2014 Biology Notes

BIOLOGY MASTER NOTES [PRELIM + HSC] SUMMARY
CHAPTER 1: A LOCAL ECOSYSTEM

1.1 TERRESTRIAL AND AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS
An ecosystem is any environment containing living organisms interacting

with each other and with the non-living parts of that environment. It can be
any size or any area.
Environments have abiotic and biotic factors, or non-living, and living factors.
The habitat of an organism is where it lives.
A group of organisms found living in together in one place is called a
community.
Ecology is the study of the relationships living things have with each other
and their environment.
Terrestrial environments are environments on land; aquatic environments are
environments in water, salt or fresh.
ABIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS INCLUDE:
Viscosity a measure of how hard it is to move through a gas or liquid.

Water has high viscosity, making it harder to move through. Air has low
viscosity, making it easier to move through.
Buoyancy the amount of support experienced by an object immersed in
liquid or gas. Water provides support to both animals and plants, helping
them maintain their shape and functions. Air does not provide buoyancy, and
organisms must support themselves.
Temperature Variation Water heats up slower than air, this temperature
and the ability to avoid or tolerate heat loss is important to organisms.
Pressure Variation The earths gravitational field gives rise to different
pressures in air and water. Pressure increases rapidly in water due to depth.
On land pressure fluctuates, sometimes affecting breathing and flight of
animals
Availability of gases O2 and CO2 are important for living organisms. In
water, gas availability is low, depending on temp. Diffusion is slower and
more gases can be dissolved at lower temps. Oxygen availability affects
distribution of organisms and their body structure.
Ion availability Ion: An atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to
the loss or gain of one or more electrons. Organisms need to be able to cope
with osmotic differences in their cells and the environment. Saltwater
environments contain 3.5% sodium and chloride ions, whereas freshwater has
low ion concentration. Ions are available in soils depending on composition,
influencing type and plant growth.
Pat Russell St Francis Xavier College
Light availability Aquatic may be reflected scattered or absorbed,

decreasing rapidly in depth affecting organism distribution. Terrestrial light
passes easily through air, plenty of light available.
POPULATION
Distribution WHERE a species is found

Abundance HOW MANY of the species live in an ecosystem
Distribution and abundance are both affected by biotic and Abiotic factors
To measure distribution, we can sketch the area, or more commonly use a
transect, recording organisms found across the field in line with a narrow strip
of area.
To measure abundance, we can count all of a species in an area, or through
the use of two methods: Random quadrat, and capture recapture.
Radom Quadrat Used to record abundance of plants and slow-moving
organisms such as medulla and periwinkles. It involves placing a quadrat
square randomly in the chosen area, and recording how many organisms are
found in that quadrat. This is repeated many times and the total number of
organisms found in the combined quadrats is compared to the size of the
study area to determine the abundance.
Capture Re-Capture Used when species studied is constantly moving. It
involves capturing and tagging, or marking, a sample of animals, say 5, and
then releasing then. Then return back to the same site later on and
recapture a sample, say 10, a count how many previously tagged animals
are in the new sample. Abundance is calculated through the equation:
Abundance = number captured x number recaptured/number marked
in recaptured
PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION
Photosynthesis is the process by which plant cells capture sun energy and
combine it with CO2 and H2O to make sugars and oxygen.
Respiration is the process by which cells obtain energy through the breaking
down of organic molecules, particularly sugars to produce CO2 and H2O,
releasing energy.
These processes are related because energy from the sun is incorporated into
the products of photosynthesis, used by plants. When these plants are
consumed, the organism obtains nutrients used in respiration so that they too
can obtain energy. This energy drives the metabolic processes in an animal
and ultimately drives ecosystems
PS - THE EQUATION = CO2 + WATER LIGHT +
CHLOROPHYLLSUGAR + OXYGEN
CR = GLUCOSE + OXYGEN CO2 + WATER + ENERGY
AEROBIC CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Involved a series of chemical reactions, releasing small amounts of energy

into the bond of organic molecules, such as sugar. This energy is then
released when the bonds are broken, which is then transferred to ATP.
Most ATP originates from the cellular organelle, Mitochondrion.
Energy from respiration is used inside the organism, such as heat, growth,
and repair.
1.2 LOCAL ECOSYSTEMS: INTERACTIONS AND RESPONSES

RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ORGANISMS IN THE SAME ECOSYSTEM
The relationships between organisms in an ecosystem can be complex,

however they usually adhere to one of the following common relationships:
Predation A feeding relationship where one animal, the predator, kills and
eats another animal, its prey. Also known as a predator-prey relationship it
can vastly effect population numbers in an ecosystem, with rises and falls of
predators usually following rises and falls of prey.
Allelopathy The production of chemicals by a plant that can have good or
bad effects on the plants surrounding it, influencing growth and development
of neighboring plants for good, i.e. repelling parasites and predators, or bad,
i.e. poisoning or hindering the other plants.
Parasitism Where one organism obtains food from another, harming the
host in some way but not always killing it. Most free living organisms have
parasites.
Commensalism Where one species benefits off another, but does not harm
it. Such as the remora and the shark.
Mutualism Both species benefit from each other, such as the ringtail
possum and the bottlebrush tree. Ringtail gets food, whilst its dropping
encourage growth of the tree.
BIOMASS AND ENERGY PYRAMIDS
Biomass is the amount of living material in an organism or group of

organisms at one time.
Because plants are producers, their biomass is the greatest in the chain, with
it slowly decreasing as it moves through the trophic levels.
For this reason, herbivores generally have a greater biomass than carnivores.
Similarly to Biomass, ENERGY is also lost as it moves up the trophic levels.
This loss is shown by an energy pyramid, which looks very similar to a
biomass pyramid as energy is transferred in food that makes up the biomass.
The further along in the food chain the organism is, the less energy is
available to it.
Energy is lost in a number of ways, usually though heat, growth, and as feces
or urine.
ADAPTATIONS
An adaptation is a feature of an organism that makes it well suited to its

environment and lifestyle, it can be structural, physiological, or behavioral.
Adaptations help an organism to survive and reproduce in its ecosystem
They are inherited characteristics, a result of natural selection.
CHAPTER 2: PATTERNS IN NATURE

2.1 ORGANISMS: CELLS AND THEIR STRUCTURE
THE CELL THEORY
All life forms are made up of units called cells, the building blocks of which all
living organisms are made.
The cell theory states that: Cells are the smallest units of life, All living things
are made up of cells, and all cells come from pre-existing cells.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
The development of the cell theory went hand in hand with technological
advances, particularly of lenses and magnification devices, such as
microscopes, in the 19th century, enabling much greater detail to be seen.
The first recorded study of cells was in the 17 th century by Robert Hooke, who
used his home-made microscope to view a thin piece of cork, and identified
the nucleus as a large body found inside cells.
Other notable scientists who helped develop the cell theory are
Leeuwenhoek, who described unicellular organisms from rainwater as
animalcules and discovered bacteria in his saliva. And Robert Brown, who
noted how cells have a common structure inside the cell, he named it the
nucleus.
TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES
The light microscope, used exclusively until 1933, allowed cells to be visible
to some degree, aided by the use of staining to able us to see some parts of
the cell, such as the nucleus, the cell wall, and due to absorption of stain, the
chromosomes.
In 1933, Ernst Ruska built the first electron microscope, enabling more
detailed observations of all structures to be made.
Whilst electron microscopes allow much more detail to be shown, they are
expensive, take time to prepare, and can only view non living sections.
THE STRUCTURE OF CELLS
Although Cells show great variation, they have certain structures in common
All cells have a clearly defined shape or boundary, maintained by a cell
membrane, which encloses the internal contents of a cell.
Inside, cells contain a number of organelles, which each have a particular job
to do for the cell.
Cells visible with a light microscope include: the nucleus, the cell membrane,
cytoplasm, cell wall, chloroplasts, and the vacuoles.
CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTION VISIBLE WITH A LIGHT

MICROSCOPE:
Nucleus Contains the chromosomes, which controls the development and

function of the cell. Without the nucleus, the cell will die.
Cell membrane Forms the boundary between the cytoplasm and outside
environment, controls entry and exit (diffusion/osmosis) of substances to and
from the cell
Cytoplasm Contains many organelles and is where most cell activities are
carried out
Cell wall Gives protection, support and shape. Found in all plant cells.
Chloroplasts Contains chlorophyll and are the site of photosynthesis in
plants
Vacuole Store water and other substances, large and important in plant
cells.
Under an electron microscope, these features are available in higher detail,
and other organelles can be seen. These include the mitochondrion, the
ribosome, and the Golgi body.
WHAT THESE ORGANELLES DO FOR A CELL
Mitochondrion Composed of folded layers of membrane, its involved in

the energy transformations in cells
Ribosome Sites of production of proteins in a cell
Golgi Body A stack of flat membrane where final synthesis and packaging
of protein occurs before secretion
CELL STRUCTURES IN DETAIL
Nucleus Spherical and large compared to other cell structures. Controls the
activities of the cell by dictating which proteins are made. Contains the most
genetic material in the cell, containing chromosomes, which in turn contain
genes, the inherited information that determines whether proteins are made
or not. The nucleolus, in the nucleus on non-dividing cells, is where genes for
RNA are found.
Mitochondria Usually 0.5 micrometres wide and 7 micrometers long. They
are surrounded by a double membrane, with the inner being greatly folded,
greatly increasing the surface area for the chemical reactions of respiration to
occur.
Lysosomes Small membrane-bound organelles common in animal cells but
rare in plants. They are very acidic, containing digestive enzymes to break
down or digest old or damaged organelles.
Endoplasmic Reticulum A system of membranous sacs and tubules
connected to the nuclear envelope. It provides an internal surface for many
chemical reactions in the cell, and a series of channels through which
material can be circulated. Rough End. Ret. has tiny ribosomes attached
where proteins are made an transported to the Golgi body in transport
vesicles. Smooth has no ribosomes and is the site for lipid manufacture.
Ribosomes Tiny bodies made up of RNA and protein which may be
attached to endoplasmic reticulum or lie freely in the cytoplasm. They are the
site of protein manufacture
Golgi body Stacks of flattened membrane sacs, which chemically modifies
and stores and distributes substances made by the endoplasmic reticulum.
These are received in transport vesicles and repackaged, ready for secretion
either into or out of the cell.
Chloroplasts Only found in plant cells, they are surrounded by a double
membrane and contain a complex system of lamellae. Photosynthetic
lamellae also called thylakoids occur in stacks called grana, which contain the
chlorophyll pigments needed for photosynthesis.
2.2 SKIPPED: THE SUBSTANCES IN CELLS

