmyi ev ZZxq nvigvwbK ej|

Dciv mgxKib _K `Lv hvq h, `yB gyL Lvjv bj h mg myi mw nq Zvì Zi `N n
Kv N n
2l
o Ges
n 1 n 1
V V(n 1)
(n 1) N 0 ne| GLvb n = 0, 1, 3, ........BZvw` h Kvb c~b msLv| `yB gyL Lvjv bj

n
2l
eRvo I Rvo mKj cKvi nvigvwbK Drcb nZ cvi|

Abybv`x evqy wK? Abybv` evqy cwZZ ki eM wbYq Ki:
Abybv` evqy (Resonance Air Column): Kvb GKwU GKgyL Lvjv bji ga Ave evqyi GKwU ^fvweK Kv
_vK| GB Kv evqyi `Ni Dci wbfi Ki| Gic GKwU Lvjv bji gyL GKwU Kgvb wUDwbs dK aij
dKi Kb evqy ciek Kb mw Ki| dKi Kv hw` evqyi Kvi mgvb nq Ze evqy cejfve
KuvcZ _vK| GK Abybv`x evqy ej|
Abybv` evqy cwZZ ki eM wbYq (Determination of Speed of Sound by Resonance Air Column
Method):
hi eYbvt Abybv` evqy cwZZ AvMvMvov mgvb cQì GKwU KvPbj _vK| GB bjwUK GKwU cvwbi cv Wyweq
`yBZZxqvsk cvwbZ fwZ Kiv nq|
KvhcwZ (Procedure): wbw` Kvi GKwU myikjvKv F bIqv nq| GK ivevi
cvW AvNvZ Ki Abybv`x bji Dby cv aiv nq| GZ bji ga evqyZ ciek
Kbi mw nq| G Kb wbPi w`K mvwjZ nq Ges cvwbi DcwiZj nZ cyYivq
cwZdwjZ nq wdi Avm| bjwUK DVvbvgv Ki bji evqyi `NK Ggb fve
DchvRb Kiv nq hvZ evqyi mePq Kg `N Abybv` mw nq| GB Aevq cvwbi
Dcwi Zj nZ bji Dby cv ch Abybv`x `N wbYq Kiv nq|
wnmve I MYbv (Calculation): evqyi GB Abybv` bji Lvjv gyL GKwU my`
we`y I cvwbi Dcwi Zj GKwU wb` we`yi Drcw ne| GB Aevq evqyi
Kv myikjvKvi Kvi mgvb ne| gbKwi, Abybv`x evqyi `N l1| hw`
evqyZ ki eM v Ges evqyi Kv n nq Ze, l1
4l1 KviY
4
bji e gyL wb` we`y Ges Lvjv gyL my` we`y Drcb& nq Ges Gì
gaeZx `~iZ l1 | v =n mgxKiY nZ cvB, v =n4l1 A_vr v =4nl1 cixb

nZ n I l Gi gvb Rb v ei Kiv nq|
cv mskvab Ki ki eM wbYq (Determination of Sound of Velocity with end Correction):
Abybv` cwZZ evZvm ki eM wbYqi mgq ai bIqv nq h, my` we`y bji Dby cv mw nq| wK wevbx
ivj cgvb Kib h, my` we`y bji Lvjv gyL bv nq wKQyUv Dci nq| ZvB Gi Rb GKwU mskvab cqvRb|
Gi bvg cv mskvab| KvRB GKwU Abybv`x evqy i evBii gy cv nZ bybZg h `~iZ my` we`y Aevb Ki
ZvK cv mskvab ej|
awi cv mskvab = x
Abybv`x evqyi `N = (l1+x)
bji At evm d nj x=0.3d Ges bji At evmva r nj x=0.6r| KvRB ki eM v=nnZ cvB,
v = 4n(l1+x)
ev, v = 4n(l1+0.6r) ev, v = 4n(l1+0.3d) BnvB cv mskvabi ci ki eM|
cv mskvab cwinvi Ki ki eM wbYq:

cv mskvab cwinvi KiI ki eM wbYq Kiv hvq| c_g Abybv` mw Kivi ci Abybv`x bj evqyi `N hw` g
AviI ew KiZ _vwK Zvnj c_g Abybvì cvq wZb b `N wZxq Abybv` mw ne| aiv hvK, wZxq Abybvì mgq
evqyi `N = l2
3
... ... (2) (2) _K (1) weqvM Ki cvB,

