Prologue
QUARTERLY OF THE NATIONAL ARCHIVES AND
WINTER 2009
ARCHIVIST OF THE DIRECTOR OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS
UNITED STATES AND COMMUNICATIONS
David S. Ferriero Susan Cooper
EDITOR OF PUBLICATIONS MANAGING EDITOR
James Worsham Mary C. Ryan
EDITORIAL STAFF CONTRIBUTING EDITOR
Maureen MacDonald Constance Potter
Benjamin Guterman
Hilary Parkinson ART DIRECTORS
Rob Crotty Brian Barth
Rania Hassan
Editorial Policy. Prologue is published quarterly by the National Archives and
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■ VOL. 41 NO. 4
RECORDS ADMINISTRATION
EDITOR’S NOTE
As the National Archives completes its year-long 75th anniversary observance,
we offer two articles about people who have played major and minor roles in
the agency’s history. A man who played a major role was Wayne C. Grover,
Archivist of the United States from 1948 to 1965, the longest tenure of any
Archivist before or since.
Historian and archivist Greg Bradsher profiles Grover in this issue and
notes that Grover left a “lasting legacy at the agency.” He adds:“When
[Grover] retired in 1965, he had established the general shape of the
Archives as it is today.”
Ordinary citizens have been part of theArchives’history,too.Miriam Kleiman,
in“A Place in theArchives” traces the lives of two individuals and a young couple
whose paths crossed theArchives both as children and as adults,decades apart.
“These stories illustrate vividly that records matter and that the National
Archives holds not only the story of our nation, but countless individual
stories as well,” she writes.
At one time or another, you may have read news reports that mention
“Bethesda Naval Hospital” in suburban Washington. Few, however, know
how the hospital,with a 15-story tower as its center,came into being and to
be located in Bethesda.Raymond P.Schmidt,in“ATower in Nebraska,” recalls
how Franklin D. Roosevelt, who dabbled in architecture, played an active
role in designing and siting the hospital.
The medical center is in the news again because in 2011 the Walter Reed
Army Hospital in Washington will be closed and merged with an expanded
National Naval Medical Center, as it’s now called, to become the Walter Reed
National Military Medical Center.
Elsewhere in this issue,David Haight documents the concerns that President
Dwight D.Eisenhower had over the Soviet nuclear threat in the 1950s and his
efforts to get reliable intelligence on it, including use of the high-flying U-2 air-
planes.
We also take a look at an unusual map of the United States,drawn up in 1848
at the direction of President James K.Polk,to illustrate how the country had grown
in size during the 1840s through annexation,negotiation,and war.There are some
stories in it, as you’ll discover in“Cartography,Politics—and Mischief.” And Richard
Schneider tells about the Archives’work in saving priceless panoramic shots of
Alaska taken by the U.S.Geological Survey early in the 20th century.
We hope you enjoy this issue and all issues of Prologue. And we hope you’re
able to visit us at one of our many locations nationwide (see inside back cover).
If you can’t, you can“visit”us online at www.archives.gov.Our YouTube site at
www.youtube.com/ user/usnationalarchives. Our Facebook site at
www.facebook.com (search for US NationalArchives).And see some of our pho-
tographs at www.flickr.com/usnationalarchives.
JAMES
WORSHAM
FROM THE ARCHIVIST
an ambitious agenDa
at the National Archives
By David S. Ferriero
s I begin my tenure as the 10th Archivist of the United
A States, I want to introduce myself to the readers of Pro-
logue and to share some of my thinking about the chal-
lenges the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) is
facing and how we should meet them.
Like many of the staff at the National Archives, I started in the stacks—
shelving books in the library at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT) in Cambridge, Massachusetts, while attending Northeastern Uni-
versity, the nation’s leading cooperative education program, in Boston.
With time out for a four-year enlistment in the Navy, I received my bach-
elor’s and master’s degrees in English literature from
Northeastern and a master’s degree from the nearby Sim-
mons Graduate School of Library and Information Science.
Then it was back to MIT, where I worked in the
libraries and rose to associate director for public ser-
vices and acting co-director of MIT libraries. In 1996,
I left for Duke University in Durham, North Carolina,
where I was vice provost for library affairs and uni-
versity librarian before moving on in 2004 to the New
York Public Libraries, first as director of the research
libraries, then as director of all the libraries.
Since those early days at MIT, I have spent more than
40 years in archives and records administration in three
large, complex information organizations, managing and applying new tech-
nologies, overseeing disparate elements of the same organization, and work-
ing to sustain institutional support. Now, I’m facing similar challenges—
but on an even larger scale.
Today at the National Archives, we are at a moment as significant as
the agency’s first few years of existence 75 years ago. Then, the issues
were the terrible conditions records were in when they arrived at the
Archives; today, we must grapple with the myriad of electronic records,
the complexities of social media, and ever-emerging technologies.
As I stated during my Senate confirmation hearings, my top prior-
ities at the Archives will be to:
• Ensure that the Electronic Records Archives meets its deadlines,
uses resources efficiently, and delivers the desired product.
• Develop a sense of urgency about the security of our collec-
tion—how materials are handled by staff and users and how
those materials are protected from theft and other harm.
• Explore alternative ways to expedite the elimination of the back-
log of unprocessed records to improve access to them.
2 Prologue
• Meet the enormous and evolving preservation and conservation
challenges that face our vast collections of records.
• Plan for, acquire, and prepare appropriate and adequate space for
the large amounts of new material coming to us in the future.
• Consider alternatives to how presidential libraries now exist
within NARA by analyzing the options of physically separate
or more consolidated facilities in the future as well as the costs,
risks, and rewards of different systems.
• Ensure that NARA appropriately balances the public’s right to
open access to records with the responsibility to protect secu-
rity and privacy information.
• Work with other agencies to see that records
management protocols are being followed, that
agency staffs are well trained and supported,
and that they get feedback from NARA on how
they are doing.
• Take seriously the results of recent job satisfac-
tion surveys and determine how management
can make a positive difference in NARA staff’s
work experience.
• Ensure that there is an ongoing dialogue with our
many stakeholders, that feedback is welcomed and
solicited, and that a collegial relationship is fostered.
I learn by observing and talking. So in working on these priority
areas, I’ll be visiting as many of our staff as time permits to see
firsthand the important work they do each day at our 44 locations
nationwide and to draw on their ideas, abilities, and insights. Maybe
somewhere in the stacks is a future Archivist of the United States!
In addition, we want our customers and stakeholders to let us
know how we can improve our services to them while safeguard-
ing and preserving the records of our government so that people can
discover, use, and learn from this documentary heritage.
It is a humbling experience as well as an honor to be asked by the
President to serve as Archivist of the United States, and I pledge
to carry out my responsibilities in a professional, nonpartisan, and
collegial manner as we tackle the Archives’ ambitious agenda.
Archivist of the United States
Winter 2009
 Contents
2 FROM THE ARCHIVIST . . . AN AMBITIOUS AGENDA AT THE
NATIONAL ARCHIVES Archivist David S. Ferriero introduces himself

6
and outlines his top priorities as 10th Archivist of the United States.

CARTOGRAPHY, POLITICS—AND MISCHIEF Mark J. Stegmaier and Richard

T. McCulley describe an 1848 map of the United States that con-

14
tains some puzzles.

IKE AND HIS SPIES IN THE SKY David Haight documents President
14 Dwight D. Eisenhower’s fear of a surprise attack and the need

24
for better intelligence on the Soviet Union.

SHAPING THE NATIONAL ARCHIVES Greg Bradsher recounts how the

third Archivist of the United States placed the building blocks of

32
the agency as it is known today.

A PLACE IN THE ARCHIVES Miriam Kleiman relates the stories of indi-

viduals whose lives have been touched by the Archives more than

38
once.

THE ALASKAN FRONTIER IN PANORAMA Richard E. Schneider tells how

the National Archives saved century-old panoramic pho-

44
tographs that help tell the story of Alaska.

A TOWER IN NEBRASKA Raymond P. Schmidt reveals where Franklin

32
D. Roosevelt got his inspiration for the premier military medical

50
center in the Washington area.
26
GENEALOGY NOTES . . . “HOW AN EAGLE FEELS WHEN HIS WINGS ARE
CLIPPED AND CAGED”
Rebecca K. Sharp describes how Japanese
internment camp newspapers in World War II helped provide a

56
sense of community.

AUTHORS ON THE RECORD . . . AN ISLAND FORT AS PRESIDENTIAL

64
HIDEAWAY J. Michael Cobb describes Andrew Jackson’s island retreat.

FOUNDATION FOR THE NATIONAL ARCHIVES New and con-

tinuing support for the National Archives’ education programs, a

72
major exhibit on the Civil War, and a new book about a historic build-
ing.

PIECES OF HISTORY . . . A HERO PIGEON OF WORLD WAR I Avian mes-

38

58 60 62 66
sengers provided vital links to the front during the Great War.

EVENTS NEWS & NOTICES PUBLICATIONS INDEX

Winter 2009 Prologue 3
 MARKING TIME
MARCH 30, 1867 FEBRUARY 2, 1848 JANUARY 2
Secretary of State William H. Seward pur- TheTreaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo is signed, Kansan Dwight D.
chases a plot of land one columnist called a ending the Mexican-AmericanWar.Through in as the 34th Pre
place with “nothing of value” for $.02 an this treaty and the Oregon treaty two years States. He inherit
acre.The land was Alaska, and proved to be earlier, the United States now stretches War and an unkn
rich in both natural resources and natural across the continent. Ephraim Gilman of something he imm
beauty,some of which was captured on film the General Land Office created this map uncover by pushi
for the first time by the U.S. Geological Sur- to convey President James K. Polk’s vision gence through the
vey in the early 20th century. of this new America. the U-2.

44
p.

p. 6 p. 14

p. 38

4 Prologue Winter 2009

20, 1953 JANUARY 7, 1976 DECEMBER 13, 1952
Eisenhower is sworn The Nebraska State Capitol is designated The Charters of Freedom are moved
esident of the United a National Historic Landmark 40 years from the Library of Congress to their cur-
s an escalating Cold after President Franklin D. Roosevelt vis- rent location at the National Archives in
nown Soviet threat— ited the site on a campaign stop. An Washington, D.C., largely due to the
mediately set out to aspiring architect, FDR took note of the efforts of America’s longest-serving
ing for better intelli- building and would use it as a model for Archivist,Wayne Grover.
use of spy planes like the new Naval Hospital in Bethesda,
Maryland.

p. 24

Marking Time Prologue 5

B Y M A R K J . S T E G M A I E R W I T H R I C H A R D T. M C C U L L E Y

Cartography,
Politics–
and Mischief
Ephraim Gilman’s 1848 Map
O F T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S ,
N OW E X PA N D E D C OA S T TO C OA S T

I n December 1848, the U.S. General Land Office pro-

duced a map of the United States by its principal
draftsman, Ephraim Gilman. It displayed all of the existing
states, territories, proposed territories, and the area of the
Mexican Cession in the southwest acquired by the terms of
theTreaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo,which ended the war with
Mexico.
 The Gilman map was specifically or-
dered by President James K. Polk to ac-
company his last annual message to Con-
gress that month. Polk wanted the map to
illustrate the territorial gains from the
Mexican War, advance his ideas on the
development of the newly acquired terri-
tories, and address the growing debate in
Congress and the nation over the exten-
sion of slavery in the territories.
Gilman colored the various areas in
pink, light green, and light yellow and fea-
tured tables of statistics on the square
miles and acreages on the right and left
borders.The map is a beautiful artifact on
its own, but it is also an intriguing docu-
ment with features that are not immedi-
Gilman’s map supported Texans’ claim that New Mexican
lands began to the west of the Rio Grande.
8 Prologue
ately obvious.While the Gilman map ap-
pears to be a credible rendering of the
United States at mid-19th century, closer
inspection reveals serious labeling errors,
misspellings, and egregious misplace-
ments of major geographic features. This
is surprising because Gilman was an expe-
rienced draftsman who had been at the
land office at least since 1839.
n n n n
The Gilman map shows that the 1840s
had been an important decade for the
expansion of the United States. The
Texas annexation by the United States in
1845 brought Texas into the Union as a
slave state. In 1846, the British ceded the
Oregon Territory south of the 49th par-
allel: what is now Washington, Oregon,
Idaho, and part of Montana. In the 1848
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo after the
Mexican War, Mexico ceded what are
now the states of California, Nevada, and
Utah and parts of Colorado, Wyoming,
Arizona, and New Mexico. The United
States now reached coast to coast, a fact
that the expansionist President Polk
wanted to highlight in this unique but
forceful political statement.
Some features of the map readily cap-
ture our attention. The shape of Texas
looks strongly distorted to the modern
eye, making west Texas appear much
smaller than it actually is.This distortion
reflects Gilman’s use of John Disturnell’s
1847 “Mapa de los Estados Unidos de
Mejico,”noted as a source on the
left-hand side of his map.
A comparison of Gilman’s map
with Disturnell’s shows an im-
portant difference regarding the
boundary between New Mexico
and Texas. Disturnell’s map,
which had been used for the
Treaty of Guadalupe Hildalgo
negotiations, was ambiguous re-
garding the Texas-New Mexico
boundary. Disturnell had the area
east of the Rio Grande one color
and the area west of the river a
different color, strongly implying
that everything east of the river
lay in Texas, while New Mexico
lay only on the western side. But
the wording Disturnell used on
the map—“Nuevo Mejico” (west
of the river) “O Santa Fe” (east of
the river)— supported the claim
that some of New Mexico lay on
the eastern side of the Rio
Grande. Gilman’s map did away
with the ambiguity, not only hav-
ing different colors on either side
of the river but also clearly label-
ing only the area west of the Rio
Grande as New Mexico.
The Gilman map’s rendering of
the boundary was part of Pres-
ident Polk’s effort to settle a dis-
pute between Texas and New
Winter 2009
Mexico. In December 1836, the Texas
Republic had defined its boundary on the
south and west as the Rio Grande from
mouth to source and from that point
northward to the 1819 Adams-Onís Treaty
line between the United States and Spain
at 42˚N.That boundary claim meant that
Santa Fe and all the settled parts of Mexico’s
northern province of New Mexico would
have been part of Texas since they all lay
east of the Rio Grande.
Many people in northern states doubted
or totally rejected the validity of the Texas
boundary claim, and President Polk had
wavered on the boundary issue himself
during the Mexican War. After General
Stephen Watts Kearny’s forces occupied
New Mexico inAugust 1847,Polk reassured
Texans that the U.S. government was not
setting up an adverse claim to that of Texas
by establishing a military government at
Santa Fe.Then on July 24, 1848, President
Polk sent a message to Congress that defi-
nitely leaned toward the New Mexicans’
claims that their area east of the Rio Grande
had never been occupied by the Texans
and had always been governed as a pro-
vince of Mexico until the U.S. conquest in
1846.Polk probably assumed this stance to
encourage passage of the Clayton Com-
promise, a Senate bill that would have es-
tablished governments in the Mexican ses-
sion but failed to pass Congress.
In his last annual message to Congress
on December 5, 1848, Polk appeared to
favor the Texas claim again.Although his
message implied that some of New Mex-
ico might extend east of the Rio Grande,
he recommended that Congress establish
a territorial government only in the areas
of New Mexico west of the Rio Grande.
The features on Gilman’s map reflected
Polk’s sentiments.
Another politically significant feature of
the Gilman map is not initially apparent—
a line drawn from the southern boundary
of Missouri (the Missouri Compromise
line of 1820) to the Pacific Ocean.This ren-
dering suggests Polk’s policy regarding the
extension of slavery in the territories. In
the upper left-hand corner of the map, the
line is mistakenly designated as lying at
39˚30‘ instead of 36˚30‘, possibly indicat-
Cartography, Politics—and Mischief
ing the haste with which the map was pre-
pared and printed. The Missouri Com-
promise of 1820,extended further west by
the Texas annexation resolutions of 1845,
had prohibited slavery north of the line
and permitted it south of the line.
The beginning of the Mexican War in
1846, with the prospect that the United
States would acquire the vast region lying
betweenTexas and the Pacific Coast,prompt-
ed northern politicians in Congress to rally
behind Pennsylvania Rep. David Wilmot’s
August 1846 proposal to ban slavery from
any territory the United States might
acquire from Mexico in the war.
The Wilmot Proviso set off a firestorm of
controversy, as southerners responded
that they had a constitutional right to
carry their slaves into the common terri-
tories of the nation.Alternative proposals
for resolving the issue of slavery in the ter-
ritories emerged. One allowed settlers in
the territories themselves to determine
the slavery question, i.e. popular sover-
eignty; another left the question to the
Supreme Court to determine; and a third
called for extending the Missouri Com-
promise line to the Pacific Coast.
Polk made clear his preference for ex-
tending the Missouri Compromise line in
a message to the House of Representatives
on August 14, 1848, when he signed into
law the bill creating a territorial govern-
ment for Oregon. Polk emphasized the
“calming”influence which the 36˚30‘ line
had had on earlier crises over slavery
extension,and he strongly urged the appli-
cation of the same division line to the
Mexican Cession. A few months later, in
the December 5 annual message, Polk
used the Gilman map to reiterate this rec-
ommendation to Congress.
The idea of extending the Missouri Com-
promise to the Pacific would recur in the
debate over slavery in the territories.It was
championed by southern politicians in
1850 as an alternative to California’s admis-
sion to the Union as a free state, and the
36˚30‘ line’s extension,excluding California,
would become a major suggestion of com-
promise during the secession crisis of
1860–1861.
Also notable on the Gilman map is its dis-
play of boundaries for two “proposed” ter-
ritories, Minnesota and Nebraska.These fea-
tures signaled administration support for
Senate bills organizing territorial govern-
ments in those two areas. Illinois Senator
Stephen A. Douglas introduced both bills
and chaired the Senate’s Committee onTer-
ritories. These bills expressed Douglas’s
vision of America’s“manifest destiny,” a pro-
gressive migration of settlement westward,
establishment of territorial governments
as settlers advanced (Minnesota) and
sometimes in anticipation of settlement
(Nebraska), and ultimately the binding of
this huge expanse together with a network
of railroads from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
Polk and his administration ardently cham-
pioned Douglas’s plans, which may explain
the inclusion of the two“proposed”territo-
ries on Gilman’s map,with their boundaries
delineated according to Douglas’s 1848
bills.
Gilman apparently had a difficult time
matching the bill’s description of the
northeastern part of Minnesota Territory’s
boundary with the features of his own
map. As a result of Gilman’s confusion,the
map shows a vaguely defined boundary
and the use of a different color—yellow—
in the northeastern part of Minnesota
when he had used green in the western
part of the territory. Overall this was the
least well-executed portion of Gilman’s
work. Nor did Gilman draw Wisconsin, the
Upper Peninsula of Michigan, and Lake
Superior with cartographic exactitude.
Neither the Minnesota nor Nebraska terri-
tory bills had passed Congress in the ear-
lier session,but MinnesotaTerritory would
achieve organization in 1849. Nebraska’s
status would become part of the great sec-
tional disruption over slavery expansion in
the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854.
A curious feature on the western por-
tion of this map is its presentation of Ore-
gon. Congress had organized a territorial
government for Oregon in August 1848.
On Gilman’s map, however, Oregon is not
labeled as an organized territory nor given
any specific boundary on the east. The
area to the east is labeled “N.W. TER y.”,
or Northwest Territory, even though
Congress had not organized any official
Prologue 9
The Oregon Territory had been organized in August 1848, but Gilman did not indicate this in his December map.
territory there.Why Gilman did not clearly
designate Oregon as a territory with its
proper boundaries is a mystery.
Since the other political dimensions of
the map are consistent with the adminis-
tration’s policies, it may be that President
Polk himself directed that the map be
drawn with Oregon only vaguely defined
to accommodate southern sensibilities.
Southerners had bitterly contested the
Oregon Territory bill in the previous ses-
sion, and they were still angry that the
bill had prohibited slavery in a federal ter-
ritory. The President may have preferred
not to remind southerners of their recent
congressional defeat by prominently dis-
playing the new, free territory of the
northwest.
While some of the omissions,anomalies,
and other peculiarities of the map might
be traced to its political context, the many
serious errors and misspellings on a map
that was an important state document
indicate hurried preparation.For example,
the erroneous listing of the Missouri Com-
promise line as 39˚30’ and the vagueness
of the depiction of the proposed Min-
nesota Territory were not corrected by
anyone before this map went to the
printer, P. S. Duval, in Philadelphia. That
10 Prologue
indicates that Ephraim Gilman and his
superiors were operating under a tight
deadline to get the map and its tables fin-
ished in time to accompany Polk’s mes-
sage to Congress.
The number of spelling errors and
spelling peculiarities suggest that the
drafting of the map was marred by hasti-
ness and carelessness.On theTexas part of
the map,“Rio del Norte,”another name for
the Rio Grande,is given on the map as“Rio
del North.” El Paso or Paso del Norte
becomes“Passo.”Matamoros is misspelled
“Matamoras,” and Nueces River is mis-
spelled “Neuces.” Gilman rendered the
Sabine River on the map as the “Saline
River,” although the river is correctly lab-
eled the Sabine in the right-hand table,
which was apparently prepared by some-
one other than Gilman.
A careful examination of the Oregon
part of the map reveals more egregious
errors, odd omissions, and peculiar
spellings. Gilman placed Mount St.
Helens south of the Columbia River. By
the time Gilman drafted his map, the
river emptying into the Columbia River
at present-day Portland was widely
known as the Willamette River, and the
older Indian names had fallen into dis-
use. Yet Gilman labels that river the
“Wahlahmath River” and Fort Walla Walla
as “Ft.Wahlah wahlah,” although we have
not been able to locate other maps of
that era with the same usages. It is also
curious that the major outpost of Fort
Vancouver is not on the map, although it
invariably appears in maps made in the
1830s and 1840s of the Pacific North-
west.
We were so intrigued with these errors
of omission and commission that we inves-
tigated the quality of Gilman’s draftsman-
ship by examining other maps he pro-
duced when he was employed by the
General Land Office. Those maps reveal
high-quality work based on recent surveys
but confined to rather limited geographic
areas in Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, and Mis-
sissippi.
When Gilman got the assignment to
draft a map of the United States for Pres-
ident Polk, he had never undertaken car-
tographic work that ambitious. Since his
1848 map was not based on original sur-
veys and was drafted in haste, we also
examined maps from the 1840s at the
National Archives, from the Oregon His-
torical Society, and in published sources
that were either readily available to them
Winter 2009
 in the General Land Office or to
which they would have had
knowledge and access. But the
search for clues concerning
which maps Gilman might have
relied on to draft the 1848 map
proved fruitless and yielded
no maps full of the same or
similar irregularities that are
found in Gilman’s.
When one examines the
Kentucky-Tennessee part of
the map, however, the er-
rors appear to have been
deliberately inserted. Gil-
man changed the names of
the Cumberland and Tenn-
essee rivers to the “Great
Kanawha” and the “Big
between West Virginia
and Kentucky. The mis-
chievous Gilman simply
applied the names of
these lesser rivers in the
area to two major rivers
on his map. This experi-
enced draftsman could
not have done this by mis-
take. Since the focus of
the map was the western
part of it and especially
the Mexican Cession, not
Kentucky and Tennessee,
one Two days after Commissioner Young submitted this November 22, 1848, letter
to Secretary Walker, Young met with President Polk and gave him a copy of the
apparently no
detected the substituted Gilman map.
names for the Cumb-
erland and the Tennessee rivers before naming a few important rivers on his
the map was sent to the printer. map, especially ones proximate to and
Since there is no evi- within President Polk’s home state?
dence that the errors Knowing that the General Land Office
were the results of hur- was operating under a tight deadline to
riedly copying from complete the map and its tables,
inaccurate maps, we Gilman would have guessed that no
can only speculate on one was going to carefully proofread his
what may have moti- work before its printing. And the evidence
vated Gilman, an on the map itself shows that Gilman
apparently talented would have been correct in such an
draftsman, to falsify assumption. One can almost imagine him
the names of two chuckling with delight when no one
major rivers on his noticed the errors before the map went to
map,repeatedly use the printer.
incorrect place While the political meaning and the
names, and mis- many inaccuracies of the Gilman map
place major geo- are not readily apparent, neither is its
graphic features. remarkable provenance. Polk’s message
We conclude that of December 5, 1848, and many related
the most likely documents were published as House
explanation is Executive Document 1 (30th Cong.,
that Gilman 2nd sess., Serial 537), with Gilman’s
was a drafts- map the first among several maps at the
man with an end. Tables on either side of Gilman’s
artistic tem- map contain statistics gathered from a

Errors on the section of the map depicting Kentucky

perament November 22, 1848, letter from Com-
and Tennessee seem to have been deliberate.
who did missioner Young to Secretary of the
not like Treasury Robert J. Walker, discussing
Sandy,” respectively. Those two very having to draw his map under a tight the amount and value of the lands
prominent rivers had been known and deadline and probably under constant acquired from Mexico. Figures from
presented on maps for generations as pressure from General Land Office Young’s annual report dated November
the Cumberland and the Tennessee. Commissioner Richard M.Young to get 30, 1848, concerning acreages of some
The Kanawha is a river in present-day the job done. Peeved at the pressure, of the newer states appear in the right-
West Virginia, and the Big Sandy is a river what more appropriate way would Gil- hand table of the map. Young had per-
that forms part of the boundary man have had to retaliate than by mis- sonally reported to President Polk on

Cartography, Politics—and Mischief Prologue 11

November 24 about the dimensions of map now in the Archives corrected the
the newly acquired lands and gave Polk Missouri Compromise line error in the
a copy of Gilman’s map. Polk stated in upper left-hand corner by crossing out
his diary that he would employ the sta- 39˚30’ and writing in 36˚30’ . He also
tistics of Young’s “Report” in his upcom- sketched in, or had a draftsman sketch it
ing annual message. The report Polk in for him, the boundary line of Cali-
referred to was the November 22 letter fornia as proposed by its state constitu-
from Young to Walker, not the annual tional convention of 1849. The alter-
report. President Polk did use Young’s ations were probably made by a
statistics in his message but quoted a congressman or senator in early 1850 in
few of the figures slightly in error. The preparation for a speech.
statistics on Gilman’s map An examination of the map in January
2008 by the National Archives conserva-
tion laboratory revealed that the
blue line indi-
cating the
California
boundary
was drawn by
someone
after February
13, 1850, the
date President
Zachary Taylor
sent official
copies of the
California consti-
tution to the
House and Senate.
Yet whoever in-
serted the Cali-
fornia boundary
did not sketch in
the boundary line
between Utah and
New Mexico or be-
tween New Mexico
Gilman extended the Missouri Compromise line of 36˚30’
Territory and Texas,
all the way to the California coast.
both of which were
defined by Congress
in bills during August
agree with those in Young’s letter to and September 1850 as part of the Compro-
Walker. mise of 1850. The absence of these lines
The copy of Gilman’s map preserved strongly suggest that the map was altered
at the Center for Legislative Archives at after February 13 but before September
the National Archives is an extraordinary 1850.
document because it is somewhat cor- Could someone have altered this copy
rected and updated from the version of the Gilman map prior to February
originally published in the Congres- 1850, possibly during the short second
sional Serial Set and was referred to dur- session of Congress in December
ing congressional debate over the Com- 1848–March 1849? No. Among the vari-
promise of 1850. ous bills that proposed to organize
Whoever used the copy of Gilman’s either a state or territorial government
12 Prologue
for California, no boundary provision
matched those defined by the California
constitution later in 1849 and drawn on
the map. If a member of Congress was
responsible for altering the Archives
copy of the Gilman map in the first ses-
sion of the 1849–1851 Congress, who
could it have been? Only Louisiana’s
Senator Solomon W. Downs specifically
referred to Gilman’s map in a speech on
February 19, 1850, during debate on the
compromise proposals previously pre-
sented by Senator Henry Clay of Ken-
tucky; Downs used the map to point out
that Clay’s proposal on Texas boundaries
would have cut off northern Texas from
the state.
Others who referenced the map
pointed to its statistical tables. Most cita-
tions of statistics from the map were
made in the House during speeches by
northern representatives supporting the
admission of California as a state. On
March 11, Rep. Orin Fowler (W-MA)
quoted a few statistics from the tables
on both sides of the map, and on June 3
Rep. Peter H. Silvester (W-NY) quoted a
few aggregate statistics from the right-
hand table. Two congressmen, Rep.
Samuel R.Thurston (D-OR) on March 25
and Rep. Jesse C. Dickey (W-PA) on June
6, both copied much of the entire right-
hand table into their pro-California state-
hood speeches. One figure that both
cited, which was not on Gilman’s map,
was an estimate of approximately
145,000 square miles for the area of Cal-
ifornia as defined by its constitution’s
boundaries. Thurston’s speech, at least
the printed version, occupied parts of
10 pages in the Congressional Globe; it
analyzed much of the California consti-
tution and quoted its section on bound-
aries. In our opinion, if a member of
Congress was responsible for the inser-
tion of the California boundary on the
Archives copy of the Gilman map, that
member was most likely Samuel
Thurston of Oregon. No member of the
Texas delegation, all Democrats, cited
the Gilman map in support of their
state’s claim to all the territory east of
the Rio Grande, although the map
Winter 2009
clearly supported that claim. When the
Texans did mention maps in the first ses-
sion of the 1849– 1851 Congress, they
cited Disturnell’s, which had authority
by virtue of its having been the map
used in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
negotiations, or a more recent and more
accurate one based on actual surveys by
the Texas General Land Office, the Jacob
de Cordova-Robert Creuzbaur map of
August 1848. Senator Sam Houston did
not himself refer to the Cordova-Creuz-
baur map in this session but had
strongly promoted it as an accurate map
of Texas during the second session of
the 30th Congress in 1848. The two
maps the Texans cited simply served
their purpose of defending the Texas
boundary claim in debate during 1850,
and they saw no need to also cite the
Gilman map.
Ephraim Gilman’s 1848 map proved
more useful in Congress for its statistical
data than for its colorful depiction of U.S.
geographic contours. But with its presen-
tation of New Mexico lying unambigu-
ously west of the Rio Grande, the map
does illustrate the final tilt of the Polk
administration toward the validity of
Texas’s 1836 claim.
The map also reflects President Polk’s
view that the best solution to the sec-
tional crisis over slavery in the territories
was the extension of the Missouri Com-
promise line to the Pacific Coast. The
marking of the proposed California state
boundary on the Archives copy of the
map used during the course of the
debate over the Compromise of 1850
makes it a unique document.
Finally, the Gilman map illustrates
how much of the nation’s history a sin-
gle document can reveal and how many
mysteries the draftsman embedded in
this fascinating example of 19th-cen-
tury cartography. P
Cartography, Politics—and Mischief
NOTE ON SOURCES
The map that is the subject of this article, Map of the United States Including
Western Territories, December 1848, can be found in RG 233, Records of the U.S.
House of Representatives, Center for Legislative Archives, National Archives and
Records Administration (NARA).The Disturnell map of 1847 is in General Records
of the United States Government, Record Group (RG) 11, NARA. Information on
Ephraim Gilman is from the United States Official Register, 1839–1851 at the
National Archives; 1840 and 1850 U.S. Censuses for the District of Columbia,
National Archives Microfilm Publication M704 and M432, respectively; and the
New York Times, February 23, 1853. On President James K. Polk’s request for the
map and his statements based on the Gilman map and tables, see Milton M. Quaife,
ed., The Diary of James K. Polk During His Presidency, 1845 to 1849 (Chicago:
A.C. McClurg & Co., 1910), and James D. Richarson, A Compilation of Messages
and Papers of the Presidents, 1789–1897, volumes 4 and 5 (Washington: G.P.O.,
1897). Correspondence relating to the Gilman map is in the U.S. Serial Set, U.S.
Congress, House of Representatives, H. Ex. Doc. 1, 30th Congress, 2nd session, vol.
537, 1849. The f loor debates in the House of Representatives that referenced the
Gilman map and tables are available in the Congressional Globe, 31st Congress,
1st session, 1850.
The published sources most helpful for understanding the political context of
the Gilman map are Stegmaier, Texas, New Mexico, and the Compromise of 1850,
cited above, and Stegmaier,“The Guadalupe Hidalgo Treaty as a Factor in the New
Mexico-Texas Boundary Dispute” in John P. Bloom, ed., The Treaty of Guadalupe
Hidalgo: Papers of the Sesquicentennial Symposium, 1848–1998 (Las Cruces,
NM: Doña Ana Co. Historical Society and Yucca Tree Press, 1999), pp. 31–33. See
also Robert W. Johansson, Stephen A. Douglas (New York: Oxford University Press,
1973); Paul H. Bergeron, The Presidency of James K. Polk (Lawrence: University
Press of Kansas, 1987); Chaplain W. Morrison, Democratic Politics and Sectional-
ism: The Wilmot Proviso Controversy (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina
Press, 1967); and Allan Nevins, Ordeal of the Union, volume 1, Fruits of Manifest
Destiny, 1847–1852 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1947).
The authors would like to thank National Archives and Records Administration
archivists Constance Potter for editorial suggestions and for furnishing biograph-
ical information on Ephraim Gilman; Richard H. Smith of the Cartographic for
assistance in our examination of the cartographic work of Gilman; and William
Davis of the Center for Legislative Archives. We also thank NARA conservationist
Yoonjoo Strumfels for conducting a ver y detailed analysis of the map. We also
appreciate Scott Daniels, research librarian at the Oregon Historical Society, who
conducted at our request a search of Oregon maps drawn before 1850.
Author
Mark J. Stegmaier is professor of history at Cameron University in Law-
ton, Oklahoma, where he has taught since receiving his Ph.D.from the Uni-
versity of California at Santa Barbara in 1975.He is the author of Texas, New
Mexico, and the Compromise of 1850: Boundary Dispute and Sectional Crisis (Kent, OH:
Kent State University Press, 1996) and co-author of James F. Milligan: His Journal of Fre-
mont’s Fifth Expedition, 1853–1854: His Adventurous Life on Land and Sea (Glendale,
CA:Arthur H. Clark Co., 1988).
Richard T. McCulley is the historian at the Center for Legislative Archives
at the National Archives and Records Administration,Washington, D.C. He
received his Ph.D. in U.S. history from the University of Texas at Austin and
was a lecturer and research associate at the Lyndon B. Johnson School of
Public Affairs. He is the co-author of White House Operations:The Lyndon
Johnson Presidency (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1986) and author of
Banks and Politics during the Progressive Era (New York: Garland Press, 1992).
Prologue 13
 Ike
and his Spies
Sky
in the
Eisenhower, Fearing a Surprise
Soviet Attack, Pushed for Better
Intelligence, Approved U-2 Flights
By David Haight
A s Supreme Allied Commander in Europe in World
War II, Dwight D. Eisenhower ordered one of
the biggest surprise attacks in world history—the D-
day landing on the coast of France on June 6, 1944,
which marked the beginning of the end for the Ger-
man Third Reich. But before making the final decision
to launch the attack, he wanted the best intelligence
available, and he got it.
Nearly a decade later, as President of the United
States, Eisenhower was still concerned about surprise
attacks—but this time he was worried about a Pearl
Harbor–style attack on the United States by a nuclear-
armed Soviet Union. And again, Eisenhower wanted
the best available intelligence. But getting it and man-
aging it proved to be more difficult than it had been
the decade before.
Eisenhower understood that knowledge based on
reliable intelligence is power and that the Soviet
Union posed a grave threat to America’s security. He
knew that the Soviets were testing nuclear weapons
and developing long-range bombers to deliver them.
14 Prologue
It was important to pierce the Soviets’ curtain of
secrecy, but information about their military capabili-
ties was proving elusive to the techniques of tradi-
tional espionage.
Records in the holdings of the Eisenhower Presi-
dential Library in Abilene, Kansas, reveal how the 34th
President dealt with his desire for quality intelligence
about the Soviets’ military activities while balancing
the risks involved in getting that information against
those of setting off a full-scale war with the former
World War II ally.
Balancing those risks presented him with a
dilemma, as depicted by the record of the 157th meet-
ing of the National Security Council on July 31, 1953,
just over six months after he took office.
The director of the Central Intelligence Agency,Allen
Dulles, reported that the Soviet Union had recently
developed a new heavy bomber with an estimated
range of 6,000 miles and capable of reaching any point
in the United States and returning to the USSR.At this
same meeting, Gen. Omar Bradley, chairman of the
Winer 2009
 President Dwight D. Eisenhower appreciated
the importance of aerial intelligence-gathering.
U-2 reconnaissance aircraft (opposite page)
began flying over the USSR in 1956.