THE MOVEMENT OF MOLECULES
The fluid mosaic model shows how a cell can be selectively permeable and
how diffusion and osmosis can occur.
Diffusion is one way cells take in materials from the environment, and a way
of ridding unwanted materials, such as waste. Diffusion will occur when two
areas have a different concentration of a substance, moving until equality is
reached. Not all substances can move through cell membranes due to size.
Water, O2, and CO2 and other small ions and molecules can move freely.
Osmosis is like diffusion, but only applies to water. Water will move from a
high concentration to a low concentration. This is how water leaves and
enters cells.
SURFACE AREA TO VOLUME RATIO
A new cell beginning to grow receives nutrients through its surface

membrane
The area of this surface affects the rate at which nutrients can enter the cell,
as well as the rate at which wastes can leave
As the cell grows, its needs are greater, however due to the Surface Area to
Volume Ratio, its exchange of material falls
So as the cells increases in size, its surface are to volume ratio gets smaller,
meaning it can take in less nutrients and expel less wastes
Because of this, cells can only grow to a certain size, otherwise it would be
unable to survive
2.3 OBTAINING NUTRIENTS
CELLS AND SYSTEMS
In multi cellular organisms, different cells may have different functions, each
working together for the organism as a whole.
Groups of cells similar in function are called tissues, and groups of tissues
make up organs, which in turn make up the systems within the body. Eg.
Digestive system in humans.
There is no such thing as a typical cell, however they can be generally
identified as autotrophic, meaning self-feeding (plants), and heterotrophic,
meaning feeding on something different (animals)
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis can only occur if plant cells can obtain CO2, H2O, and light
from its environment.
All living things depend on this process as if provides chemical energy for
each living thing.
Without photosynthesis, there would be no energy to sustain life.
THE EQUATION = CO2 + WATER LIGHT + CHLOROPHYLLSUGAR +
OXYGEN
Sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll pigments in the chloroplasts of green
plant cells, and is turned into usable, chemical energy.
Sugar products from photosynthesis are converted to starch and stored in the
cells, causing a green leaf to turn blue/black when exposed to iodine solution
(starch test)
These sugars are also used in respiration in the plant, being converted back
into sugars at night and transported by the phloem to the rest of the plant.
Unused sugars may also be built up into proteins for growth, of be stored as
starch or lipid.
OBTAINING NUTRIENTS PLANTS

WATER AND MINERALS
Plants use specialised structures to obtain the materials required for

photosynthesis from their environment.
Unless it is an aquatic plant, most water and minerals are obtained though
root systems with a large surface area, which also act as an anchor
There are two main types of roots; tap roots; and fibrous roots.
The roots growing point is protected by a root cap, and just behind this point
is the region of root hairs, which provide a larger surface area where most
absorption of water and mineral ions takes place
OBTAINING SUNLIGHT AND CO2
The specialised structure for obtaining light and CO2 in most plants is the
leaf, which is where most photosynthesis occurs
Arrangement of leaves, shape, and size are all factors and adaptations leaves
have to ensure they receive the most sunlight and CO2, usually being
arranged in a way to receive the most sunlight, and broad and flat to increase
surface area.
The plant has a number of internal structures, each related, and important to
the process of photosynthesis
INTERNAL STRUCTURES OF A LEAF
Cuticle A waxy substance on the surface of the leaf which maintains shape,
provides protection, and reduces water loss due to evaporation.
Epidermis Protective layer of cells on the upper and lower surfaces,
transparent so can be easily penetrated by sunlight to the photosynthetic
cells within
Stomates Pores in the leaf that can open and close to exchange gases
between the leaf and the environment. This process allows water to
evaporate, which is why they close.
Palisade Mesophyll Found one or two rows below the upper epidermis.
They are regularly arranged, elongated cells packed with chloroplasts. This is
where most photosynthesis occurs\
Spongy Mesophyll Found between the Pal. Mes. and the lower epidermis.
Contain fewer chloroplasts and are irregularly arranged to allow the
movement of gases and water to the cells and stomates
Veins Tubes of vascular tissues containing Phloem and Xylem cells, which
transport materials to and from the leaf. Xylem transports water and mineral
ions from the roots to the leaves, where as Phloem transports the products of
photosynthesis from the leaves to the rest of the plant. Veins form a
branching network, giving rigidity, maintaining shape and structure, and
ensuring every leaf cell is close to a vein.
MAMMALIAN DIGESTION
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Animal cells are heterotrophic, so they cannot make their own food, and must
obtain it from somewhere else.
The digestive system allows nutrients to be taken into the organism and
broken down and digested, converting large insoluble food molecules into
small, soluble ones that can be absorbed and made available to the cells.
In mammals, digestion involves both mechanical, and chemical breakdown of
food by enzymes, followed by absorption into the body
HERBIVORES AND CARNIVORES COMPARED MOUTH AND TEETH
The action of teeth greatly increases the surface area of food, allowing them
to be broken down and absorbed faster
Mammals have 4 kinds of teeth, incisors and canines, used for cutting
(prominent in carnivores), and molars and premolars, used for grinding
(prominent in herbivores).
FEATURES OF THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Mouth and mouth cavity Teeth mechanically break food into pieces,
saliva lubricates food
Epiglottis Closes of the trachea so food goes down the oesophagus (not
the windpipe)
Oesophagus Carries food to stomach
Stomach Begins the digestion of proteins and the food is churned. The
length of time food spends in the stomach is related to diet. Carnivores have
simple stomachs, whereas herbivores may have complex stomachs with food
remaining there for a long time
Pancreas Produces enzymes and neutralises acid
Liver Produced bile which emulsifies fats, and stores some products of
digestion
Gall Bladder Stores bile
Small intestine Digestion is completed by enzymes from the pancreas and
the small intestine itself. Nutrients and water are absorbed
Large intestine Water is absorbed with soluble compounds like vitamins
and minerals. Undigested food leaves body as feces. The caecum is found
here, which is enlarged in herbivores as it is where bacterial fermentation of
plant material occurs. Carnivores have a small caecum and a shorter large
intestine as their food requires little fermentation
2.4 EXCHANGING GASES

GAS EXCHANGE IN ANIMALS
All organisms respire, taking oxygen from the environment and releasing CO2
through the use of respiratory surfaces
These surfaces must be thin, moist, and have a large surface area to allow
easy diffusion
INSECTS
Insects have a system of tubes called tracheae within their body

These tracheae open to the external environment through pores, or spiracles,
on the abdomen, allowing gas to be exchanged throughout the insects body,
bringing air directly to the cells
The ending of the tracheae are called tracheoles and usually are filled with
fluid
FISH
Respiratory surface is gills over which water flows

Two types: exposed and those covered by an operculum
Usually finely divided which means water flows over a large surface area.
FROGS
Two respiratory surfaces Lungs and skin

Oxygen from air diffuses into moist skin and is transported by blood to the
heart and then around the body
Lungs are simple and have a smaller surface area than mammals, are more
like balloons than sponges and are less efficient that mammalian lungs
MAMMALS
Gases exchanged in the lungs

Lungs are protected by being inside the bodys waterproof covering
Surface area of lungs is increased by the convolution of the lungs into lobes,
the branching of the bronchioles, and the division of the tubules into tiny air
sacs called alveoli.
TRANSPORT SYSTEMS IN FLOWERING PLANTS

THE NEED FOR TRANSPORT SYSTEMS
Transport systems are used to ensure that cells are supplied with nutrients
and to expel waste.
Multicellular organisms have these systems, enabling substances to be
moved to and from the internal body cells
In flowering plants, long tubes run through the root, stem, and leaves. These
are the xylem and phloem which each transport a different substance
Water and minerals are transported up the plant in the xylem and organic
materials are transported both up and down by the phloem
WATER TRANSPORT
Water and mineral ions flow upwards through the plant, starting at the roots
and lost by transpiration
The root hairs provide a large surface area for the uptakes of water, entering
by osmosis through the centre of the root and moving to the xylem
Xylem vessels are dead cells thickened with woody material which form a
continuous system of tubes, giving strength ad rigidity to the stem. Water
moves up the xylem aided by conducting cells and is transported to the
leaves via the stem
The diffusion of water from a plant is called transpiration
This occurs when the stomates open to exchange gases as the water diffuses
out due to uneven water concentrations of the plant and external
environment
External factors which can affect transpiration include temperature, humidity,
wind, light, and soil
PHLOEM
Transports sugars produced in photosynthesis around the plant

Materials are transported both up and down the plant.
GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS

STOMATES
Stomates are pores in leaves through ehich gases can diffuse

Usually found on the lower surface of a leaf
Can open and close, determining whether gases can disuse or not, which in
turn affects the rate of photosynthesis and the transpiration rate
Guard cells control this opening and closing, becoming full of water, or turgid,
to open and losing water to close
Stomates are usually open during the day and closed at night however guard
cells respond to a variety of different internal and external stimuli, including:
light, low carbon dioxide levels, an internal clock, water deficiency, and high
temperatures
2.5 GROWTH AND REPAIR

MITOSIS
Mitosois is the process by which a multicellular organism grows, repairs,

maintains, and reproduces itself
It is a type of cell division that results in the production of cells which are
identical to the original
It really takes place in two separate processes Mitosis, division of the
Nucleus, and Cytokinesis, division of the cytoplasm
Prior to mitosis, the cells 46 chromosomes are copied, which are the
distributed during mitosis into each new cell as it forms
THE STAGES OF MITOSIS
Interphase The period when cells are not dividing, chromosomes are
duplicating, but not visible
Prophase Each chromosome visible as two identical joined strands called
chromatids. The nuclear membrane breaks down by late prophase
Metaphase Microtubles spread across the cell forming a spindle. The
chromosomes line up at the centre of the cell attached to the spindle fibres at
the centromere. The chromatids separate
Anaphase The chromatids, now single stranded chromosomes move
towards opposite poles, carried by the spindle fibres
Telophase The spindle disappears and new nuclear membranes form around
the two sets of chromosomes
THE NEED FOR CYTOKINESIS
Cytokinesis usually happens immediately after mitosis, ensuring the

chromosome number in each cell remains constant
The chromosome number doubles in mitosis and one cell now contains 2 sets
of chromosomes, requiring Cytokinesis to occur so as to create two cells
SITES OF MITOSIS
PLANTS
In mature plants, mitosis mostly occurs in the tips of roots and stems, causing
an increase in length. It occurs in other places too but we dont need to know
that
INSECTS
Instead of cell division (mitosis), insects grow through cell enlargement and
therefore there are no sites of mitosis
MAMMALS
In young mammals, mitosis rates are high and occurs in all areas of the body
At maturity, growth decreases but the repair and maintenance of cells
continues
In adults, it occurs in the skin, bone marrow, and digestive system constantly
CHAPTER 3: LIFE ON EARTH

3.1 THE ORIGINS OF LIFE
THE PRIMEVAL EARTH
There are 2 major theories on how life could have started on earth
PANSPERMIA
The theory of Panspermia states that the chemicals for life came from outer
space
Scientists believe that the earth was heavily bombarded with meteorites
during the early years of formation
When certain types of meteorites in the 1970s were analysed, they were
found to contain organic molecules such as amino acids, the building blocks
for life
This provided evidence of the existence of organic molecules somewhere else
in the cosmos and shows how meteorites falling on earth during its early
formation could have contributed to some of the organic molecules required
by living systems
CHEMOSYNTHETIC FORMATION ON EARTH
First suggested by Oparin and Haldene, who theorized that the early
atmosphere of earth contained all the necessary chemical components for life
to form, hypothesizing that more complex organic molecules, such as Amino
Acids, could have been created in spontaneous reactions using energy from
UV Rays or lightning.
However, this theory remained untested until the 1950s when two scientists,
Urey and Miller, performed an experiment based on the hypothesis
A closed system was set up and powerful electrical sparks (simulating

lightning) were discharged into a chamber containing ammonia, hydrogen,
and methane; three gases thought to have been prominent in the early
atmosphere
After a week of continuous discharges and recycling of steam, the condensed
water in the flask set up under the experiment became red and turbid, and
found to contain a number of amino acids
This supported Oparin and Haldenes theories and showed how organic
molecules could have formed naturally in the conditions of early earth
CHANGES IN TECHNOLOGY
Our ability to describe the origins, processes, and evolution of living this has
been made possible in advances in science and technology, with new
techniques to find more about earth, its history, and the living organisms
that occupy it bring developed
The most important in the study of early earth is the development of
radiometric dating, which allows scientists to determine the age of rocks and
fossils back to the formation of earth
Development of the electron microscope has also played an influential role in
the knowledge of cells and their structure and function, enabling scientists to
compare different organisms and see how they function
These new technologies lead to a better understanding of the origins of life
and the evolution of living things
3.2 FOSSILS AND THE EVOLUTION OF LIFE

MAJOR STAGES IN THE EVOLUTION OF LIFE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The formation of organic molecules

The formation of membranes
Procaryotic cells Simple structures
Eucaryotic organisms Nucleus and organelles developed
Colonial cells Found in stromatalites
Multicellular organisms Show specialization of function evolved
PALAEONTOLOGICAL AND GEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE OF EARLY LIFE

PALAEONTOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
Evidence of early life can be found in fossils however is scarce compared to

over the past 600 years
Earliest fossils are found in two types: microfossils, and stromatalites which
are layered mats of photosynthetic prokaryotic cells called cyanobacteria
Descendents of these cyanobacteria can still be found in Western Australia
These fossils can be found in rocks over 3400 million years old
GEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
The first cells were heterotrophic, however as the developed they gained
pigments and were able to capture light energy from the sun and use it to
convert CO2 into oxygen
As more photosynthetic organisms developed, more CO2 was converted into
Oxygen, which started to be taken up by rocks
These oxidized rocks can be seen in banded iron formations and red bed rock
formations today
SKIPPED: THE CHANGING ATMOSPHERE

3.3 PROCARYOTES: THE FIRST LIVING THINGS
WHAT ARE PROCARYOTIC ORGANISMS?
Believed to be the first type of cells to evolve on Earth about 3050 million
years ago
Still the most abundant life form on earth
Differ from eukaryotic cells as they lack a nuclear membrane and internal
organelles
Technological advances in electron microscopy have increased our knowledge
of prokaryotic organisms, such as the discovery of two different types of
prokaryotes: Archaea and Eubacteria
3.4 TAXONOMY: CLASSIFYING ORGANISMS

WHY CLASSIFY?
Classification systems help biologists to understand the relationship between

organism, and to talk to other biologists about organisms without the need to
describe them in detail
FEATURES USED TO CLASSIFY ORGANISMS
Anatomy (structure), physiology (functioning), behavior (doing), and

biochemistry (molecular activity) are the ways organisms can differ, and
using these features as a guideline, biologists can easily classify organisms
The most practical in the field is anatomical structure, as it is easily observed
and more constant in an organisms lifetime
However structure is not always reliable, as organisms which look the same
may not always be closely related, for this reason the molecular structure, or
DNA, is increasingly being used by biologists to classify organism
CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
The most common classification system recognizes 5 kingdoms:
Plants organisms which contain chlorophyll and make their own food.
Eucaryotic and have a cell wall
Animals Do not contain chlorophyll, cannot make own food, eukaryotic, no
cell wall
Protists Single celled, eukaryotic (eg. Protozoans)
Monera Single celled, prokaryotic (eg. Bacteria)
Fungi Do not contain chlorophyll, eukaryotic, surrounded by a cellulose cell
wall
LEVELS OF ORGANISATION
Once Kingdom is determined, there are 6 other levels in which an organism is
classified. These are: Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species
ADVANCES THROUGH TECHNOLOGY
Development on light and electron microscopes dramatically influenced

scientists ability to view cells and differentiate and classify organisms
Advances in molecular biology and biochemistry aided in the discovery of the
two main groups of Monera (Procaryotic/Eucaryotic)
DNA and molecular comparison tecxhniques to accurate classify organisms
based on their genetic structure rather than appearance, adding to out
knowledge of relationships between organisms and helping to refine the
classification system
THE BINOMIAL SYSTEM
This classifies organisms with two given names, the first being the Genus,
and the second being the Species of the organism
Genus always starts with a capital and species always starts with a lowercase
(eg. Banksia coccinea)
SKIPPED: DICOTOMOUS KEYS

CLASSIFYING EXTINCT ORGANISMS
Fossil remains are not always difficult to classify, however problems arise
when the fossil is incomplete or does not show enough detail to accurately
assess the structure of the organism
Problems also arise if the organism has been extinct for a long time as there
may be no similar organisms alive today to compare it with
CHAPTER 4: EVOLUTION OF AUSTRALIAN BIOTA

4.1 GONDWANA: ANCIENT SUPERCONTINENT
THE FORMATION OF AUSTRALIA
Australia became a separate continent 45 million years ago, splitting off from
Gondawana, which in turn split off from Pangea, an ancient supercontinent
about 160 million years ago
GEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
The rock strata around the continental margins, match perfectly in many
places, such as between South Australia and one section of Antarctica
The ages of rocks near mid-ocean ridges indicates a continual movement of
the plates, as the closer to the ridge, the younger the rock is
BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
Fossil evidence shows similar organisms on continents thought to be part of

Gondwana as those found in Australia
Living species are also similar in some parts of the world which are believed
to be part of Gondwana, particularly southern beech trees, found in Aust, NZ,
New Guinea, and Sth America
AUSTRALIAS MEGAFAUNA
In simple terms, megafauna are large animals which have mostly all gone
extinct over the last 50000 years, apart from such animals as the elephant
and whales
There are two main theories to explain this rapid extinction:
Climate change: Much extinction occurred at about the end of the last Ice
age, an event which drastically changed the ecosystem. In Australia, the
weather changed from cold and dry to warm and dry, meaning the water
became scarce and unable to sustain life for such large animals
Human expansion: The megafauna were big and slow, therefore vulnerable to
hunting, in particular the arrival of skilled hunters. It is thought that the rapid
extinction of many Australian megafauna occurred soon after humans arrived
in Australia for the first time
It is likely that both these factors played a part in the extinction of these
species
Today, relatives of the megafauna survive, such as the red kangaroo to the
Procoptodon pusio and the Diprotodon optatum to the wombat
The megafauna were not descendants of Australias current fauna however,
they both evolved from a common ancestor
4.2 CHANGES IN AUSTRALIAN FLORA AND FAUNA