4
4
l2 l1
2(l2 l1 ) GLb, v n
2
v n 2(l2 l1 ) A_vr v 2n(l2 l1 ) GLb l1, l2 Ges n Gi gvb ewmq ki eM wbYq Kiv hvq|
Wcjvi cfve (Doppler Effect):
Zvnj, l1 x ... ... (1) Ges l 2 x
kvZv I Drmi AvcwK MwZi dj kZ ki Kvi Z_v ZxZvi AvcvZ cwieZbK Wcjvi cfve ej| GKwU
Av^yj hLb mvBib evwRq AvmZ _vK ZLb mvBibi ZxZv ew cZ _vK Avevi hLb mwU Pj hZ _vK
ZLb ZxZv gkt KgZ _vK| hw` kvZv I Drm ciii w`K AMmvi nq ZLb kZ ki Kvi AvcvZ ew
nq Ges kvZv I Drm cii _K `yi mi Mj kZ ki Kvi AvcvZ nvm cvq|
wi kvZvi w`K MwZkxj Drm (Source Moving Towards Stationary Observer):
gbKwi, GKRb kvZv O Aevb wi AvQ Ges S k Drmi Avw` Aevb| DrmwU f Kvi k Drcb KiZ
KiZ us eM wi kvZv O Gi w`K GQ Ges v k Zii eM| GLb Drmi Kv f ej cwZ mK f msLK
Zi wbMZ nq Ges Zi eM v ej cwZ mK Zi v `~iZ AwZg Ki| myZivs
GB f msLK Zi v`Ni ga Aevb Ki| (wP cvk) KvRB Drm hLb wi
v
| wK DrmwU hw` mK f msLK Zi
f
wbMZ KiZ KiZ us eM wi kvZv O Gi w`K AMmi nq GK mK S
Aevb Avm Zvnj mB msLK Zi GLb (v us)) `Ni ga Vvmv Vvwm
_vK ZLb ki g~j Zi `N
Ki Aevb Kie| dj Zi `N nvm cve| GLb Gi Zi `N ne

v us
v us
v
| wi kvZvi KvQ ki Zi `N Kg
f
f
f
gvbi ej gb ne| myZivs kvZvi w`K Drmi MwZkxjZvi Rb wi kvZvi KvQ kZ ki AvcvZ Kv f nj|
AvcvZ Kv f
v
k Zii eM
Zi `N
cwiew ZZ
v
(v u s ) / f
v
f
f GB mgxKiY _K `Lv hvq h, hnZz ( v u s ) v f f
(v u s )
f
myZivs Drm hLb Kvb wi kvZvi w`K MwZkxj _vK ZLb kvZvi KvQ k Zii Kv ew cqQ ej gb
ne| Ges kZ ki ZxZviI AvcvZ ew ne|
DrmwU hw` wi kvZv nZ `~i mi hvq Zvnj us-K FbvZK aiZ nq| A_vr m,
f
v
v
f f
f
v (u s )
v us
G f f myZivs Drm kvZv _K `~i mi Mj kZ
ki Kv Z_v ZxZv AvcvZ nvm cve|
Drm wi wK kvZv Drmi w`K MwZkxj ( Source Stationary But Observer Moving Towards It ):
aiv hvK, k Drm s Aevb wi AvQ Ges kvZv O
Aevb nZ Drmi w`K uo `wZZ AMmi nQ| Drm KZK wbmZ
ki Kv f, Zi `N Ges `wZ v| GK mK f msLK
Zi Drcb KiQ kvZv wi _vKj cwZ mK Zvi Kvb f
msLK ZiB cQvZ| A_vr 1 mK f Zi v `~iZ Ryo _vKZ| myZivs kvZv O Gi KvQ h Zigvjv cQve
v
| GLb hnZz kvZv Drmi w`K uo `wZZ MwZkxj KvRB kvZvi
f
v uo
k vZvi mv c k i ` wZ
mvc ki `wZ (v+uo) ne| myZivs AvcvZ Kv, f

O we`y Z cuQvb Zii Zi `N
v f
v uo
f
f ... ... ... ... (1)
v
Dciv mgxKiY _K `Lv hvq h hnZz (v+uo) >v f f
Zvi `N AcwiewZZ _vKe Ges Zv ne
myZivs AvcvZ Kv cKZ Kvi Pq ekx ne| A_vr hLb Kvb kvZv wi Drmi w`K MwZkxj _vK
ZLb kZ ki Kv Z_v ZxZvi AvcvZ ew nq|
hw` kvZv wi Drm _K `~i mi hvq Zvnj uo K FbvZK aiZ ne| A_vr m
v uo
f ... ... ... ... (2)
f
v
u
G hnZz f f myZivs kvZv wi Drm _K `~i mi Mj kZ ki Kvi Z_v ZxZvi AvcvZ nvm
ne|
c_g ci AsKi mgvavb