Title Prologue 15
Joint Chiefs of Staff, briefed the President
and the council on the loss of a U.S. Air
Force plane, an RB-50, in the Sea of Japan.
The ensuing discussion revealed that the
United States also shot down Russian planes
that approached U.S. ships too closely.The
President said that both the Americans and
the Russians knew that if U.S. planes flew
toward Vladivostok, they were not on train-
ing missions. As Eisenhower said,this shoot-
down was not as unprovoked as it might
have seemed. In this case, the former five-
star general could see the matter from the
Soviet viewpoint and appeared to play it
down not only to avoid public discussion of
sensitive intelligence operations but also to
avoid domestic pressure to retaliate against
the Soviets.
Were these aerial missions worth the
risk, loss, and expense invested in them?
Many writers have attempted to answer
this question by studying the available evi-
dence. These flights were hidden in a
cloak of secrecy, and even now many
details are unclear either because of con-
tinuing security protection or because of
the lack of written documentation.
James R. Killian, being sworn in here as special assistant to the President for science and technology, was a
key adviser to the President on organizing and developing U.S. intelligence capabilities to warn of a possible
Soviet surprise attack.
16 Prologue
Nevertheless, through varying levels of
archival processing and researcher-gener-
ated declassification requests, a large vol-
ume of the historical record of Eisen-
hower’s management and employment of
intelligence has been made available to
researchers at the Eisenhower Library.
Anyone familiar with 20th-century
records is aware that declassifying intel-
ligence information is often difficult and
time consuming. Despite the fact that cer-
tain intelligence-related documents in the
library are likely to remain security clas-
sified for years to come, significant
progress has been achieved in releasing
information on many intelligence topics.
The declassified records, in their original
context, are dependent upon historians
to give narrative perspective to their
archival existence.
• • •
To counter the menace of Soviet mili-
tary might, the Eisenhower administration
developed a strategic posture policy,
known as the “New Look.” This basic
national security policy, approved in late
1953, included an expansion of U.S. intel-
ligence collection and analysis.
The President placed top priority on
this, and to drive home a sense of urgency,
he told the military service chiefs in late
1954 that for the first time the United
States had reason to be frightened for its
safety because an enemy armed with the
new (nuclear) weapons could knock out
the nation within 30 days.
Eisenhower authorized aerial intelligence-
collecting programs in order to better assess
the military capability of the Soviet Union,
China,and other Communist-bloc nations to
launch a surprise attack on the United States.
He approved overflights of the Soviet Union
by military aircraft in a highly compartmen-
talized intelligence program labeled
SENSINT (Sensitive Intelligence).Despite the
risks of Soviet retaliation,U.S.military aircraft
flew directly over the Soviet territory from
early 1954 until late 1956.
The U.S. Air Force developed balloons
equipped with cameras and flew them
over Soviet bloc countries under the guise
of meteorological research. The balloon
program, which Eisenhower approved
with misgivings in 1955, yielded more
protests from the Kremlin than it did use-
ful intelligence information. Eisenhower
ordered balloon flights over Russia
stopped in 1956, but various schemes for
launching balloons floated as late as 1958.
When the President at Geneva in 1955
sought Soviet agreement to a mutual
exchange of military information with the
United States, First Secretary of the Com-
munist Party Nikita Khrushchev and the
Soviet delegation rejected his initiative.
Eisenhower, therefore, relied on covert or
black operations, emphasizing overhead
intelligence collection as a major part of
the United States’effort to meet this threat
of surprise attack.
Meanwhile, in 1956, U-2 aircraft began
flying over the Soviet Union. Unlike the
SENSINT program, the U-2 program was
directed by the CIA, a civilian agency, and
piloted by civilians.Eisenhower,while real-
izing the provocative nature of military air-
craft flown by military personnel over or
around the Soviet Union, continued
throughout his administration to approve
Winter 2009

Andrew Goodpaster,White House staff secretary, was
the President’s right-hand man in managing overhead
intelligence collection programs.
missions conducted on the periphery of
the Soviet Union and mainland China.
These flights, begun under President
Harry S. Truman, increased tensions
between the United States and the Soviet
Union and led to many attacks on these
planes with the loss of planes and person-
nel. Nevertheless, Eisenhower permitted
such missions to collect communications
and electronic intelligence and photograph
Soviet air and naval facilities while ferreting
out the Soviet radar systems.
The Eisenhower administration’s over-
head intelligence, or aerial reconnaissance,
programs were inspired in large part by the
recommendations of James R. Killian, presi-
dent of Massachusetts Institute of Technol-
ogy, and Edwin “Din” Land, president of
Polaroid Corporation, both serving on the
President’s Technological Capabilities Panel
(TCP), appointed by the President in 1954.
The panel, with Killian as chairman and
Land an active member, conducted an
extensive study of the surprise attack prob-
lem and passed on to the President recom-
mendations concerning intelligence collec-
tion. The TCP described the periphery of
the Soviet Union as a fruitful area for col-
lecting intelligence. In addition to recom-
mending risky aerial reconnaissance flights,
the TCP also pointed out the intelligence
potential of reconnaissance satellites.More-
over, the panel saw space-based satellite
operations as a way to establish the legal
right to operate in space while avoiding the
Ike and His Spies in the Sky
dangers posed by aircraft flying over and
around the Soviet Union.
Although Killian and Land helped con-
vince the President to embark on many
technologically advanced programs, the
man primarily responsible for assisting the
President manage these programs was
Andrew Jackson Goodpaster.
Upon assuming the post of White House
staff secretary in the fall of 1954, Colonel
Goodpaster served as the President’s liaison
with the executive agencies responsible for
intelligence, military, and international
affairs. He was the President’s “go-to” man,
the person Eisenhower counted on to help
oversee the Cold War aerial reconnaissance
programs. His records contain a treasure
trove of documentation pertaining to high-
altitude balloons,the U-2 aircraft and its mis-
sions, other aerial missions flown along the
periphery of the USSR, and plans for the
development of reconnaissance satellites.
In November 1954, the President acted
on one of the TCP proposals by approving
funding for“thirty special high performance
aircraft”as described by Goodpaster’s mem-
orandum of a conference with the Presi-
dent. The first successful mission of these
“special high performance aircraft,” also
known as the U-2, flew over the Soviet
Union in July 1956. From the outset of the
U-2 missions, Soviet radar spotted the
planes.This vulnerability spurred the devel-
opment of anotherTCP panel proposal,the
reconnaissance satellite.
In February 1958, Eisenhower officially
approved the program code-named
CORONA, which eventually produced
photographic images taken in outer space
and recovered from satellite capsules.
• • •
Many U.S. government civilian and mili-
tary agencies collected intelligence on the
Soviet Union and other potential adver-
saries during the years of intense Cold War
activities. Eisenhower attempted through-
out his administration to establish better
control and coordination of these agen-
cies’ intelligence activities.
In 1956 he established the President’s
Board of Consultants on Foreign Intel-
ligence Activities (PBCFIA) to provide
advice and oversight on U.S. intelligence
programs. In creating the board, the Presi-
dent sought advice from selected citizens
with experience in government service,sci-
ence and technology, or other executive
responsibilities. Eisenhower picked Killian
as the first chairman of PBCFIA, which also
included World War II hero Gen. James
Doolittle, another of the President’s key
advisers on intelligence.
While Eisenhower continued to use aer-
ial reconnaissance to acquire strategic intel-
ligence aimed at reducing the threat of a
Soviet surprise attack on the United States,
he endeavored,with only limited success,to
implement the PBCFIA’s recommendations
for better administrative control of these
diverse intelligence operations.
On August 22, 1956, the Chinese shot
down a Navy plane in the Sea of Japan,
resulting in the loss of the entire 16-man
crew. In an August 30 meeting with Adm.
Arthur Radford,chairman of the Joint Chiefs
of Staff, Eisenhower, the man who had
ordered tens of thousands of men to storm
the beaches of Normandy, talked not about
the lost personnel but instead about the fail-
ure of the involved U.S.agencies to develop
a cover plan for such situations.He went on
to state his concern over the apparent lack
of control by the military agencies of such
missions, but after further discussion, he
agreed to allow further missions provided
they were done with great care and follow-
ing strict requirements.Thus we see a Presi-
dent concerned over tight control, manage-
ment, and plausible cover for provocative
intelligence-gathering missions.
In October 1957 the PBCFIA affirmed
its support of overhead reconnaissance
efforts because of their potential for col-
lecting valuable intelligence on Soviet mil-
itary facilities, including missile-launching
sites and air bases. At the same time, the
PBCFIA conveyed to the President the
urgent need to expedite reconnaissance
satellite development.
On February 7, 1958, Killian and Land
briefed the President on reconnaissance
satellite activities.Since 1956 the Air Force
had conducted plans to design and build
reconnaissance satellites under a program
termed WS (Weapons System) 117L. At
Prologue 17
this meeting the President agreed that a
plan for film recovery be separated from
the WS 117L in expectation of acquiring
intelligence data sooner.
The administration established the Ad-
vanced Research Project Agency (ARPA)
within the Department of Defense, which
would run the military aspects of the satel-
lite recovery program, but ARPA would be
answerable to the CIA because the Presi-
dent insisted on civilian control and tight
secrecy for this program.Goodpaster made
sure that Killian and Land understood the
President’s intention that the CIA would
direct the intelligence phases of the pro-
gram, which Eisenhower formally approved
on April 21 as Project CORONA.
By 1958 the press was speculating pub-
licly concerning reconnaissance aspects of
the WS 117L program. To avoid this
unwanted public scrutiny, the administra-
tion separated this new black or covert
satellite program from WS 117L.The admin-
istration hid it by concocting a biomedical
space research project termed DISCOV-
ERER.The Department of Defense guidance
for responding to public inquiries concern-
ing the DISCOVERER satellite launchings
contained the following language:
The purpose of ARPA’s PROJECT DIS-
COVERER is to continue development of
a number of systems and techniques
18 Prologue
which will be employed in the operation
of space vehicles....The initial launchings
primarily will be to test the vehicle itself,
especially its propulsion and guidance.
Later, the satellites will contain biomed-
ical specimens to seek data on environ-
mental conditions which will be useful to
the man-in-space program being carried
out jointly byARPA and the NationalAero-
nautics and SpaceAdministration. As part
of this program, live animals also will be
carried aloft and their recovery
attempted in order to develop the tech-
niques involved.
A memorandum anticipating press
inquiries listed a number of questions and
the answers to be given. Question #1 “Is
the Discoverer a reconnaissance satellite?”
The answer to be given was “No.” Other
questions and recommended answers
were designed to steer media inquiry
away from any connection with military
programs involving reconnaissance satel-
lites (WS 117L).
(Eisenhower, in his insistence on
secrecy for space-based intelligence pro-
grams, undoubtedly agreed with Winston
Churchill’s statement to Joseph Stalin at
the Tehran Conference in November
1943, “Truth deserves a bodyguard of
lies.”)
ARPA generated numerous documents
reporting on the progress of DISCOV-
ERER. In reality, however, they were actu-
ally covering for the highly secret Project
CORONA. This cover plan succeeded in
hiding CORONA from public or Soviet
scrutiny until 1995, more than a quarter-
century after Eisenhower’s death, when
the United States officially acknowledged
its existence.
• • •
Until reconnaissance satellites could
become operational, however, the admin-
istration felt compelled to rely on the
provocative peripheral and overflight mis-
sions to collect data on Soviet air and mis-
sile bases and to seek evidence of any
Soviet war preparations.
From the time the first U-2 flight
appeared over the Soviet Union in July
1956, the Soviets tracked almost every
mission, particularly those flown west of
the Urals. In a December 16, 1958, meet-
ing with the President’s Foreign Intell-
igence Advisory Board, Eisenhower reit-
erated the one question that mattered:“Is
the intelligence which we receive from
this source [overflights] worth the exac-
erbation of international tensions which
results?”
Eisenhower believed the flights had
located adequate targets for intelligence
collection. But he also realized that the U-2
flights did not solve the problem of sur-
prise attack. The PBCFIA,after hearing the
President express his concerns,concluded
that the intelligence thus obtained was
worthwhile and recommended that the
flights continue.
The President continued to worry
about international tensions and retained
firm control, saying “yea” or “nay” over
each proposed flight. Goodpaster’s mem-
oranda recorded these affirmative and
negative presidential actions, each influ-
President Eisenhower holds an American flag taken
from the capsule recovered from Discoverer XIII.This
capsule, although not containing the KH-1 camera, was
a trial run for Discoverer XIV launched on August 18,
1960, which contained the camera and collected the
first photographic images recovered from a U.S. recon-
naissance satellite. Shown with the President are Dud-
ley C. Sharp; Secretary of Defense Thomas Gates; and
Gen.Thomas White,August 15, 1960.
Winter 2009
Memorandum for the Record by Andrew Goodpaster recording the President’s
approval of Project CORONA.
enced by the current international situa-
tion. For example, on March 4, 1959, with
the Berlin situation heating up, Good-
paster recorded:
At the President’s request, I advised Gen-
eral [Nathan] Twining [chairman of the
Joint Chiefs of Staff] that the President has
decided to disapprove any additional spe-
cial flights by the U-2 in the present abnor-
mally tense circumstances.
In a February 10, 1959, meeting, the
President expressed hope in technological
advancements including the CORONA
project as well as the more advanced
plane, the SR-71. He continued to listen to
Killian and Land on such matters as the
monitoring of Soviet missile firings and
the progress of CORONA.
Throughout the February 10 meeting,the
President demonstrated his interest in
obtaining as much information on the Soviet
missiles as possible and also in details of mis-
sile production and acceleration. He also
commented on leaks by “irresponsible offi-
cials and demagogues.” He remarked that
some senators seemed to be responsible for
the leaks, while at the same time munitions
makers were striving to get more contracts
and appeared to be exerting undue influ-
ence over these senators. Did the President
have this kind of thing in mind when he
made his famous reference to the “military-
industrial complex” in his farewell address
Ike and His Spies in the Sky
Image of Mys Shmida airfield, USSR, CORONA mission 9009 (Discoverer XIV).This
was the first successful recovery of imagery taken by a reconnaissance satellite.
on January 17, 1961?
At any rate, politicians such as Missouri
Senator Stuart Symington, a former secretary
of the Air Force who was running for Presi-
dent in 1960, raised allegations of a “missile
gap,” claiming the United States was falling
behind the Soviet Union in missile produc-
tion and deployment. Information from the
risky U-2 missions,however,helped confirm
Eisenhower’s judgment that the so-called
“missile gap” did not exist and allowed him
to more readily resist calls for massive
increases in military spending that might
have accelerated a U.S.-Soviet arms race.
Throughout the spring and summer of
1959, the President continued to express
concern over the risks of continuing these
reconnaissance flights and to worry over
Soviet reactions to them. In a July 8, 1959,
meeting with Secretary of State Christian
Herter, CIA Director Allen Dulles, and
Richard Bissell, the CIA’s deputy director
for plans, he asked “whether we are get-
ting to the point where we must decide if
we are trying to prepare to fight a war or
to prevent one.” Nevertheless, because of
the unanimous recommendations by his
advisers, the President agreed to the flight
under consideration at that time.
One of the best examples of the Presi-
dent’s agonizing over these overflights is
a memorandum for the record document-
ing his meeting with his PBCFIA on Feb-
ruary 2, 1960.
As the board pushed for using over-
flights to collect intelligence to the maxi-
mum degree possible, the President
pointed out the “soul-searching” he
engaged in when he considered approval
for each flight.Gen.John Hull,chairman of
the board, pointed out that a recent flight
disclosed military deployments that gave
no sign of a slackening off of Soviet mili-
tary power as might have been suggested
by the “spirit of Camp David.” (The Eisen-
hower-Khrushchev conversations at
Camp David in September 1959 had
encouraged hope in some quarters that
tensions between the United States and
the USSR might be easing.)
Eisenhower responded that while he
knew of no “spirit of Camp David,” these
talks had been a frank and respectful dis-
cussion of key issues and accomplished a
mutual recognition by Eisenhower and
Khrushchev that it was critically impor-
tant to avoid general war. Eisenhower
viewed the data on soviet missile sites he
had seen as corroborating what
Khrushchev had told him at Camp David.
While Hull and the board continued to
focus on the intelligence value of over-
flights, the President said that he was
putting on the line his one asset in a sum-
mit meeting: his reputation for honesty. If
one of these aircraft was lost while the
United States was engaged in apparently sin-
cere deliberations,it could be put on display
in Moscow and ruin the President’s effec-
tiveness as a negotiator. Nevertheless, the
Prologue 19

On March 31, 1959, the CIA sent the White House an intelligence note about possible ICBM launching sites
in the Urals.
board members insisted on continuing the
overflights while hoping that the SR-71,
much less vulnerable to tracking and
attack than was the U-2, would soon be
operational.
The overflights continued, and on April
25, 1960, Goodpaster wrote a brief one-
paragraph memorandum stating: “After
checking with the President, I informed
Mr. Bissell that one additional operation
[U-2 overflight of the USSR] may be under-
taken, provided it is carried out prior to
May 1. No operation is to be carried out
after May 1.”
As is well known, that operation carried
out on May 1 was the U-2 flight over the
Soviet Union piloted by Francis Gary Pow-
20 Prologue
ers. It was brought down, apparently by a
missile that damaged but did not destroy
the plane, thus enabling Powers to para-
chute safely. Power’s plane was also appar-
ently the only plane downed deep within
the Soviet Union.
The Soviets captured Powers and put
what was claimed to be the wreckage of his
plane on display.The international furor cre-
ated by this incident forced Khrushchev,
probably under pressure himself in the
Kremlin, to make demands on Eisenhower
at the beginning of the Paris summit confer-
ence on May 16, 1960. Khrushchev, not
receiving the apologetic response from
Eisenhower he demanded,then walked out,
effectively wrecking the summit.
One might ask why the President sent a
U-2 mission over the USSR only two weeks
before the Paris summit conference. Eisen-
hower apparently accepted the need for as
much data as possible on Soviet interconti-
nental ballistic missile deployment before
talking to the Soviets at the Paris confer-
ence. He also knew of indications that the
Soviets were about to develop the capabil-
ity to shoot down a U-2.Therefore the Pres-
ident appears to have believed that he had
good intelligence on the Soviets’ military
capabilities and intentions, but there was
just enough doubt in his mind to motivate
him to seek more. Although he knew the
CORONA project was making progress, it
still, as of May 1960, had not achieved suc-
cess. In fact, the first 12 DISCOVERER mis-
sions were failures. So he did not know
when CORONA would produce the intelli-
gence he sought.
Eisenhower lamented the results of the
U-2 affair, and in a July 11, 1960, meeting
dealing primarily with Cuba, he remarked
that all of his advisers, including Secretary
of State John Foster Dulles, missed badly
on their estimates regarding the interna-
tional impact resulting from a U-2 failure.
Eisenhower did not want to say“I told you
so” but recalled he was the only one who
had heavily weighted this aspect of these
operations.
The President had reason to be frus-
trated.The CIA had advised him that it was
highly unlikely that the Soviets could track
U-2 flights. In fact, almost from the begin-
ning, Soviet radar picked up and tracked
these flights.The CIA had also assured the
President that it was almost a certainty
that no pilot would survive a shootdown
of a U-2 aircraft.Yet the Soviets captured
Powers alive.
Eisenhower vowed not to send U-2
planes over the Soviet Union any more.
This did not, however, mean the cessation
of all U.S. aerial reconnaissance programs
conducted on the periphery of the Soviet
Union and other Communist territories.
On July 1, 1960—the day the Soviets shot
down a U.S. RB-47 plane conducting
reconnaissance in the Barents Sea along
the northern coast of the USSR—the Pres-
ident received a briefing on the status of
Winter 2009
these aerial peripheral reconnaissance
missions.
The record of this briefing, a seven-page
memorandum, is currently partially declas-
sified, with sizeable portions remaining
classified. Nevertheless, enough has been
released to provide numerous details on
units, locations of missions, and their com-
mon purpose: to collect communications
intelligence (COMINT), electronic intelli-
gence (ELINT), and photography.After this
briefing, Eisenhower approved General
Twining’s request to resume these COMINT
and ELINT collecting missions.The mem-
orandum of this conversation points out
British performance of similar missions
and also mentions the concept of Soviet
and even Swedish fighters “pacing” these
reconnaissance aircraft.While recognizing
the risks involved with these peripheral
missions, the President insisted that they
were legal. General Twining assured the
President that “great care would be taken
Below: Maps of U-2 routes over Soviet missile areas
and Ural railroad system, March 1959.
Ike and His Spies in the Sky
to insure that the flights are no more
provocative than necessary.”
• • •
The CORONA satellite reconnaissance
program experienced many failures before
Mission 9009, launched on August 18,
1960, resulted in the first successful recov-
ery of satellite images taken of Soviet
bases.These first images produced photo-
graphic coverage of the Mys Shmida air-
field in extreme northeast Siberia.
Thus, late in his administration, after hav-
ing experienced a sharp deterioration in rela-
tions with the Soviet Union following the
Soviets’ capture of Powers and his aircraft,
Eisenhower received a positive intelligence
related accomplishment: readable imagery
from a satellite orbiting the Earth in outer
space.The first images were primitive and
limited in information but indicated promises
of better things to come.This indeed was the
case as the CORONA program lasted until
1972,with the quality of its imagery improv-
ing with each successful mission.
Bolstered by the success of CORONA
Mission 9009, the President continued to
work on improving the U.S. government’s
intelligence collecting and analysis to the
end of his administration.In December1960,
he received a report by the Joint Committee
on Foreign Intelligence Activities (often
called the Kirkpatrick report since Lyman
Kirkpatrick was the committee chairman).
This report,declassified in part,made numer-
ous recommendations,some of which led to
the eventual establishment of the National
Reconnaissance Office and the Defense Intel-
ligence Agency during the Kennedy admin-
istration.
The 473rd and 474th meetings of the
National Security Council on December
28, 1960, and January 5, 1961, respectively,
were devoted largely to discussing this
report’s recommendations. During the
474th meeting of the NSC, Eisenhower
expressed disappointment at his inability
to achieve the coordination within the U.S.
government’s intelligence community for
handling, using, and sharing intelligence
Prologue 21
that he wanted to see. He therefore in frus-
tration commented that he would leave to
his successor “a legacy of ashes.”
Eisenhower’s assessment of his efforts,
however, seems too harsh. With the suc-
cess of the CORONA missions at the end of
his administration, the President left a
legacy of technological advancement in
space-based intelligence collection. Impro-
ved versions of CORONA were used until
The author wishes to express his appreciation
for the assistance provided by Chalsea Millner,
Michelle Kopfer,Tim Rives,and Kathy Struss of the
Eisenhower Library staff and professor Judith
Collins, Kansas State University, Salina.
The Records of White House Staff Secretary
Andrew Goodpaster constitute the most impor-
tant source of documentation of the Eisenhower
administration’s overhead intelligence-collecting
programs.A file consisting of 20 folders entitled
“Intelligence Matters” begins with material dated
December 1955 and continues through the end of
the administration.Found here are memoranda of
conferences with the President, and with James
Killian,Allen Dulles, Richard Bissell, Edwin Land,
Nathan Twining, and many others involved in
these programs.This documentation covers bal-
loons, U-2 missions, peripheral missions, data on
intelligence targets within the Soviet Union,plans
and authorizations for the CORONA reconnais-
sance satellite program including developing
cover for this black operation, and a few items on
the Galactic Radiation and Background (GRAB)
electronic reconnaissance satellite (referenced in
Goodpaster’s records as Project CANES).This satel-
lite, intended to collect electronic intelligence
from Soviet radars, was successfully launched on
June 22, 1960, two months before the first suc-
cessful CORONA launch.However,CORONA pro-
duced the first photographic images from a recon-
naissance satellite. Portions of Goodpaster’s rich
intelligence file remain security classified as of
2009.
In addition to the “Intelligence Matters” file,
the White House Staff Secretary Records contain
other memoranda prepared or received by
Goodpaster concerning intelligence including
cover material for CORONA. As White House
staff secretary,Goodpaster prepared hundreds of
memoranda of conferences with the President.
Many of his memoranda pertaining to the sensi-
tive intelligence matters covered in this article
are found only in the Intelligence file cited
above. Most others of his memoranda, including
some on intelligence can be found within
Dwight D. Eisenhower’s Papers as President
(Ann Whitman File), particularly the ACW Diary
Series and the DDE Diary Series.The Ann Whit-
man File contains the richly detailed memoranda
of National Security Council meetings. Certain
intelligence-related portions remain security
classified as of 2009.
22 Prologue
1972, when they were replaced with more
advanced systems. CORONA and its suc-
cessors have provided U.S. Presidents with
accurate intelligence on the Soviet Union
and China.
Reconnaissance satellites were, in the
1970s, recognized internationally as the
means for policing international arms con-
trol agreements. Even the intelligence col-
lected through the U-2 and other aircraft
NOTE ON SOURCES
The role of the President’s Board of Consultants on
Foreign IntelligenceActivities (PBCFIA) in advising the
President is documented in a body of folders under that
board’s name in the Records of theWhite House Office
of the Special Assistant for National Security Affairs as
well as in some of Goodpaster’s memoranda of con-
ferences with the President. These files contain the
semiannual reports for the President prepared by PBC-
FIA chairmen James Killian and his successor,John Hull.
The Eisenhower Library therefore holds a reasonably
good declassified record of the recommendations
passed on to the President by this high-level advisory
body,although portions remain security classified as of
2009.
As for secondary sources, Cargill Hall, former histo-
rian for the National Reconnaissance Office,has written
numerous articles on the Eisenhower administration’s
overhead intelligence programs,which were the source
of information on the SENSINT programs approved
early in the Eisenhower administration before Good-
paster became staff secretary.The library holds little on
these early aerial reconnaissance programs conducted
from 1954 to 1956.Examples of Hall’s writings include
“The Truth About Overflights,” The Quarterly Journal
of Military History, 9 (Spring 1997);“Origins of U.S.
Space Policy: Eisenhower, Open Skies, and Freedom of
Space,” in John Logsdon et al., eds. Exploring the
Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the
U.S. Civil Space Program, Vol. I: Organizing for Explo-
ration (Washington, DC: NASA Sp-04407, 1995);“The
Eisenhower Administration and the Cold War: Framing
American Astronautics to Serve National Security,” Pro-
logue: Quarterly Journal of the National Archives, 27
(Spring, 1995);“Postwar Strategic Reconnaissance and
the Genesis of Corona”in Dwayne A.Day,John M.Logs-
don, and Brian Latell, eds., Eye in the Sky:The Story of
the Corona Spy Satellites (Washington, DC: Smithson-
ian Institution, 1998); and “Clandestine Victory: Eisen-
hower and Overhead Reconnaissance in the ColdWar,”
in Dennis E. Showalter, ed., Forging the Shield: Eisen-
hower and National Security for the 21st Century
(Chicago: Imprint Publications, 2005). Gregory Pedlow
and DonaldWelzenbach co-authored an official CIA his-
tory entitled The CIA and the U-2 Program,
1954–1974 (Washington, DC: Center for the Study of
Intelligence,Central IntelligenceAgency,1998).An essen-
tial source for studying the history of the CORONA pro-
gram is Kevin C. Ruffner, ed., CORONA:America’s First
Satellite Program, Washington, DC: Government Print-
ing Office,1995).Another key source is the two-volume
publication edited by R.Cargill Hall and Clayton D.Lau-
rie, Early Cold War Overflights: Symposium Proceed-
supported Eisenhower’s conclusion that the
United States possessed more long-range
missiles than did the Soviet Union and thus
no missile gap existed.As Cargill Hall,emer-
itus chief historian of the National Recon-
naissance Office, has concluded, the Presi-
dent, through his reconnaissance programs,
particularly CORONA, had indeed achieved
his goal of opening the skies over the Soviet
Union and China. P
ings (Washington, DC: Office of the Historian,
National Reconnaissance Office, 2003).This sympo-
sium was held at the Defense IntelligenceAgency on
February 22–23,2001.
Other important secondary sources consulted
include Michael Beschloss, Mayday: Eisenhower,
Khrushchev, and the U-2 Affair (NewYork:Harper
and Row,1986);Richard M.Bissell,Jr.,with Jonathan
E. Lewis and Frances T. Pudlo, Reflections of a Cold
Warrior ( New Haven, CT: Yale University Press,
1996); Stephen Ambrose and Richard Immerman,
Ike’s Spies: Eisenhower and the Intelligence Com-
munity (Garden City,NY:Doubleday,1981);andWil-
liam E. Burrows, By Any Means Necessary: Amer-
ica’s Secret Air War in the Cold War (New York:
Farrar, Straus and Giraux, 2001).
To encourage research in intelligence documents
at the Eisenhower Library, the archival staff devel-
oped an exercise intended to introduce participants
to high-level primary sources documenting Presi-
dent Eisenhower’s acquisition of aerial intelligence
capabilities. This exercise consists of a packet of
selected documents spanning the period from
November 1954 until September 1960 plus a glos-
sary of terms, lists of key individuals, and suggested
sources for background reading.This activity con-
sists of reading and analyzing the packet of intelli-
gence documents and can be modified to fit groups
ranging from secondary school classes to U.S gov-
ernment intelligence analysts. Unlike the Five Star
Leaders Program, conducted largely by the Eisen-
hower Library’s Education Specialist, this intelli-
gence document exercise is conducted entirely by
the library’s archives staff.
For further information about this exercise or
about documentation in the Eisenhower Library
relating to other intelligence topics, please con-
tact the Dwight D. Eisenhower Library staff while
also examining the Eisenhower Library’s web site
at www.eisenhower.archives.gov.
Author
David Haight was an archivist
at the Eisenhower Library for
37 years before retiring in
August 2008. He continues to
assist the library as a volunteer in security-
declassification matters and with other activ-
ities as needed.
Winter 2009
discover America’s heritage

s h op on l i n e at estore.archives.gov
 By Greg Bradsher

T he small staff of the newly created NationalArchives

had just moved into its new building in Washington’s
FederalTriangle in 1935 when the call went out for more
help.Some 15,000 applications were received,and several hun-
dred were hired to help the first Archivist of the United States,
R.D.W. Connor, get the new agency rolling.
One of those hires was a native of Utah, a former journal-
ist and Senate aide named Wayne Clayton Grover. His first job
at the new agency was accessioning clerk,assisting in the phys-
ical transfer of records to the Archives, but he rose quickly,
becoming a junior archivist the next year,and an archivist han-
dling War Department records the following year.
For the next four years, he spent most of his time handling
War Department records,earning a master’s degree and pass-
ing the examination for a doctorate in public administration.
He would spend World War II dealing with War Department
records and eventually wind up as the top assistant to the
second Archivist of the United States, Solon. J. Buck.
Then in 1948, Buck resigned and recommended Grover as
his successor. President Harry S. Truman took Buck’s rec-
ommendation, and Grover became the third Archivist of the
United States.