VARIATION WITHIN A SPECIES
Variations are small differences between organisms belonging to the same

species
This can include differences in size and colour, as well as biochemical

differences
These differences become important in evolutionary terms as when
environmental change occurs, those with different variations may be able to
survive
SKIPPED: AUSTRALIAS CHANGING ENVIRONEMENT, THE AUSTRALIAN

ENVIRONMENT, CHANGES IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES
CHARLES DARWIN IN AUSTRALIA
Whilst in Australia, Darwin was puzzled over the variety of organisms present
in Australia, spending a long time studying them
By comparing species found in Australia to those found in England and South
Africa, Darwin supported his theory that new species of an organism can
develop from a common ancestor and that those best suited to the
environment were more likely to survive and prosper
4.3 THE CONTINUATION OF A SPECIES

MEIOSIS
Meiosis is a type of cell division that forms cells with half the number of
chromosomes normally found in cells of the species and is associated with
sexual reproduction
In reproduction, an organism produces 2 types of special sex cells called
gametes, a male gamete and a female gamete
When a male gamete and a female gamete from two different organisms
come together, they fuse in a process called fertilization which results in a
zygote
This zygote is single celled and undergoes mitosis to eventually form a new
individual
In humans, cells normally contain 46 chromosomes, this is known as our
diploid number
When meiosis occurs, this number is halved to 23 chromosomes, our haploid
number
The number of chromosomes is halves so that when two haploids meet, they
make a diploid cell, the first cell of a new individual
Males produce haploid gametes called sperm, females produce haploid
gametes called ova
SKIPPED: FERTILISATION: BRINGING GAMETES TOGETHER

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
Flowers are the reproductive organs of angiosperm plants, with different parts
of the flower serving a different purpose for reproduction
MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS
The male reproductive organ is called the stamen, which consists of the
anther and the filament
There are usually several stamens in a flower
Meiosis occurs in the anthers and results in the formation of haploid (half a
diploid) pollen grains which in turn has a protective wall and contains two
haploid nuclei
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS
The female reproductive organ is the pistil, which consists of one or more
carpels which contain and stigma, style, and an ovary
Inside the ovary is several ovules, this is where meiosis occurs, resulting in
the formation of 8 haploid cells, one of which is an ovum, or egg
POLLINATION AND FERTILISATION
Pollination is the transfer of pollen from a stamen (male) to a mature stigma

(female). If this occurs, fertilization can take place
Fertilisation occurs as: A germinating pollen grain sends out a tube which
grows down the style towards the ovary The two nuclei of the pollen grain
travel down this tube One becomes the tube nucleus, the other divides in
two The pollen tube enters the ovule through the micropyle One male
nuclei fuses with the ovum to form a fertilized zygote The other fuses with
two other haploid nuclei to form a triploid
SELF POLLINATION AND CROSS POLLINATION
If pollination involves pollen and stigma from the same plant it is known as
self pollination
Cross pollination is when pollen from one plant is transferred to a stigma on
another plant of the same species
Self pollination is an effective way for flowers to breed quickly and efficiently,
however it gives no rise to variation, meaning that there is a higher likelihood
of mass death in the case of a disease or environmental change
POLLINATION BY ANIMALS
Many Australian flowers are pollinated by insects, birds, and mammals

Some flowers have colours and scents which are appealing to insects such as
bees and wasps so that pollination has a higher rate of occurrence, for
example the colour yellow attracts bees seeking nectar
END OF PRELIMINARY COURSE
CHAPTER 5: MAINTAINING A BALANCE

5.1 ACTIVITY AND TEMPERATURE
THE ROLE OF ENZYMES
All chemical processes occurring within an organism are called its metabolism
The rate of chemical activity is regulated by enzymes, large proteins
Enzymes are used over and over again, so cells do not require a large
quantity
They are made in the cell, their manufacture controlled by the nucleus
Different types of cells make different enzymes
FUNCTIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF ENZYMES
Enzymes are biological catalysts, they control the rate of reaction

Enzymes are specific, they affect one type of reaction, providing an active
site where it can take place
Enzymes act on molecules known as substrates (eg. Catalase)
The substrate binds to the active site, causing a temporary change in the
shape of the enzyme, known as the induced fit model
A chemical reaction occurs on the active site and the substrate molecule
splits
The substrate concentration affects enzyme activity, ^ Substrate = ^Activity,
UNTIL all enzyme active sites are occupied, known as the saturation point
Enzymes require specific conditions to function most efficiently, temperature
and acidity/alkalinity playing a huge role in how efficient the enzyme
functions
Too far from functioning conditions and the enzyme is denatured, the active
site warping, and can no longer catalyse reactions
HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis is the process by which organisms maintain a relatively constant

or stable internal environment for body cells
It consists of: detecting changes (receptor), and counteracting changes
(effector)
Homeostasis is essential for the correct functioning of enzymes
RESPONDING TO CHANGE
DETECTING CHANGES
Any information that provokes a bodily response is called a stimulus

Environments contain many stimuli and organisms have receptors that detect
them
Eg. Light->Photoreceptor, Heat->Thermoreceptor, Oxygen->Chemoreceptor
COUNTERACTING CHANGES
Whilst receptors DETECT changes, organisms too require a response to the

change, which is brought by the effectors
Eg of effectors = muscles, glands

To co-ordinate this sensory information, the body uses the nervous system
THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is made up of; the central nervous system, the brain,
and the spinal cord
This system acts as a control centre which co-ordinates all an organisms
responses
It receives information (receptors), and initiates a response (effectors)
TEMPERATURE AND LIFE
The temperature of an environment is known as the ambient temperature

To survive, organisms must be able to live within the temperature range of
their environment
ECTOTHERMS AND ENDOTHERMS
Ectotherm An organism which has limited ability to control their body

temperature, their cellular activities generate little heat. Their body
temperature rises with the ambient temperature. Eg. Plants, amphibians, fish,
reptiles
Endotherms An organism which maintains their body temperature though
metabolism, independent of the ambient temperature. This takes more
energy and so more food is required for endotherms. Eg. Mammals, birds
BEHAVIOURAL ADAPTATIONS (TO TEMP CHANGE)
Migration Animals move to avoid temperature extremes

Hibernation Animals remain in a sheltered spot and lower their metabolism
Shelter Animals seek shelter from extreme conditions
Nocturnal Activity Animals sleep during day and are active at night
Controlling Exposure Animals alter their position to expose more or less
surface area to sunlight
STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTIONS OF ENDOTHERMS
Insulation Fur and feathers, as well as fat keep organisms warmer in the
colder months, and can be shed in the hotter months to remain cool
Metabolic Activity Endotherms generate heat as a result of their metabolic
activity. This keeps the body warm in cold conditions.
Control of Blood Flow Endotherms can increase or decrease heat exchange

by controlling blood flow to the skin and extremities, maintaining a core body
temp
Evaporation By controlling evaporation of water from their bodies,
endotherms keep themselves cool. Eg Kangaroos lick their paws to increase
evaporation therefore increase heat loss
5.2 WATER FOR TRANSPORT

THE MAMMALIAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Mammals have a closed system, comprising of a pump (the heart), which

sends a fluid (the blood) through a network of tubes (blood vessels) which
transport it around the body
Body fluid drains into the lymphatic system and the lymph vessels return the
fluid to the blood
The circulatory system is used for transport of water, gases, and nitrogenous
wastes, defence against disease, and to distribute heat around the body
COMPOSITION OF THE BLOOD
Mammalian blood is made up of Plasma, and Cellular Matter

Plasma Made up of mostly water, contains some chloride ions and large
plasma proteins. These salts and proteins play a role in maintaining the pH of
the blood. Plasma also carries urea, carbon dioxide, products of digestion,
and hormones
Red Blood Cells Contain the pigment haemoglobin, helping them to perform
their main function: carrying oxygen and gases to the cells. In humans, RBCs
have no nuclei and remain in the blood for about 3 months before being
destroyed and replaced.
White Blood Cells About double the size of RBCs, come in two types:
phagocytes and lymphocytes. Phagocytes can move from blood to tissue fluid
and are a vital part of the immune defence, surrounding and destroying any
foreign body that enters the body. Lymphocytes act against foreign material,
creating antibodies.
Platelets Aid in helping the blood to clot
TRANSPORTING SUBSTANCES IN THE BLOOD

Substance
Oxygen
From
Lungs
Carbon Dioxide
Body Cells
To
Body
Cells
Lungs
Form
Oxyhaemoglobin
Carried By
RBCs
Mainly Hydrogen
Carbonate Ions
(Bicarbonate
RBCs and
Plasma
Waste Nitrogenous
Material
Water
Salts
Liver and Body