19| ki `wZ (Speed of Sound)

1| 261Hz KvsKi GKwU myikjvK AvNvZ Ki Abybv`x bji
Dby cvi wbKU aij evZvmi 0.30m Ges 0.94m `N
Abybv` cvIqv Mj| ki `wZ I cv mskvab wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
V=2 f (l2 - l1)
GLvb,
Kv, f = 261 Hz
ev, V=2 261(0.94-0.30)
-1
ev, V=334.08ms m/s(Ans.) c_g Abybv`x `N, l1 = 0.30 m
2q Abybv`x `N, l2 = 0.94 m
Avevi,
ki eM, V= ?
ev, V= 4 f(l1 + x)
ev, 334.08=4261(0.3+ x) cv mskvab, x = ?
334 . 08
4 261
x = 0.32-0.30 =0.02 m (Ans.)
ev, 0.3 x
4| GKwU Ub euvwk evRvZ evRvZ GKwU cvUdgi w`K 90kmh-1

`wZZ AMmi nQ| euvwki Kbv 600Hz Ges ki `wZ 325ms-1
nj cvUdg `vqgvb Kvb kvZvi Kvb H ki AvcvZ Kv KZ
gb ne?
GLvb,
Avgiv Rvwb,
v uo
f
v us
325 0
600
f
325 25
325
f
600
300
f 650Hz (Ans.)
f
Ubi `wZ
u s 90km/h
90 1000 1
ms 25ms 1
3600
Ubi euvwki Kv
f = 600 Hz
ki `wZ v = 325ms-1
mvZvi `wZ, uo = 0
AvcvZ Kv f' =?
f
2| 512Hz Kvi GKwU myi myikjvKvK AvNvZ Ki GKwU
Abybv`x bji Dby cv aivq evZvmi 0.15m `N c_g
Abybv` cvIqv Mj| evZvm ki `wZ 350ms-1 nj bji evm
KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
V = 4f(l1+0.3d)
Kv, f = 512 Hz
V
c_g Abybv`x `N,
l1 0.3d
l1 = 0.15 m
4f
ki `wZ, V=350ms-1
V
0.3d
l1
bji evm, d = ?
4f
350
0.15
4 512
0.3d 0.170898437 0.15
0.3d 0.020898437
0.020898437
m
d
0.3
d 0.069 m (Ans.)
0.3d
3| KZ Zvcgvvq evqyZ ki eM 0C (cgvY) Zvcgvvi eMi

GLvb,
wb ne?
V1
T1
V2
T2
V
273
2V
T2
1 273
4 T2
ki eM, V1= V
ki eM, V2= 2V
Zvcgvv, T1 =0C = 273K
Zvcgvv, T2 =?
5| `LvI h, Drm hw` wi kvZv _K ki `wZZ mi hvq, Ze

kZ ki AvcvZ KvsK AaK ne|
Avgiv Rvwb,
v uo
f
v us
v1 0
f
f
v1 ( v1 )
v 0
f 1
f
2v1
f
f
(cgvwYZ|)
2
f
awi,
ki `wZ v = v1
Drmi `wZ us = v1
mvZvi `wZ, uo = 0
Kv f nj,
cgvY KiZ ne h,
AvcvZ Kv, f f
2
6| GKwU Bwb PjZ PjZ 300 Hz Kvi eskxawb Kij wK

GKRb cheKi wbKU H ki Kv 305Hz gb nj| Kvb w`K
Ges KZ `wZZ BwbwU MwZkxj wQj| [ki `wZ 332 ms-1]
GLvb,
Avgiv Rvwb,
Ubi euvwki Kv,
v uo
f = 300 Hz
f
v us
ki `wZ, v = 332ms-1
mvZvi `wZ, uo = 0
332 0
305
300
AvcvZ Kv, f' = 305 Hz
332 u s
Ubi `wZ, us=?
332
332 u s
300 326.55
305
u s 326.55 332 5.45 us= 5.45ms-1
Dit 5.45ms-1 eM kvZvi w`K AMmi ne|
T2 = 4273 K = 1092K= (1092-273) C