Opposite page: Wayne C. Grover served as Archivist of the United States from 1948 to 1965.
 Grover would serve as Archivist for 17
years, longer than any other Archivist
before or since. And he would leave a lasting
legacy at the agency, just as Connor did in
starting the agency from scratch,and Buck did
in leading the agency during World War II.
Grover’s tenure saw the agency shaped into
today’s recognizable form,with a national net-
work of records centers, a system of presi-
dential libraries, the preeminent role as the
government’s record manager,stewardship of
the nation’s Charters of Freedom,and a broad
array of public programs that reach out to the
public and to the agency’s stakeholders
throughout the nation. When he retired in
1965,he had established the general shape of
the Archives as it is known today.
His work prompted Waldo Gifford Le-
land, often called the father of the archival
profession in the United States, in congrat-
ulating Grover on his 10th anniversary as
Archivist, to say,“It is in you that we see the
very model of a modern archivist general.”
These observations might be hyperbole,
but certainly Grover,as the Archivist of the
United States from 1948 to 1965, by com-
bining scholarship with practical and pro-
gressive executive action, probably more
than any other individual, shaped the
National Archives into the leading institu-
tion of its kind in the world.
   
Grover was born in Garland, Utah, in
26 Prologue
1906.After graduating from high school in
Salt Lake City in 1924, he worked as a rail-
way clerk to earn money for college. In
1931, he graduated from the University of
Utah with a degree in English.While in col-
lege he worked part-time for theAssociated
Press in Salt Lake City and as a reporter for
the Deseret News. In 1933, however, he
struck out for Washington, D.C.There, with
the help of ƒa former college professor,
Elbert D. Thomas,who had been elected to
the U.S. Senate in 1932, he got a job in the
Senate post office, where he met and pro-
posed to the senator’s daughter, Esther.
Then, in January 1935, he answered the
call for applications for jobs at the
National Archives and came on board in
July 1935.
Grover rose quickly in the ranks, and in
the fall of 1937,Grover became an archivist
with the Division of War Department
Archives. During the next four years, he
spent most of his time arranging and
describing the records of the Army, Coun-
cil of National Defense, and the War In-
dustries Board. He also continued his
graduate studies at American University,
earning his M.A.in political science in June
1937 and passing the examination for a
Ph.D. in public administration in 1940.
On September 16, 1941, he was pro-
moted to assistant chief of his division.
This position was short-lived, however,
because on October 1, 1941, he was
loaned to the Office of the Coordinator of
Information (which became the Office of
Strategic Services, or OSS) to work as a
technical assistant with its Research and
Analysis Branch. During his stint with the
OSS, to which he was formally transferred
in May 1942, he gathered, evaluated, and
edited research data for inclusion in a
weekly publication on war trends.
Grover entered active military duty on
January 5, 1943, as a captain with the U.S.
Army’s records administration program.
He drew on his experience with army
records and played an active role in all
aspects of the “life cycle” of records, from
their creation to final disposition. This
concept of “life cycle” of records and the
belief in archival involvement in records
management were fostered by Philip
Brooks and other National Archives staff
in the years just before the war. They
believed that if archivists helped agencies
manage their records, then archivists
would find their archival tasks of ap-
praisal, arrangement, description, and
preservation would be made easier. Based
on this belief, early in 1941, without a
clear legislative mandate, the National
Archives formally began a records admin-
istration program to assist agencies with
the management of their records.
Numerous National Archives employ-
ees, including Herbert E.Angel, Robert H.
Bahmer, Everett O. Alldredge, and Theo-
dore R. Schellenberg, joined Grover dur-
ing World War II and in the immediate
postwar period in assuming records man-
agement positions in other government
agencies and departments. Most of them
subsequently returned to the National
Archives, bringing with them not only a
wealth of knowledge and experience but
also the firm belief that archivists must
exercise some influence over current
records if the small percentage that
would become archives were properly
managed.This belief would have a major
influence on both Grover and the
National Archives in the decades ahead.
By the end of 1943, Grover was a lieu-
tenant colonel and chief of the Records
Management Branch, Records Division,
Office of theAdjutant General,with respon-
Dr. Grover with his wife, Esther, and his daughters.
Winter 2009
sibility for formulating policies and proce-
dures governing records administration in
theWar Department and the U.S.Army.Dur-
ing the war he conceived, initiated, and
supervised the development of a compre-
hensive system of records administration in
the War Department and the Army, provid-
ing for more effective management of cur-
rent records and for the periodic disposal of
valueless papers and the preservation of
valuable records. In 1946 Grover also
received his Ph.D. in public administration
after the completion of his dissertation,“The
Records Administration Program of the
Department of War.” This work was based
on a 281-page report Grover had prepared
for the military entitled “War Department
RecordsAdministration Program.” Both trace
the history of the Army’s records adminis-
tration program, concentrating on the
1943–1945 period.
Leaving active military service in May
1946, Grover assumed a civilian position
created for him, the director of records
management for the Management Staff
Division, Office of the Adjutant General.
During the next 13 months he oversaw
the records administration program of the
War Department. This was a massive
undertaking since the military had accu-
mulated an enormous volume of records
during the war.
But it was not just the military that had
created large volumes of records during the
war;the entire federal government had cre-
ated many more records than ever before.
By war’s end the federal government had
accumulated 18 million cubic feet of
records, about half of which had been cre-
ated during the war. Archivist Buck was
staggered by the volume of records being
created and accumulated and wanted the
National Archives to take a more active role
in assisting agencies in managing their
records. In 1946, he convinced President
Harry S.Truman to issue an executive order
directing federal agencies to operate effec-
tive programs to manage and dispose of
their records, retaining only current rec-
ords, promptly disposing of valueless
records,and transferring those of enduring
value to the National Archives.
Buck also persuaded Grover to come
back to the National Archives during the
Shaping the National Archives
Archivist of the United States Solon J. Buck met with soon-to-be Archivist Wayne C. Grover in June 1948.
summer of 1947 to serve as his deputy and
to oversee the records management activi-
ties. Buck believed that Grover’s records
management experience and proven man-
agement skills would be an asset to the
agency, which at the time had a backlog of
work and faced many new challenges.
On August 1, 1947, Grover returned to
the National Archives as Assistant Archivist
of the United States.Very quickly he found
himself managing the National Archives
since Buck was plagued by serious illness
during the fall of 1947 and took a 10-week
tour of Caribbean countries on a cultural
relations mission for the Department of
State during the spring of 1948.
In the early spring of 1948,Buck notified
the White House of his intention to retire
and was asked to recommend a successor.
On May 12,1948,PresidentTruman named
Grover to that position,and the Republican-
controlled Senate confirmed the appoint-
ment without opposition on June 2, 1948.
The next day, Grover became the third
Archivist of the United States.
The new Archivist, according to Repre-
sentative Edward P. Boland, was “a short,
stocky man with a quiet manner and low
voice that accompanied a sharp wit and a
ready grin.” He was always well-groomed,
and looked the part of a scholar-administra-
tor. Congressman Albert Thomas, chairman
of the House appropriations subcommittee
called him the“little schoolteacher doctor.”
Unlike his two predecessors, Grover did
not have a significant standing in the schol-
arly world. But he was an experienced
archivist and a records management
expert—and an experienced administrator,
adept at politics with a strong appreciation
of the value of public relations.According to
the first Administrator of the General Ser-
vices Administration (GSA), Jess Larson,
Grover “was a man highly motivated in the
public interest”with a“broad and great con-
cept of his job.” But more important,Grover
had a great appreciation of history and
archives.These traits would serve him well
in his dealings with the government, the
public, and scholars.
Indeed, Grover faced many challenges
when he became Archivist, including
increasing the staff, which had been
depleted during the war,and addressing the
problems associated with the bulk and
complexity of the records that had recently
been created and accessioned. When
Grover became Archivist, the National
Archives held over 800,000 cubic feet of
records, more than double the volume it
had held just before the war. It was also
faced with accessioning many more
records. Before these records could be of
use to researchers,they had to be arranged
and described.These were enormous tasks,
considering that the staff of the National
Archives responsible for archives had
dropped from 315 in 1942 to 220 in 1948.
Perhaps Grover’s greatest challenge
was the organizational placement of the
Prologue 27
National Archives within the executive
branch of government. Congress in July
1947 established the Commission on the
Organization of the Executive Branch of
the Government, and President Truman
named former President Herbert Hoover
to chair it. The commission, popularly
known by the name of its chairman, was
charged by Congress and the President
with studying the government’s organiza-
tion and operations in view of making
recommendations for greater efficiency
and economy. Grover assisted the com-
mission as a consultant on federal records
management problems.Although he was
successful in having the commission
endorse the need for new records man-
agement legislation, he was unsuccessful
in his attempt to have his agency remain
an independent agency.The commission
recommended that a general services
agency be created and that all “house-
keeping” functions of the government,
including records management and
archives administration, be part of it.This
meant the National Archives would be a
constituent part of the larger agency.
Congress and the President, notwith-
standing Grover’s objections, agreed.
Thus, the National Archives lost its inde-
pendent status on July 1, 1949, when it
was placed under the newly created GSA.
Grover succeeded in avoiding having the
National Archives further subordinated to
a Bureau of Records Management, and in
December 1949, when a records manage-
28 Prologue
ment division was placed under the
Archivist’s control, the National Archives
was renamed the National Archives and
Records Service.
Not waiting for the Hoover Commission
to make its records management recom-
mendations, Grover focused his agency’s
attention on the growing records man-
agement problem. During the summer of
1948, he had the National Archives survey
the agencies to determine how well they
were complying with the 1946 executive
order. What was learned, and already
believed, was the need for more effective
records management programs in most
agencies. To help the agencies, Grover
asked Schellenberg to produce a records
disposition handbook and had other staff
members offer advice and assistance.
These actions had positive results, but
Grover knew that the National Archives
had neither sufficient resources nor the
legislative mandate to address adequately
the records management problems of the
government. He therefore began lobbying
for a comprehensive records management
law and the funds necessary to allow the
National Archives to help agencies better
manage their records.
Grover played an important role in turn-
ing the records-related recommendations
of the Hoover Commission into reality by
developing the Federal Records Act of
1950, the first charter for a government-
wide program of records management.
Among other things, this legislation added
considerable more authority to GSA,
charging it with improving procedures,
methods, and standards regarding the cre-
ation of records; their maintenance and
use when current; and their disposition
when they were no longer current. It also
authorized the GSA to operate records
centers to provide low-cost storage for
records.
To ensure agencies created, maintained,
and disposed of their records in an effi-
cient manner, the GSA was authorized to
inspect agency records management pro-
grams and prices. Fortunately for the
National Archives, the GSA administrator,
realizing Grover’s and the National
Archives’ ability, immediately delegated
the responsibilities to Grover.
Under Grover’s leadership,a full-fledged
program of records management to pro-
vide assistance to federal agencies was car-
ried out. A network of federal records cen-
ters was also established throughout the
country to provide economical storage
and quick access to records still needed to
conduct business. By the time Grover
retired in 1965, these centers held over 6
million cubic feet of records and were pro-
viding more than 3 million reference ser-
vices annually.
Many archivists and scholars believed
that the National Archives under Grover
was concentrating on records manage-
ment activities at the expense of archival
activities, particularly arranging, describ-
ing, and making records available. Grover
did not share this belief. “There is and
always will be, I hope,” Grover stated in
the American Archivist in 1951, “much
overlapping between current records
management and archival activities.” He
believed that by being actively involved in
records management, the National Ar-
chives could bring order and intelligence
into the management of federal records,
“improving their quality as well as decreas-
ing their quantity, and—what is at the
heart of the matter—assuring the preser-
Archivist Grover, with a group of deputy regional
directors for records management in June 1952,
believed that being actively involved in records man-
agement could bring order and intelligence into the
management of federal records.
Winter 2009
vation of those that are worthy of being
preserved.We can do this, and we can also
save the taxpayers some money, with our
records management program.”
His Society of American Archivists presi-
dential address in 1954 was devoted to the
theme of the partnership between archivists
and records managers. In it he stated,“It is
folly for archivists even to think of parting
company, literally or psychologically, from
the newly developed specialists in records
management;and no less folly on the records
management side than on the archival side.
Our numbers are too few; our common
interests too important.”
“What happens to our archival role as a
cultural organization in the process?”
Grover asked, referring to the National
Archives’ growing records management
role. His answer was that “the develop-
ment of the National Archives as a cultural
institution, serving not only the world of
scholarship but in a broad sense the Gov-
ernment itself . . . can proceed as rapidly as
our staff is willing and able to go.”
This last statement is not surprising, for
Grover saw the archives as an important
national resource.Archives must be cared
for,he maintained,because they“give cohe-
sion and consistency to the organization
and conduct of our national Government;
the wealth of hard-won experience and
knowledge” and “record our rights and
duties and status as citizens, and link us as
individuals into the great chain of past and
future.”
Grover, who saw himself as an“alumnus
of the stacks of the National Archives,”
spent much time attempting to make the
archival records of the government more
accessible. Externally, he successfully
urged Congress to enact legislation in sup-
port of archival programs, such as making
it more difficult for agencies to impose
their own security restrictions on records
more than 50 years old. Internally, he
stressed the need for more finding aids
and microfilm publications.
Grover’s archives-related efforts were
not just to provide access to scholars. By
emphasizing a broader publications and
exhibits program, Grover was able to
make millions of Americans more aware of
Shaping the National Archives
the fact that the archives were readily
available to all citizens. The archives-
related achievement in which Grover took
the most pride was bringing into National
Archives custody America’s Charters of
Freedom.A long-standing goal of the first
two Archivists had been to acquire the
Declaration of Independence and the Con-
stitution of the United States from the
Library of Congress.The National Archives
Rotunda had been especially built to
enshrine them, along with the Bill of
Rights. Grover saw this dream come true
in 1952, after successful negotiations with
the Librarian of Congress, to whom he
wrote:“Jefferson wanted on his tombstone
that he wrote the Declaration. I want on
mine that I saw it safely enshrined in the
Archives of the United States.”
Besides taking great interest in the gov-
ernment’s archives,Grover also took a great
personal interest in the papers of the Pres-
idents and dealt personally with five Presi-
dents in regard to their papers. He took
advantage of every opportunity to foster
the presidential library system, which was
operated by the NationalArchives to admin-
ister the papers and artifacts of all Presi-
dents since Herbert Hoover. In concluding
his testimony in support of the Presidential
Libraries Act of 1955, which firmly estab-
lished the presidential library system, he
stated that the proposed legislation “pro-
vides a system for gradually expanding the
archival facilities of the United States at the
least expense to the Federal Government
and with the greatest benefits nationally to
scholarship.”
While devoting much attention to the
federal government’s records and archives
programs,Grover did not neglect his other
official responsibilities. He spent much
time working in his capacity as the chair-
man of the National Historical Publcations
Commission (NHPC). In that capacity he
played a major role in bringing it out of a
dormant state and encouraging the publi-
cation of the source materials of American
history. Congress in establishing the
National Archives in 1934 also created the
NHPC to foster publication of historical
works.The commission accomplished lit-
tle during its initial years and fell into inac-
tivity during the war. Legislation in 1950
enlarged the mandate of the commission
in its efforts to help federal,state,and local
agencies and nongovernmental institu-
tions, societies, and individuals in collect-
ing and preserving, and when the NHPC
deemed such action to be desirable, in
editing and publishing papers of out-
standing citizens of the United States and
such other documents as many be impor-
tant for an understanding and apprecia-
tion of the history of the United States. In
1950 he stated that he hoped the NHPC
“will play a much more significant part in
our affairs than it has in the past.” With
more than a decade of accomplishments,
but with the realization that much work
could still be done, Grover, in 1964,
obtained legislation enlarging the role of
the NHPC in supporting the collecting,
describing, preserving, and compiling and
publishing of documentary sources sig-
nificant to the history the United States.
Congress in 1935 established a Federal
Register Division in the National Archives
to publish government rules, regulations,
executive orders, and other government
documents.As the chairman of the Admin-
istrative Committee of the Federal Regis-
ter, Grover was responsible for increasing
the effectiveness of Federal Register pub-
lications and for broadening its scope,
including the launching of the Public
Papers of the Presidents and the Weekly
Compilation of Presidential Documents.
These publications included news confer-
ence transcripts, messages, speeches, and
other presidential materials.
Besides devoting considerable time to
National Archives activities, Grover also
gave much time and attention to profes-
sional activities and contacts outside his
agency. He was called on countless times
for advice from state and local archival and
historical agencies.Not only did he provide
the advice,but he also gave many talks and
wrote several articles directed toward non-
federal archival and records management
audiences.He also took an active role in the
affairs of the Society ofAmericanArchivists.
He served as its president (1953–1954),
spoke at many of its meetings, and allowed
the National Archives to partially under-
Prologue 29
write and the staff to edit its journal, The
American Archivist.
Grover was most interested in maintain-
ing good relations with the scholarly com-
munity. He wanted archivists to remain in
close contact with historians, who had
been instrumental in getting the National
Archives established.“As the archival pro-
fession develops its own body of knowl-
edge, qualifications and responsibilities, it
must,” he urged,“increase—not lessen—the
sources of contact with the historical pro-
fession and other scholarly groups.There is
no ingrate like the child who spurns his
parent—or, for that matter, the parent who
spurns his child. The offspring may get
older, but the family resemblance is still
there; and, we hope, the family spirit.”
His relations with both the archival and
historical worlds paid their dividends in
many ways, including keeping Grover in
office. When Dwight D. Eisenhower was
elected President, there was a fear in the
archival and academic worlds that Grover
would be replaced—and worse still—by a
nonarchivist. Both archivists and historians
rallied to his support and whatever threats
to Grover existed, vanished. This action
firmly established the precedent that a
change of Presidents should not mean the
automatic removal of a professionally qual-
ified Archivist of the United States.
Largely as the result of Grover’s vision and
leadership, the National Archives became a
multifaceted operation of immeasurable
benefit to the government and to the indi-
viduals it served. Programs initiated under
his adept stewardship contributed greatly to
stimulating interest in American history as
reflected in the nation’s official archives.His
contributions to scholarship and the entire
world of inquiry by developing,organizing,
and publishing the archives of the United
States and by conceiving and effectively
establishing a government-wide program
for records management were well known
and appreciated. He received the Distin-
guished Service Award of the General Ser-
vicesAdministration in 1959 and the Career
Service Award from the National Civil Ser-
vice League in 1962.
Despite his and his agency’s success,
Grover and the National Archives failed to
achieve many things they would have liked
30 Prologue
to. The records management and disposi-
tion programs, because of limited staff,
were not able to provide all the advice,
assistance, and training it would liked to
and millions of cubic of feet of records
were not appraised. The archival staff,
which did not reach its 1942 peak of 315
employees again until 1959,was not able to
keep up with processing and preserving
records, nor to provide the quality of refer-
ence many researchers expected.
But despite its shortcomings, Grover’s
National Archives achieved much and con-
tributed greatly to the efficiency and effec-
tiveness of government and to the world
of research.Much of the National Archives’
success was the result of Grover’s ability
and leadership.
Grover’s ability to accomplish so much
was due to four factors. First, he was a
good administrator.According to the fifth
Archivist of the United States, James B.
Rhoads, Grover“was very effective in deal-
ing with important people on a one-to-one
basis.”“He had,” Rhoads wrote,“a superb
and well-developed sense of timing.”“That,
I think,” Rhoads wrote,“was perhaps his
greatest strength as an administrator and
institution builder.”Fortunately,Grover had
many first-rate subordinates to manage,
and he managed them well, delegating
effectively and supporting them with con-
fidence. According to one subordinate, he
“inspired not by oratory or by pompous
charges but by earnest expression and
conviction of feasibility.”
Grover believed in a minimum of admin-
istrative bureaucracy.“In the development
of scientific and scholarly work,”he stated,
“the emphasis must be on the individual—
his initiative, competence, productiveness,
and reputation in his field.”Therefore, he
believed“that a minimum harassment with
internal administrative paper-work is
important.” He added, “ever since I have
known them,the professional record-keep-
ing units of the NationalArchives have been
encumbered with too much ‘administra-
tion.’ We are trying to cut it down, within
the inevitable limits set by program and
budgetary planning and supervision.”
The second reason Grover was success-
ful was that he got along well with people,
both outside and inside the agency.“He was
more than a good administrator;” Brooks
wrote,“he was a man of high principles and
personal sensibility.Always fair-minded, he
expressed firm belief in equal opportunity
for all in his official actions and in his per-
sonal life. From those who worked under
his supervision he expected devotion to
their jobs, diligence, clarity of thought and
expression, and thorough honesty.” “He
was,” according to Brooks, “severe about
these obligations when necessary but
never unkind. His earnest concern about
the work to be done was always tempered
by a friendly manner,his writings and state-
ments by a genial wit.”
There are many examples of this wit.
Perhaps the best example was his corre-
spondence with Luther Evans, Librarian of
Congress, during the 1952 negotiations
over the transfer of the Declaration of
Independence and Constitution to the
National Archives. Evans sent Grover a
limerick:
There once was an agency rich
Whose head had a terrible itch
To take all records over.
His name it was Grover,
A two-fisted son-of-a-bitch.
In a similar vein Grover responded:
I have read your effusions
I bleed with remorse
No further contusions
Will come from this source.
But to label us “rich”
Is outright deception.
Better limit the pitch
To unimmaculate conception.
The third factor contributing to Grover’s
success was his belief in the important mis-
sion of archivists.He“chose to be an archivist,”
Philip Brooks wrote,“and always had faith
in the profession.”“There is,”Grover wrote,
“no more prosaic occupation, day-by-day,
than that of archivist; and no occupation,
generation-by-generation, with a more dra-
matic task.” In his retirement letter to the
National Archives employees’ association,
he spoke on archivists’ varied missions:
“The written word endures—at least such
portions of the word as we archivists
decide are worth preserving! It is a worri-
some and responsible task,but I can’t think
Winter 2009
of a nobler one in this rather uncivilized era
we find ourselves.”
He believed in the importance of training
archivists and gave much attention to it.He
believed in basics and professionalism.“It is
not sufficient,” he stated in a 1953 address,
“that he consider himself a technician
maneuvering empty vessels on a shelf, no
matter how dexterous his technique, how
valuable and sound his principles of
arrangement. The vessels are full. An ar-
chivist who doesn’t have some inkling of
the significance of their contents is, in my
book, not worth his salt. In the National
Archives, the best foundation on which to
stand in order to acquire such an inkling is
still the study of American history and gov-
ernment.” It was because of his concern
about the important mission and responsi-
bilities of archivists that Grover, with the
assistance of the National Archives staff,
wrote the “The Archivist’s Code,” copies of
which can be found today in many archival
institutions and on the walls of many
offices in the National Archives.
The fourth factor leading to success was
Grover’s ability to balance his work and pri-
vate life,often a difficult task for those in top
management positions. Grover devoted
much attention to his family. He enjoyed a
wide variety of diversions, including swim-
ming, boating, fishing, and golf, and was
fond of thoroughbred horseracing and of
traveling. He was an avid reader and music
lover and played the clarinet.
Running a large federal agency can
eventually drain an individual’s strength.
Grover was no exception. Internal bureau-
cratic battles, particularly those relating to
dividing the resources among different
parts of his agency, must have sapped
much of his strength.This was particularly
true of his difficulties with Theodore R.
Schellenberg. Schellenberg, probably
American’s most important archival theo-
rist, had joined the National Archives at
the same time as Grover. But over the
years, the two engaged in numerous dis-
putes over Archives issues; finally on Janu-
ary 1, 1962, Grover created an Office of
Records Appraisal and placed Schellen-
berg in charge of it.
If problems with Schellenberg were not
enough, Grover increasingly had difficulty
Shaping the National Archives
with the GSA administrators. By the early
1960s the battles with GSA on budget and
other matters prompted Grover to consider
retirement. Such thoughts increased as he
became increasingly irritated with GSA offi-
cials because of their restrictions on his
decision-making and the inadequate fund-
ing the National Archives received.
Taking stock of the situation in 1965, he
concluded that if the National Archives
was to regain its image and achieve its
place as one of the great cultural institu-
tions of America, it should once again be
an independent agency. His attempts to
persuade the GSA administrator on this
point were unsuccessful. He was hesitant
to speak out publicly about indepen-
dence because he believed that his choice
as successor would not be appointed
once he retired. So he decided that in
retirement, as well as in the process of
retiring, he could call for NARS indepen-
dence from the GSA, but in such a way as
not to antagonize the GSA.
On November 2,1965,Grover sent a letter
to President Lyndon Johnson indicating his
intention to retire and recommending his
longtime deputy, Robert Bahmer, to be his
successor.He also recommended the re-cre-
ation of the National Archives as an inde-
pendent agency.“While my own leaving is
entirely voluntary,” he informed the Presi-
dent, “and is based partly I suppose on a
belief that a man in an administrative posi-
tion can too easily overstay his time, my
enthusiastic support of yourAdministration,
your Library, and the archives of the United
States will remain unabated.” Four days later
he retired, with nearly 33 years of govern-
ment service. Noting his retirement, an edi-
torial in the Washington Post traced
Grover’s many contributions toAmerica and
observed that he “had elevated his office,
inspired his profession, won the esteem of
historians, and earned the gratitude of his
country.We Salute him and wish him well.”
True to his word to President Johnson,
Grover in retirement continued his ser-
vice and interest in the nation’s archival
establishment, serving as a consultant to
his successor and to the Lyndon Baines
Johnson Presidential Library. He died at
his home in Silver Spring, Maryland, on
June 8, 1970. P
NOTE ON SOURCES
The primary sources for this article are the
Wayne C. Grover Private Papers (GROVR),
National Archives and Records Administration,
College Park, MD; Grover’s essays in various
issues of American Archivist; and Philip C.
Brooks, “In Memoriam: Wayne C. Grover
1906–1970,”American Archivist 33 (July 1970).
For more information on Grover’s career with
the National Archives, see Donald McCoy, The
National Archives: America’s Ministry of Doc-
uments, 1934–1968 (Chapel Hill: University of
North Carolina Press, 1978); H. G. Jones, The
Records of a Nation: Their Management,
Preservation, and Use, with an introduction by
Wayne C. Grover (New York,Atheneum, 1969);
James Gregory Bradsher,“The National Archives:
Serving Government, the Public, and Scholar-
ship, 1950–1965,” in Guardian of Heritage:
Essays on the History of the National Archives,
ed. Timothy Walch (Washington, DC: National
Archives Trust Fund Board, 1985), pp. 51–63.
Mrs.Wayne Grover graciously provided infor-
mation to the author about her husband’s activ-
ities in the 1933–1935 period.The author’s own
correspondence with Robert H. Bahmer [Dec-
ember 4,1986] and James B.Rhoads [November
10, 1986] yielded first-person recollections of
Grover.
Representative Edward P. Boland’s tribute to
Grover appeared in the Congressional Record
of June 23, 1970. GSA Administrator Jess Lar-
son’s comments on Grover were made during
the March 4, 1982, Hearings before a Sub-
committee of the Committee on Government
Operations, Oversight of the National Archives
and Records Service, 97th Cong., 2nd sess., p.
152.
Grover’s 1952 correspondence with Li-
brarian of Congress Luther Evans—his com-
ment about what he wanted inscribed on his
tombstone and their exchange of poems—
appear in Milton O. Gustafson, “The Empty
Shrine:The Transfer of the Declaration of Inde-
pendence and the Constitution to the National
Archives,” American Archivist 39 (July 1976):
285.
Author
Greg Bradsher, an archivist at
the National Archives and
Records Administration,special-
izes in World War II intelligence,
looted assets,and war crimes.His previous con-
tributions to Prologue have included articles on
the FreedomTrain (Winter 1985);the discovery
of Nazi gold in the Merkers Mine (Spring 1999);
the story of Fritz Kolbe, 1900–1943 (Spring
2002);Japan’s secret‘Z Plan’in 1944 (Fall 2005);
and Founding Father and Vice President
Elbridge Gerry (Spring 2006).
Prologue 31
 A PLACE IN THE

ARCHIVES By Miriam Kleiman

Nearly every American’s name is mentioned somewhere in the holdings of the

National Archives—in census records, military and civilian personnel files,
records of payments of government entitlements.
But few Americans’ lives intersect publicly with the National Archives. And
sometimes,lives do intersect more than once,as they did in these three cases.
Fifteen-year-old Paul Olsen wrote to President Richard M. Nixon about his
discovery of historic dinosaur tracks near his home—and even sent him a
fiberglass impression of a footprint.
A letter to President Gerald R. Ford seeking a holiday in honor of “kids,” from
Gail O’Brien and her fellow third graders in New Jersey,got an official response.
Two Ohio middle-schoolers visited the Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom at
the National Archives to see the Declaration of Independence.Years later, the
Rotunda became the site of their marriage proposal and acceptance.
What follows are three stories of people whose lives intersected with the
National Archives first as children and then as adults—in significant and unex-
pected ways.

1
Leaving a Big Footprint
In 1968, when the discovery of dinosaur tracks in an abandoned quarry in Roseland, New Jer-
sey, made the local news, two teenage boys in a nearby town jumped on their bicycles and
went to investigate.Working on their own, they uncovered thousands of fossilized dinosaur
tracks, which an expert later described as “something of a milestone in the history of these
animals because of the large number of tracks.”
A year later, Paul Olsen, one of the dinosaur hunters, wrote the first of many letters to Pres-
ident Richard Nixon. Identifying himself as one of a group of “young geologists” at the Rose-

Opposite, top row: The fiberglass cast of a dinosaur footprint sent by Paul Olsen to President Nixon and the memo
asking top advisers if Olsen and his friend should be invited to the White House. Middle row: The letter from Deal
Elementary School’s third grade asking President Ford to establish a “Kid’s Day.” Thirty years later, one of those stu-
dents, Gail O’Brien, brought her sons to see the letter in the newly opened PublicVaults exhibition. Bottom row: Matt
Whitmer chose the Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom as the site of his proposal to Leigh Lacy.
 1
Leaving a
Big Footprint

2
“How About
a Kid’s Day?”