Cells
Digestive
System and
Body Cells
Digestive
System and
Body Cells
Ions)
Mostly as Urea
Plasma
Body
Cells
Water Molecules
Plasma
Body
Cells
Ions in the
Plasma
Plasma
Kidneys
THE STRUCTURE OF BLOOD VESSELS
Blood flows through a system of tubes or vessels, under the influence of the
nervous system which control the flow and distribution of blood
There are three types of blood vessels:
Arteries Carries blood from the heart to the cells, thick walled, elastic, and
muscular. Elastic fibres allow the vessels to expand and recoil with each
heartbeat, maintaining pressure on the blood, sending it in spurts to body
tissues. By expanding and contracting, they push blood around the body.
Capillaries Only one cell thick, around 7 micrometres, so blood cells must
pass through single file. Capillaries surround tissue cells so no cell is far from
a capillary. Have a large surface area to allow exchange of materials between
blood and body cells
Veins Return blood from the cells to the heart. The walls are thinner and less
muscular than that of arteries, and have a larger diameter. The blood flows
with much less pressure and so valves, which prevent the backflow of blood,
are present in veins.
The Heart Acts as a pump which keeps blood circulating in the body.
Consists of the left and right atria (atrium), and the left and right ventricles.
The atria receive blood from the veins, and the ventricles send blood around
the body through the arteries. The heart aids in the exchange of gas, blood
picking up oxygen here as it beats around 60-80 times per minute
The Pulmonary Circuit
TRANSPORT
PLANTS
Plants have two
the phloem and
The phloem
materials, such as
down the stem to
plant
The xylem
and mineral ions
the leaves
MECHANISMS IN
THE STRUCTURE OF
XYLEM
transport systems;
the xylem
transports organic
sugars, up and
other parts of the
transports water
up from the roots to
The xylem of
flowering plants
consists of xylem vessels, tracheids, fibres, and parenchyma
Vessels may be up to several metres in length, and as they develop, lignin
(dead woody cells) is deposited in their cell walls in a spiral pattern,
strengthening the xylem vessel and making it impermeable to water
Water enters the plant through the root hairs, travelling across the cortex into
the xylem
Water can rise in the xylem at a rate of 15 metres per hour, against gravity
This rising is brought on by the passive upwards movement brought on by the
pull of the transpiration stream through the stomates.
Water is drawn up the xylem tubes to replace the loss of water through
evaporation
The branching network of xylem vessels ensures water is transported to all
parts of the plant
However as the water is pulled upwards some may leak out into surrounding
tissues or another vessel
Adhesion-Cohesion forces also aid in the water climbing up the xylem to the
leaves
THE STRUCTURE OF PHLOEM
The phloem of flowering plants contains phloem fibres, phloem parenchyma,

sieve cells, and companion cells
Sieve cells are elongated cells which form a series of connecting tubes
Sieve cells aid in the transport of carbohydrates from the phloem to the plant
Companion cells are linked to the sieve cells and take on many metabolic
functions for the sieve element
Organic materials, including sugars, amino acids, and hormones are

transported by the phloem in a movement known as translocation
Translocation enables a plant to distribute resources wherever needed in the
plant
Source-to-sink or the Pressure Flow depositing of materials created by
photosynthesis into the roots
Amino acids and mineral nutrients are loaded into the phloem at the source
of photo synthesis, the leaves
These materials then flow towards a sink, the region on a plant where
sugars and nutrients are being actively removed from the phloem, eg. The
roots, stems, and flowers
The materials are then used in metabolism or stored in the plant, glucose as
starch
5.3 REGULATION OF SUBSTANCES

WATER IN CELLS
Water is a solvent for all metabolic reactions and is the transport medium for
distributing substances in the body
THE REMOVAL OF WASTES
As a result of all the metabolic functions occurring in the body, wastes are
created
If these wastes were allowed to accumulate in cells, it would slow down
metabolism and poison the cells, therefore these wastes need to be removed
quickly
Different animals excrete different waste products
THE ROLE OF THE KIDNEY
The primary role of the kidney is to regulate salt and water concentrations in
the body, and excrete nitrogenous wastes
Mammals excrete the nitrogenous waste urea
Fish excrete ammonia, coupled with much larger amounts of water (in
freshwater fish)
THE FISH KIDNEY
The primary role of the kidney is the regulation of water and salt
concentrations in the body
In fish, excretion of nitrogenous wastes, such as ammonia, occurs across the
gills
The kidneys adjust the levels of water and mineral ions in the fishs body in
order to maintain a constant concentration of internal fluid
FRESHWATER FISH
Freshwater fish maintain a higher concentration of solutes in their body than

in their surroundings
Therefore, water tends to continually diffuse into the fishs body, which it
must then get rid of
Their kidneys produces large amounts of extremely diluted urine in an almost
continuous stream to do this
As fresh water has a lower concentration of ions than the fish do, the kidneys
actively reabsorb salts to prevent loss
SALTWATER FISH
Salt water fish have the opposite problem to freshwater: their internal body
fluids are less concentrated than the surrounding water
To avoid water loss, marine fish continually drink salt water, absorbing both
the water and the salts
The water is retained and the salts are excreted via the gills and kidneys
Due to this lack of water availability, salt water fish excrete much less urine
that freshwater, and is much more concentrated to minimise water loss
RENAL DIALYSIS
Renal dialysis is the artificial process in which wastes in the blood are
removed by diffusion across a semi-permeable membrane
Dialysis helps those whose kidney function is so impaired that products of
metabolism, such as urea, are built up in the body instead of excreted
If both kidneys stop working due to disease, the patients life is immediately
threatened, making renal dialysis extremely important.
THE MAMMALIAN KIDNEYS
The Kidneys are compacts and bean shaped

They produce urine, which contains nitrogenous materials from the cells
Urine leaves the kidneys from the ureters and is stored in the bladder until
being excreted
Mammals have two kidneys
Each is made up of around a million small filtering units called nephrons
Diagram of a
Nephron
Diagram of a Kidney
The kidneys continuously process an enormous volume of blood to form a

small volume of urine
There are three processes in the formation of urine: filtration, reabsorption,
and secretion
Filtration Blood is brought to the kidneys by the renal artery, which divides
into smaller vessels which after reaching the Bowmans Capsule, form a
network of capillaries called the glomerulus. From the glomerulus, plasma
and small soluble molecules pass into the Bowmans Capsule through passive
filtration, and the filtrate contains some substances which may be reabsorbed
and used by the body, and some wastes. As the substances are moved along
the nephron tubule, its composition is adjusted until it only contains wastes,
after which it is excreted as urine.
Filtrate passing into the Bowmans Capsule may include: water, nitrogenous
wastes, food materials, bicarbonate ions, hormones, and ingested substances
such as penicillin
Reabsorption Surrounding each nephron is a large capillary network. As
the filtrate travels down the tubule, materials that can be reused are
reabsorbed into the blood, such as glucose, amino acids, and water. It is an
active process which requires energy and takes place most notably in the
loop of Henle
Secretion A selective process by which the body transports substances
from the blood to the nephron
REGULATION OF BODY FLUID COMPOSITION
The nephron is a regulatory unit, it reabsorbs materials required to maintain

homeostasis
This regulation helps to maintain the constant composition of the blood and
intestinal fluid
In the proximal tubule, bicarbonate ions (CO2) are reabsorbed and there may
be some secretion of hydrogen ions, this is done to maintain a constant blood
pH level
The loop of Henle is involved in the filtration and reabsorption of water
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSPORT
Osmosis and diffusion are passive forms of transport across cell membranes,
that is they dont require energy
In the kidneys, both active and passive transport is used
Passive transport occurs in filtration and osmosis of water back into blood
Active transport occurs in secretion of substances into the nephron, transport
of nutrients back into the blood, and selective reabsorption of salts
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND HORMONES
The endocrine system consists of ductless glands which secrete hormones;

chemical messengers that travel in blood
Hormones bring about change in the metabolic activity of the body and are
kept at a fairly constant level by feedback systems
Role
Control of the Internal
Environment
Emergencies
Growth
Description
Hormones maintain homeostasis by regulating the
amounts and type of many body chemicals
Hormones enable the body to cope with stress
physical or emotional
Hormones ensure growth and development take place
Reproduction
in a smooth, controlled way

Hormones are involved in reproduction from gamete
formation to maintenance of the placenta, birth and
nourishment of the newborn
HORMONAL REGULATION OF WATER AND SALT LEVELS
Two hormones; antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and aldosterone, help to regulate

salt and water concentrations, as well as blood pressure and volume
The blood that leaves the kidney via the renal vein has had its nitrogenous
wastes removed and its water and salt composition balanced
The function of the kidney is twofold: it acts as an excretory organ, and has a
homeostatic function, helping to maintain a constant internal composition of
body fluids
ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (ADH)
Reabsorption of water is controlled by ADH

ADH is made by the hypothalamus but is stored in the pituitary gland
Receptors in the hypothalamus monitor the concentration of the blood: if
there is a loss of water, ADH is released into the blood and circulates to the
kidneys
ADH increases the permeability of the walls of the distal tubules, allowing
water to pass freely out of the tubules back into the body
As the blood returns to normal concentration by negative feedback, less ADH
is secreted
If blood concentration is low, after a lot of water has been drunk, less ADH is
released and the permeability of the distal tubules is decreased, allowing
more water to be passed as urine
ALDOSTERONE
Aldosterone regulates the amount of salt in the body

It is produced in the adrenal glands, situated above the kidneys
If there is an increased blood volume and blood pressure, resulting from high
salt concentrations, to output of aldosterone is reduced
Less salt and water is reabsorbed by the nephron tubules and increased
amounts of salt and water are lost in the urine
If the body needs salt, water is not retained, the adrenals release more
aldosterone, and salt is reabsorbed from the tubule
ENANTIOSTASIS: SURVIVAL IN AN ESTUARY