= 819C (Ans.)
7| GKwU Bwb wi `kK AwZg Kvj Gi AvcvZ cwZqgvb

Kv 6:5 AbycvZ cwieZb nq| hw` evZvm ki eM
352ms-1 nq, Ze BwbwUi eM wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
V uo
f
V us
V0
f
f
V us
Vf
... ... ... (1)
f
V us
f
Avevi,
GLvb,
kvZvi eM, uo= 0
ki eM, V =352ms-1
awi, cKZ Kv = f
Kvi AbycvZ,
f : f = 6:5
BwbwUi eM, us= 0
V uo
f
V (u s )
V0
f
f
V us
Vf
... ... ... (2)
f
V us
f
T
273
165
332
2
T
165

273
332
165 165 273
T
K
332 332
T 67.43K (67.43 273)C
T 205.56 C (Ans.)
9| cwZ mK 200 Pi Wcjvi cwieZb Drcb KiZ nj
1050Hz KvsKwewk k DrmK Kvb wi `kKi w`K h eM
AvMgb KiZ ne Zvi wnmve `vI| [evZvm ki eM=330ms-1]
Avgiv Rvwb,
V uo
f
V us
330 0
1250
1050
330 u s
330 u s
f 6
f 5
V us 6
Vf
V us
Vf
5
V us 6
V us 5
352 u s 6
352 u s 5
5 352 5u s 6 352 6u s
330
1050
1250
u s 330 277.2
u s 52.8 ms 1 (Ans.)
10| GKwU myi kjvKv h mgq 200 evi Kb `q mB mgq GwU viv
m Zi evZvm 140 m `~iZ AwZg Ki| myi kjvKvi Kv
500Hz nj evqyZ ki eM KZ?
GLvb,
Avgiv Rvwb,
200=140m
V=f
V 500 0.7 ms 1
V 350 ms 1 ( Ans.)
5u s 6u s 6 352 5 352
11 u s 352
352
us
11
u s 32ms 1 (Ans.)
8| Avjv `Lvi 10 sec ci eR wbNvli k kvbv Mj| gNi
`~iZ hw` 1650m Ges 0m. Zvcgvvq ki `wZ 332ms-1
nq, Ze H mgqKvi Zvcgvv wbYq Ki|
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
S= V t
mgq, t = 10s.
1650= V 10
`~iZ, S = 1650 m
V =165ms -1
ki eM, V =?
-1
ki eM, V0 = 332 ms
Zvcgvv, TC=273K
Zvcgvv, T
GLvb,
ki eM, V =330ms-1
cKZ Kv, f =1050 Hz
Drm `kKi w`K AvMgb
Kij Kv ekx ne, dj
AvcvZ Kvs&K,
f =(1050+200) Hz
= 1250Hz
BwbwUi eM, us =?
kvZvi eM, uo= 0
ckgZ,
f : f = 6 : 5
V
T
Avevi,
V0
T0
140
m 0. 7 m
200
Kv f=500Hz
V=?
11| N.T.P. Z ki eM 332ms-1 nj 50C Zvcgvvq I 70 cm

cvi` Pvc ki eM wbYq Ki|
ki eMi Dci Pvci Kvb cfve bB,
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
v v 0 (1 )
ki eM, vo = 332ms-1
1
Zvcgvv, = 50C
50
v 332 1
273
v =?
v 332 (1 0.183150183)
v 332 1.183150183
v 361.12 ms -1 (Ans.)
12| `ywU nb enb Ki GKwU gvUi Mvox 36kmh-1 eM `vqgvb

GKRb cheKi w`K avweZ nQ| nb `ywUi ki Kvi
cv_K 320Hz nj, cheK KZK kZ ki Kvi cv_K
KZ ne? evZvm ki eM 350ms-1|
Avgiv Rvwb,
GLvb,
1g nbi ,
v u0
f1
v us
v
f1 /
f1...............(1)
v us
f1/
2q nbi ,
ki eM, v = 350ms-1
kvZvi eM, u0=0
kvZvi eM, us=36 kms-1
36000 -1
ms 10ms -1
3600
nb`ywUi Kvi cv_K,

f1f2 =320Hz
kZki Kvi cv_K,
v u0
f2
v us
f1/ - f 2/ ?
v
f 2/
f 2 ...............(2)
v us
vf1
vf 2
f1/ f 2/
v us v us
v
f1/ f 2/
( f1 f 2 )
v us
350
f1/ f 2/
320
350 10
f1/ f 2/ 329.41Hz ( Ans.)
f 2/
13| GKwU Kgvb myijx KuvUv c_g GKgyL e KuvPi bj 33cm.