3
Romance in
the Rotunda
land quarry, Olsen began an extended lob-
bying and media campaign to make the
quarry a protected park area.He described
their digs and included drawings of some
of their Triassic-era finds. While the sur-
rounding area was protected as park land,
Olsen wrote that the quarry itself was not.
He urged that it be“pressurved [sic] for all
eternity for our country,” and closed his
letter with the guarantee:“Mr. President, I
can assure you it is worth it!”
After having no luck getting New Jersey
state officials to protect the area, Olsen
continued his letter-writing campaign to
the President, updating Nixon on both the
ongoing dig and the status of the quarry.
Local and state officials“all are in favor but
all lack funds,” he wrote at one point. He
cited additional attempts to reach federal
officials, being referred from one office to
another, eventually to the Department of
the Interior’s Mesozoic Fossil Sites Divi-
sion, from which he received no reply.
“We feel, Mr. President, that this matter
deserves your personal attention,” Olsen
wrote, citing the President’s State of the
Union address lament of the rapid expan-
sion of cities and suburbs and the need
for preservation of parks and recreation
areas:
Good fossil localities on the East Coast
are rare and great ones even more so. It
is a miracle that nature has given us this
gift, this relic of the ages, so near to our
culturally starved metropolitan area. . . .
A great find like this cannot go unpro-
tected and it must be preserved for all
humanity to see.
The deputy director of the Interior De-
partment’s Mesozoic Fossil Sites Division
responded to this letter.He praised Olsen’s
“dedication” and sent him the National
Parks Service“Criteria for Parklands”book-
let. He advised Olsen to gather letters
from famous scientists in support of pre-
serving the quarry.
Not to be deterred, Olsen wrote a com-
prehensive report,outlining in detail the his-
tory and discovery of the
fossils found in the quarry.
He attached to the report a
stack of letters attesting to
the importance of these
finds—letters from top geol-
ogists and paleontologists at
such renowned institutions
as the American Museum of
Natural History in NewYork
and the Peabody Museum
of Natural History at Yale
University.
In one of these letters of
support, the head paleon-
tologist at the American
Museum of Natural History
praised Robert Salkin
(director of a local fossils
program who was mentor-
ing the boys) for his sup-
port of Olsen and his
At the opening of the exhibit
“BIG!” Paul Olsen, now a noted
paleontologist, stands next to a
cast of the Eubrontes giganteus
footprint that he had sent to
President Nixon 37 years before.
friends: “One of these days one of them
will see it through graduate school and
you will then be particularly proud of your
accomplishments.”
Olsen shared these findings with local
businesses, including Walter Kidde &
Co., which owned the property with the
quarry. The company, however, said that
the tract of land was zoned for industrial
purposes, and that all 53 acres, including
the quarry, were available for sale as a
unit.
However, another local business took
up the cause. In July 1970, George Green,
vice president of marketing for a Roseland
company near the quarry, wrote to Nixon
and suggested that Olsen and his friends
be invited to the White House:
Possibly, an invitation to these young
men to visit with you at the White
House, Mr. President, would then show
the good side of the young American
students to the people of America.
Hugh W. Sloan, staff assistant to the Presi-
dent, responded a week later that “the
demands of the President’s schedule are
such that we do not foresee a time when
this could be arranged.”
The ongoing dig, and the boys’ persis-
tence, lobbying efforts,and publicity even-
tually paid off. In November 1970,Walter
Kidde & Co. donated 19 acres of land for
what became the Walter Kidde Dinosaur
Park. This land was then valued at more
than a quarter million dollars.
The donated land, however, was not
protected as a park. More help was
needed on a national level, and additional
funding was needed for protecting and
preserving both the land and the fossils.
Green sent another note to Nixon,inform-
ing him of a December 11 LIFE magazine
feature on the boys and stressing a political
benefit from a White House meeting:
I personally am interested on the basis
of seeing the young fellows with the
“white hats” win once in a while just as
I was interested in voting for you, Mr.
President, because I feel that you are
one of the fellows with the “white hat.”
Winter 2009
Paul Finkel, head of public relations at
Kidde, appealed to Herbert Klein,White
House communications director. He
offered to bring Olsen and his friends to
the White House, along with the chair of
the Kidde’s board of directors, to pre-
sent one of the large dinosaur tracks to
Nixon. Finkel stressed the value of such
a photo opportunity: “News photos of
the President and the boys would cer-
tainly help underline Mr. Nixon’s
theme.”
In response to these more direct ap-
peals to Nixon’s image and reputation,
Klein sent a memo to Sloan, noting that
“this proposal does merit some consider-
ation as a way of emphasizing the Pres-
ident’s interest in the efforts of young peo-
ple and his appreciation of their work in
behalf of the community.”
One week later, Sloan sent an internal
memo to top White House advisers asking
them to respond “yes” or “no” to the ques-
tion: “Do you recommend the President
receive a dinosaur track from these two
boys during an Open Hour?”
Supporting the idea were presidential
science adviser Ed David, White House
counsel Len Garment, and Nixon’s top
environmental adviser John Whitaker,
who wrote “Good chance for Pres. To
plug his own park program.” Opposed
were presidential aides Pat Buchanan,
William Safire—who scribbled “too obvi-
ous a joke about ‘the Neanderthal Wing’
etc.”—and Bob Finch, who warned “bad
symbolism!”
With a tie score, Sloan sent a memo to
John Ehrlichman, who voted“no”and thus
ended Olsen’s chance of a White House
visit. Sloan officially replied to both Finkel
and Green the next day, stating that Presi-
dent’s schedule was full but promised to
“keep this in mind should an opportunity
arise.”
Undeterred, Kidde’s PR man Finkel
wrote again to Sloan the following week
and asked him to reconsider. Finkel
enclosed the LIFE magazine feature and
told him that Olsen and a friend had been
taped for the To Tell the Truth show that
aired March 18, 1971.
Instead of an invitation to the White
A Place in the Archives
House,on January 20,1971,Olsen received
an official Presidential Commendation for
his work, noting that the quarry had been
put up for consideration as a national land-
mark.
In June 1971, the site received land-
mark designation. While this conferred
status, it offered no legal protection for
the site. Olsen again wrote to Nixon that
summer. He politely thanked the Presi-
dent for both the commendation and des-
ignation but said they were not enough.
While the award and the resulting pub-
licity were positive,“at this moment . . .
The Dinosaur Quarry is still not pro-
tected, still not a park.”
Olsen outlined the challenges posed to
the state and county in losing nearly 20
acres of taxable property but stressed the
urgency in protecting this land. He again
thanked the President for his commenda-
tion, but warned that his work“shall be all
in vain unless the Dinosaur Quarry
becomes a park.” He pleaded for the Pres-
ident to “take an interest in this amazing
find and help protect it for all these Amer-
icans who take pride and interest in our
history and natural heritage.”
On June 29, 1972, Olsen sent Nixon a
very nice thank-you note for both the Pres-
idential Commendation and for the efforts
by the President and the Department of
the Interior regarding the quarry. “As a
token of our thanks,” he sent a fiberglass
cast of a 200-million-year-old dinosaur
track—that of a Eubrontes giganteus, a
theropod (beast-footed) dinosaur that
would have stood approximately nine feet
high. The gift eventually ended up in the
National Archives’ Nixon Presidential
Library and Museum in Yorba Linda, Cali-
fornia.
One year later, the fossil site was offi-
cially added to the National Registry of
Natural Landmarks. The land is now
owned by Essex County, New Jersey.
While preparing the National Archives
exhibit, “BIG!,” curator Stacey Bredhoff
located the teenager who had lobbied
Nixon. The call from the National Archives
more than 35 years later “came as quite a
shock” to Olsen. His initial reaction was
“what footprint?” because “I had actually
forgotten that I had sent the footprint to
Nixon in the first place.”
As an undergraduate at Yale, Olsen
wrote and published papers on his fossil
discoveries. He received a doctorate in
biology from Yale in 1984. Today, as a
professor at Columbia University, he is
one of the nation’s foremost paleontolo-
gists. He was recently elected a member
of the National Academy of Sciences. He
recalls that he “went ballistic” when he
learned about the discovery of the tracks
near his home and that the experience
opened up a world of scientists and sci-
entific resources that determined the
course of his career. Although the
plaque imbedded in the cast dates the
footprint from the Triassic period (248 to
206 million years ago), Olsen recently
stated that it is now thought to be from
the early Jurassic period (206 to 144 mil-
lion years ago).
Olsen was a featured speaker at the
March 16, 2009,“BIG!” press preview and
spoke at length with numerous reporters
and staff about this boyhood exploration
that changed his life.
That [dinosaur] footprint may not be
very large,but for a kid who was 15 years
old,finding a fossil like that,and then hav-
ing communication with a President,and
receiving a commendation, sending it
[the cast of the print] off, and ultimately
having it be in the National Archives,that
was a really BIG event.
On Monday,April 27, 2009, Olsen brought
his wife,Annika,and their two sons,Gustaf
and Max, to the National Archives. Before
seeing the Charters of Freedom, the family
viewed the now-famous cast of the
dinosaur track. “Really cool!” both boys
exclaimed.“It’s definitely really cool.”
The National Archives exhibit
“BIG!,” celebrating the 75th anniver-
sary of the National Archives, features
big records, big events, and big ideas
—and includes the dinosaur track
cast.
The exhibit runs through January
3, 2010, in Washington, D.C., before
being prepared for touring.
Prologue 35
2
How About a Kid’s Day?
The “Dear Uncle Sam” section of the Pub-
lic Vaults consists of children’s letters to
government officials, often offering tips or
guidance. One amusing letter posed a
question that has long vexed children:
why are there Mother’s and Father’s Days
but no Kid’s Day?
In 1974, a third-grade class at Deal Ele-
mentary School in Deal,New Jersey,wrote
to President Gerald R. Ford with an
unusual request. Gail O’Brien barely
remembers the letter her class wrote, but
she does fondly recall her teacher that
year, Joyce McGreevey.
Joyce McGreevey’s third-grade English
curriculum included a unit on letter writ-
ing, and the students practiced informal
and formal correspondence. McGreevey
urged her students to write to “important
people.”
Letters to state officials sometimes went
unanswered. But letters to the White
House—those were different. The White
House always responded, much to the
delight of McGreevey and her students. In
1974, the entire third grade at Deal Ele-
mentary was just a single class with 18 stu-
dents. They all signed the letter to Ford
asking for a Kid’s Day,mailed it,and waited
each day for the mailman to arrive at the
school. The response from the White
House was followed by a class celebration.
In the summer of 2004,O’Brien was sur-
prised and thrilled to learn that this letter
is part of the Archives permanent exhibi-
tion, the Public Vaults:
Who knew our 30 year old letter would
end up in a permanent display in the
National Archives? Who knew that when
our 3rd grade class assignment to write a
letter to our President . . . asking for a
legal holiday for all children (KIDS DAY)
that anyone was really listening?
O’Brien shared this exciting news with
her family and friends—including many of
her former third-grade classmates. O’Brien
now has two children of her own. She
stays in touch with many of
her elementary school
friends as well as her third-
grade teacher McGreevey,
who retired in 1995, after
36 years at Deal Ele-
3
mentary.
In November 2004,
O’Brien and her sons were
honored guests at the open-
ing of the Public Vaults. Her
sons performed the “ribbon
cutting”that officially opened
the exhibition.
She later wrote about the
importance of this event in
their lives:
My children Harry 10 and
Haydn 7 at the time were
about the same age I was
when we wrote the letter—
so both boys were able to
share the experience with
When Gail O’Brien attended the
opening of the PublicVaults,she got to
see the letter her third-grade class had
sent to President Ford in 1974.
me.[Archivist] John Carlin asked the boys
to help with the ribbon cutting cere-
mony. I think that was their favorite part!
It was truly an honor to be there that
weekend to trace our past as well as our
country’s past. I am so glad we went.We
all learned so much that weekend.I’d say
it was a darn good field trip.I hope some-
day my 3rd grade teacher Mrs.McGreevy
gets a chance to go and see it!
McGreevey still lives in Deal, New Jer-
sey, and looks forward to visiting with
former students each year at a local holi-
day party. O’Brien shared with
McGreevey the photographs from her
trip to Washington, and McGreevey said
“it just gave me shivers up my spine” to
think of O’Brien there as an adult with
the letter she signed as a child and to real-
ize that her class letter is featured at the
National Archives. She still hopes to visit
in person one day.
The National Archives' Public Vaults, a
permanent exhibit, includes the Deal Ele-
mentary School third-grade class letter to
President Ford. The letter is located in the
"Form a More Perfect Union" vault, in the
"Dear Uncle Sam" section.
Romance in the Rotunda
The most romantic Archives moment in
recent memory began with an e-mail sent
to the general National Archives Visitor Ser-
vices mailbox. This mailbox receives an
average of 100 e-mails a day—largely tour
requests from families, congressional
offices,schools,and travel groups. Archives
personnel review the messages, provide
information, and arrange these visits.
While most requests are routine, a July
10, 2008, request from Matt Whitmer of
Atlanta was different: “I am writing to
request a visit to the National Archives.
This will be a very special trip for me as I
am going to propose to my girlfriend at
this time.” That alone would have been
momentous, but there was more:
We are now 25. However, our 8th grade
field trip was to DC and during that visit
we shared our first kiss in front of the
Winter 2009
 Declaration of Independence. I would
like to return to that very spot, 11 years
later, to ask for her hand in marriage.
The Declaration of Independence is one of
America’s most revered documents. The
National Archives even receives calls from
future members and current members of
the military hoping to enlist or reenlist
before the Declaration and the Constitution.
More than a million visitors a year come to
see the Charters of Freedom, but this
marked the first request thatVisitor Services
had received for the Declaration to be the
site of an engagement.
Matt Whitmer and Leigh Lacy first met in
school in Springboro, a suburb of Dayton,
Ohio.Whitmer recalled their first kiss:
We were with class members touring
the National Archives building when I
took Leigh by the hand and we slid into
a little nook near the Declaration of
Independence display. It was just a
quick, sweet kiss, before we rejoined
our classmates. It was brief, but it left a
long impression.
Whitmer explained how he chose the
National Archives for his proposal: “We
both love tradition and history, and of
course, there was that first kiss,” he said.
“The romantic instincts kicked in, and I
finally decided to try and surprise Leigh
by proposing to her at the site of our first
kiss.”
While their first attempt at romance
only lasted one month,Whitmer said, they
both attended the University of Miami,
began dating again, and then moved
together to Atlanta after graduation. There,
he now works for an advertising company
and she teaches sevent grade. Whitmer
had planned this romantic getaway to
Washington, D.C., under the guise of a
work commitment.
Minor glitches aside, the event was
beautiful.
On July 29,2008,12 years after they first
became an item, the couple was hand in
hand in line to see the Charters of Free-
dom. Whitmer surprised his longtime
sweetheart Lacy by proposing to her
A Place in the Archives
before hundreds of sur-
prised and then cheering
visitors in the Rotunda for
the Charters of Freedom.
He got down on one knee
to propose and then
shouted: “She said yes!”
“I’m amazed. I’m so
excited. I can’t believe
this,” Leigh exclaimed.
Staffers, who learned
about the proposal ahead
of time, had enthusiasti-
cally gathered in the
Rotunda for the big ques-
tion, and an Archives pho-
tographer was there to
capture the moment
Allen Weinstein, then-
Archivist of the United
States, cleared his sched-
ule to be in the Rotunda
to witness the engage-
ment. “I am delighted for
Matt and Leigh. This pro-
posal confirms that the
National Archives is a
‘must-see’ destination for
Washingtonians, tourists,
and true romantics alike,”
he said.
This romantic story On July 29, 2008, in front of the Declaration of Independence—the site of
spread quickly, and arti- their first kiss—Matt Whitmer asked Leigh Lacy to marry him.
cles followed in newspa- 1 • 2
pers and magazines around the country.
The engagement almost didn’t happen These stories illustrate vividly that records
as planned.Somehow,despite their special matter and that the National Archives holds
letter of entry, the couple got lost and not only the story of our nation, but count-
ended up wandering through the Public less individual stories as well. P
Vaults exhibition instead of entering the
Rotunda. A National Archives staffer found
them and offered to show them to the
Rotunda. Fortunately, Lacy viewed this as Author
standard guest relations, not as anything Miriam Kleiman, a public
unusual. affairs specialist with NARA, first
Whitmer thanked the staff of the came to the Archives as a
National Archives for helping orches- researcher in 1996 to investigate
trate the engagement:“I want to thank lost Jewish assets in Swiss banks during World War
II. A graduate of the University of Michigan, she
you all very, very much for helping make
joined the agency in 2000 as an archives special-
this one of the most special events of ist. She has written previously in Prologue about
my life! I know this is a memory that other people in the Public Vaults exhibit and
will stay with us through our future life about records from St. Elizabeths Hospital in
together.” Washington, D.C.
Prologue 37
 The Alaskan
PANO

A
laska is one of the most beautiful and fascinating places on Earth. For the photographer, it pre-
sents limitless possibilities for artistic pursuits, so long as one is not deterred by occasional
extreme weather conditions, inhospitable terrain, and the isolation one can experience in
such a vast land.
From 1911 to 1932, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) created a large body of panoramic
photographs (approximately 5,000) of various regions in the Alaska Territory.At first glance, these
images appeared to simply provide a visual record of scenic locations.Upon further examination how-
ever, we learn that these panoramas had a far different intent, namely as visual aids in topographic
surveying.
The image reproduced above is a stunning view of several Alaskan glaciers. In recognition of the
effects of climate change in our modern times, it seems appropriate to showcase this unique geo-
logical feature, for many glaciers are now in a state of retreat.

38 Prologue Winter 2009

Frontier in
RAMA How the National Archives Pre-
served Early 20th-Century Pho-
tographs
By Richard E. Schneider

This view is composed of two separate negatives. It was

taken in the Moose Pass District near the Kenai Penin-
sula. This area of Alaska was known as a transfer point
for north- and southbound traffic (gold prospectors,
especially).The panorama was taken by J.W. Bagley in
1911.

This stunning image is composed of two separate negatives and contains no less than five glaciers in the distance.This is the College Fjord, 50 miles west of
the town of Valdez, in what is now the Chugach National Forest.There is even a surveyor sketching in the lower right.

In certain circumstances, the panorama is composed from separate still frames. This was achieved using
digital “stitching” software that can seamlessly combine two or more images into one expanded scene.While
some of the panoramas appeared as illustrations in USGS Bulletin 657 in 1917, most of these spectacular pho-
tographs have never been seen before by the general public.

• • • •

In the early 20th century,rigid glass plate negatives used in photography were quickly being replaced by what was
termed “flexible film.” Instead of the light-sensitive emulsion being coated onto separate glass panes, it would be
adhered to a long,continuous plastic film base.This film could be wrapped onto rolls,enabling the photographer to
take numerous pictures before having to change out the exposed roll for a new film cartridge.Photographers were
no longer constrained by one-at-a-time picture taking.This would revolutionize photography.

The Alaskan Frontier in Panorama Prologue 39

 The only problem with the original flexi-
ble film was its chemical composition. The
prevailing technology used a film base of
nitrocellulose (an ingredient found in gun-
cotton). This compound was indeed flexi-
ble, and it did open up a world of possibili-
ties for photographers and camera
designers. But under the wrong condi-
tions—warm temperatures, high humidity,
and poor ventilation of storage space—
nitrate film had the potential for combus-
tion. In fact,“nitrate fires” would become a
dreadful and all-too-common occurrence in
cinemas, film storage facilities, museums,
and archives well into the 20th century.
While acknowledging the serious risks
posed, the advances in creativity and scien-
tific knowledge made possible by flexible
nitrate film cannot be understated (nitrate
film would gradually be replaced industry-
wide by cellulose acetate, or “safety” film
base).
Alaska in the early 20th century was a dis-
tant and exotic territory brimming with
gold,timber,minerals,and sea life.The USGS,
along with other federal agencies, was
responsible for surveying and mapping the
terrain in part so that entities, such as the
Alaska Railroad (which began operation in
1903), could safely and efficiently bring
necessities to the vast interior and enable
the land’s riches to be exported to the
lower 48 states and beyond.
Alaska was a dangerous place to conduct
surveying expeditions, in no small part due
to the fact that,aside from fledgling railroad
companies, little transportation infrastruc-
ture existed. Add to that the impracticality
of surveying in any season other than sum-
mer, and you have the challenge of having
to record the topography of a vast and var-
ied landscape in a short amount of time
without any easy method for getting from
point A to point B.
In response to these constraints, the
USGS employed an ingenious panoramic
camera system. Developed for the USGS
by C.W.Wright in 1904, the camera itself
was modeled after the Al-Vista, a commer-
cially manufactured panoramic camera
whose invention and patents dated back
to 1898.
The Al-Vista exposed flexible roll film by
means of a slit (about one-quarter inch
wide) located behind the lens. The lens
was mounted in such a way that it pivoted
from one side to another (hence the name
“swing-lens” camera).As the lens turned,
light would strike the film through the slit.
Film was not held flat by the camera body
(as with a modern 35mm camera) but
instead followed an arc. An image taken
by an Al-Vista model 5-B, for example,
would be 5“ x 12“ in size with a 140-
degree angle of view.
In addition to the panoramic camera,
the field equipment system often included
the plane table (for the surveyor to make
sketches in the field), an adjustable
panoramic photo-alidade (to measure and
map the distances between geological
objects), and a theodolite (to determine
latitude and longitude).
The USGS surveyor most closely associ-
ated with the development and use of the
panoramic camera system inAlaska was Maj.
James W.Bagley.In 1917,Bagley wrote USGS
Bulletin 657, The Use of the Panoramic
Camera in Topographic Surveying. In ret-
rospect, the history, justification, technical
information, documentary evidence, and
mathematical formulas found in this bulletin
make it one of the most important publica-
tions ever produced on the scientific uses of
the panorama. While most swing-lens
panoramic cameras were used for scenic or
group shots,Bagley found a way to use it for
precise topographic measurements that
would be used by geographers during this
crucial period in Alaska’s history.
Among the most interesting information
in the bulletin is Bagley’s cost-benefit analy-

The image below illustrates one type of deterioration
that can occur with nitrate photographic film. In cer-
tain areas, the emulsion has separated and fallen off
the film base, leaving no image whatsoever.This pho-
tograph was taken in an unidentified location by J.W.
Bagley.
This panoramic camera was developed by C. W.
Wright and F. E. Wright of the USGS, 1904–1907.
Cameras used either 5” or 6” wide roll film.Typically,
the photographer would obtain four exposures per
roll and expose three rolls per average working day,
depending on the weather and terrain.

40 Prologue Summer 2009

A pack train of horses carries supplies (including photographic equipment) from station to station for the surveying team.The location and team itself are unidentified, ca. 1915.

sis. Bagley was devoted to obtaining the frontier meant that the party had to bring camera’s axis. When combined, or simply
greatest amount of product for the lowest everything with them from the nearest set- viewed one atop the other,they would form
price.The “product” in this case was visual tled town or city. They traveled by boat or by an expanded 360-degree panorama.
documentation, in photographs, of those pack train (horses).The total number of sur- Major Bagley was by no means the only
Alaskan regions thought to be most impor- veyors ranged from seven to ten,depending USGS surveyor inAlaska using the panoramic
tant for the USGS and other stakeholders. on their assignment from USGS. They camera. He was simply the most prolific,
Under normal circumstances in the lower processed the film and reviewed the pho- influential, and technically astute photogra-
48 states,precision fieldwork (hand-sketch- tographs in the field. Often the information pher the USGS had in these remote locations.
ing using a plane table) could be laborious contained in the photograph would be sup- His panoramic legacy may have been embod-
and time consuming, and therefore expen- plemented by sketches. A given geographi- ied and preserved in USGS Bulletin 657, but
sive. By contrast, photographs of a similar cal area would be divided into “stations” even as this went to press,Bagley had his sights
caliber could be produced much more where the panoramas would be taken. An set elsewhere.The last chapter of this 1917 bul-
quickly to satisfy demand for certified topo- average day’s production might be four letin discusses“theApplication of Photogram-
graphic maps. panoramic images shot at each of three sta- metry to Aerial Surveys.” Even as panoramic
Despite the obvious advantages of flexi- tions. Often the photographer would inten- land-based photography would continue at
ble film, glass plate negatives were still tionally overlap two to four exposures, each the USGS until at least 1932, Major Bagley
widely available in the commercial market- taken from a different vantage point on the already had his surveyor’s eye trained at the
place. Creating a panoramic vista from a
combination of separate, still photographs
printed from glass plates was common prac-
tice and was indeed considered by Bagley
when he turned his sights towardAlaska.He
determined,however,that the cost of trans-
porting heavy glass plates would negate by
far the benefits offered by a prevailing and
proven technology. Bagley took a big
chance, out there in the wilderness, with a
customized camera system and film stock
that, though inexpensive to transport and
versatile in its applications, left some ques-
tions to be answered.
The task of photographing in the Alaskan

Boats were another mode of transportation used by

the USGS surveyors as they explored the Alaskan
frontier.This small craft, the Endeavor, would be used
for photography as well, and several passages in the
USGS Bulletin 657 discuss the techniques for taking
panoramas from the bow of a boat.

The Alaskan Frontier in Panorama Prologue 41

This view is composed of two separate negatives. It was taken in the Moose Pass District near the Kenai Peninsula.This area of Alaska was known as a transfer point
for north- and southbound traffic (gold prospectors, especially).The panorama was taken by J.W. Bagley in 1911.

skies and to the potential of were stored in a walk-in refrig-

aerial photography. erator kept at 38˚F. The Spe-
The panoramic negatives cial Media Preservation Divi-
and prints taken by Major sion was given responsibility
Bagley and the others associ- for duplicating the original
ated with this project even- film before the nitrate film
tually found their way to the was to be removed from the
USGS Photographic Library building.
in Denver, Colorado.The dan- The vast majority of the
ger of nitrate film, however, USGS nitrate negatives were
posed a storage problem for standard 4“ x 5“ or 5“ x 7“
the USGS. sizes.The preservation labora-
Long-standing federal regu- This image illustrates the state that many of the panoramic negatives were in when received tories could duplicate these
lations mandated that agen- by the National Archives. In this case, the negatives were in satisfactory condition. However using existing proven photo-
cies themselves duplicate in others, the images were adhered to each other (due to coming in contact with water or graphic
nitrate film materials deemed other liquid) and unable to be separated, making duplication impossible.
methods. The
panoramic negatives required a
permanent by the National new technique.
Archives. These duplicates would then be- about 52,000 nitrate negatives remained to The panoramas, because of their size
come part of the Archives’ holdings. If an be duplicated, and it was acknowledged (5“ x 12“ and 6“ x 12“), could not be
agency wished to retain originals deemed that the storage facility in Denver,with only duplicated using the optical camera sys-
disposable by theArchives,it would have to minimal environmental controls, was inad- tem that had been used for the smaller
follow guidance on proper storage. In the equate for any long-term storage. It was film formats. After considering several
early 1980s the USGS began a duplication determined that the best solution to this possibilities, it was suggested that the lab-
effort for their collection of about 87,000 problem was to transfer the original nega- oratories use an aerial roll-film contact
nitrate negatives. Most of these originals tives to the National Archives. duplicating system dating from the 1950s.
had been shot in the lower 48 states and In March 2007 the USGS transferred the The result would be a duplicate negative
were not in a panoramic format. However, nitrate negatives to the Still Picture unit of created directly from the original nega-
because of conflicting priorities and a the National Archives at College Park,Mary- tive. Each exposed and processed roll
lack of funding, the duplication project land. The film was loaded into fireproof would be 10 inches tall by about 500 feet
eventually ground to a halt. By 1997, metal storage units, which themselves long and would contain about 400 dupli-

42 Prologue Winter 2009

cates.These could be cut into individual
sheets at a later date.
The next step was to examine and pre-
pare the nitrate negatives for duplication.
The majority of the originals had only a
minor degree of deterioration (mostly
warping of the film base). Negatives with
advanced stages of deterioration, however,
had whole sections missing, as the film
emulsion containing the image disinte-
grated. Other times the film base had
cracked off into jagged pieces and fallen
off. There were also hundreds of negatives
that had gotten wet decades ago and were
either stuck together or had mold damage.
Because the time permitted for the project
and rise to the occasion when important edge from archivists who have many
situations warrant. years’ experience at this agency.
The National Archives contains an inde- The dedicated work of the National
scribable wealth of original source mate- Archives staff in preserving and making
rial that cannot be found anyplace else. accessible these panoramic images in new
The investigation of these unique images formats provides an invaluable record for
turned up intersecting records from car- those interested in the physical history of
tographic, textual, and still picture hold- Alaska as well as in the use of photography
ings and relied on institutional knowl- for scientific research. P
NOTE ON SOURCES
Other USGS surveyors who utilized the panoramic camera included E. O. Blades,W. G. Carson, C. E. Grif-
fen, R. K. Lynt, and R. M.Wilson.The USGS did not identify the first and middle names of these surveyors
either on the maps created using their data or in Bulletin 657.
Patent drawings of the Al-Vista Camera, and numerous other panoramic cameras, can be found at the
National Archives in Records of the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, Record Group 241.
For those wishing to see another historic

did not allow for these images to be
painstakingly treated,they did not get dupli-
cated.
The roll-film contact apparatus was an
easy and proven system for duplicating aer-
ial film,or any large format film for that mat-
ter. Therefore, the process for duplicating
the Alaska panoramas was straightforward,
and the deadline for duplicating the USGS
nitrate film was met. This was a special and
significant project for the Special Media
Preservation Division and was an excellent
demonstration on how different units
within the National Archives work together
example of panoramic photography being used
for scientific purposes, please visit the Smith-
sonian Institution’s web page http://siarchives.
si.edu/techsvcs/walcott/ to see “Beauty in
Service to Science: The Panoramic Pho-
tographs of Charles D.Walcott.” Michael Hors-
ley of the Special Media Preservation Division,
one of the contributors to this article, was an
integral part of the research and production of
this web page and the excellent photo-
graphic exhibition that preceded it (2004).
The author also wishes to acknowledge the
contributions to this article of other National
Archives staff members: Joseph Schwarz,Ann
Seibert, Sara Shpargel, Richard Smith, and
Nicholas Natanson.
Author
Richard E. Schneider, a manage-
ment and program analyst in
Preservation Programs of the
National Archives, participated in
the preparation and duplication of
the USGS panoramic nitrate negatives in 2008. He
curated “The Long View,” an exhibit of historic
panoramas and associated records from the
National Archives on display at College Park, Mary-
land. A related article appeared in the fall 1997 issue
of Prologue, and he also contributed to the online
panoramic exhibit at www.archives.gov/
exhibits/panoramic_photography/panoramic_
home.html.

The Alaskan Frontier in Panorama Prologue 43

 A TOWER IN
NEBRASKA
By Raymond P. Schmidt

DR designed a retreat for his Hyde Park property and unabashedly signed the

F drawings “Franklin D. Roosevelt Architect.”

During his political career he had a hand in determining the appearance and
location of many public projects, ranging from the World War I “temporary” buildings on
the National Mall in Washington,D.C.,to the World War II Pentagon.He also played a major
role in the construction of the National Archives Building along the Mall.
Nowhere was his role more transparent, however, than his part in building the Naval
Hospital in Bethesda, Maryland—now commonly referred to as the National Naval Med-
ical Center, or NNMC. Curiously, a brief stop during his 1936 reelection campaign at a
unique new state capitol completed four years earlier inspired its design.

The Nebraska Capitol—Origins

of an Architectural Inspiration
Nebraska Governor Robert Cochran unknowingly set the
stage with an invitation for the President to “make the
address of dedication”for the new state capitol in Lincoln.
Cochran noted that the dedication ceremony would“mean
perhaps more to all of our people than any other event
which could take place.” FDR’s presence,he insisted,would
“draw a tremendous crowd ... from adjacent states as well.”
FDR agreed to deliver the requested speech during his
October railroad swing across several Plains states.

President Franklin Roosevelt used a visit to the Nebraska state capitol (opposite
page) as inspiration for his suggested design for the new Naval Hospital (right)
in Bethesda, Maryland.