WHY IS AN ESTUARY SPECIAL?
An estuary forms where a river meets the sea, fresh water draining from the
land mixes with saline water from the sea
Estuaries are rich, productive ecosystems which act as nutrient traps
The sediment traps provide a rich soup that supports a vast community of
organisms
The water is calmer and more shallow than the sea and there is plenty of light
for photosynthesis
Estuaries are used by many species of fish as quiet breeding and nursery
places for their young
However there is a salinity gradient in an estuary, the salinity fluctuating
greatly as the tide goes in and out
Enantiostasis is the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in
response to variations in the environment, and it is this process which helps
organisms survive in this environment of fluctuating salinity
However it is not alone, behavioural adaptions playing a role in survival in
estuaries
Fast swimming animals can move away, molluscs can close their shells,
bottom dwellers can burrow deep into the mud or sand
MAINTAINTING SALT CONCENTRATIONS IN PLANTS
Plants, unlike animals, cannot move away from the fluctuating conditions in
an estuary, and so must find ways to cope with a high salt environment
these plants are known as halophytes
Three mechanisms which enable halophytes to control their salt levels are;
salt exclusion, salt excretion, and salt accumulation
Salt excluders prevent entry of salt into their roots through filtration, a
passive process
Salt excreters have special glands, usually in the leaves, where salt is
concentrated and actively secreted, which is then washed off by rain
Salt accumulators concentrate salt in a part of the plant, usually bark or old
leaves, and then drop that part of the plant off, losing the salt
MINIMISING WATER LOSS IN PLANTS
Xerophytes are plants adapted to dry conditions, there adaptions include:
Structural
Leaves with a thick, waxy cuticle to reduce water lost by evaporation

Reduced leaf surface area
Reflective leaf surfaces
Hairy leaves, which reduce airflow across the leaf to reduce evaporation
Sunken stomates or a reduced amount of stomates
Rolled up leaves to minimise water loss
Physiological
Vertically hanging leaves that change position with the sun to reduce heat
absorption and water loss
The closure of stomates during the hottest part of the day
Dormancy period where all above-ground parts die off
Tough, hard seeds that can survive long dry periods
Tolerance to drying out
CHAPTER 6: BLUEPRINT OF LIFE

6.1 THE EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION
ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
Evolution is the change in living organisms over many generations

Evolution can be caused by changes in an organisms environment, such as
temperature changes or changes in water salinity, or by competition from
other organisms, such as competition for finding food and water
EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION

PALAEONTOLOGY
Palaeontology is the study of fossils, and can provide evidence for how
organisms have changed over time
Transitional forms are examples of organisms that indicate the development
of one group of organisms from another or from a common ancestor, which
can be seen in the fossil record
BIOGEOGRAPHY
Biogeography is the study of the distribution of living things: where certain

animals and plants are found in the world
For example, the animals and plants found in Australia are vastly different to
those found in Asia
By looking at the pattern of distribution of an organism today, plus its fossil
distribution in the past, we are able to reconstruct its evolutionary history
COMPARATIVE EMBRYOLOGY
Comparative embryology is the study of embryos of different organisms,

looking for differences and similarities between them
A similarity between embryos suggests that the organisms came from a
common ancestor
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY
Comparative anatomy is the study of the differences and similarities in

structure between different organisms
The structures which the organisms have in common are evidence of similar
inherited characteristics from common ancestors
An example of this is the Pentadactyl Limb, a similar basic pattern in the
bones of arms and legs shared by most land vertebrates
BIOCHEMISTRY
Biochemistry is the study of similar molecules between different organisms,

which suggests genetic closeness
Molecules such as haemoglobin, RNA, and hormones are studied
When studying proteins, amino acid sequences are compared, and if similar,
are a clue to genetic relationships eg. Humans and Chimps
Study of blood and its compatibility when mixed is also used within
biochemistry, with closely related organisms displaying a small antigenantibody reaction when exposed to foreign blood
Today these links can be studied directly using DNA sequencing to compare
the bases and find similarities
DNA HYBRIDISATION
DNA hybridisation can be used to identify similarities in DNA structure

Species which show a high degree of hybridisation are expected to have
diverged recently from a common ancestor as the sequences will be very
similar
The process has 4 steps:
1. Two strands of DNA are separated by heat
2. The single strands formed are mixed with single strands from another
species
3. The two different strands will join to form a hybrid molecule, however not
all bases will match due to differences
4. The degree of pairing depends on this similarity between sequences, if it
fits well there is a high degree of pairing, and so the organisms show close
relation
OTHER EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION

THE AGE OF THE EARTH
Scientists believe life on Earth has existed for over 3500 million years
During this time, continents have changed places and environmental
conditions have changed
By dividing this time into geological eras and periods the evolution of living
organisms can be traced
DOMESTICATED ANIMALS AND CULTIVATED PLANTS
Humans have been successful in breeding specialised animals and plants,

selecting the variations they prefer, demonstrating how evolution could have
occurred
EVOLUTION BY NATURAL SELECTION

1. In any population, there are variations between individuals
2. In any generation, there are offspring that do not reach maturity and
reproduce; the characteristics of these organisms are removed from the
population
3. Those organisms that survive and reproduce are well adapted to that
environment, they have favourable variations
4. These favourable variations are then passed on to offspring and become
more common in the population
CONVERGENT EVOLUTION
Convergent evolution occurs when natural selection over many generations

results in similar adaptions in species which live in similar environments
For example, seals and dolphins have much the same adaptions (flippers,
strong swimmers, can hold their breath etc.) yet belonging to different orders
of mammals
Despite being vastly different animals, they exhibit similar variations
DIVERGENT EVOLUTION
Divergent evolution (also known as adaptive radiation) is the process the

begins with one species (common ancestor) and produces organisms that
look different from each other because they have evolved from isolated
populations in different environments
The most famous example of divergent evolution is Charles Darwins
Galapagos Finches, 14 species of finches displaying different variations, but
who evolved from a common ancestor
6.2 MENDEL AND THE INHERITANCE OF CHARACTERISTICS

VARIATION: ENVIRONMENT OR INHERITANCE?
There are two causes of variations in populations (and by extension,

evolution): Environment and inheritance
Environmental variation occurs because of the conditions that an organism
experiences during its lifetime, for example an animal may be small because
it has been unable to find food
Environmental variation can change during an organisms lifetime
Inheritance however, is fixed for the life of the organism
Each trait has a specific gene and each individual possesses a unique
combination of these genes
MENDELS EXPERIMENTS
The first studies of inheritance were carried out by Gregor Mendel in the
1800s using the garden pea
He published his findings in 1866, however is was totally ignored, and the
significance of his work was not fully realised until the beginning of the 20 th
Century
WHY DID MENDEL SUCCEED?
Mendel was very lucky in the sense that the pea plant is a perfect subject for
the 7 tests he undertook
He studied seven different characteristics in pea plants: seed shape, seed
colour, pod shape, pod colour, flower colour, height, and type of flowers
Before testing, he pure-bred his plants, making sure the characteristic was
consistent
He then deliberately and carefully crossed one variety with another,
pollinating by hand and removing stamens to eliminate self-pollination
He repeated this process many times, kept careful records, and used
mathematics to improve and record his studies and findings
MENDELS EXPLANATIONS
DOMINANT AND RECESSIVE GENES
Whilst most people in Mendels time believed that inheritance occurred by

blending (Tall + Short = Medium), Medel determined that there were two
forms: dominant and recessive
Even though Mendel had no knowledge of chromosomes, he came to the
conclusion that the units of inheritance which control a characteristic must
come in pairs, one received from each parent and combine at fertilisation
Mendel called these units inheritance factors, but today we call them genes
Each individual has a pair of genes for each characteristic
The members of the gene pair are called alleles
When we refer to all the genes of an organism, we talk about its genotype
When we refer to the appearance of an organism, we talk about its
phenotype
Organisms with identical genes in their pair (eg. TT, or tt) are called
homozygous
Organisms with different genes in their pair (eg, Tt) are called heterozygous
MENDELS LAWS
Mendel summarised his work to explain the inheritance of characteristics in

two laws
The first law, The Law of Segregation, states that factors for the same
characteristic occur in pairs in an individual. These pairs separate at gamete
formation, so that a gamete contains only one of each factor
6.3 CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE THE KEY TO INHERITANCE

THE IMPORTANCE OF CHROMOSOMES
In 1902, it was suggested that Mendels inheritance factors, genes, are

carried on chromosomes The Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance
It was noted that:
1. During meiosis, the chromosomes in each cell lined up in pairs, and each
pair of chromosomes was the same size and shape
2. Homologous pairs of chromosomes segregate during meiosis so that each
gamete receives on chromosome from each pair
3. After fertilisation, the resulting zygote had a full set of homologous
chromosomes
THE CHEMISTRY OF CHROMOSOMES AND GENES

THE STRUCTURE OF DNA
Each chromosome is made up of about 60% protein

and 40% DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
DNA is double-stranded and is made up of a series
of subunits called nucleotides
One nucleotide contains a sugar, a phosphate, and
a base
The sugar is known as deoxyribose
There are 4 different bases in DNA - Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Thymine (T)
(Or Uracil (U) in RNA), and Cytosine (C)
In DNA the bases of each side are joined together, A can only pair with T, and
C can only pair with G
If the DNA molecule did not have a twist, it would resemble a ladder, the
sides being the sugar phosphate groups, and the bases being the steps
Information is stored on the sequencing of bases along the DNA molecule,
and a gene is a particular set of bases
Different genes have different sequences and are of different lengths along a
chromosome
FORMATION OF GAMETES
In meiosis, haploid gametes are formed, which contain half the normal
(diploid) number of chromosomes as the chromosome pair separate
During meiosis, chromosome material is exchanged between chromosomes in
a process called crossing over
This results in the production of completely unique gametes
VARIATION AS A RESULT OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
All gametes vary genetically due to meiosis