`xN evqy i mv_ Abybv` mw Ki; H GKB bj evqy i `N
100.5cm. nj myijx KuvUvwU cybivq Abybv` mw Ki| hw` evqyZ
ki eM 350ms-1 nq, Ze cv mskvab KZ?
Avgiv Rvwb,
V=2 f (l2 - l1) = 4f(l1+x)
GLvb,
l1 )
4f
(l l 1 )
- l1
ev, x 2
2
ev, l1 x
2f(l
c_g Abybv`x `N, l1 = 0.33 cm

2q Abybv`x `N, l2 = 100.5 cm
ki eM, V= 350ms-1
cv mskvab, x = ?
(100.5 3 3 )
- 33
2
67 . 5
x
- 3 3 0 .75cm (Ans.)
2
ev, x
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HSC-Intermediate Physics 1st Paper by Tanbircox

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fi ivwk (Vector Quantities):

mxgve fi (Restricted Vector):

P ej OB iLv eivei wqv Ki eySvj fi P mxgve fi hvi cv` we`y O |

ev mgvb fi ej| wP P I Q mgvb fi|

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m`k fi ev mgvivj fi (Like Vector):

fi ej| wP A I B m`k fi ev mgvivj fi|

Aevb fiK AbK mgq evmva fi r viv cKvk Kiv nq| OP r

AvqZGKK fi (Rectangular Unit Vector):

fi r OP x i y j zk viv cKvk Kiv nq| Ges Gi gvb nq r r x 2 y 2 z 2

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jwi gvb wbYqt AB I OC mgvivj| AOC | OBN wfyRi ONB GK mgKvb|

R P 2 Q 2 2PQCos ... ... ... (1)

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`ywU fi ivwk P I Q cii KvY AvY&Z| G`i jvi Yb I fi Yb t

wPvbyhvqx, P OA; Q OB; BM, OA Gi Dci j^ I AN, OB

P.Q P(QCos) = ( P Gi gvb) (OM)

= ( P Gi gvb) ( P Gi Dci Q Gi j^ Awfci gvb)

hw` P Q R aiv nq Ze R Gi AwfgyL P I Q Gi mgZji mv_ Awfj^ eivei ne|

( P Gi gvb) ( P Gi j^ eivei Q Gi gvb )

Q P ( Q Gi gvb) ( Q Gi j^ eivei P Gi gvb )

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nq, Z`c P I Q Gi fi Yb evgveZx nj G`i jw R Gi AwfgyL Da w`K nq Ges P I Q Gi fi Yb

`wbveZx nj G`i jw R Gi AwfgyL wbgyLx ne hv c~ei AwfgyLi Dv w`K ne|

Q P PQ Sin ... ... ... (4)

fi hvMi wfyR m~ (Triangle Law) t

evLv t awi P I Q GKB RvZxq `ywU fi| ABC wfyRi AB Ges BC

ev h_vg fi P I Q wb`k Ki| m~vbymvi, AC AB BC

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cgvb t aiv hvK

OP A Ges OR B `ywU fi O we`yZ wqv Ki OPQR

mvgvwiK c~Y Ki wfyR m~vbymvi cvB,

OP PQ OQ ... ... ... ... (1)

Ges OR RQ OQ ... ... ... ... (2)

(1) I (2) _K cvB, OP PQ OR RQ

fii hvMi mshvM m~ (Associative Law) : (A B) C A (B C)

cgvb t aiv hvK OP A , PQ B Ges QR C | GLb OQ, PR Ges OR ai

wf~R m~vbymvi cvB, OP PQ OQ (A B)

eUb m~: A .(B C) A . B A .C Gi cgvY:

cvB, A .(B C) A . (OQ QR )

A .(B C) A OP Gi Dci OR Gi j ^ Awf c

A .(B C) A OP Gi Dci OQ Gi j ^ Awf c A OP Gi Dci QR Gi j ^ Awf c

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wgvwK vbv eevvq GKwU Aevb fii gvb wbYq:

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fi wefvRb ev fi weklb (Resolution Of Vectors) t

m~vbymvi OA Ges OB ev `ywU R fii `ywU Dcvsk wb`k Kie|

gbKwi, wefvwRZ Dcvsk OA X Ges OB Y |

Sin Sin Sin[180 ( )]

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c_g ci AsKi mgvavb

3| A 5i 2j-3k I B 15i aj-9k | a Gi gvb KZ