A Tower in Nebraska
 As FDR’s special train crossed the
Missouri River border from Iowa into
Plattsmouth, Nebraska, on October 10,
1936, he was aware of the powerful
economic and political symbolism of
the new Nebraska capitol. New York
architect Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue
had won the competition in 1920 with
a tradition-breaking “American Mod-
ernist” design of a “cross within a
square” dominated by an occupied
tower 400 feet high. The four interior
courtyards surround a central rotunda,
and the dome supports a statute of a
sower 19½ feet tall standing on a 12½-
foot pedestal of wheat and corn motifs.
Goodhue skillfully overcame a schedul-
ing challenge: Erect the tower and its
wide, low surrounding base around the
sagging existing capitol, moving employ-
ees into the new capitol in stages. State
officials achieved a similar feat in paying
for the entire $10 million cost of con-
struction, furnishings, and landscaping in
full when the new building was com-
pleted, as the Great Depression swept
across the country.
On October 10, 1936, President Roosevelt spoke briefly to the crowd at the Nebraska Capitol.When he finished, a sustained cry of “Norris! Norris!” rose from
thousands of throats. FDR urged the popular senator to respond. Not wishing to upstage the President, Senator Norris (at the microphone) spoke only briefly. Roo-
sevelt stands next to Secret Service Agent Gus Gimmereck, who supported him up and down the ramp between the platform and the limousine.
46 Prologue
Uniting for Victory—Blurring Party
Lines in an Election Year
When Roosevelt addressed his support-
ers in Plattsmouth around noon on that
Saturday in October, he told a crowd of
4,000 to 5,000 that he had “brought the
best part of Nebraska into Nebraska with
me.”This reference to Senator George W.
Norris, reported in Lincoln’s Evening
State Journal, paid tribute to one of FDR’s
staunchest allies in Congress.
The four-term Nebraska senator was
widely known as “father of the TVA,” the
Tennessee Valley Authority, shepherding
that signature New Deal legislation
through Congress in 1933. Norris had pre-
viously co-sponsored the Norris-LaGuardia
Act of 1932 that outlawed so-called “yel-
low-dog” contracts prohibiting employees
from joining a labor union. More recently,
he had moved the Rural Electrification Act
toward passage in May 1936.
George Norris began his political career
in 1902 as a traditional Republican con-
gressman but then earned election as a
Progressive Republican senator in 1912.
In 1928 he supported Democrat Al Smith
and in 1932 Franklin D. Roosevelt for Pres-
ident—thereby earning a reputation
among some Republicans as one of the
“sons of the wild jackass.”
In the 1936 election, however, the 75-
year-old politician abandoned his party
entirely and reluctantly ran again,this time
as an independent. The New Deal Pres-
ident was obviously drawn to Nebraska to
endorse Norris for reelection to a fifth
term in the United States Senate. Both
were to gain victories from their cross-
party support.
Facing the Voters . . . and the
Nebraska Capitol
When FDR delivered his “dedication”
speech in Lincoln two hours after crossing
the river, his raised platform faced the
principal entrance on the north capitol
front.This elevated perch allowed him an
unobstructed view of the entire building,
where he could take in the impressive
tower topped at its dome by a bronze
statue, the broad three-story base, the
steps and streets clogged with tens of
thousands of cheering voters, and the
Winter 2009
grassy terraces that held friendly throngs
of thousands more.
“It was the first time since the capitol
was built that [the capitol front was] . . .
ever covered with humanity, and it was a
grand sight,” reported the Lincoln Sunday
Journal and Star the next day. This warm
reception left an indelible impression on
FDR. He praised the capitol as “a great and
worthy structure, worthy of a great state.”
His characterization of the building as“this
wonderful structure”that“all the people of
America . . . ought to come here and see”
carried more weight than anyone at the
time could realize.
Design Approval and Site Selection
for a New Naval Hospital
The tower image obviously remained
vivid in FDR’s memory. Even as the Presi-
dent engaged in bitter public disputes
throughout the late 1930s over his pre-
ferred Pantheon-design for the Jefferson
Memorial on the Tidal Basin, he also pre-
vailed over strong but much less publicized
opposition to his personal design for a long-
awaited new naval hospital in the Washing-
FDR with Georgia Congressman Carl Vinson, chairman of the House Naval Affairs Committee; Massachusetts Senator David I.Walsh, chairman of the Senate Com-
mittee on Naval Affairs; and Adm. Percival S. Rossiter, MC, USN, Navy surgeon general, in July 1938, when the President touched the ground outside their car with his
cane and proclaimed “We will build it here”—thus fixing the site of the new Naval Hospital.
A Tower in Nebraska
ton area.When Congress approved funding
for it in 1937, FDR knew exactly what he
wanted.In December,he drew a line sketch
for a two-story base supporting a 15-story
tower.
The Navy Bureau of Yards and Docks
published preliminary drawings seven
months later, only to be met with opposi-
tion from the National Park and Planning
Commission (NPPC) and the U.S. Com-
mission of Fine Arts (CFA).
Frederic Delano, FDR’s uncle and his
hand-picked president of the NPPC,pointed
out that the tower exceeded the 130-foot
height ceiling for buildings in the District of
Columbia that was established by law.
Gilmore Clarke of the CFA agreed and
objected to the “modern block design” of
the hospital.When revised plans later that
fall showed a four-story base and a tower
250 feet,or 23 stories,high,opponents envi-
sioned an architectural nightmare,especially FDR’s two sketches of his architectural preference for
if it rested on top of the hill at 23rd and E the new Naval Hospital.
Streets where the existing Naval Hospital
stood. Despite this resistance and attempts Not content just to design the hospital,
by opponents to deny him the funds,in the FDR also insisted on selecting its site. He
end FDR got his tower. wisely rejected constructing it on the site
Prologue 47
of the existing Naval Hospital,a few blocks
north of the Lincoln Memorial.This would
have unleashed another, more justifiable,
storm of criticism.
Some 80 sites in Maryland, the District,
and Virginia were proposed as the favored
location. Instead, in July of 1938 FDR
motored to a bucolic setting along Rockville
Pike in the then-small village of Bethesda,
Maryland—several miles north of the Dis-
trict and directly across the road from the
new National Institutes of Health.
The presidential car paused on a grassy
knoll west of dense woodlands. FDR
reached over the side of his open touring
car and touched the ground with his cane,
announcing “We will build it here.”
For FDR, the tower conjured a scene
similar to the pastoral English countryside
with“fairly high church towers . . . sticking
up above the trees and other buildings.”
He instructed that the hospital grounds be
“treated romantically, like a sheep field, . .
. [and] ordered their enclosure by a sheep
fence.”
Preserving FDR’s Vision
Roosevelt presided over laying the cor-
nerstone on November 11, 1940, and dedi-
cated his hospital on August 31, 1942.
Expansions completed in 1963 and 1980
Artist’s concept of the front view of the newWalter Reed National Military Medical Center based on approved plans.
48 Prologue
added new hospital wards, other medical
facilities, and parking garages. In 1977 the
tower received protection by being listed in
the U.S.National Register of Historic Places
(NRHP). Throughout the decades, FDR’s
tower continued to dominate the site.
The campus is undergoing major
changes in this new century, however.Ter-
rorist attacks in the United States on Sep-
tember 11, 2001, caused the erection of a
security perimeter and removal of the
“sheep fences.”Base Realignment and Clo-
sure recommendations resulted in a 2005
law that closes the Walter Reed Army Med-
ical Center in northwest Washington,D.C.,
and consolidates major Army clinics and
wards at the NNMC.The expanded, new
joint hospital will bear the title Walter
Reed National Military Medical Center,
Bethesda, and is on track to become oper-
ational in September 2011.
Although the new medical facility will
respect the tower’s NRHP historic desig-
nation, new construction and renovation
are forever altering the appearance of the
NNMC campus. FDR most certainly would
have taken a keen interest in assuring that
his vision of a tower “rising above the
trees” in a calming pastoral setting contin-
ues to further the practice of the healing
arts in aptly named Bethesda. P
NOTE ON SOURCES
Bethesda has long been associated with healing.
It is the name given to a series of pools in Jerusalem
and has linguistic as well as Biblical roots. Some
sources claim the name derives from the Aramaic
beth hesda meaning house of mercy or house of
grace.References to a similar name can be found in
the Gospel of John,possibly pertaining to a pool for
sheep or, alternatively, a pool located near a sheep
gate in the city wall.
Governor Robert Cochran’s invitation to FDR to
speak at the state capitol dedication (letter of July 14,
1936);FDR’s response of July 21,1936;and“Remarks
of the President at the State Capitol, Lincoln,
Nebraska,” October 10, 1936, are in the Franklin D.
Roosevelt Library,Hyde Park,NewYork.
For an examination of FDR’s close interest in
architecture, see William B. Rhoads,“Franklin D.
Roosevelt and Washington Architecture,”Records
of the Columbia Historical Society 52 (1989):
104–162. Additional information on FDR and the
naval hospital is from E. Caylor Bowen, editor of
Transplantation Research Program Center, Naval
Medical Research Institute, Naval Medical Com-
mand, National Capital Region, “Naval Medical
Center, Bethesda, Maryland (1939–1984) (unpub-
lished manuscript).
The description, dimensions, and cost of the
Nebraska state capitol are from the Nebraska Blue
Book, State Capitol Information Office. Goodhue’s
design was the third state capitol.The first two build-
ings were constructed in 1867 and 1889,respectively.
Frederick C.Luebke,Nebraska:An Illustrated History
(Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press,1995) contains
useful information about the Nebraska capitol,includ-
ing a discussion of a formal dedication in 1967.
Information on Senator Norris may be found
in Richard Lowitt, George W.Norris:The Triumph
of a Progressive, 1933–1944 (Urbana: University
of Illinois Press, 1978).This is Lowitt’s third vol-
ume of this comprehensive biography.The first
two volumes cover 1861–1912 and 1913–1933,
respectively, of Norris’s remarkable life and polit-
ical career. Norris was the first candidate in
Nebraska history to win a senatorial election as
an independent. It is not a coincidence that
Nebraskans followed his lead in adopting a non-
partisan unicameral legislature by amending its
constitution in 1934.
Author
Capt. Raymond P. Schmidt,
USNR (ret.), is a Nebraska native
who earned bachelor’s and
master’s degrees from the Uni-
versities of Nebraska andWisconsin,respectively.
He served 14 years as the first civilian cryptologic
historian of the U.S. Navy and has authored and
edited numerous published articles. His son was
born in the Bethesda HospitalTower,and he per-
sonally witnessed these changes to the NNMC
over the past five decades.
Winter 2009
 HAT’S NEW IN THE PAST?
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 GENEALOGY NOTES

“How an eagle feels

when his wings are clipped and caged ”
Relocation Center Newspapers Describe
Japanese American Internment in World War II

By Rebecca K. Sharp

hile interned at the Minidoka Relocation Center in Idaho, newspaper staff

W reporter Kimi Tambara wrote an open letter in the Minidoka Irrigator to

her friend Jan. She recalled Christmas 1941, just weeks after the Japanese
attack on Pearl Harbor.

. . . another thought . . . coincident with the crackling noise of the firecrackers pop-
ping around Lower Chinatown, a low voice ‘You damn Jap-you! By gosh, the govern-
ment should put every damn one of you in concentration camps’—I remember the
cold shiver that ran up my spine,transforming the humid, warm air of a July night into
the bitter cold of winter. You and I, Jan, tried to laugh it off, because somehow, it
seemed ridiculous. The freedom of life and liberty was so much a part of us that the
idea of confinement had never once occurred to us.

Tambara also described her feelings about internment:

[T]his life behind a fence is not a pleasant one, but nothing can be pleasant in these
times, could it? I can now understand how an eagle feels when his wings are clipped
and caged.Beyond the bars of his prison lies the wide expanse of the boundless skies,
flocked with soft clouds, the wide, wide, fields of brush and woods—limitless space
for the pursuit of Life itself.1

The Japanese American2 internees published newspapers that provided general infor-
mation about their community as well as specific individuals. Publication frequency var-
ied from newspaper to newspaper. Some newspapers were published once a week, while
others were published biweekly, triweekly, or even six times a week. The publication fre-
quency of a particular newspaper often changed over time.

50 Prologue Winter 200

The staff of the Heart Mountain Sentinel “do double duty on Fri-
day night and Saturday morning … folding and preparing their
paper for distribution.”

U.S.Army Indian Scouts Prologue 53

 Two and a half months after the attack on Pearl
Harbor, on February 19, 1942, President Franklin D.
Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066,which gave
the secretary of war and military commanders the
authority“to prescribe military areas in such places
and of such extent as he or the appropriate Military
Commander may determine, from which any or all
persons may be excluded.”3 This order gave the U.S.
Army the authority to forcibly evacuate the Jap-
anese American population from the designated
military areas along the Pacific Coast between the
latter part of March and May 1942.4
The Japanese Americans could bring only what
they could carry—clothes, plates, cups, utensils,
linens, toiletry items, and mementos—to the desig-
nated collection points.With less than a week to sell
their businesses, houses, and valuables, they had no
time to get things in order. The evacuees were
moved to 16 assembly centers. Many of the assem-
bly centers were located on fairgrounds and race-
tracks, where the living conditions were over-
crowded and unsanitary.
Beginning in May 1942, the War Department trans-
ferred the Japanese Americans to 10 War Relocation
Authority (WRA) relocation centers: Central Utah
(Utah), Colorado River (Arizona), Gila River (Arizona),
Granada (Colorado), Heart Mountain (Wyoming),
Jerome (Arkansas), Manzanar (California), Minidoka
(Idaho),Rohwer (Arkansas),and Tule Lake (California).
Under guard and surrounded by barbed-wire fences,the
internees lived in cramped barracks sharing communal
toilets, showers, and mess halls. Privacy was nonexis-
tent. The relocation centers mirrored small communi-
ties with churches,hospitals,libraries,post offices, and
schools.The WRA allowed some internees to leave for
temporary seasonal agricultural work.Others attended
college, served in the military, or obtained outside
employment. Some of the internees remained in the
WRA relocation centers until they closed in 1946.
Relocation Center Newspapers
The newspapers served as a means for disseminat-
ing WRA rules, regulations, and surveys. The WRA
initially banned the use of Japanese in the newspa-
pers, but later issues sometimes included Japanese-
language inserts. Newspaper articles cover a wide
range of topics including daily activities,beauty tips,
diet and nutrition, crime and law enforcement, edu-
cation, hobbies, social activities, and sports. The
newspapers reported on military service, outside
employment opportunities, and vital statistics as
52 Prologue
well as rumors that were circulating throughout the
relocation centers. The newspapers also described
culture shock, a consequence of internment, forced
assimilation, and a constant reminder how their
lives had changed. Since the newspapers were cen-
sored, the staff avoided direct criticism of the fed-
eral government.5
Artwork, maps, photographs, and weather reports
offer a glimpse of the relocation center environment.
On occasion, the newspapers included the artwork,
articles,letters,poems,and short stories submitted by
internees or former internees who were attending
colleges and universities,working outside the reloca-
tion center, or serving in the military. In addition to
relocation center news, the newspapers also con-
veyed national and world news.
Vital Statistics
The newspapers published lists of births, marriages,
and deaths in the relocation centers. The lists provide
minimal information about the individuals.For exam-
ple, the birth lists typically record the baby’s sex,birth
date, and the parents’ names, and in some, but not all
cases, the baby’s name. The newspapers briefly
announced engagements, marriages, and milestone
wedding anniversaries as well as obituaries. Longer
articles about a newborn may list the attending med-
ical staff, while an article about a wedding may in-
clude the name of the presiding religious official.
The newspapers usually ran feature articles about
the first birth,marriage,and death that occurred at the
relocation center.Yuki Shiozawa and Taro Katayama
were the first couple to wed at the Central Utah relo-
cation center. The Topaz Times reported that several
musical performances preceded the wedding,includ-
ing Goro Suzuki’s (the bride’s cousin) rendition of the
song “At Dawning.” Protestant minister Rev. Joseph
Tsukamoto officiated; Yuki’s father, Tetsushiro
Shiozawa,gave her away;andTaro’s best man was his
brother,Jerry Katayama. The article also describes the
couple’s wedding attire:
The bride, with a “Victory” pompadour hairdress,
wore a wine-colored velveteen dress and accessories
with 1 strand of pearls. She wore an orchid corsage
rounded off with white bouvardias.The benedict
[bridegroom]wore a navy blue tailored suit.
The article also puts the wedding in the context
of internment:
Prior to evacuation the bride was a Civil Service
Winter 2009
 stenographer in the Alameda County Charities
Commission in Oakland.The bridegroom,formerly
of Salt Lake City, is a graduate of the University of
Utah, and was working on a San Francisco paper
before the evacuation.He was also the editor of the
TanforanTotalizer [an assembly center newspaper].
They are “at home” in 36-12-A [relocation center
barracks address] until Thursday.6
Living Quarters
In addition to general articles about the barracks
and community living, a small percentage of the
Front page of the first articles show the creative ways in which individu-
issue of the Heart
Mountain Sentinel, Oct-
als modified their living quarters.Yoshimatsu Mukai,
ober 24, 1942.
an internee at the Rohwer relocation center in
Arkansas, decorated the exterior of his barracks
Newspapers at Japanese Internment Centers
with wood carvings of a monkey and birds. The
article describes Mukai’s personality: “He is very
modest about his work and laughingly replies,‘One
minute,’ when asked how much time is required to
make each animal.”7
The Heart Mountain Sentinel ran a series of arti-
cles that showed different barracks to give readers
interior decorating ideas. These articles include
sketches of the featured barracks, such as Mr. and
Mrs. Bob Sato’s “apartment”:
When is a closet not a closet? We have been
informed it was intended for a coal bin, but Mrs.
Sato has cleverly converted her “closet” to a den
or nook,with card table and chairs.The chairs are
fashioned out of orange boxes,draped in stripped
denim.The upper part of the den was made for
storage space, covered with monks cloth, the
same material used for her dressing table and
closet which was built in one corner. Adding life
to the otherwise drab monks cloth is a gay yel-
low, red, and blue bias tape trim on the hem of
the drapes.
The den is made cozy with lights. For [the]
lamp shade, Mrs. Sato used the white corrugated
paper which came with the mail order wrap-
pings.
An oval mirror adds to the modernistic touch of
her spacious dressing table which was fashioned
out of left-over celotex. Three shelves on each side,
18 inches deep, hold linens, clothing, shoes, etc.8
Artwork
Despite the difficult living conditions, people con-
tinued to express themselves artistically. Comic
strips and other works of art appear in most WRA
relocation center newspapers. One example is the
artwork of Eddie Sato,a staff artist for The Minidoka
Irrigator.Sato,a talented political cartoonist,created
a comic strip character that he considered calling
Potato, but the newspaper decided to run a charac-
ter-naming contest.Three articles about the contest
provide information about Sato, the cartoon char-
acter, and the Minidoka community. The November
7, 1942, issue announced Yasuko Koyama’s winning
submission,Dokie.9 Dokie first appears to be an ordi-
nary comic strip character, but a closer look at the
strips reveals that Sato captured the reality of
internment. In May 1943, Sato left the Minidoka
relocation center to serve in the military.Although he
was no longer interned,the newspaper occasionally ran
Prologue 53
articles about him, including information about his
winning art contest submissions and his return visit
to Minidoka.10 Eddie Sato is just one example of the
numerous JapaneseAmerican internees who went to
war for a country that had confined its loyal citizens
behind barbed wire fences.

Availability of the Records

The publications created by the Japanese Amer-
ican internees, including church papers, newspa-
pers, and school papers, are among the records of
the relocation centers (entry 4b) in the Records
of the War Relocation Authority (Record Group
210).
The National Archives does not have a complete
set of relocation center newspapers. Densho–:The
Japanese American Legacy Project digitized approx-
imately 4,000 newspapers from the 10 WRA reloca-
tion centers.Researchers must register (registration
is free) to obtain access to Densho–’s “Camp News-
papers Collections” Digital Archive (www.densho.
org).11 The Bancroft Library’s (University of Cali-
fornia at Berkeley) “Japanese American Evacuation
and Resettlement Records, 1930–1974,” and the
Library of Congress’s “Japanese Camp Papers”
(microfilm number 2022) may have additional news-
paper issues.
Entry 4b records have been microfilmed and are
available as Field Basic Documentation of the War
Relocation Authority, 1942–1946 (Microfilm Pub-
lication C53).The records are arranged by reloca-
tion center; however, the microfilm roll list only
records the first and last record that appears on
each roll of microfilm. The staff of the National
Archives created a finding aid that provides the
titles and coverage dates of the church papers,
newspapers, and school papers published by the
Japanese American internees.
To receive a copy of this finding aid, contact the
Archives I Reference Section (NWCT1R), 700 Penn-
sylvania Avenue, NW,Washington, DC 20408-0001
Above: The setting
for this cartoon is
(e-mail archives1reference@nara.gov). locate articles about individuals, researchers need
a WRA relocation
Microfilm Publication C53 is available at the to read the WRA relocation center newspaper of
center. Note the
National Archives Building in Washington, D.C., interest.
and at the National Archives regional archives in Although this research can be time consuming, watchtower and
Laguna Niguel, California. For additional informa- the WRA newspapers provide a contemporary barbed wire fence.
tion about this microfilm publication, including a description of the often difficult and desolate con-
Right: This political
cartoon depicts
digital copy of the microfilm roll list, visit the ditions of the relocation centers.The newspapers
Adolf Hitler, Benito
online microfilm catalog through Order Online at can also show how the Japanese Americans
www.archives.gov. The records can be difficult to adapted to both the physical and psychological Mussolini, and
use because there is no master name index. To pressures of internment. P Emperor Hirohito.

54 Prologue Winter 2009


Author
Rebecca K. Sharp is an archives specialist
in the Research Support Branch of the
National Archives and Records Admin-
istration, Washington, D.C. She specializes in federal
records of genealogical interest.
Newspapers at Japanese Internment Centers
NOTES
The author would like to thank the following staff mem-
bers for their professional guidance: Rebecca Crawford,
John Deeben, Constance Potter, Claire Sadar, Sally
Schwartz,Katherine Vollen,William Wade,and Nancy Wing.
She would like to acknowledge Michelle Farnsworth for
digitizing the original relocation center newspapers
described in this article.
1
This letter is part of a special Christmas 1942 issue. See
“Irrigator Asks: Contributions for Yule Issue,” Minidoka Irri-
gator, Dec.12,1942,vol.I,no.26,p.1.Tambara’s letter is pub-
lished as “In This, Our Land,” Minidoka Irrigator, Dec. 25,
1942,vol.I,no.29,p.7.Both articles are found in Field Basic
Documentation of the War Relocation Authority,
1942–1946 (Microfilm Publication C53,roll 91),Records of
the War Relocation Authority, Record Group (RG) 210.
2
U.S. naturalization laws prohibited Japanese immigrants,
the issei, from obtaining United States citizenship.Children of
the issei born in the United States, the nisei, were automati-
cally U.S.citizens.Densho –:The JapaneseAmerican Legacy Pro-
ject emphasizes that“[b]y the time of World War II,most issei
had lived in the United States for decades and raised their chil-
dren here.Although they were technically aliens and ethnically
Japanese,many considered themselves permanently settled in
the United States ...[and] had no plans for returning to Japan,
and would have become naturalized citizens if that had been
allowed.” In light of this, the term Japanese American will be
used to refer to both citizens and noncitizens. Densho –: The
Japanese American Legacy Project web site,Terminology and
Glossary section,www.densho.org (accessed June 19,2009).
3
Executive Order No. 9066, Feb. 19, 1942, General
Records of the United States Government, RG 11.Available
online at www.ourdocuments.gov (accessed June 12,2009).
4
Estimates vary from 100,000 to 120,000 interned
Japanese Americans.The WRA was established within the
Office for Emergency Management on March 18, 1942.
5
The staff usually self censored, but omissions of
reports of conflicts between the Japanese American
internees and the WRA suggest WRA censorship.
6
“First Wedding Held,” Topaz Times, Nov. 17, 1942, vol.
I, no. 16, p. 2, Field Basic Documentation of the War Relo-
cation Authority, 1942–1946 (C53, roll 10), RG 210.
7
“HeWasn’t Stumped,” The Rohwer Outpost,Apr.7,1943,
vol. II, no. 28, p. 4, Field Basic Documentation of the War
Relocation Authority, 1942–1946 (C53, roll 100), RG 210.
8
“The Social World:Your Home and Mine,”Heart Moun-
tain Sentinel, Oct. 24, 1942, vol. I, no. 1, p. 3, Field Basic
Documentation of the War Relocation Authority,
1942–1946 (C53, roll 58), RG 210.
9
For additional information, see the following issues of
the the Minidoka Irrigator:
“Name Sought for ‘Imp’ Who Makes Debut,” Oct. 21,
1942, vol. I, no. 11, p. 6;“Cartoon Hero Still Nameless, asks
Readers to Aid Plight,” Nov. 4, 1942, vol. I, no. 15, p. 7; and
“Irrigator Mascot Christened,” Nov. 7, 1942, vol. I, no. 16,
p. 7, all in Field Basic Documentation of the War Reloca-
tion Authority, 1942–1946 (C53, roll 91), RG 210.
10
“Sounding Off . . . ,”Minidoka Irrigator, May 15, 1943,
vol. III, no. 12, p. 4;“Four Hunt Entrants in Art Contest Win
Honors: Exhibit Sponsored by Friends Ass’n for Ten Cen-
ters,” Minidoka Irrigator, May 29, 1943, vol. III, no. 14, p.
5; and “Hunt is Home for Shelby Boys,” Minidoka Irriga-
tor, Sept.11,1943,vol.III,no.29,p.3,all in Field Basic Doc-
umentation of the War Relocation Authority, 1942–1946
(C53, roll 92), RG 210.
11
To learn more about Densho –’s newspaper digitization
project, visit www.densho.org and click on “Archive,” then
“From the Archive,” followed by “June 2007—Free Press
behind Barbed Wire.Newspapers Published in the Incarcer-
ation Camps.”
Prologue 55
AUTHORS ON THE RECORD

An Island Fort as PRESIDEN-

TIAL HIDEAWAY
By Hilary Parkinson
J. Michael Cobb was 12 years old when he first saw Fort Wool. He was on his cousin’s boat, out for a day on the
waters of Hampton Roads in Virginia. As he heard his cousin on the radio give their position off Fort Wool, Cobb
looked out and saw the abandoned fort at the entrance of Hampton Roads facing the Chesapeake Bay, a forebod-
ing sight under a gray sky.
Although it was a landmark for fishermen and boaters, the fort was closed.Today, a tour boat carries visitors, some
of them veterans who had been stationed there in World War II, out to explore several periods of fortifications and
to learn about the island’s presidential and military past. Cobb is now the curator of the Hampton History Museum
in Virginia.

How did you come to write Fort Wool: Star-Spangled
Banner Rising?
I assisted in the opening of Fort Wool as a historic site some
25 years ago,and over the years since then I have chronicled
the saga of the island fort. As the restoration and documen-
tation of the old stone fort progressed, it became clear that
its story needed to be told.
This is the first time that in-depth research has been
undertaken on this important battlement. We wanted the
thousands of people who visit the island—and the many his-
tory buffs interested in its rich legacy—to have the oppor-
tunity to be exposed to the wealth of additional information
gathered from new documents,plans,and images uncovered
in preparing this work.
What was it like to hold the dual roles of curator at
the Hampton History Museum and researcher at the
National Archives? Did your experiences in one role
influence the other?
As curator of the Hampton History Museum, my duties
include conducting research in all aspects of our city’s his-
tory. My first entry into the National Archives was almost
three decades ago,uncovering material on Confederate Rich-
mond during the Civil War for an M.A. thesis. I remember
first entering the august central reading room in the impos-
ing National Archives in downtown Washington, D.C. In my
current position, I have been repeatedly led back to the
National Archives as a needed resource for information vital
to performing my curatorial responsibilities.

Did you begin your research with the intent to write
a book on Fort Wool?
The research actually began to support the original exhibits
that were created for the opening of the fort in 1985.We had
a very small budget,and I had worked in the NationalArchives
before.I made a two-day trip to theArchives research rooms in
Washington, D.C., and Suitland, Maryland, and to the carto-
graphic division then located in Alexandria,Virginia.
There was a wealth of information including 81 plans
going back to the genesis of the fort in 1819 and through the
Second World War.
Over the last 20 years, it slowly formed in my mind to do
the book, which took about one year to put together.
What materials did you consult in the National
Archives?
I used supplemental maps and building plans in the DC area,
but I mainly used the National Archives in Philadelphia for
the indispensable U.S. Army Engineer record books with
daily and monthly progress reports of Fort Wool’s con-
struction. They are remarkable volumes, huge and dusty
(they’re like Ebenezer Scrooge’s account books).The West
Point–trained engineers recorded everything including the
delivery of granite stone and timber, construction of build-
ings, and the names of the workers, free and enslaved.
It’s the details that transform the history into a narrative
that vividly captures the imagination.From these pages I not

56 Prologue Winter 2009

only drew specific accounts of the everyday activities but association with the site, I was thrilled at the numerous
also created profiles of Andrew Talcott and Robert E. Lee, social, political, and military narratives uncovered in pro-
who directed the work, along with the many stone masons ducing this work.
and laborers who were tasked with the arduous undertak- For instance, in the 1830s, South Carolina under the lead-
ing. It’s not really a guns and bugle story—it’s a nuts and ership of John C. Calhoun is threatening to secede from the
bolts history. Union, and Jackson is on the island threatening war. The
seeds of the coming of the Civil War were sown on the
Did you find anything in the records that was par- island.
ticularly surprising?
The big surprise was the discovery of three beautiful plans What was the most surprising thing you discovered
in pastel colors made in the 1820s that showed the fort and about Fort Wool’s past?
buildings in profile. The other surprise was learning the That the shaping of virtually every major issue of Andrew
names of the captains and Jackson’s administration was
their work boats that brought partially formulated while he
stone to the fort. The vessels was secluded at the fort—
bore names such as the including the Peggy Eaton
Andrew Jackson and Henry Affair, the Bank War, the Indian
Clay and expressed what removal, the nullification con-
patriotism meant to Americans troversy, and the annexation of
at that time—many of the Texas.
boats came from Port Deposit, And of course, people are
Maryland, and many of their always surprised to learn that
captains were veterans of the comedian Red Skelton enter-
War of 1812. tained the troops stationed on
Fort Wool during World War II
You’ve been working with and got seasick on the way
Fort Wool for more than 20 there.
years—were you aware of
its many presidential con- At the very end of the book,
nections before you began you say that there needs “to
researching it? be breathed into these ruins
I was aware of the presidential something essential to the
significance associated with spirit of a mighty fortifica-
the island—however,I was not tion.” Is there anything you
aware of the extent of Andrew would like to see on the
Jackson’s presence and how island that would show visi-
enamored he was with the tors the varied and impor-
natural attributes and solitude tant past of Fort Wool?
of the island retreat. For signif- We have recently placed eight
icant periods of time he governed America from this island historical markers interpreting the story and plan to estab-
of stone. lish additional ones in the near future. We are working
We knew he stayed in the officers’ quarters, but what I did with Dominion Power, which has funded an outdoor class-
not know was that he found solitude in a small hut he had room to enhance our ability to meet education needs. And
built for himself on the highest point of the fort’s ramparts. based on documentation from the National Archives, we
have the reconstruction of buildings—such as the original
How has your understanding of Fort Wool changed officers’ quarters that Andrew Jackson and Robert E. Lee
as result of the book? inhabited and the World War II period barracks—in our
Even through the lens of my perspective of many years of future planning.