In sexual reproduction, two gametes are brought together and in fertilisation,
fuse to form a unique diploid zygote
This increases variation within a species because it is sheer chance that
determines which gametes will be involved, and the chance that the same
type of sperm and egg being produced and uniting is almost zero
VARIATIONS OF MENDELS RATIOS
Some characteristics do not display simple dominance/recessivness, this is

known as co-dominance or incomplete dominance
These characteristics have two alleles which are BOTH expressed whenever
present
This means that there are three possible genotypes and three possible
phenotypes
An example are snapdragons, which have red and white alleles (Their
possibilities are: White WW, Red RR, or Pink RW)
The phenotype of a co-dominant, heterozygous organism is a blend of the
two co-dominant alleles, (eg. Tall + Short = Medium)
The ratios of offspring crosses therefore do NOT conform with Mendels ratios
SEX LINKAGE
Sex (gender) is a genetically determined characteristic

Humans have 46 chromosomes, two of which, are sex chromosomes
In females, both are X chromosomes (XX), in males, there is one X and one Y
chromosome (XY)
Males receive their X chromosome from their mother, and their Y
chromosome from their father, which can carry very few genes
X chromosomes carry a wide variety of genes and it is the genes on the X
chromosome only which effect characteristics (phenotype)
With this in mind, males therefore are much more likely to express a
recessive trait as they only have one X chromosome on which the
characteristic can be expressed
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
The environment includes all the surrounding forces which act on an

organism or its cells
The expression of a gene, as well of the phenotype of an individual, can be
affected by the environment
This can be shown in twins, as although they are genetically identical, due to
growing up in different environments, they are not identical organisms
Environmental factors can include nutrition, health, and the physical
environment around the organism
6.4 THE MECHANISM OF INHERITANCE

DNA REPLICATION
A replica is a copy of something, and during mitosis chromosomes are

replicated
DNA replication begins with the separation of its two strands, the bonds
holding them together breaking and the strands unzip
Binding proteins prevent the strands from re-attaching as a complimentary
copy of each strand is constructed from new sugar-phosphate-base units
DNA AND THE PRODUCTION OF POLYPEPTIDES
DNA is the genetic, or inheritable, material in cells

It can be replicated and the information it carries can be passed on to new
cells
This genetic information is organised into units known as genes, certain
sequences of bases along a DNA strand
Each gene contains coded information required to make polypeptides
Whilst DNA does not directly make proteins for the cell, through transcription
and translation it provides the information for the cell to synthesise them
THE GENETIC CODE
To manufacture a protein, information is required about the number, type,

and sequence of amino acids that make up a protein molecule
This information can be found in a code on the DNA strand
The genetic code therefore, is the sequence of bases along the DNA strand
A set of three bases is known as a codon and this codon is the code for one
amino acid
There are in total 61 codons which specify one of the 20 amino acids
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Production of a protein involves:
1. DNA A gene on the DNA strand provides the information required to make
the polypeptide
2. Messenger RNA (mRNA) Carries information from the DNA (in the nucleus)
to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm (as DNA cannot exit the nucleus)
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA) Brings amino acids to the ribosomes so they may be
able to be linked together to build the polypeptide chain. Each tRNA contains
an anti-codon which contains complementary bases to those found on the
mRNA
4. Ribosomes Acts as a site for polypeptide synthesis in the cytoplasm as the
linking of amino acids into a polypeptide
chain occurs
5. Enzymes Involved in catalysing the
reactions
STAGES OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

TRANSCRIPTION
The double DNA strand in the nucleus unwinds to form two strands with
revealed bases
RNA then moves along one strand, linking complementary RNA nucleotides
together to form a mRNA strand (NB. There is a specific codon for the
beginning and end of the strand)
After the entire gene is copied, the mRNA moves from the nucleus to the
cytoplasm
ACTIVATION OF AMINO ACIDS

In the cytoplasm, an enzyme attaches amino acids to specific tRNA molecules
TRANSLATION
The mRNA strand binds to a ribosome in the cytoplasm at the end of the
strand which expresses the Start codon (AUG)
A tRNA codon on the tRNA strand carrying amino acids also binds to the
Start codon within the ribosome
The next codon on the tRNA strand is bound to the next on the mRNA strand
and the amino acid is holds is bound, via peptide bond, to the first amino acid
The first tRNA codon is then released from the ribosome, and the ribosome
continues along each strand, continuing this process to form a polypeptide
chain (a chain of bounded amino acids)
Once the Stop codon on the mRNA is reached, the polypeptide chain is
released into the cytoplasm
The chain then undergoes specific twisting, folding, and shape changing to
eventually form a protein
MUTATIONS
Variation arises in sexually reproducing organisms by the recombination and

crossing over of chromosomes in meiosis, and the fusion of two haploid sets
of chromosomes in fertilisation
Mutation is an alternative to this, which can lead to new alleles in an
organism as changed occur in the DNA on a chromosome
Mutation however, is often lethal, causing the mutated cells to die

It is only when the mutated form survives that it can increase the variation of
a population
RADIATION
During the 20th Century, knowledge of the mutagenic nature of radiation (eg.
UV, nuclear) became much more abundant
UV RADIATION
Ultraviolet radiation from sunlight is common mutagen, which can result in

the bases in a DNA strand to be lost, or cause Thymine bases in the same
strand o link together, ultimately preventing DNA replication from occurring
normally
UV radiation is also known to be a major cause of skin cancers, and due to
the increasing depletion of the ozone layer, the rate of UV mutations is likely
to rise
IONISING RADIATION
Radiation from radioactive materials and x-rays is mutagenic

These radiations can break DNA strands of even whole chromosomes,
resulting in mutation or cell death, depending on the amount of damage
Survivors of ionic radiation, such as those from the Hiroshima bombings and
the Chernobyl disaster still exhibit signs of the radiations effect today
The victims have been shown to suffer immediate damage to the DNA in their
cells, as well as damage which fully surfaced years later
BEADLE AND TATUM ONE GENE: ONE POLYPEPTIDE
In 1941, Beadle and Tatum published results from an experiment which

involved the radiation of bread mould to inhibit a gene
The results recorded provided evidence of a link between genes and proteins
(which are built from polypeptides)
They used x-rays to cause mutations in millions of strains of the mould which
caused the strain to lack the ability to produce one of the essential nutrients
for normal growth
They determined that this inability was caused by the absence of a necessary
enzyme
By growing different strains with different combinations of nutrients, they
were able to establish which enzyme was lacking in each mutant strain, and
determined that each genetic mutation was at a specific site on the moulds
chromosomes
They concluded that different sites on the chromosomes were associated with
a certain enzyme, leading to the One gene, one polypeptide hypothesis
DARWIN REVISITED
Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection can be explained and

expanded upon by the genetic information we now have, as we now know
that variation stems from:
1. The random fusion of gametes in sexual reproduction
2. Crossing over of homologous chromosomes during meiosis
3. Random assortment of chromosome pairs in meiosis
4. Mutations of chromosomes and genes
Genetic variation is expressed in the phenotype of an organism
Some phenotypes, the more favorable ones, will survive and reproduce better
than the others
Over time, natural selection will operate to change the proportions of certain
genes in a population
NATURAL SELECTION VERSES PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM
Darwins theory of Natural Selection proposes that populations change

gradually over time
To support this theory, we should see a long sequence of gradual changes to
an organisms anatomy in the fossil record this is usually not the case
This has been explained by supporters of the theory of Natural Selection by
the rare nature of fossilization occurring, coupled with the rare nature of
finding a fossilized organism
Because of this rare nature, it seems as though new species suddenly appear,
show little change throughout their life, and then become extinct
It Is the theory of Punctuated Equilibrium that proposes that rather than a
gradual change in an organism, as Darwin suggests. Evolution occurs rapidly,
followed by a long period of stability, or equilibrium
6.5 REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES AND GENETIC ENGINEERING

MANIPULATING THE GENE POOL
Ever since humans began taming animals and farming crops they have been
controlling the breeding of the organisms in their care
By doing this, humans have been able to improve the characteristics of these
organisms for human use and purposes (eg. Larger cattle, faster growing
crops)
Selective Breeding means deliberately crossing individuals of the same
species with desired characteristics, causing the offspring to also possess
these characteristics
Over generations, the preferred characteristics will become the majority due
to the changes that have been made to the genetic composition of a
population
This can be seen as a controlled version of Darwins Theory of Natural
Selection
ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION AND POLLINATION
Artificial insemination is the injection of male semen into a female, and is

used commonly by animal breeders for larger animals such as cows, sheep,
and horses
Generally, the sperm collected is from a male with favourable characteristics
Once collected, the sperm can then be transported and used to inseminate
females over a much wider area than by normal mating
Plants can be artificially pollinated by brushing fertile stigmas with pollen
from plants, again with desired characteristics
These techniques lead to quick, widespread genetic changes within a species
population
CLONING
Cloning is the process of producing genetically identical organisms