An Island Fort as Presidential Hideaway Prologue 57

EVENTS
WASHINGTON, D.C.
For up-to-date event information, consult
NARA’s Calendar of Events.The free Calendar is
available from National Archives and Records
Administration, Calendar of Events (NPAC,
Room G-1), 700 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW,
Washington, DC 20408, or on the web at
www.archives.gov/calendar/.
Permanent exhibit: “The Public Vaults.”
National Archives Building. 202-357-5000.
Through January 3. Exhibit: “BIG!” National
Archives Building. 202-357-5000.
January 29–February 28. Exhibit:“Fighting
for Democracy.” National Archives Building.
202-357-5000.
ABILENE, KANSAS
Through February 21. Exhibit: “The Gem on
the Plains: Ike’s Abilene, 1890–1910.” Eisen-
hower Library. 785-263-6700.
ANCHORAGE,ALASKA
Continuing exhibit:“Pribilof Islands Historical
Photographs,” National Archives images from
the 1910s and 1920s. Alaska Heritage Center.
907-261-7800.
ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN
Continuing exhibit: “Economy in Crisis.” Ford
Library. 734-205-0555.
ATLANTA, GEORGIA
Opening March 16. Exhibit:“The Golden Age.”
NARA–Southeast Region. 770-968-2100.
February 19.Naturalization Ceremony. NARA–
Southeast Region. 770-968-2100.
February 20. Black Family History Day. NARA–
Southeast Region. 770-968-2100.
58 Prologue
AUSTIN,TEXAS
Through February 15.“School House to White
House.” Johnson Library. 512-721-0200.
February 20. Cen-Tex History Day, sponsored
by the Johnson Library. Joe C.Thompson Con-
ference Center. 512-721-0200.
BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS
Continuing exhibit:“Moon Shot—JFK and Space
Exploration.” Kennedy Library.866-JFK-1960.
Continuing exhibit: “The Making of a Pres-
ident.” Kennedy Library. 866-JFK-1960.
January 20. A Conversation with Reverend
Joseph Lowery. Kennedy Library. 866-JFK-1960.
February 15. Lecture: Douglas Brinkley dis-
cusses his new book, The Wilderness Warrior:
Theodore Roosevelt and the Crusade for
America. Kennedy Library. 866-JFK-1960.
February 17. An Evening with Garrison Keillor.
Kennedy Library. 866-JFK-1960.
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
January 14.Teacher Workshop:“Crime of the
’20s and Civil Rights through Court Records.”
NARA–Great Lakes Region.
March 4.Teacher Workshop:“Native Americans
of the Great Lakes.”NARA–Great Lakes Region.
To reserve a space at these workshops, send an
e-mail to chicago.archives@nara.gov with the
teacher’s name, school affiliation, preferred
mailing address, phone number, and e-mail
address.
COLLEGE STATION,TEXAS
Continuing exhibit. “The Culture of Wine.”
Bush Library. 979-691-4000.
January 14. Film: North by Northwest. Enjoy
free popcorn, soda, and candy before the show.
Bush Library. 979-691-4000.
February 4. Wine Issue Forum Presents
Stephen Corley and Paul Roberts discussing
their experiences in American wine produc-
tion. For more information, contact Tracy Paine
at 979-691-4014 or tracy.paine@nara.gov.
Bush Library.
February 6. Napa Valley Winemaker Weekend.
For tickets and information, please contact
Tracy Paine at 979-691-4014 or tracy.paine@
nara.gov. Bush Library.
February 11. Film: Butch Cassidy and the
Sundance Kid. Enjoy free popcorn, soda,
and candy before the show. Bush Library.
979-691-4000.
DENVER, COLORADO
February 5.Part one of a two-day workshop for
Colorado State University alumni: “Using
Archival Materials.” Fort Collins. NARA–Rocky
Mountain Region. 303-407-5700.
February 19. Part two of a two-day workshop
for Colorado State University alumni, includes
a tour and research time at NARA–Rocky Moun-
tain Region. 303-407-5700.
GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN
Through January 9. Exhibit: “Picturing the
Century: One Hundred Years of Photography
from the National Archives.” Ford Museum.
616-254-0400.
HYDE PARK, NEW YORK
Through March 31. Exhibit:“Action,and Action
Now! FDR’s First 100 Days.” Roosevelt Library.
319-643-5301.
January 30. FDR’s Birthday Ceremony. Roo-
sevelt Library. 319-643-5301.
INDEPENDENCE, MISSOURI
Through January 24. Exhibit: “Capture the
Moment:The Pulitzer Prize Photographs.”Tru-
man Library. 800-833-1225.
Opening March 27. Exhibit: “Memories of
Korea.” Truman Library. 800-833-1225.
KANSAS CITY, MISSOURI
Through January 23. Exhibit: “It’s Big.”
NARA–Central Plains Region. 816-268-8000.
Opening February 6. Exhibit: “Mapping Mis-
souri.” NARA–Central
Plains Region. 816-268-
8000.
Opening March 16.
Exhibit: “Deadly Med-
icine: Creating the Mas-
ter Race” NARA– Cen-
tral Plains Region.
816-268-8000.
LITTLE ROCK,ARKANSAS
Through January 30. Exhibit:“Jewels to Jelly
Beans:Treasures from the Presidential Vaults.”
Clinton Library. 501-374-4242.
NEW YORK, NEW YORK
Continuing exhibit:“New York: An American
Capital.” Federal Hall National Memorial.
NARA–Northeast Region. Call 866-840-1752 for
more information.
Winter 2009
Continuing exhibit: “The National Archives at
75!” NARA–Northeast Region. 212-401-1620.
PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA
Continuing exhibit: “Picturing John Brown.”
NARA–Mid Atlantic Region. 215-606-0112.
March 3–4. National History Day Philadelphia
Competitions. NARA–Mid Atlantic Region.215-
606-0112.
SEATTLE,WASHINGTON
Continuing exhibit: “Faces in the Pacific
Northwest.” NARA–Pacific Alaska Region. 206-
336-5115.
SIMI VALLEY, CALIFORNIA
Through February. Exhibit:“Heroes: A Cele-
bration of Great Americans.” Reagan Library.
800-410-8354.
Through January 10. “Christmas Around the
World.” Extended holiday hours, 10 a.m.–7
p.m. Reagan Library. 800-410-8354.
Through February. Exhibit:“Fall of the Berlin
Wall: The 20th Anniversary.” Reagan Library.
800-410-8354.
Opening March 15.Exhibit:“The White House
in Miniature.” Reagan Library. 800-410-8354.
December 31. New Year’s Eve Celebration at
the Reagan Library. Reservations are required.
Reagan Library. 805-577-4057.
March 5. Mark Levin will discuss his new book,
Liberty and Tyranny. Free book signing 4–5 p.m.
in the Museum Store.Lecture and dinner ($45) at
6 p.m.Reagan Library.805-522-2977.
WALTHAM, MASSACHUSETTS
Opening January: Exhibit:“African Americans
and the Civil War Draft.” NARA–Northeast
Region. 866-406-2379.
January 7. Application of Research Methods.
NARA–Northeast Region. 866-406-2379.
February 4.Exploring African American Records
of the Freedmen’s Bureau. NARA–Northeast
Region.866-406-2379.
March 4. 1775: Prequel to Independence.
NARA–Northeast Region. 866-406-2379.
WEST BRANCH, IOWA
Through January 3. Exhibit: “Holidays with
the Hoovers,” features 20 decorated Christmas
trees based on the life and travels of Herbert
and Lou Henry Hoover. Hoover Library. 319-
643-5301.
Events
Through March 21. Exhibit: “Patterns of the
Past: A Century of American Quilting,
1840–1940.” Hoover Library. 319-643-5301.
YORBA LINDA, CALIFORNIA
Through January 10. “Holiday Festival of
Trains.” Nixon Library. 714-983-9120.
Through January 30. Exhibit: “Man on the
Moon: A 40-Year Retrospective.”Nixon Library.
714-983-9120.
Opening March 13. Exhibit:“School House to
White House.” Nixon Library. 714-983-9120.
GENEALOGY EVENTS
WASHINGTON, D.C.
Genealogy workshops are conducted through-
out the year. For up-to-date information, consult
the monthly Calendar of Events.
April 14–15. Sixth Annual Genealogy Fair.
National Archives Building. 202-357-5000.
DENVER, COLORADO
Genealogy workshops are conducted
throughout the year. NARA–Rocky Mountain
Region. For more information, call 303-407-
5740.
KANSAS CITY, MISSOURI
January 12. “National Archives Online
Resources.” NARA–Central Plains Region. 816-
268-8000.
January 13.“Computers 101:Using NARA Records.”
NARA–Central Plains Region. 816-268-8000.
January 26. “Famous Patent Records.”
NARA–Central Plains Region. 816-268-8000.
January 27. “Computers 102: Using NARA
Records,” search U.S. Federal census. NARA–
Central Plains Region. 816-268-8000.
February 9. “African American Genealogy.”
NARA–Central Plains Region. 816-268-8000.
PALM BEACH, FLORIDA
January 13. Lecture: “Jewish Genealogy
Records at the National Archives,” by NARA–
Southeast Region. Jewish Genealogical Society
of Palm Beach. Call to register, 770-968-2100
PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA
January 8, February 5, and March 5. First Fri-
day Open House. NARA–Mid Atlantic Region.
215-606-0100.
PITTSFIELD, MASSACHUSETTS
February 4; March 9, 20; April 9. “Beginning
Your Genealogy Research.” NARA–Northeast
Region. Call to register. 413-236-3600.
February 11; March 16, 20. “Using Federal
Census Records.” NARA–Northeast Region. Call
to register. 413-236-3600.
February 18. “Using Military Records.”
NARA–Northeast Region. Call to register. 413-
236-3600.
March 11. “Examining the 1940 Census.”
NARA–Northeast Region. Call to register. 413-
236-3600.
March 20. “Genealogy on the Internet.” NARA–
Northeast Region. Call to register. 413-236-3600.
March 20. “Finding Your Immigrant Ancestors
at the National Archives.” NARA–Northeast
Region. Call to register. 413-236-3600.
March 23. “Researching French Canadian
Ancestors.” NARA–Northeast Region. Call to
register. 413-236-3600.
March 25. “Researching Irish American Ances-
tors.” NARA–Northeast Region. Call to register.
413-236-3600.
April 8. “Researching Polish Ancestors.”
NARA–Northeast Region.” Call to register. 413-
236-3600.
SEATTLE, WASHINGTON
January 14, February 11, and March 11.
Brick Wall Genealogical Group. NARA–Pacific
Alaska Region. 206-336-5115.
January 9. “The National Archives Online.”
NARA–Pacific Alaska Region. 206-336-5115.
January 9. “Overview of the National Archives.”
NARA–Pacific Alaska Region. 206-336-5115.
WALTHAM, MASSACHUSETTS
January 5. “Preserving Your Permanently Valu-
able Records.” NARA–Northeast Region. 866-
406-2379.
February 2.“African Americans and Under Doc-
umented Populations.” NARA–Northeast
Region. 866-406-2379.
February 17.“Genealogy for Kids” (Grades 3–8
with chaperones). NARA–Northeast Region.
866-406-2379.
March 2. “Census, Passenger Lists, and Natural-
ization Records.” NARA–Northeast Region. 866-
406-2379.
Prologue 59
NEWS & NOTICES
David Ferriero Sworn in as Archivist;
Headed New York Public Libraries
David S.Ferriero,formerly the
Andrew W. Mellon Director of
the New York Public Libraries
(NYPL), is the new Archivist of
the United States.
Ferriero was sworn in as the
agency’s 10th Archivist on
November 13, 2009; he was
confirmed by the Senate on
November 6, 2009. He suc-
ceeds Allen Weinstein, who served from February 2005
until December 2008;DeputyArchivistAdrienne C.Thomas
was Acting Archivist during the interim.
Since 2004, Ferriero had been director of the NYPL,
which with four research libraries and 87 branch libraries
is one of the largest public library systems in the United
States and one of the largest research libraries in the world.
There, he was responsible for collection strategy, conser-
vation, digital experience,reference and research services,
and education, programming, and exhibitions.
Before joining the NYPL,Ferriero served in top positions at
two of the nation’s major academic libraries, the Massachu-
setts Institute ofTechnology in Cambridge,Massachusetts,and
Duke University in Durham, North Carolina. In those posi-
tions, he led major initiatives encompassing the expansion of
facilities, the adoption of digital technologies, and a reengi-
neering of printing and publications.
Ferriero earned bachelor’s and master’s degrees in Eng-
lish literature from Northeastern University in Boston and
a master’s degree from the Simmons College of Library
and Information Science, also in Boston. He served in the
Navy during the Vietnam War, then started in the human-
ities library at MIT, where he worked for 31 years, rising
to associate director for public services and acting co-
director of libraries.
In 1996, he moved to Duke University, where he
served as university librarian and vice provost for library
affairs until 2004, when he moved to the NYPL.
PresidentialAuthor Mark Updegrove
Named New Director of LBJ Library
Mark D. Updegrove, author
of two major works on the
presidency,is the new director
of the Lyndon Baines Johnson
Presidential Library in Austin,
Texas. He succeeds Betty Sue
Flowers, who resigned earlier
this year.
In announcing the appoint-
ment in September, Acting
60 Prologue
ArchivistAdrienne C.Thomas said Updegrove“brings his deep
knowledge and interest in the presidency and a fresh per-
spective and management style to the library.”Tom Johnson,
chairman of the Lyndon B.Johnson Foundation,added:“Mark
will take the LBJ Library to new heights of excellence,adding
to the splendid reputation of the library established by former
directors Betty Sue Flowers and Harry Middleton.”
Updegrove’s Second Acts:Presidential Lives and Legacies
After the White House, published by Lyons Press in 2006,
won the Book of theYear Silver MedalAward for Political Sci-
ence from ForeWord magazine. Earlier this year, he wrote
Baptism By Fire:Eight PresidentsWho Took Office in Times
of Crisis, published by St.Martin’s Press.He received a bach-
elor’s degree in economics from the University of Maryland
in 1984.
Updegrove came to the library from Rawle Murdy,a com-
munications firm,where he was director of business devel-
opment. From 1990 to 2001, he was associated with Time
magazine, where his scholarly interest in the presidency
began while working on“Time and the Presidency,” a mul-
timedia program.The project included a traveling exhibition
that appeared at four presidential libraries, the Newseum,
and the University ofVirginia’s Miller Center of PublicAffairs;
a book;a web site;a short film and ongoing editorial features
in the magazine.
National Archives to Hold
24th Preservation Conference
The NationalArchives’24th annual preservation conference
will be held March 18,2010,in theWilliam G.McGowanThe-
ater in the NationalArchives Building in downtownWashing-
ton, D.C.The theme is“Planning for Preservation:Assessment,
Prioritization,and Performance Management.”
Questions that will be addressed at the conference
include:How is the need for preservation determined? How
does an institution decide what the appropriate preserva-
tion actions are? How are resources allocated to meet the
preservation needs?
Also, How can an institution meet both preservation
and access objectives and goals? What role do partner-
ships in institutions play in the decision-making for effec-
tive preservation action? How can success be deter-
mined in preserving records and what are appropriate
performance metrics?
Specifics of the conference,including costs and speak-
ers program,are available at www.archives.gov/preservation/
conferences/2010/.
Top SAAAwards Given to NHPRC,New
WorldWar II Records Guide
The National Historical Publications and Records Com-
mission (NHPRC) and the National Archives’ new two-vol-
ume finding aid World War II: Guide to Records Relating
Winter 2009
 to U.S.Military Participation, won top honors at the annual
Society of American Archivists meeting this year.
The SAA’s 2009 Distinguished ServiceAward went to the
NHPRC, the grant-making arm of the National Archives.
“The NHPRC records grant program has arguably done
more to advance our nation’s archives and records pro-
grams and the archival profession than any other program
or organization,” the SAA noted.
The Archives received SAA’s CFW Coker award for the
finding aid, published in 2008, which describes 200,000
feet of archival materials regarding U.S. military partici-
pation in World War II.The guide was compiled by Tim-
othy Mulligan and edited by Rebecca L. Collier, Judith
Koucky, and Patrick R. Osborn, all of the National
Archives.
National Archives, Partner Put Papers
Of Founding Fathers on the Internet
As a result of a partnership between the National Histor-
ical Publications and Records Commission (NHPRC) and
Documents Compass at the Virginia Foundation for the
Humanities,5,000 previously unpublished documents from
our nation’s founders are now online through Rotunda,the
digital imprint ofThe University of Virginia Press.
The Rotunda Founders Early Access project
(http://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu:8080/founders/FO
EA.html) makes available letters and other papers
penned by important figures such as James Madison,
John Adams,andThomas Jefferson.Users may freely read,
search, and browse the newly transcribed documents.
In 2008,Congress urged the National Archives to inves-
tigate ways to make the Founders Papers more readily
available to historians, scholars, and the general public at
no cost to researchers.As long-time funders of the print
editions of the Founding Fathers documentary projects,
the NHPRC supported a pilot demonstration project
through Documents Compass, a nonprofit organization
designed to assist in the digital production of historical
documentary editions.
OriginalAlexander Hamilton Document Is
Transferred to NationalArchives
The Bureau of Alcohol,Tobacco, Firearms and Explo-
sives (ATF) has transferred an original 18th-century
Alexander Hamilton document to the National Archives
in which Hamilton, the first secretary of the treasury,
described the method for measuring the proof of dis-
tilled spirits for taxation under the Tariff of 1790.
The document, dated December 18, 1790, and signed
Hamilton, is a circular letter distributed to the customs
agents of the United States.ActingArchivistAdrienneThomas
said the letter was“an important piece of American history
News & Notices
because the policies laid out in the circular contributed to
one of the earliest challenges to the new government.”
“The men and women of ATF have a long and distin-
guished history of serving the citizens of this country
and pursuing the nation’s most violent criminals,” said
ATF Acting Director Kenneth Melson.“But it all started
back in 1790, with Alexander Hamilton and this circular
letter.
The early history of this circular remains a mystery, but
it was discovered in the mid 1970s by ATF Public Infor-
mation Officer Howard Criswell Jr.,who bought it through
a catalog for about $100, intending to use it. It had been
kept in safes since then, and was rediscovered by ATF
employees during a relocation of its headquarters building
in 2005.
PICTURE CREDITS
Cover, pp. 14–21, Dwight D. Eisenhower
Library; pp. 4–13, Records of the U.S. House of
Representatives, RG 233; pp. 24–25, 64-NA-1-5;
p. 26, 64-NA-1-108; p. 27, 64-NA-1-116; p. 28, 64-
NA-1-278; p. 33 (top left and center), Richard
Nixon Library; p. 33 (middle left), Gerald R.
Ford Library; pp. 33 (middle right and bottom
left),34,36,37,60 (top),photos by Earl McDon-
ald; pp. 38–39, 57-N-Bagley-Moose Pass-54-2
and 54-3; p. 40 (top), Records of the U.S. Geo-
logical Survey, RG 57; p. 40 (bottom); 57-N-Mis-
cellaneous-Deteriorated; p. 41 (top), 57-N-Mis-
cellaneous-82-4; p. 41 (bottom), 57-N-Bagley-
Port Valdez-89-2; pp. 42 (top) and 43, 57-N-
Bagley-Port Valdez-71-3 and 71-4;p.42 (center),
62, National Archives and Records Administra-
tion; p. 44, photo by Mary Schmidt-Rodriguez;
pp. 45, 48 courtesy of the National Naval Med-
ical Center; p. 46, photo courtesy of the Lin-
coln Journal Star; p. 47, Bureau of Medicine
and Surgery Library and Archives; p. 51, 210-G-
E644; pp. 53–55, Records of the War Reloca-
tion Authority, RG 210; p. 57, courtesy of The
History Press; p. 58 (left), 127-MN-83714; p. 58
(right), U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum; p. 60
(bottom), Lyndon Baines Johnson Library; p. 64
(bottom right), 111-B-90; p. 65 (left), photo by
Melinda Johnson; p. 65 (right), courtesy of
Annette Gordon-Reed; p. 65 (bottom), Founda-
tion for the National Archives; p. 72 (top),
Records of the Office of the Chief Signal Offi-
cer, RG 111; p. 72 (bottom), 111-SC-67518.
Prologue 61
 PUBLICATIONS
Military Service Records in the NationalArchives
Reference Information Paper (RIP) 109, written by
Trevor K. Plante, has been updated and reprinted. RIP
109 describes the military service records and indicates
how researchers may obtain copies.
The National Archives is the official depository for
records of military personnel separated from the U.S.Air
Force,Army,Coast Guard,Navy,and Marine Corps.There are
two main repositories for these records: the National
Archives Building inWashington,D.C.,and the National Per-
sonnel Records Center
(NPRC) in St.Louis,Missouri.
The revised publication
now has an index and has
updated information on
selective service records
and military personnel files
(including accessioned
Official Military Personnel
Files) located in St. Louis.
Each section of this ref-
erence information paper
refers the reader to addi-
tional sources of informa-
tion such as published arti-
cles, books,finding aids,or links to online sources.Quick
reference guides provide consolidated lists, or “hot
spots,”to search when conducting research. RIP 109 also
includes descriptions of additional records relating to
pensions, bounty land files, headstones and burials,
medals, and discharges is available free from the
Research Support Staff (NWCC1), 700 Pennsylvania
Avenue,NW,Washington,DC 20408-0001;telephone 202-
357-5400 or 1-866-325-7208.
The National Archives in the Nation’s Capi-
tal Information for Researchers
General Information Leaflet (GIL) No. 71, has recently
been updated and reissued.This pamphlet highlights the
archival holdings and research support services available at
the National Archives Building in Washington, D.C., and the
National Archives at College Park, MD.The records in these
two buildings reflect our mission to ensure continuing
access to the essential documentation of the rights ofAmer-
ican citizens and the actions of their government.
GIL 71 is available free from the Research Support
Staff (NWCC1), 700 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW,Washing-
ton, DC 20408-0001; telephone 202-357-5400 or 1-866-
325-7208.
Microfilm Publications
Microfilm publications are produced by the National
62 Prologue
Archives and Records Administration to make records
holdings more widely available for research. Current
projects include the filming of records related to Nazi-
looted Holocaust-era assets and military service records
of the United States Colored Troops (Civil War). A
description of a recent publication is provided below.
A descriptive pamphlet (DP) is available where indi-
cated.
Indexes and Manifests of Alien Arrivals at Del Rio,
Texas, June 1906–July 1953 (A3395, RG 85, 15 rolls)
Records of Aliens Pre-Examined at Saint John, New
Brunswick, ca. 1917– ca. 1942, Prior to Admission at
the U.S.-Canada Border (A3450, RG 85, 7 rolls)
Index to Passenger Lists of Vessels Arriving at Boston,
Massachusetts, 1921–1949 (4 rolls) (A3453, RG 85.
16mm)
Passenger and Crew Lists of Vessels Arriving at Cor-
pus Christi, Texas, and Vicinity, June 1948–January
1959 (A3458, RG 85, 13 rolls)
Manifests of Alien Arrivals at Eastport, Idaho,
1924–1956 (A3460, RG 85, 36 rolls)
Manifests of Alien Arrivals at Presidio, Texas, ca.
1911–1955 (A3466, RG 85, 10 rolls)
Passenger Lists, 1929–1954, and Crew Lists,
1941–1954, of Airplanes Arriving at San Diego, Cali-
fornia (A3472, RG 85, 10 rolls)
Certificates of Identity Issued to U.S. Citizens Pre-
Examined at Winnipeg, Manitoba, Who Entered the
United States at Noyes, Minnesota, and Pembina and
Walhalla, North Dakota, 1917–1929 (A3478, RG 85, 2
rolls)
Orders Relating to the Activation, Transfer, Redesig-
nation, and Disbandment of U.S. Army Units,
1942–1964 (A3701, RG 319, 53 rolls)
Records Concerning the Central Collecting Points
(“Ardelia Hall Collection”): Munich Central Collecting
Point, 1945–1951 (M1946, RG 260, 334 rolls, DP)
For descriptions of the contents of National Archives
microfilm publications, visit the Order Online web page
at Consult the roll list or table of contents for the series
before ordering specific rolls.
Publications can be purchased for $85 per microfilm
roll or $125 per CD-ROM through Order Online! or by
submitting an order form (available on to National
Archives Trust Fund, Cashier (NAT), Form 72 Order, 8601
Adelphi Road, College Park, MD 20740-6001. Make
checks payable to the National ArchivesTrust Fund.VISA,
MasterCard, Discover, and American Express are also
accepted. Provide the account number, expiration date,
and cardholder signature. Telephone: 1-800-234-8861;
fax: 301-837-0483.
Winter 2009
 NEW
F R O M T H E N AT I O N A L A R C H I V E S

World War II
Guide to Records Relating to U.S. Military Participation
Compiled by Timothy P. Mulligan

Published in two volumes, this essential new guide represents
the most comprehensive and detailed finding aid to World War
II source materials in the custody of the National Archives of
the United States. These include records of
• Combined Allied staffs and organizations
• U.S. Army and Navy administrative and operational head-
quarters, logistical and technical services, and field com-
mands (including Army Air Forces headquarters and com-
mands)
• Some civilian agencies involved in war production, scien-
tific research and development, and intelligence collection
and evaluation
Descriptions of records extend to the series level, with examples
given of specific documents. Materials emphasize the period
December 1941 through September 1945, although extensive
documentation of the interwar and pre-Pearl Harbor period is
also included. The guide also identifies, where such information
is available, pertinent Federal records still in agency custody, and
locations of other closely related materials—for example, personal
papers of key figures.
Information is organized by subject in chapters reflecting aspects
of the U.S. wartime effort. Topics include planning and strategy;
administering the defense establishment; mobilization and train-
ing; armaments production and procurement; guarding the home
base; support and services; contributions of science and technol-
ogy; intelligence; the wars at sea and in the air; military operations
in the European, Mediterranean, and Pacific/Asiatic Theaters; and
prosecution of war crimes.
8 1/2 x 11, 1,088 pages
200124—Two-volume hardcover set—$75
ISBN 1-880875-09-8
To order call 1-866-272-6272 x 72066 weekdays 9 A.M.
to 4 P.M. Eastern time or visit estore.archives.gov.

$75 cloth/1,088 pages in 2 volumes/ISBN 1-880875-09-8

National Archives estore.archives.gov /1-866-272-6272 x 72066 weekdays 9 a.m. to 4 p.m. Eastern time.
 THE FOUNDATION f or the National Archives
“Discovering the Civil War”
New Educational Partnership and Legal Exhibit to Open in Spring 2010
Community Initiative Launched This Fall

S
The Foundation for the NationalArchives is very pleased to report on
a new partnership that we have initiated and helped to facilitate
between the NationalArchives and its Boeing Learning Center and the
Marshall-Brennan Constitutional Literacy Project ofAmerican Univer-
In commemoration of the sesquicentennial of the Civil War, the
National Archives, in partnership with the Foundation for the
National Archives, will peel back 150 years of accumulated analy-
sis, synthesis, and punditry to reveal a Civil War that is little known
and even more rarely displayed, introducing a new generation of
sity Law School.The Marshall-Brennan Project enables talented sec- Americans to records that reveal the stories of the real people and
ond- and third-year law school students to give back to the commu- dramatic events of the war.
nity by teaching courses on constitutional law and juvenile justice in Our largest and most ambitious traveling exhibit yet,“Discover-
public high schools in the District of Columbia and Maryland. ing the Civil War,” will open in the Lawrence F. O’Brien Gallery in
This fall, as the start of an ongoing collaboration, the Marshall- two phases beginning in spring 2010,accompanied by educational
Brennan program included a special introductory session for the publications, public programming, and digital content. It will then
law school fellows and their high school students to participate travel to museums and cultural institutions in diverse communities
together in the “Constitution in Action” lab in the Boeing Learning nationwide, including the Houston Museum of Natural Science in
Center. Students were introduced to the major themes of the Con- Houston,Texas; the Durham Museum in Omaha, Nebraska; and the
stitution and the role it plays in our daily lives by working with Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan.
archival records—the primary sources of “Discovering the Civil War” will give visitors the chance to walk
our history—and enjoyed the opportu- in the shoes of researchers, unlock secrets, solve mysteries, and
nity to see the original Constitution for uncover unexpected events in our records.The exhibit combines
themselves. great original treasures and engaging touch-screen interactives in
The Foundation staff and the Archives a physical environment inspired by 21st-century research rooms.
Education team have been working Letters, diaries, photographs, maps, petitions, receipts, patents,
closely with theAmerican University Law amendments, and proclamations all become powerful educational
School,where the Marshall-Brennan pro- tools to let visitors take a fresh look at a conflict that still touches
gram originated, to organize these ses- our lives.
sions. I cannot think of a more fitting way To learn more about how you can support this innovative travel-
for students in this program to begin ing exhibit, please visit www.archives.gov/nae/support/civil-war.
their school year,and we look forward to finding new ways to share
and advance the cause of civic literacy among students and life-long
learners with our friends at the Marshall-Brennan Project.
This partnership is a key element of the new Legal Council that
the Foundation has recently launched in an effort to engage lead-
ing law firms,schools,and associations to create a new community
of support.The Legal Council’s goals will parallel the Foundation’s
own mission, highlighting the importance of access to essential
documentation of the rights of citizens and the actions of our gov-
ernment, promoting public service based on the exploration of
truth from documents and evidence, inspiring a dedication to life-
long history and civics education,and encouraging intellectual pur-
suits centered on policy-related issues.
The Legal Council will also generate new revenue towards our
year-round education programs, including the Marshall-Brennan
activities.This new partnership and the Legal Council will be crit-
ical initiatives as we work to expand the educational reach of the
National Archives Experience to high schools in this region and
nationwide.

Ken Lore
President, Foundation for the National Archives
71st New York Infantry at Camp Douglas, 1861.

64 Prologue Winter 2009

2009 Primarily Teaching Institute Boeing Sponsors
Serves Educators Across the Country Annual Gala
Over the summer, 54 The Foundation for the National
teachers from 15 states Archives expresses its gratitude to
and 3 countries were The Boeing Company for its support
able to take part in the as sponsor of the 2009 Gala and
National Archives’ Records of Achievement Award Cer-
acclaimed Primarily emony. This year was the company’s Annette Gordon-Reed
Teaching Institute, with fifth as sponsor of the event, which
support from the Founda- was held on September 15.
tion’s scholarship pro- “As a committed partner of the Foundation, we are pleased to sup-
gram, which was under- port this annual celebration and to pay special tribute to the recipient
written for the third year of the Records of Achievement Award,Annette Gordon-Reed,”said Mary
by a generous $20,000 Foerster, vice president, Business Support, Communications and Com-
contribution from Texas munity Affairs, Boeing Integrated Defense Systems.“Professor Gordon-
Fort Worth Primarily Teaching participants Jef- Instruments. Reed’s work reminds us that the American story is incomplete without
frey Bateman, Sam Reeves, and Woody Latham Designed to give incorporating the African American experience into the narrative. No
and Education Specialist Jenny Sweeney view a teachers from across longer can we view these experiences as separate.”
presidential pardon signed by Ulysses S. Grant. the country access to The Achievement Award recognizes an individual who has signifi-
the National Archives’ cantly increased the public’s awareness of the critical role that primary
resources, Primarily Teaching demonstrates how records can be sources play in our understanding of the history of the United States.
used to sharpen students’ critical thinking skills and deepen Gordon-Reed is a lawyer, scholar, and author. Her most recent book is
their engagement with the subject matter. Participants conduct the Pulitzer Prize–winning The Hemingses of Monticello:An American
archival research and develop lesson plans, based on primary Family.
sources, that can be taken home and implemented in their class-
rooms, benefiting their students for years to come. Topics
explored in 2009 included school desegregation, the Works
Progress Administration, child labor, and the creation of the New Book Explores History
National Park Service.
“Primarily Teaching connects educators to primary source of National Archives Building
records for lessons that enhance children’s understanding of
With the release
our country’s history, society and culture,” said Paula Collins,
of The National
Texas Instruments vice president of governmental affairs.“We
Archives Build-
are pleased to continue our support for this time-tested train-
ing: Temple of
ing institute. It is one of the many ways we partner with the
American His-
Foundation for the National Archives and other organizations
tory, a 126-page
to make valuable resources available to teachers and educa-
exploration of
tors.”
the history of
the National Ar-
chives Building,
The Foundation for the National Archives supports the National readers will
Archives and Records Administration in developing programs, learn why the
building that
projects, and materials that tell the story of America through the
holds the country’s national treasures is actually one itself. The book,
holdings in NARA. produced by the Foundation and written by Foundation Senior Editor
For more information on how you can help others experience Patty Reinert Mason, is intended as a lay person’s guide to the National
Archives Building, explaining its history, architectural features, and the
the National Archives, contact the Foundation at 202-357-5946,
symbolism of its sculptures.
or write to us at foundationmembers@nara.gov. The book is available through the Archives Shop in Washington
To learn more about the Foundation, visit www.archives.gov/nae. (202-357-5271) and NARA’s online store at estore.archives.gov.

Foundation Prologue 65
INDEX to Volume Forty-one, 2009 Index compiled by Susan Carroll

9/11 Commission, 3-47; records opened, 1-66, 2-25 Biddle, Francis, 2-34, 2-36, 2-37; photo, 2-36
BIG! Big Records, Big Events, and Big Ideas in
Acheson, Dean, 1-38 American History, by Stacey Bredhoff, 1-68
Ackerman, Kenneth D., 3-33–34 “BIG!” exhibit, 1-4, 2-70, 4-35
Acushnet, ship, 3-72 Bill of Rights, 2-17, 2-22–23, 4-29
Adams,Abigail, 2-49 Bingham McCutchen, 2-71
Adams, John, 2-49 Black, Edwin, 3-33
Addams, Jane, 3-60 Blanchard, James, 1-71; photo, 1-71
Adjutant General’s Office,2-53,2-58,2-59,3-50–51,3-56 Blondo, Rick, 2-4
Advanced Research Project Agency, 4-18 Bloody Knife, photo, 2-58
“Adventures With Grandpa Truman,” by Clifton Tru- Boland, Edward P., 4-27
man Daniel, 1-36–41 Bolster, Jeffrey, 3-31
Advisory Committee on the Records of Congress, 3-47 Borch, Fred L.,“Sitting in Judgment,” 2-34–40
African Americans, 3-70, 4-65; and slavery, 1-6–7; sur- Boritt, Gabor, 3-34
geons in the Union Army, 3-22–25 Boylan, Richard, 3-30, 3-33; photo, 3-27
Aitken, Robert, 3-36, 3-38; photographs of works by, 3- Bradley, Gen. Omar, 4-14, 4-16
37, 3-38 Bradsher, Gregory, 2-18, 3-33;“Shaping the National
Alaska, photos of, 4-38–43 Archives,” 4-24–31
“Alaskan Frontier in Panorama,The,” by Richard E. Bredhoff, Stacey, BIG!, 1-68, 4-35; Moon Shot: JFK and
Schneider, 4-38–43 Space Exploration, 3-68
Alfredson, Pat, 3-4 Brief Histories of U.S.Army Commands (Army
Alien enemies, 2-26–33 Posts) and Descriptions of Their Records, micro-
Alldredge, Everett O., 4-26 film publication, 3-56
“Ambitious Agenda at the National Archives,An,” by Brinkley, Douglas, 3-26, photo, 3-31
David S. Ferriero, 4-2 Brookhiser, Richard, 2-62
Ambrose, Stephen, 2-43 Brooks, Philip, 1-31, 4-26, 4-30
American Archivist, The, 4-28, 4-29–30 Bruno, Mary, photo, 1-42
American Expeditionary Forces, 2-69, 4-72 Buck, Solon J., 2-14–15, 4-25, 4-27; photo, 2-14
American Historical Association, 2-12, 2-48 Buckley, Cathy, 3-4
“American Originals,” exhibit, 2-24 Bugliosi,Vincent, 3-28
American Society of Magazine Photographers,1-43,1-45 Bunce, Peter, 3-33
American State Papers, 1-55 Bureau of Alcohol,Tobacco,Firearms,and Explosives,4-61
Americans for Indian Opportunity, 3-67 Burial Registers for Military Posts, Camps, and Sta-
Ames, John, 1-58 tions, 1768–1921, microfilm publication, 3-57
Anderson, Claudia, 3-26, 3-33; photo, 3-30 Burke, Frank, 2-22
Anderson, Edgar Leo, 3-26, 3-31 Burnes, Brian, ed., Your Land, Our Land, 3-10
Angel, Herbert E., 4-26 Bush, George H.W., 1-61, 2-67
Angel Island Immigration Station,2-26–33;photo,2-26 Bush, George W., 1-61, 2-21; electronic records acces-
Anticommunism,and Richard Nixon,2-43,2-44–45,2-46 sioned, 2-66; executive order revoked, 2-67
Apache scouts, 2-55, 2-58 Butler, Patrick, 2-70
Applications for Headstones for U.S. Military Veter-
ans, 1925–1941, microfilm publication, 2-57 California, 2-55, 4-8, 4-9, 4-12, 4-13
Arapahoe scouts, 2-53 California Territory, 3-68–69
Archival Research Catalog, 1-48, 2-24, 3-64 Cameras, panoramic, 4-40
Archives Leadership Institute, 2-50, 3-67 Canada, mural of the history of by Thomas Hart Ben-
“Archivist’s Code,The,” 4-31 ton, 1-14–15; postal system, 2-7–8, 2-9
Arizona, 2-53, 2-55, 2-56, 4-8 Carlin, John W., 2-22–23, 4-36; photo, 2-23
Arkansas, 1-58, 4-52, 4-53 Caro, Robert, 3-26, 3-33; photo, 3-30
Army registers, 1-58 Carr, Eugene, 2-55
Army Reorganization Act of 1866, 2-52 Carter, Jimmy, 2-19
Atkinson, Rick, 3-26, 3-30 “Cartography, Politics—and Mischief,” by Mark J.
Augusta, Maj.Alexander T., 3-23; photo, 3-24 Stegmaier with Richard T. McCulley, 4-7–13
Austrian alien enemies, 2-27–28 Center for Creative Photography, 1-48
Central Intelligence Agency, 4-16–17, 4-18, 4-20
Bagley, Maj. James W., 4-40–42 Chang, Iris, 3-31
Bahmer, Robert H., 2-18, 4-26, 4-31; photo, 2-18 Chapman, Elizabeth, 1-71
Balch, Emily Greene, 3-60 Charters of Freedom, 4-29
Bancroft Library, University of California at Berkeley, 4-54 Chase, Salmon P., letter to acquired, 3-65
Baron,Jason R.,“‘I Wish to Acknowledge ...’,” 3-26–34 Checklist of United States Public Documents,
Barrie, Diane, 1-61 1789–1909, 1-58
Bataan Death March, 2-39 Chiles, Henry, 1-25
Battle of Cibicue Creek, 2-55 China, aerial spying against, 4-16–17, 4-22
Beatie, Russell H., 3-32 Churchill,Winston, 4-18
“Becoming World Class,” by Adrienne Thomas, 2-4 Cincinnati, Ohio, Fountain Square, 1-46–47
“Behind the Words of History,” 1-60–61 Citizen diplomacy, 3-60, 3-61
Behman, Frederick,“View of Fort Pierre,” illustrated, 3-50 Civic literacy, 1-64, 1-70, 2-24, 2-70, 2-71
Benton,Thomas Hart, 1-12–22; photos of works by, 1- Civil liberties, 1-6–9, 1-32
12, 1-14, 1-15, 1-16, 1-17, 1-18, 1-19, 1-20; photos, 1- Civil rights movement, 1-5, 1-6–9
13, 1-17, 1-18, 1-19, 1-20, 1-21 Civil War, 4-57;African American surgeons in the, 3-
Berdichevsky, Ezequiel,“‘I Wish to Acknowledge . . .’,” 23–25; and the Congressional Serial Set, 1-57, 1-58;
3-26–34 exhibit, 4-64; oaths of allegiance, 3-55; pensions, 3-
Bertholf, Commodore-Commandant Ellsworth P., 3-42, 4, 3-23, 3-25
3-43, 3-44 Civil War Conservation Corps, 3-4
Beschloss, Michael, 3-26, 3-31 Civil War Widow’s Certificate Pension Project, 3-4
Best, Gary Dean, 3-33 Clark, Robert, 2-13–14
Clarke, Gilmore, 4-47
Clay, Henry, 4-12
Clifford, Clark, 1-60, 1-61
Clinton,William J., 1-61, 2-67
Clinton administration missing hard drive, reward for,
3-67
“Coastal Bastions and Frontier Forts,” by John P.
Deeben, 3-50–57
Cobb, J. Michael, Fort Wool: Star-Spangled Banner Ris-
ing, 4-56–57
Cochran, Robert, 4-45
Cody,William F.“Buffalo Bill,” 2-58
Coffman, Edward M., photo, 3-27
Cohen,Adam, 3-33
Cold War intelligence operations, 4-14–22
Collier, Rebecca L., 4-61
Collins, Paula, 1-71, 4-65
Colonial America, mail delivery in, 2-6–9
Colorado, 1-45–46, 4-8
Colot,Thora, 1-70
Columbia Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, 1-57
Comanche, cutter, 3-41–42
Combined Federal Campaign, 3-71
Comic books, 3-46, 3-49
Commission on the Organization of the Executive
Branch of the Government, 4-28
Committee for the Re-Election of the President
(Nixon), 1-65
Compiled military service records, 3-50–51
Compromise of 1850, 4-12, 4-13
“Congressional Archives,The,” by Rob Crotty, 3-46–49
Congressional Globe, 4-12
Congressional Information Service, 1-58, 1-59
Congressional Serial Set, 1-54–59, 4-12
Connecticut, 1-68
Connor, R.D.W., 2-14, 4-25; photo, 2-12
Constitutional law, 4-64
Coolidge, Calvin, 2-12
Corcoran Gallery of Art,Washington, D.C., 1-48
Corn, Jack, 1-45; photographs by, 1-45, 1-47
CORONA, 4-17, 4-18, 4-19, 4-20, 4-21, 4-22
Costello, John, 3-31
Council of State Archivists, 2-51
Courts-martial, Indian Scouts, 2-55; records of, 3-53
Cox-Paul, Lori, 1-53, 3-9
Cramer, Myron Cady, 2-34–40; photos, 2-35, 2-36, 2-37
Criswell, Howard, Jr., 4-61
Crotty, Rob,“The Congressional Archives,” 3-46–49;
“Marbury. Madison. Marshall. Mayhem. How to
Make a Supreme Court,” 2-62–63;“These Walls Can
Talk,” 3-36–39
Cutler, Lawrence M., 3-65
Dahlie, Michael, A Gentleman’s Guide to Graceful
Living, 2-67
Dakota, 2-55
Dallek, Robert, 3-33
Dallenbach, Dennis, 3-33
Daly, Eileen, 2-70
Dambrogio, Jana, photo, 2-71
Daniel, Clifton, 1-40–41
Daniel, Clifton Truman,“Adventures With Grandpa Tru-
man,” 1-36–41;“Dear Harry . . . Love Bess,” 3-12–21;
photos, 1-36, 1-37, 1-40, 1-41, 3-21
Daniel, Harrison, photos, 1-40, 1-41
Daniel,MargaretTruman,1-36–41;photos,1-38,1-39,1-40
Daniel,Thomas, photo, 1-41
Daniel,William Wallace, 1-39, 1-40; photos, 1-36, 1-37,
1-41
Daniels, Jonathan, 1-31
Dasch, George John, 2-36; photo, 2-36
“Deadly Medicine,” exhibit, 1-52
Deal Elementary School, Deal, New Jersey, 4-36
“Dear Harry . . . Love, Bess,” by Clifton Truman Daniel,
3-12–21

66 Prologue Winter 2009

Declaration of Independence, 2-11–12, 2-16, 2-17, 2-
22–23, 4-29, 4-30, 4-36–37
Declassified records, 2-67, 4-16, 4-21
Deeben, John P.,“Coastal Bastions and Frontier Forts,”
3-50–57
Delano, Frederic, 4-47
Democracy Starts Here, film, 1-52
Democratic Party, 1-10, 1-11
Densho –:The Japanese American Legacy Project, 4-54
Department of the Pacific, U.S.Army, 3-68–69
Deportation, of alien enemies, 2-28, 2-29–30; of politi-
cal radicals, 2-31–33
Descriptive Commentaries from the Medical Histo-
ries of Posts, microfilm publication, 3-56
Diary of a Dream:A History of the National
Archives Independence Movement, 1980–1985,
by Robert M.Warner, 2-19
Digital Vaults, 2-70, 2-71
Digitizing Historical Records grant program, 2-50
Dinosaur tracks, 4-32–35
Diplomacy, and World War I, 3-60–61
DISCOVERER, 4-18, 4-20
“Discovering the Civil War,” 4-64
Discovery Channel, 1-52
District of Columbia, 4-64
Disturnell, John, 1847 “Mapa de los Estados Unidos de
Mejico,” 4-8, 4-13
Dobbs, Michael, 3-31, 3-33; photo, 3-31
Documentary History of the Ratification of the Con-
stitution, The, 2-49
“Documented Rights—A National Archives Exhibit of
Documents About Human and Civil Rights,” 1-5, 1-
6–9, 1-52
“Documented Rights: Defining Human and Civil
Rights,” by Jim McSweeney, 1-6–9
Documents Compass, 4-61
Documents Relating to the Military and Naval Ser-
vice of Blacks Awarded the Congressional Medal
of Honor From the Civil War to the Spanish-
American War, microfilm publication, 2-58
“DOCUMERICA,” by C. Jerry Simmons, 1-42–49
Dodd, Monroe,“Your Land, Our Land,” 3-6–10
Doerries, Reinhard, 3-33
“Dokie,” cartoon by Eddie Sato, 4–53; illustrated, 4-54
Dole, Robert, 3-67
Dominion Power, 4-57
Dotson, Bob, 3-71
Douglas, Stephen A., 4-9
Dowd, Maureen, 3-26
Downs, Solomon W., 4-12
Duff, Diana, 1-50
Duff,Wendy M., 3-29
Dulles,Allen, 4-14, 4-19
Dwight D.Eisenhower Library,2-17,2-68,3-33,4-14,4-16
Dyer, Carol, 1-4, 2-67; painting by, 2-68
Eales,Anne Bruner, 2-16
Edwards (Spalding), Elizabeth L., 1-29
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 1-60, 1-61, 2-43, 2-44, 2-46, 2-
68, 4-30; and aerial intelligence operations, 4-
14–22; photos, 4-15, 4-18
Eisenhower administration,and aerial intelligence,4-14–22
Electronic RecordsArchives,1-64,2-21–22,2-23,2-66,3-4
Electronic records preservation, 2-20, 2-21–22, 2-24, 2-50
Ellis, Robert, 3-33
Elsey, George, 1-30–31
England, 3-23, 3-25; and mail delivery in colonial Amer-
ica, 2-6–9
Environmental Protection Agency, photodocumentary
project, 1-42–49
Erickson, Janet, 3-4
Evans, Luther, 2-17, 4-30
Evening State Journal, Lincoln, Nebraska, 4-46
Ex parte Quirin, 2-37
“Excellence in Genealogy Research Award,” 1-4–5,3-66
Exhibits, 1-4, 1-5, 1-6–9, 1-48–49, 1-52–53, 1-70, 2-24, 2-
70, 2-71, 3-64, 3-68
“Face to Face with History,” by Jill L. Newmark, 3-
22–25
Facebook, 3-64
Fairbanks, Richard, 2-7
Family Search, 3-4
Faust, Drew Gilpin, 3-32; photo, 3-29
Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2-36
Federal Records Act of 1950, 2-17, 4-28
Federal records centers, 2-16, 2-17, 2-19–20, 4-28
Federal Register Act, 2-13, 2-14
Feeney, Joseph, 1-30; photo, 1-31
Ferriero, David S., 4-60;“An Ambitious Agenda at the
National Archives,” 4-2
Field Basic Documentation of the War Relocation
Authority, 1942–1946, microfilm publication, 4-54
Finding aids, 3-4, 3-30, 3-31, 3-56, 3-68, 4-54
Finkel, Paul, 4-35
Finlay, Hugh, 2-6–9
First Federal Congress, papers published, 2-49–50
“First Nixon Library,The,” by Paul Musgrave, 2-42–47
Flesher, Maria, 3-4
Flickr, 3-64
Florida, coast patrols, 3-40–45
Flowers, Betty Sue, 4-60
Foerster, Mary, 4-65
Foley, Capt. Daniel P., 3-42; photo, 3-43
Footnote.com, 3-4
Forbes, Edward, 3-40, 3-42–43, 3-44
Ford, Gerald R., 2-19, 4-32, 4-36
Forsythe, Scott, 3-33
Fort Lauderdale Life Saving Station, 3-42, 3-43, 3-44;
photo, 3-44
Fort Pierre, watercolor of, 3-50
Fort Wool,Virginia, 4-56–57
Fort Wool: Star-Spangled Banner Rising, by J. Michael
Cobb, 4-56–57
Foundation for the National Archives, 1-9, 1-70–71, 2-
22, 2-23, 2-70–71, 3-36, 3-70–71, 4-64–65; Legal
Council, 4-64; scholarship program, 4-65
Founders Papers, 4-61
Franklin, Benjamin, 2-7, 2-8, 2-49; portrait, 2-7
Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, 2-14, 3-33; photo, 2-14;
renovation of, 2-66
Fraser, James Earl, 3-36; photographs of works by, 3-36,
3-38, 3-39
Fraser, Laura, 3-39
Freedom of Information Act, compliance with, 2-
66–67, 3-65
Freedom Train, 2-15
Frontier forts, 3-50–57
Fulghum, Matt, 3-48, 3-49
Furcher,W. B., 3-44
Gales & Seaton, 1-55
Gallaudet University, 1-57
Gardner, Martha, 3-33
Gaugler, Bob, 3-4
Gavin,Alison M.,“In the King’s Service,” 2-6–9
Genealogical research, 1-4–5, 1-54–59, 2-52–59, 2-69, 3-
4, 3-50–57, 3-65, 3-66, 4-50–55
General Index to Pension Files, 1861–1934, micro-
film publication, 2-56
General Land Office, 4-7, 4-10–11
General Services Administration, 1-51, 2-4, 2-16, 2-17,
2-19–20, 2-24, 4-28, 4-30, 4-31
George Bush Library, 2-22, 2-23, 2-66, 2-67
George W. Bush Library, 1-65, 2-18, 2-66
Gerald R. Ford Library, 2-19, 2-21, 2-22, 3-33
German alien enemies, 2-27–29, 2-30
German U-boat saboteurs, 2-34, 2-36–37
Germany, and perceived threat to U.S. coasts in World
War I, 3-40–45
Geronimo, photo, 2-54
Geselbracht, Raymond H., 3-13;“Independence and
the Opening of the West,” 1-12–22
Giegengack,Augustus E., 2-69
Gillette, Bill, 1-45–46; photographs by, 1-47
Gilman, Ephraim, 1848 map of the United States, 4-
7–13; illustrated, 4-3–6
Gimmereck, Gus, photo, 4-46
Goodhue, Bertram Grosvenor, 4-46
Goodpaster,Andrew Jackson, 4-17, 4-18, 4-19, 4-20;
photos, 4-17, 4-18–19
Gordon-Reed,Annette, 3-70, 4-65; photos, 3-70, 4-65
Government personnel, 1-58, 3-65
Government Printing Office, 1-54, 3-48
Grantham,Alexander, 2-45
Grants, 1-66, 2-18, 2-49, 2-66, 3-66–67
Great Decision: Jefferson, Adams, Marshall, and the
Battle for the Supreme Court, The, by David McK-
ean and Cliff Sloan, 2-62–63
Great Men and Famous Women, by Charles F. Horne,
1-25, 1-33, 1-37–38
Great Plains Originals, 3-7
Green, George, 4-34–35
Greenwell, Regina, 3-33
Griffith, Robert K., Jr., 3-30
Grose, Peter, 3-31
Grover,Wayne Clayton, 1-14–15, 2-15, 2-17, 2-18, 4-
25–31; photos, 2-15, 4-24, 4-26, 4-28
Gruber, Robert, 3-56
Guardian of Heritage, 2-15, 2-18
Guggenheim Museum, 3-67
Guide to Genealogical Research in the National
Archives, 2-18
Guide to Records of the National Archives, 2-15, 2-18
Guide to the Archives of the Government of the
United States, 2-11, 2-12
Gulf of Mexico, coast patrols, 3-40–45
Gullion, Maj. Gen.Allen W., photo, 2-36
Gustafson, Milton, 2-17; photo, 3-29
Guterman, Benjamin,“Women’s Activisim for Peace in
World War I,” 3-60–61
Guthrie,Woody,“This Land Is Your Land,” 3-10
Haight, David, 3-33;“Ike and His Spies in the Sky,” 4-
14–22; photo, 4-22
Hall, Cargill, 4-22
Hamby,Alonzo, 1-32
Hamilton,Alexander, 2-49, 4-61
Hampshire, Gifford D., 1-43, 1-44, 1-45, 1-46–47, 1-48
Hampton History Museum,Virginia, 4-56
Harlow, Bryce, papers opened, 1-65
Harriman,Averell, photo, 1-30
Harris, LaDonna, 3-67
Harry S.Truman Library, 1-12–22, 1-26, 1-31, 2-17, 3-13,
3-14, 3-28
Harry S.Truman Library, Inc., 1-13, 1-14, 1-17
“Harry Truman’s History Lessons,” by Samuel W.
Rushay, Jr., 1-24–34
Hartley, Jeffery,“‘I Wish to Acknowledge . . .’,” 3-26–34;
“Using the Congressional Serial Set for Genealogi-
cal Research,” 1-54–59
Hassett,William, 1-30
Hasting, Lt. Col. Howard H., 2-38
Hawaii, 2-44
Hayashi, Brian Masaru, 3-33
Headstone applications, 2-57–58, 2-59
Heart Mountain Sentinel, 4-53
Helms, Richard, 3-66
Hemingses of Monticello:An American Family, The,
by Annette Gordon-Reed, 3-70
Hemingway, Mary, 2-67
Hemingway, Patrick, 2-67
Hemingway Foundation/PEN Award, 2-67
Herbert Hoover Library, 2-18
HeritageQuest, 1-58, 1-59

Index Prologue 67
“Hero Pigeon of World War I,A,” 4-72 International Tribunal of the Far East, 2-34–35, 2- Letters Received by the Office of the Adjutant Gen-
Hickok, J. B.“Wild Bill,” 2-58 37–40; photo, 2-34 eral (Main Series), 1871–1880, microfilm publica-
Higgins, Chester, photograph by, 1-45 Iowa, 2-69 tion, 2-58
Higgins, John P., 2-38 Ireland, Don, 3-4 Letters Received by the Office of the Adjutant Gen-
Hill, John, photo, 2-71 “Island Fort as Presidential Hideaway,An,” by Hilary eral (Main Series), 1881–1889, microfilm publica-
Hill,Walter D., Jr., 3-26, 3-31; photo, 3-29 Parkinson, 4-56–57 tion, 2-58
Hirota Koki, 2-38, 2-40; photo, 2-40 “It’s Big,” exhibit, 1-5, 1-52 Lew, Jennie, 3-66
Hiser, David, 1-46; photo of, 1-46; photographs by, 1- Lewis,Tab, 3-34
45, 1-46 Jackanicz, Donald, 3-33 LexisNexis, 1-58
Historical Information Relating to Military Posts Jackson,Andrew, 4-57 Library of Congress, 2-12, 2-16, 2-17, 4-29, 4-30, 4-54
and Other Installations, 1700–1900, microfilm Jackson County, Missouri, 3-14, 3-20–21 Life magazine, 2-44
publication, 3-56 Jacobs,Aletta H., 3-60 Life Saving Service, 3-41, 3-42, 3-43, 3-44–45
Hoffman, Jon T., 3-26, 3-30 Jameson, J. Franklin, 2-11, 2-12, 2-13, 2-48, 2-51; photo, Lighthouse Service, 3-42
Hog Island,Texas, 3-41 2-11 Lincoln,Abraham, letter by acquired, 3-65
Holland, 3-60 Japan, war crimes trials, 2-34–35, 2-37–40 Little Cloud, 2-59
Holt, Beatrice H., photo, 2-43 “Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Liu, Snowpine, 2-46–47; photo, 2-45
Holt, Dan, 3-33 Records, 1930–1974,” Bancroft Library, University Livingston, Rebecca, 3-34
Holy Bear, 2-56–57 of California at Berkeley, 4-54 Lloyd, David, 1-13, 1-14–15, 1-16, 1-18
Hong Kong, 2-42–47 Japanese Americans, 1-6, 1-8, 4-50–55 Logan Airport, Boston, Massachusetts, 1-45
Hoof, John, 1-19 “Japanese Camp Papers,” Library of Congress micro- Long, Michael, 3-33
Hoover, Bill, photo, 2-71 film publication, 4-54 Lore, Ken, 1-70, 2-70, 2-71, 3-70, 4-64
Hoover, Herbert, and the National Archives, 2-12–13, 2- Japanese internment centers, 4-50–55 Louisiana, 1-55–56
17, 4-28; photo, 2-11 Jefferson,Thomas, 1-70, 2-49, 2-51, 2-62–63, 3-70 Low, Jeanie W. C., 3-66
Hoover Commission, 4-28 Jessee, Fern, 1-20 Lowe,Alan C., 1-65
Horne, Charles F., Great Men and Famous Women, 1- Jessee, Randall, 1-14, 1-15, 1-20 Lowell,Waverly, 3-33
25, 1-33, 1-37–38 Jimmy Carter Library, 2-21, 2-22 Lowry,Thomas P., 3-32
Horne, Gerald, 3-31 John F. Kennedy Library, 2-19, 2-21, 2-67, 3-33; exhibit, Lyndon B. Johnson Library, 1-65, 2-18, 2-19, 3-33, 4-31,
Horrocks, David, 3-33 3-68; renovation of, 2-66 4-60
Hot Springs, North Carolina, internment camp, 2- Johnson,Albert, 2-33 Lyon, Danny, photograph by, 1-49
28–29, 2-30 Johnson, Catherine A., 3-29
Houston, Sam, 4-13 Johnson, Lady Bird, 1-39–40 Machen, Lewis, 3-48
“‘How an Eagle Feels . . .’,” by Rebecca K. Sharp, 4- Johnson, Lyndon B., 1-38–40, 1-60, 1-61, 1-65, 4-31; Mad magazine, 3-46
50–55 photos, 1-38, 1-39 Madison, Dolley, 2-62
Howe, Fisher, photo, 3-28 Johnson,Tom, 4-60 Madison, James, 2-49, 2-62–63
Howe, Louis, 2-13 Johnston, Col.Wayne, photo, 3-27 Magruder, Jeb, papers opened, 1-65
Hubbard,Tom, 1-46–47 Judge Advocate General’s Department, 2-36, 2-37 Mahoney,William, 3-33
Hufford, Harold, 3-48 Junior Chamber of Commerce, 2-43–44, 2-45 Mail delivery, in Canada, 2-7–8, 2-9; in colonial Amer-
Hull, Gen. John, 4-19–20 Jupiter Inlet Light House, 3-42 ica, 2-6–9
Human rights, 1-6–9 Maine, 1-68
Hume, Paul, 3-5 Kahn, Herman, 3-34 Manheim, Michael Philip, 1-45; photographs by, 1-42
Humphrey, Hubert, 1-39 Kansas, 2-69 “Mapa de los Estados Unidos de Mejico,” 1847, by
Hungarian alien enemies, 2-27–28 Kansas City, Missouri, 1-50 John Disturnell, 4-8, 4-13
Hunt, Jarvis, 1-51 Kansas City Star, 3-7 Maps, Gilman 1848 map of the United States, 4-7–13;
Hunt, Richard, 3-48–49 Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, 1-52–53 in the National Archives used in World War II, 2-16
Hurst, James W., 3-34 Keep, Charles, 2-48 “Marbury. Madison. Marshall. Mayhem. How to Make a
Husted, Lemuel John, 3-41 Kempton, Greta, portrait by, 1-29 Supreme Court,” by Rob Crotty, 2-62–63
Kennedy, John F., 2-49; inaugural address, 1-68; speech- Marbury,William, 2-62–63
“‘I Wish to Acknowledge . . .’,” by Jason R. Baron, Jef- writers for, 1-60, 1-61 Marbury v. Madison, 2-62–63
frey Hartley, and Ezequiel Berdichevsky, 3-26–34 Kentuckian, The, painting by Thomas Hart Benton, 1- Marshall, John, 2-62–63
Idaho, 4-8, 4-9–10, 4-50 15–16; illustration, 1-15 Marshall-Brennan Constitutional Literacy Project, 4-64
“Ike and his Spies in the Sky,” by David Haight, 4-14–22 Kentucky, 4-11 Maryland, 4-64
Immigrants, alien immigration files, 3-66; from enemy Khrushchev, Nikita, 4-16, 4-19, 4-20 Mason, Patty, The National Archives Building:Temple
nations, 2-26–33; political radicals, 2-26–27, 2- Killian, James R., 4-17–18, 4-19; photo, 4-16 of American History, 3-36, 4-65
31–33; during World War I, 2-26–33 King,Wallace, 3-42, 3-44; photos, 3-40, 3-42 Massachusetts, 1-68
Immigration, Bureau of, 2-31, 2-32 Kirby, Bill, 3-13–14, 3-21 Massachusetts Bay Colony, 2-7
Immigration Acts of 1917 and 1918, 2-31, 2-32 Kirkpatrick, Lyman, 4-21 Massachusetts Historical Society, 1-66
“In the King’s Service,” by Alison M. Gavin, 2-6–9 Kissinger, Henry, 2-47, 3-66 Mathis, James, 3-28
“Independence and the Opening of the West,” by Ray- Kleiman, Miriam,“A Place in the Archives,” 4-32–37 McAllister, Bruce, photograph by, 1-45
mond H. Geselbracht, 1-12–22 Klein, Herbert, 4-35 McCarthy, Joseph, 1-32
Independence and the Opening of theWest,mural by Kotz, Mary Lynn, photo, 2-71 McCarthyism, 1-32
Thomas Hart Benton,1-13–22;illustration of,1-12,1-14 Kotz, Nick, photo, 2-71 McCoy, Donald R., 2-13
Index to Indian War Pension Files, 1887–1926, Koucky, Judith, 4-61 McCulley, Richard, 3-46, 3-48, 3-49;“Cartography, Poli-
microfilm publication, 2-57, 2-59 Krenn, Michael L., 3-33 tics—and Mischief,” 4-7–13
Indian motorcycles, 3-40, 3-42; photo of, 3-41 McCullough, David, 2-49, 3-26, 3-28; photo, 3-26
Indian Territory, 2-53 Lacy, Leigh, 4-36–37; photos, 4-33, 4-37 McDonald, Larry, 3-33
Indian Wars, 2-56, 2-57 Lancaster, Burt, 1-16 McGhee, Myron, 3-66
Industrial Workers of the World, 2-27, 2-31–32 Land, Edwin “Din,” 4-17–18, 4-19 McGreevey, Joyce, 4-36
Inspection Reports of the Office of the Inspector Land claims, 1-55–56 McIntosh, Elizabeth, photo, 3-28
General, 1814–1842, microfilm publication, 3-57 Langdale, Mark, 1-65 McKean, David, and Cliff Sloan, The Great Decision:
Institute for Editing Historical Documents, 2-50 Lankford, Nelson, photo, 3-27 Jefferson, Adams, Marshall, and the Battle for the
Intelligence operations, aerial, 4-14–22 Larson, Jess, 4-27 Supreme Court, 2-62–63
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, 2-40 “Lead the Way,” by Trevor K. Plante, 2-52–59 McNitt,William, 3-33
International military tribunals, Japan, 2-34, 2-37–40 Lee, Erika, 3-33 McSweeney, Jim,“Documented Rights: Defining
International Research on Permanent Authentic Lee, Robert E., 4-57 Human and Civil Rights,” 1-6–9
Records in Electronic Systems, 2-50 Leland,Waldo Gifford, 4-26 Medals of Honor, 2-58

68 Prologue Winter 2009

Medical records, for Indian Scouts, 2-55; for military
personnel, 3-54–55, 3-56
Meese, Edwin, photo, 2-20
Meigs, Gen. Montgomery, 2-11
Melson, Kenneth, 4-61
Melville, Herman, 3-72
Mexican Cession, 4-7, 4-8, 4-9, 4-11–12
Mexican War, 4-7, 4-8, 4-9
Microfilm publications, 1-68–69, 2-69, 3-68–69, 4-62;
alien entries, 1-69, 2-69, 4-62; California, 4-62;
Canada, 2-69, 3-69, 4-62; Certificates of Identity, 4-
62; Chinese immigrants, 2-69; compiled military
service records, 2-69; concentration camp inmate
cards, 1-69; Connecticut, 3-69; crew lists, 1-69, 2-69,
3-69, 4-62; European Theater of Operations, 1-69, 2-
69; Fort Mackinac, Michigan, 2-69; Idaho, 4-62;
immigration, 1-69; Maine, 1-69; maps, 2-69; Massa-
chusetts, 3-69, 4-62; military posts, 3-54, 3-56–57;
Minnesota, 2-69, 3-69, 4-62; Montana, 2-69; Nazi-
looted Holocaust-era assets, 1-68–69, 4-62; New
York, 1-69; North Carolina, 1-69; North Dakota, 4-
62; Nova Scotia, 1-69; Ohio, 3-69; Oregon, 2-69; pas-
senger lists, 1-69, 2-69, 3-69, 4-62; quartermaster
officers, 2-69; Rhode Island, 2-69, 3-69;Texas, 4-62;
U.S.Army, 1-69, 2-69, 4-62; U.S.Army Air Forces, 1-
69, 2-69; U.S. Colored Troops, 2-69; U.S. Senate, 1-69;
volunteer Union soldiers, 2-69; war crimes, 1-69;
War Relocation Authority, 4-54;Wiesbaden Central
Collecting Point, 1-69;Wisconsin, 3-69;World War
II, 1-69
Midwest Center for Holocaust Education, 1-52
Military commissions, 2-34, 2-36–37
Military enlistment records, 2-53–56, 2-57, 2-59
Military personnel records, 2-18–19, 3-50–57, 4-62
Military prisoners, records of, 3-53, 3-55
Miller, Edward S., 3-31
Miller, Merle, 1-32; photo, 1-33; Plain Speaking, 1-29
Minidoka Irrigator, newspaper, 4-50, 4-53–54
Minidoka Relocation Center, Idaho, 4-50, 4-53–54
Minnesota, 2-69, 4-9, 4-10
Mirshah, Nancy, 3-33
Missouri, 2-69
Missouri Compromise, 4-9, 4-10, 4-12, 4-13
Moby-Dick, by Herman Melville, 3-72
Moley, Raymond, 1-60, 1-61
Montana, 2-55, 4-8, 4-9–10
Monuments, Fine Arts, and Archives Section, 1-69
Moon Shot: JFK and Space Exploration, by Stacey
Bredhoff, 3-68
Morris, Gouvernuer, 2-62–63
Moses, Floyd, 1-18
Motorcycles, 3-40–45
Moynihan, Mary C.“Molly,” 1-71; photo, 1-71
Mulligan,Timothy, 3-34, 4-61; photo, 3-32
Musgrave, Paul,“The First Nixon Library,” 2-42–47
Musick, Michael, 3-26, 3-32; photo, 3-27
Muster rolls, 2-55, 2-57, 2-58
Naftali,Timothy, 3-71
Nakaidoklini, 2-55
Nanking, China, Japanese atrocities in, 2-38–39, 2-40
“NARAThrough theYears,” web page photo feature,1-4
“NARA’s Up-to-Date in Kansas City,” by Kimberlee N.
Ried, 1-50–53
National Archives and Records Administration, 2-16;
75th anniversary celebration activities, 1-4–5, 1-6,
1-52, 2-67, 2-70, 2-72; appropriations for, 2-66, 2-67,
4-31;Archives Library Information Center, 1-58;
Archivist appointed, 4-60; Boeing Learning Center,
4-64; Center for Legislative Archives, 2-25, 3-5, 3-
46–49, 4-12; conservation laboratory, 4-12; Con-
trolled Unclassified Information Office, 2-66; Data
Archives Staff, 2-18, 2-19; Division of War Depart-
ment Archives, 4-26; Document Conservation Labo-
ratory, 3-65; educational programs, 2-4, 2-70;
Index
exhibits, 1-6–9, 1-70, 2-70, 2-71, 4-29, 4-64; guide for
researchers, 4-62; historical timeline of, 2-10–25;
Independence Day celebration, 3-71; indepen-
dence for the, 2-4, 2-19–20, 2-21, 4-28, 4-31; Infor-
mation Security Oversight Office, 2-24; microfilm
publications, 1-68–69, 2-69, 3-68–69, 4-62; mission,
1-5, 2-10–11, 2-17, 2-23; news and notices, 1-64–66,
2-66–68, 3-64–67, 4-60–61; Office of Government
Information Services, 2-66, 3-65; Office of Records
Management, 2-19; Office of the Federal Register, 2-
17, 4-29; Office of the Inspector General, 2-66;
online offerings, 3-64; preservation conference, 4-
60; publications, 1-68–69, 2-69, 3-68–69, 4-29, 4-62;
role of staff archivists, 3-26–34; Special Media
Preservation Division, 4-42–43; Still Pictures unit, 1-
48, 4-42; Strategic Plan, 2-24;Visitor Services, 4-
36–37; volunteers, 3-4; web site, 1-4, 2-22, 2-24–25,
2-70, 3-66
National Archives at College Park, 2-20–21, 2-22, 2-25
National Archives Building, construction of, 2-12–13,
2-14, 2-70, 2-72; painting of, 2-67, illustration, 2-68;
photos of, 2-10, 2-14, 3-36–40; renovation of, 2-
22–23, 2-24; shop, 2-67, 2-70; symbolism of sculp-
tural elements, 3-36–40, 4-65
National Archives Building:Temple of American His-
tory, The, by Patty Mason, 3-36, 4-65
National Archives Experience,1-70,2-23,2-70,2-71,4-64
National Archives in Kansas City, leaflet, 2-69
National Archives Regional Archives System, 2-19–20,
2-24, 3-6–10; book of samples from, 3-6–10; Central
Plains, 3-6, 3-7–10, relocation of, 1-5, 1-50–53; edu-
cational programs, 1-53, 1-68; exhibits, 1-5, 1-52–53;
Great Lakes, 3-9–10, 3-33; Mid Atlantic, 3-9; North-
east, 1-68, 3-72; Pacific (San Francisco), 3-9, 3-10, 3-
33; Pacific Alaska, 3-9; Rocky Mountain, 3-9; South-
east, 1-5, 1-6–9, 2-24, 3-10; Southwest, 1-71;
symposia, 1-5, 1-9
National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the
United States, records opened, 1-66
National Historical Publications and Records Commis-
sion, 2-20, 2-48–51; appropriations for, 2-66;
awards, 4-60–61; grants, 1-66, 2-18, 2-49, 2-66, 3-
66–67, 4-60–61; mission, 2-48–49
National Historical Publications Commission, 2-13, 2-
14, 2-18, 2-20, 2-48–49, 4-29
National History Day, 1-5
National Holocaust Museum, 1-52
National Naval Medical Center, Bethesda, Maryland, 4-
45–48; illustrations, 4-47, 4-48; photo, 4-45
National Personnel Records Center, 2-18–19, 2-20, 2-
23–24, 2-35, 3-65, 4-62; photo, 2-19
National Security Council, and intelligence opera-
tions, 4-14, 4-16, 4-21–22
Native Americans, 1-6, 1-8, 1-15, 1-18–20, 1-21–22, 3-
68–69; illustration of, 1-16; Indian Scouts, 2-52–59;
and postal service in colonial America, 2-8
Navy Bureau of Yards and Docks, 4-47
Navy registers, 1-58
Nazi-looted Holocaust-era assets, 1-68–69
Nebraska, 1-47–48, 2-55, 2-56, 2-69, 4-9; state capitol, 4-
45–48, photo, 4-44
Nenninger,Timothy, 3-26, 3-30, 3-33; photo, 3-27
Nevada, 4-8
Neville, Katherine, photo, 2-71
New Hampshire, 1-68
New Jersey, 1-68, 4-32, 4-34–35
“New Look,” national security policy, 4-16
New Mexico, 2-53, 2-55, 2-56, 4-8–9, 4-12, 4-13
New York, 1-68
New York Public Library, 3-60
Newmark, Jill L.,“Face to Face with History,” 3-22–25
Newspapers in Japanese internment centers, 4-50–55
“NHPRC: Extending the Archives’ Reach,The,” by Kath-
leen Williams, 2-48–51
Nichols, David, 3-33
Nisbet, Miriam, 3-65; photo, 3-65
Nitrate film, 4-40–43
Nixon, Pat, 2-43, 2-45
Nixon, Richard M., 1-60, 2-19, 2-43, 4-32, 4-34–35; pho-
tos, 2-44, 2-45; tapes opened, 1-65, 3-66; trip to Asia,
2-43–45
Nixon Library,Yuen Long, Hong Kong, 2-42–47
Noland, Ethel, 1-32
Norris, George W., 4-46; photo, 4-46
North, Frank, 2-58
North Dakota, 2-55, 2-56, 2-58, 2-69
Oaths of Allegiance to the Union, 3-55
Obama, Barack, 1-61, 2-66, 2-67
O’Brien, Gail, 4-31, 4-36; photos, 4-33, 4-36
Office of Strategic Services, 2-16, 4-26
Official Records of the War of the Rebellion, 1-58
Oglala Sioux tribe, 2-56–57
Oklahoma, 2-53, 2-55, 2-56
Olsen, Paul, 4-32, 4-34–35; photo, 4-34
O’Rear, Charles, 1-47–48; photographs by, 1-43, 1-49
Oregon, 2-55, 4-8, 4-9–10
Oregon Territory, 3-68–69, 4-8, 4-9–10
Organization Index to Pension Files of Veterans Who
Served Between 1861 and 1900, microfilm publi-
cation, 2-56
Osborn, Patrick R., 4-61
“Our Only World,” exhibit, 1-48–49
“Our Story,” by James Worsham, 2-10–25
“Our Wonderful Volunteers,” by Adrienne C.Thomas,3-4
Palmer,A. Mitchell, 2-33
Palmer, Mrs.W.L.C., 1-25
Papers of John Adams, 2-49
Parkinson, Hilary,“An Island Fort as Presidential Hide-
away,” 4-56–57
Patent Office, reports to Congress, 1-56–57
Paterson,William, 2-63
“Patrolling the Coastline on Wheels,” by William R.
Wells II, 3-40–45
Patterson, David S., The Search for Negotiated Peace:
Women’s Activism and Citizen Diplomacy in
World War I, 3-60–61
Pawnee scouts, 2-58
Peace activists, 3-60–61
Pease, Capt.Valentine, 3-72
Peckham Guyton Albers and Viets, 1-51
Pecora Investigation of 1933–1934, 3-47
Pension case files, 3-4, 3-23, 3-25
Pensions, 1-57–58, 2-56–57, 2-59
Pensions, Bureau of, 2-56
Perry,Angie, 1-20; photo, 1-19
Perry, Milton, photo, 1-33
Pershing, Gen. John J., 2-69, 4-72
Peterson,Trudy Huskamp, 2-22
Peuser, Rick, 3-32–33
Pfeiffer, David, 3-33
Philip L. Graham Fund, 2-70
Philippine Islands, German nationals in the, 2-28–29,
2-30
Photographs, of Alaska, 4-38–43; DOCUMERICA, 1-
42–49; NARA history, 1-4
Pigeon messengers used in World War I, 4-72
Pitch,Anthony, 3-32, 3-34; photo, 3-29
“Place in the Archives,A,” by Miriam Kleiman, 4-32–37
Plante,Trevor K., 3-26, 3-27, 3-29–30, 3-31, 3-34, 4-62;
“Lead the Way,” 2-52–59; photos, 3-29
Plutarch, Lives, 1-29, 1-33
Podoski, Barbara, photo, 3-28
“Poetry and Power”:The Inaugural Address of Presi-
dent John F. Kennedy, 1-68
Polk, James K., 4-8–9, 4-10, 4-11–12, 4-13
Poore, Benjamin, 1-58
Pope, John Russell, 2-12–13, 2-70, 2-72, 3-34, 3-36
Postal systems, 2-6–9
Prologue 69
Postmasters, 2-7
Powell,William P., Jr., 3-23–25; photo, 3-22
Powers, Francis Gary, 4-20
Prechtel-Kluskens, Claire, 2-4
Preliminary Inventory of the Records of the United
States Army Continental Commands, 1821–1920,
Volume V: Military Installations, 1821–1920, by
Robert Gruber et al., 3-56
Presidential libraries, 1-13–22, 1-65, 2-14, 2-19–20, 2-
22, 2-66–67, 2-68, 4-28
Presidential Libraries Act, 2-17, 4-29
Presidential Recordings and Materials Preservation
Act of 1974, 2-19, 2-20
Presidential Records Act, 2-19, 2-20, 2-24, 2-66–67
Presidential speechwriters, 1-60–61
President’s Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelli-
gence Activities, 4-17, 4-18, 4-19–20
President’s Technological Capabilities Panel, 4-17
Pribram, Karl, 2-71
“Primarily Teaching,” 1-53
Primarily Teaching Institute, 1-71, 4-65
Prisoners of war, Japanese crimes against, 2-39
Prologue:The Journal of the National Archives, 2-19
Public Papers of the Presidents, 4-29
Public Printing and Binding Act (1907), 1-55
Public Vaults, 2-23, 2-24, 2-71, 4-36
Pulitzer, Joseph, 3-5
Quinan, J.W., 3-42, 3-43
Raaska, Helmi, 3-33
Ratcliff, R.A., 3-34
Readex, 1-58
Reagan, Ronald, 1-60–61, 2-20, 2-67
Reconstruction, 3-56
Records Concerning the Central Collecting Points
(“Ardelia Hall Collection”):Wiesbaden Central
Collecting Point, 1945–1952, microfilm publica-
tion, 1-69
Records declassification, 2-24, 2-25, 4-16
Records destruction, 2-18
Records management, 2-14–15, 2-16–17, 2-18, 2-50, 4-
26–27, 4-28–29, 4-30;Truman executive order
regarding, 4-27, 4-28
Records of Achievement Award, 3-70
Records of Our National Life, 3-70
Records of the Adjutant General’s Office,1780’s–1920,
Record Group 94,2-53–54,2-55,2-59,3-56–57
Records of the Department of Veterans Affairs, Record
Group 15, 2-57
Records of the Judge Advocate General (Army),
Record Group 153, 2-55
Records of the Public Buildings Service, Record
Group 121, 2-72
Records of the Quartermaster General, Record Group
92, 2-58–59, 3-57
Records of the U.S.Army Commands, 1784–1821,
Record Group 98, 3-56
Records of the War Relocation Authority, Record
Group 210, 4-54
Records of U.S.Army Continental Commands,
1821–1920, Record Group 393, 2-55–56, 3-51–57
Records of U.S.Army Continental Commands,
1920–1942, Record Group 394, 3-56
Records of U.S. Military Posts, 1821–1920, 3-5
Records of U.S. Regular Army Mobile Units,
1821–1942, Record Group 391, 2-58, 2-59
Records preservation, 2-48–51, 4-28–29, 4-42–43, 4-60
Records processing, 2-66–67
Records publication, 2-49–50
Records Relating to Personal Participation in World
War II:American Military Casualties and
Burials, RIP 82, 3-68
Registers of Enlistments in the U.S.Army,
1798–1914, microfilm publication, 2-54
70 Prologue
Returns from U.S. Military Posts, 1800–1916, micro- Skelton, Red, 4-57
film publication, 3-56–57 Skogsberg, Charles, 3-42, 3-43
Reynolds, Michael, 1-46; photos, 1-45, 1-46 Slavery, 1-6–7; in U.S. territories, 4-8, 4-9, 4-10, 4-13
Rhoads, James B., 2-18, 4-30; photo, 2-18 Sloan, Cliff, The Great Decision: Jefferson, Adams,
Rhode Island, 1-68 Marshall, and the Battle for the Supreme Court,
Richard Nixon Library, 1-65, 2-19, 2-22, 2-25, 2-43, 3-66, 2-62–63; photo, 2-62
4-35; photo, 2-24 Sloan, Hugh W., 4-34–35
Richardson, John W., 3-42, 3-43, 3-44 Smith, Gregory B., 3-66
Ried, Kimberlee N.,“NARA’s Up-to-Date in Kansas Smith, Stephanie D., 3-66
City,” 1-50–53 Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service,
Rio Grande, 4-8–9, 4-13 1-48–49
Rives,Tim, 3-9 Society for the National Archives, 2-71
Roberts, Cokie, photo, 2-71 Society of American Archivists, 2-15, 4-29–30, 4-60–61
Rohwer relocation center, 4-52, 4-53 Sorensen,Theodore C.“Ted,” 1-60, 1-61, 1-68
Romanski, Fred, 3-34 South,Aloha, 3-31, 3-33, 3-34
Ronald Reagan Library, 2-22, 2-66–67 South Dakota, 2-55, 2-56, 2-69
Roosevelt, Eleanor, 3-9, 3-13 Soviet Union, aerial spying against, 4-14–22
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 1-10, 3-5, 3-12–13, 3-20, 4-52; Space program, U.S., 3-68
and military commissions, 2-37; and the National Speier, Jackie, 3-66
Archives, 2-10–11, 2-13–14, 2-17, 2-25, 2-48–49; and Star Books, 1-53, 3-7, 3-9
the National Naval Medical Center, 4-45–48; pho- Stars and Stripes: Newspaper of the American Expe-
tos, 4-46, 4-47; speechwriters for, 1-60, 1-61 ditionary Forces, 1918–1919, microfilm publica-
Roosevelt administration (Franklin D.), 2-36–37 tion, 2-69
Ross, Charles, 1-25, 1-30, 1-38 State, U.S. Department of, and the archives of the
Ross, Rodney, 2-15, 3-34 United States, 2-12; and the Nixon Library in Hong
Rossiter,Adm. Percival S., photo, 4-47 Kong, 2-47
Rothstein,Arthur, 1-43, 1-44 State and National Archival Partnership, 2-51, 3-66–67
Rotter,Arnold J., 3-33 State archives, 2-48–50
Rotunda Founders Early Access project, 4-61 State Historical Records Advisory Boards, 2-51
Ruckelshaus,William D., 1-44 Stegmaier, Mark J.,“Cartography, Politics—and Mis-
Rushay, Samuel W., Jr.,“Harry Truman’s History chief,” 4-7–13
Lessons,” 1-24–34 Steinbeck, John, 3-9
Russian immigrants, 2-27 Stimson, Henry L., 2-37
Sullivan, John Fox, 1-71; photo, 1-71
Safire,William, 1-60 Surgeons in the Civil War, 3-23–25
Safly, Liz, 3-14 Swarthmore College Peace Collection, 3-60
St. Gill, Marc, photograph by, 1-48 Sweeney, Jenny, photo, 4-65
Sakovich, Maria,“When the ‘Enemy’ Landed at Angel
Island,” 2-26–33 Taft,William Howard, 2-12
Sales,Arnaldo de Oliveira, 2-43–44, 2-45, 2-46 Talcott,Andrew, 4-57
Salkin, Robert, 4-34 Tambara, Kimi, 4-50
San Carlos Reservation, 2-55 Tames, George, 1-39
San Francisco Bureau of Immigration, 2-26–33 Taos, New Mexico, 1-46
San Francisco Police Department, 2-31–32 Taylor, John E., 3-26, 3-27, 3-30–31; photo, 3-28
Satellites, use of in intelligence operations, 4-17–18, 4- Taylor, Zachary, 4-12
19, 4-20, 4-21–22 “Temple to History,A,” 2-72
Sato, Eddie, 4-53–54; cartoons by illustrated, 4-54, 4-55 Tennessee, 1-45, 4-11
Saudi Arabia, 2-67 Territorial acquisitions, maps of, 4-7–13; slavery in, 4-8,
Save Our National Archives, 3-66 4-9, 4-10
Schellenberg,Theodore R., 4-26, 4-28, 4-31 Terrors of the Jungle, 3-49; illustration, 3-47
Schlesinger,Arthur M., Jr., 1-30, 1-31, 1-32, 1-60, 1-61, 3- Texas, 2-53, 2-55, 2-56; annexation of, 4-8; boundary
34; photo, 1-30 with New Mexico, 4-8–9; coast patrols, 3-40–45;
Schlesinger, Robert, White House Ghosts, 1-60–61 maps of, 4-8–9, 4-10, 4-12–13
Schmidt, Raymond P.,“A Tower in Nebraska,” 4-44–48 Texas Instruments, 1-71, 4-65
Schneider, Richard E.,“The Alaskan Frontier in “These Walls Can Talk,” by Rob Crotty, 3-36–39
Panorama,” 4-38–43 “This Land Is Your Land,” by Woody Guthrie, 3-10
Schwimmer-Lloyd papers, 3-60 Thomas,Adrienne C., 1-64, 1-65, 3-66, 3-71, 4-60, 4-61;
Search for Negotiated Peace:Women’s Activism and “A Year of Celebration for Our 75th Anniversary,” 1-
Citizen Diplomacy in World War I, The, by David 4–5;“Becoming World Class,” 2-4;“Our Wonderful
S. Patterson, 3-60–61 Volunteers,” 3-4; photos, 1-64, 2-66, 2-71
Selective service records, 4-62 Thomas,Albert, 4-27
Seminole scouts, 2-57, 2-58 Thomas, Elbert D., 4-26
SENSINT, 4-16 Thompson, Neil, 3-33
Settle, Jean, 3-13–14, 3-21 Thomsen, Neil, 3-33
Shakespeare, Frank, 2-47 Thurston, Samuel R., 4-12–13
“Shaping the National Archives,” by Greg Bradsher, 4- Tilley, Steven, 3-26, 3-28–29; photo, 3-27
24–31 Time magazine, 2-44, 4-60
Sharp, Rebecca K.,“‘How an Eagle Feels . . .’,” 4-50–55 Tojo Hideki, 2-38; photo, 2-39
Sharp Nose, 2-53, 2-54–55; photo, 2-53 Tokyo War Crimes Trial, 2-34–35, 2-37–40
Shearer, Brooke, 3-71 Tone,Andrea, 3-34
Sieber,Al, 2-58 Topaz Times, 4-52
Sienang,Willie, photo, 2-28 Topographic surveying, in Alaska, 4-38–43
Simmons, C. Jerry,“DOCUMERICA,” 1-42–49 “Tower in Nebraska,A,” by Raymond P. Schmidt, 4-
Simmons, John L., 3-42, 3-43 44–48
“Sitting in Judgment,” by Fred L. Borch, 2-34–40 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 4-7, 4-8, 4-13
Winter 2009
Truman, Bess Wallace, 1-72, 3-5; letters, 3-5, 3-12–21;
photos, 1-72, 3-12, 3-13, 3-16, 3-17, 3-18, 3-19, 3-21
Truman, Harry S., 1-10–11, 2-17–18, 4-17, 4-25, 4-27, 4-
28; family life, 1-36–41; history lessons, 1-24–34; let-
ters, 3-5, 3-12–21; and the mural for his library, 1-
13–22; photos of, 1-10, 1-11, 1-13, 1-19, 1-21, 1-24,
1-28, 1-30, 1-36, 1-37, 1-40, 1-41, 2-15, 3-13, 3-14, 3-
16, 3-17, 3-18; portrait of by Greta Kempton, 1-29;
speechwriters for, 1-60, 1-61
Truman, Margaret, 3-5, 3-12–13, 3-14, 3-17–19; photos,
3-13, 3-19
“Truman at 125,” 1-10–11
Tsarev, Oleg, 3-31
Tuohy, Martin, 3-33
Twining, Gen. Nathan, 4-19, 4-21
U-2 flights, 4-14, 4-16–17, 4-18–21, 4-22
Ulke, Capt. Henry, 3-41
Union Army, 3-4;African American surgeons in the, 3-
22–25; soldiers, 3-4
Union Carbide Company, 1-45–46, 1-47
United Kingdom, and Hong Kong, 2-45
U.S.Air Force, and aerial intelligence programs, 4-16, 4-
17–18
U.S.Army, alien enemy soldiers discharged from, 2-29;
records management, 4-26–27
U.S.Army Corps of Engineers, 4-56–57
U.S.Army Indian Scouts, 2-52–59
U.S.Army Signal Corps, 4-72
U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Service, 3-66
U.S. Coast Guard, 3-40–45
United States Colored Troops (Civil War), 1-68
U.S. Commerce Building, 2-12; photo, 2-12
U.S. Congress, and the National Archives, 2-12, 2-13,
2-14, 2-19, 2-20, 2-21, 3-46–49, 4-28, 4-29; presi-
dential messages to, 4-8, 4-9, 4-10, 4-11; reports
to, 1-56–57; and slavery in the territories, 4-8, 4-9,
4-10, 4-13
U.S. Constitution, 1-32, 2-12, 2-16, 2-17, 2-22–23, 2-
49–50, 4-29, 4-30, 4-64; amendments to, 1-27
U.S. Department of Justice, and alien enemies, 2-29, 2-
30; and political radicals, 2-31–33
U.S. Department of Labor, and political radicals, 2-31,
2-32;World War I internment camps, 2-28, 2-30
U.S. Department of the Navy, 3-41, 3-42, 3-43, 3-44
United States Geological Survey, 4-38–43
U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Private
Land Claims, 1-55; records, 1-55–59, 3-46–49
U.S. Information Agency, 2-47
U.S. military posts, records of, 3-50–57
U.S. Senate, Committee on Territories, 4-9; records, 1-
55–59, 3-46–49
U.S. Serial Set Index, 1-58
U.S. Supreme Court, and Marbury v. Madison, 2-
62–63; and military commissions, 2-37; papers pub-
lished, 2-49–50
University of Maryland, 1-5, 2-20–21
University of Michigan, 1-66
University of North Carolina, 1-66
University of Toronto, 1-66
University of Virginia Press, 4-61
University of Wisconsin, 3-67
Updegrove, Mark D., 4-60
Uranium mining, 1-45–46, 1-47
Uravan, Colorado, 1-45–46; photograph of, 1-47
Use of the Panoramic Camera in Topographic Sur-
veying, The, by Maj. James W. Bagley, 4-40–42
Using Civilian Records in the National Archives in
Washington, DC, Area for Genealogical Research,
reference information paper, 2-69
“Using the Congressional Serial Set for Genealogical
Research,” by Jeffery Hartley, 1-54–59
Utah, 2-55, 4-8, 4-12, 4-52
Vandereedt, John, 3-31
Index
Vermont, 1-68
Vice President, records, 2-67; role of, 2-43, 2-46
Vinson, Carl, photo, 4-47
Virginia Foundation for the Humanities, 1-66, 4-61
Volunteers, 3-4
“Voyage into History,A,” 3-72
Walker,Alan, 3-34
Wallace, Carrie, photo, 1-26
Wallace, David Willock, 3-13
Waller, Douglas C., photo, 3-27
Walsh, David I., photo, 4-47
Walter Kidde Dinosaur Park, 4-34–35
Walter Reed National Military Medical Center,
Bethesda, Maryland, 4-48; illustrated, 4-48
War crimes tribunals, Japan, 2-34, 2-35, 2-37–40
War Department, and alien enemies, 2-28–29, 4-52;
General Order No. 28, 2-59; records in the National
Archives, 2-16, 3-50–57; records management, 4-25,
4-26–27
War Department Records of the Division and
Department of the Pacific, 1847–1873, microfilm
publication, 3-68–69
War Relocation Authority, 4-52–54
Ward, Geoffrey C., 3-10
Warner, Robert M., 2-4, 2-19–20, 2-21, 2-22; photos, 2-
20
Warren, Earl, 1-21; photos, 1-21, 1-30
Washington, 2-55, 4-8, 4-9–10
Washington, George, 2-49; portrait, 2-49
Washington National Records Center, 2-20
Watergate scandal, 2-19, 3-66
Webb,William F., photo, 2-35
Weinman,Adolf Alexander, 3-36, 3-39
Weinstein,Allen, 1-64, 2-24, 2-25, 4-37, 4-60; photos, 1-
64, 2-24, 3-32
Weissenbach, Karl, 2-68
Wells,William R., II,“Patrolling the Coastline on
Wheels,” 3-40–45; photo, 3-45
Wertheimer, Linda, photo, 2-71
West Virginia, 1-45
Wheeler,Tom, 3-32–33
“When the ‘Enemy’ Landed at Angel Island,” by Maria
Sakovich, 2-26–33
Whitaker, R. Reed, 1-52, 3-7, 3-9
White, Edward, 2-27, 2-28, 2-30, 2-33
White House files opened, 3-66
White House Ghosts: Presidents and Their Speech-
writers, by Robert Schlesinger, 1-60–61
Whitmer, Matt, 4-36–37; photos, 4-33, 4-37
Wiesbaden Central Collecting Point, 1-69
William J. Clinton Library, 2-22, 2-25, 2-66–67
Williams, Kathleen,“The NHPRC: Extending the
Archives’ Reach,” 2-48–51
Williams, Kathleen Broome, 3-30
Wilmot, David, 4-9
Wilmot Proviso, 4-9
Wilson, Charles Banks, 1-18, 1-20
Wilson, Don W., 2-22; photo, 2-21
Wilson, Douglas L., photo, 3-27
Wilson, Henry, 1-58
Wilson,Woodrow, 3-41, 3-61
Winton, Harold, 3-30
Wisconsin Historical Society, 2-50
Wishaar, Lt.William P., 3-41
Wolfe, Bob, 3-33
Women, alien enemies, 2-28, 2-29
“Women’s Activism for Peace in World War I,” by Ben-
jamin Guterman, 3-60–61
Women’s rights, 1-7
Woods, Rose Mary, 2-44; photo, 2-45
World War I, 2-69; coastline patrols, 3-40–45; and
enemy aliens, 2-26–33; use of carrier pigeons in, 4-
72; women’s activism for peace in, 3-60–61
World War II, casualties and burials, 3-68; German sab-
otage attempts, 2-34, 2-36–37; Japanese internment
centers, 4-50–55; National Archives’ role in, 2-15–17
World War II: Guide to Records Relating to U.S. Mili-
tary Participation, 2-17, 4-60–61
Wormser, Paul, 3-33
Worsham, James,“Our Story,” 2-10–25
Wright, C.W., 4-40
Wyoming, 2-55, 4-8
“Year of Celebration for Our 75th Anniversary,A,” by
Adrienne C.Thomas, 1-4–5
Yockelson, Mitchell, 3-34; photo, 3-27
Young, Richard M., 4-11–12
“Your Land, Our Land,” by Monroe Dodd, 3-6–10
Your Land, Our Land:Two Centuries of American
Words and Images from the Regions of the
National Archives, edited by Monroe Dodd and
Brian Burnes, 3-6–10
YouTube, 3-64
Zerby, Barry, 3-33
Zimmerman, Jay, 1-71, 2-71; photo, 1-71
Zobrist, Benedict, photo, 1-33
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Each issue of Prologue reflects the contributions of
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logue is very much a journal of NARA. Often, however,
the contributions of these staff members go unrecog-
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the following individuals for their contributions.
RobertAlper,JulietteArai,Rick Blondo,Crystal Brooks,
Bob Clark,William Cunliffe,Donna Denslow,Mike Devine,
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Kate Flaherty, Eric Flanagan, Matt Fulgham, Joan Gearin,
Christina Gehring,Raymond Geselbracht,Sandra Glasser,
Robert Goddard,Allen Goodrich,William Greene, Steve
Greene,Martha Grove,Paul Harrison,Jeffery Hartley,James
Hastings, Sheri Hill, Michael Horsley, Mary Ilario, Michael
Knight, Jessie Kratz, Patty Mason, Richard McCulley, Earl
McDonald,Tara McLaughlin, Mark Mollan, Kelly Osborn,
Ira Pemstein,Trevor Plante,Lawrence Post,Constance Pot-
ter, Deborah Powe,Jeff Reed,Holly Reed,Allen Rice,Rob
Richards, Kimberlee Ried,Tim Rives, Holly Russo, Jason
Schiltz, Richard Schneider, Jason Schultz, Jennifer Seitz,
Jerry Simmons,Randy Sowell,Maria Stanwich,Peter Staub,
Kathy Struss,Doug Swanson,RichardTaylor,PaulineTester-
man, SandraTucker,Tim Walch,Reed Whitaker.
Prologue 71
PIECES OF HISTORY
A HE RO P IGEO N O F W W I
W
hen the United States entered
World War I in 1917, the Army’s
Signal Corps brought along a con-
tingent of new messengers to carry vital
information between the front and head-
quarters—pigeons. European armies had
long had success with pigeon messengers,
and Gen. John J. Pershing requested that
pigeon specialists be commissioned into the
U.S.Army. Over the course of the war, more
than 15,000 birds were sent to theAmerican
Expeditionary Forces.
The bird pictured here, named President
Wilson, was one of the hero pigeons of the
war. His file in Signal Corps records notes
that he was “a powerful bird, of remarkable
vitality and rapidity of flight.” President Wil-
son was bred in France and began his Army
career with the Tank Corps. During the St.
Mihiel operation he distinguished himself
“because of splendid work when all other
communcations failed.”
72 Prologue
Above: Upon the hero pigeon’s death, the Signal Corps
He was transferred to I Corps Signal,
which was engaged in the Meuse-Argonne at Fort Monmouth sent a telegram to the War
offensive. On November 5, 1918, he was Department. Signal Corps files contain an acknowl-
released into heavy artillery action,carrying edgment of the telegram and several summaries of
an important message.His record notes that the bird’s war service.
“this game little soldier came thru fire and Below: President Wilson poses for his portrait at Fort
fog,” successfully reaching his destination Monmouth, his retirement home, in 1919.
even though one of his legs was shot off and
his breast was pierced by a bullet.The mes-
sage tube was hanging by the ligaments of
the torn leg. Most remarkably, the injured
President Wilson reached his destination 40
kilometers (25 miles) away in 25 minutes.
President Wilson returned to the United
States after the war and spent his retire-
ment in the pigeon lofts at Fort Mon-
mouth, New Jersey.He lived to be 11 years
old and died on June 8, 1929.The feathery
war veteran bird was stuffed and mounted
for display in the museum at Fort Mon-
mouth and was later donated to the Smith-
sonian Institution. P
Winter 2009
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Above: The Archivist's Code was created by the third Archivist of the United States,Wayne C. Grover. Learn more about the longest-serving Archivist on page 24.
Cover: President Dwight D. Eisenhower identified the need for aerial reconnaissance of Communist-bloc nations and supported several intelligence-gathering pro-
grams. An article on page 14 surveys those programs.
Back cover: When the third grade at Deal Elementary School wrote this letter to President Gerald R. Ford, they couldn't have imagined that it would become a fea-
tured document in the National Archives' permanent exhibition. Read more about people whose lives intersected with the National Archives on page 32.