Cloning occurs naturally in asexual reproduction, a clone being is collection of
genetically identical copies
The cloning of plants has been used for many years, however only recently
have scientists been able to clone a domestic animal, a sheep, Dolly, being
successfully cloned in 1997 by a technique known as nuclear transfer
technology
During her life, Dolly was able to give birth to 4 healthy lambs, indicating
correct functioning of the cloned cells and genes
Since 1997, scientists have been able to, albeit with low success rates, clone
such animals as mice, goats, pigs, cattle, and horses
GENETIC ENGINEERING
Biotechnology is the use of various techniques to change organisms at a

molecular level
This permanently alters the genetic blueprint of an organism, as desirable
genes from one organism are isolated, and then inserted into another
organism
PRODUCTION OF A TRANSGENIC SPECIES
Genetically modified organisms are those which have had their genetic
makeup deliberately modified by either selective breeding, mutation, or
genetic engineering
A transgenic species is one which contains a new piece of DNA spliced into a
chromosome in each of its cells
This new piece of DNA usually allows the organism to produce a protein which
it would otherwise be unable to produce
The inserted DNA may come from either an entirely different species, or a
different organism within the same species
The production of a transgenic species involves several steps
1. A useful gene and the chromosome it is on is identified
2. The gene is isolated, or cut-out of the DNA strand
3. In some instances, multiple copies of the gene may be made
(through insertion into quickly-reproducing bacteria)
4. The gene is inserted into the cell of another organism, sometimes
with the aid of a vector. The method of insertion is reliant on the
cell
Once the gene is inserted, it needs to become part of the genetic material of
that organism, and must be able to be expressed
The organism is not counted as a transgenic organism unless it is able to
pass on this trait to its offspring
Transgenic species have been developed to improve agricultural crops, such
as pest-resistant wheat and cotton
Livestock has also been modified to be resistant to disease or to improve
their meat quality
ETHICS AND TRANSGENIC SPECIES
Many social, economic, and ethical issues arise from genetic modification,
especially regarding areas such as:
Food safety and health, environmental protection, regulating issues, social
and economic effects, and ethical and moral issues
POTENTIAL IMPACTS ON GENETIC DIVERSITY
An issue that stems from the use of reproductive technologies is the loss of
genetic diversity which it poses
If more genetically modified plants and livestock are used, local varieties will
lose value on a global scale
Less diversity also results in less resilience in a species, following on from
Darwins ideas of natural selection if a change in the environment occurs,
all of the species will suffer due to being genetically identical
EXAMPLE: BT COTTON
Bascillus thuringiensis is a bacterium that naturally produced chemicals

which kill insects
It is used extensively in transgenic crops, allowing the crops to defend
themselves against insect predators
However, if these Bt crops become standard throughout the world, other

varieties will be lost, and the crop itself will become more vulnerable due to a
lack of diversity if the environmental conditions change
Although these reproductive technologies can be extremely beneficial for the
health and prosperity of crops and livestock, we must take into account the
negative consequences, that is a much thinner range of genetic diversity,
which will result from widespread use of these technologies
CHAPTER 7: THE SEARCH FOR BETTER HEALTH

7.1 WHAT IS A HEALTHY ORGANISM?
DEFINING HEALTH AND DISEASE
Defining health is not easy as it has many components, some subjective

Defining disease has a similar problem, as it is subjective, depending on an
individuals normal level of functioning
The WHOs definition of health is: a state of complete physical, mental and
social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity
THE MAINTENANCE OF HEALTH

MITOSIS AND GENES
The maintenance of health of an organism is assisted by the maintenance

and repair of the bodys cells and tissues
The function of genes is to ensure all cellular processes are able to continue
Mitosis allows organisms to grow and to produce genetically identical, correct
cells for repair
Cell Differentiation the process by which a less specialised cell becomes
more specialised
Changes or mutations in the genetic material may occur during the life of an
organism, which can be damaging to healthy cells
Healthy cells have their cell cycle carefully regulated, brought on by the
proteins produced by different types of genes
When tumour suppressor genes mutate, they lose their ability to control cell
division
The rate of cell division increases and causes a tumour
Different types of cells become specialised for different functions within a
multicellular organism Cell Specialisation
7.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF CLEANLINESS

INFECTIOUS AND NON-INFECTOUS DISEASE
Disease may come from the organism itself, or from an outside source, such
as another organism or environmental factors
Diseases can be classified as infectious (able to be caught) or non-infectious

Infectious diseases are caused by a pathogen, an infecting organism
A non-infectious disease is caused by hereditary, lifestyle, or environmental
factors
Pathogens can be: prions, viruses, bacteria, protozoans, or fungi (explained
further on)
CONTRIBUTING FACTORS
Three interacting factors contribute to health and disease: the host organism,
the agent of disease, the environment
The Host Organism resistance to infection varies, individuals vary, and the
resistance of a particular individual can vary over time. A healthy person
might resist an infection which is devastating to another, people under stress
may succumb more easily to infections, a persons resistance may be
stronger than anothers, and a persons lifestyle may differ to anothers
The Agent Most infective agents only affect one species, for example cat
influenza is not passed to humans. The dose of infection may also be too
small to have a significant effect, or the effect on the host may be varied due
to the bodys reaction to the pathogen
Environment The nature of the environment will affect the likelihood of a
pathogen growing and being passed from on host to another. Many infectious
agents are spread in crowded, unhygienic conditions
CLEANLINESS AND CONTAMINATION
General hygiene and cleanliness are important in reducing the transmission

of infectious diseases
This can include personal hygiene such as hand washing, or societal hygiene
such as sewage and handling of food
The provision of clean water and disposal of waste water or sewage is a
public health issue, water supplied to houses must be safe to drink
PATHOGENS
When an organism causes disease, they are called a pathogen

To cause disease, organisms require the right conditions to multiply and be
transmitted
HOW DISEASES ARE SPREAD
Airborne Dust and droplets in the air may carry microorganisms

Contact Contagious or infectious diseases can be caught by direct or
indirect contact
By other Organisms Organisms known as vectors may transmit diseases,
eg. Mosquito
7.3 THE SEARCH FOR MICROBES AS CAUSES OF DISEASE

PLAGUES AND EPIDEMICS
MICROBES AS THE CAUSE OF INFECTIOUS DISEASE
Until the mid-19th Century, people thought that living things came into
existence from non-living matter, spontaneous generation
Two scientists who contributed most to the understanding of causes of
diseases were Louis Pasteur, and Robert Koch
LOUIS PASTEUR
Discovered that most infectious diseases are caused by microorganisms, or

germs
This became known as the germ theory of disease
His demonstration, via the swan-necked flask experiment, proved that living
micro-organisms are present in the air, destroying the theory of spontaneous
generation
He also discovered the technique of Pasteurisation, heating a liquid to 55C to
destroy any microbes present
He also demonstrated the first idea of vaccination, infecting 25 sheep with a
small dose of Bacillus anthracis, and then 50 sheep, including the original 25
with a large dose
Those who were administered the small dose and then the large dose
survived, whilst those administered only the large dose died
ROBERT KOCH
Succeeded in isolating the bacterium which causes the disease from the
blood of dying animals
He found that healthy animals injected with the blood of diseased animals
became diseased
To prove that a bacterium cause a certain disease, he isolated it and injected
an animal with only the isolated bacterium
Kochs Postulates describe the criteria which must be met if we are to be sure
a particular micro-organism causes a disease
MALARIA
Caused by the protozoan parasites of the genus Plasmodium, transmitted by

the female Anopheles mosquito
First identified by Ronald Ross
Despite many programs to eradicate it, malaria remains a major health
problem in tropical and sub-tropical areas
AGENTS OF DISEASE
An infectious disease is one that is caused by a pathogen and can be passed

on from one organism to another. These pathogens include:
PRIONS
Infectious agents that cause brain disease in mammals

They are proteins that have been altered to an abnormal shape
Diseases caused by prions include Mad Cow Disease in cattle, and
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans
VIRUSES
Very small, only visible with an electron microscope

No cellular, simply nuclear material (DNA or RNA) encased in a protein coat
Viruses inject their DNA into another cell and this injected cell produces new
viruses which escape to infect others
There are no cures for viruses, only prevention through vaccination
Viruses include smallpox, measles, influenza, and AIDS
BACTERIA
Procaryotic cells lacking of a nucleus or membrane

Bacterial diseases can be treated by antibiotics
Examples include tetanus, chlamydia, and Johnes disease
PROTOZOANS
Single celled, eukaryotic (cells encased in a membrane) organisms
FUNGI
Eucaryotic organisms, mostly comprised of microscopic tubular filaments

Examples of diseases cause by fungi is tinea or athletes foot, and ringworm
MACROPARASITES
Large parasites that can be seen with the naked eye

Eg. Lice, mites, ticks, and fleas in animals and mites and aphids in plants
THE ROLE OF ANTIBIOTICS
Antibiotics are substances capable of destroying or inhibiting the growth of

bacteria
They are chemicals that act on the pathogen without harming the host
They are only effective against bacterial diseases, not viruses
The first antibiotic was Penicillin
Antibiotics work internally on a cellular level
Because of the widespread use of antibiotics however, some bacteria have

evolved resistant strains, which resist antibiotics
In response, scientists have had to develop stronger antibiotics, however
problems may arise if the bacteria grows resistant to this stronger treatment
7.4 PROTECTING THE BODY: DEFENCE BARRIERS
The body has various defence mechanisms against pathogens

Firstly Protecting the body at possible entry points, non-specific protection
which aim to prevent pathogens from entering the body
Secondly Defence mechanisms operate when pathogens succeed in
entering the body, also non-specific response
Thirdly Specific defence mediated by lymphocytes
DEFENCE BARRIERS PREVENTING ENTRY

THE SKIN BARRIER
Microorganisms cannot penetrate the skin unless it is broken

If the skin breaks, the blood clotting mechanism quickly forms a seal to
prevent entry of pathogens
MUCOUS MEMBRANES
Line the digestive, respiratory, reproductive, and urinary tracts with a thick,
slimy mucous
This mucous protects against invasion , aided by the presence of an antibody
in it which reacts to potential pathogens
SPECIFIC RESPONSES THE IMMUNE RESPONSE
The bodys immune response is its reaction to invasion by foreign materials

These include viruses, bacteria, and toxins
The body identifies these substances as foreign and triggers a response to
attempt to destroy them
The substances which trigger this reaction are known as antigens
This response can pose problems in organ transplants as the hosts body
identifies the transplant as foreign, and attempts to attack and destroy the
new tissue
DEFENCE ADAPTATIONS NON-SPECIFIC RESPONSES

INFLAMMATION RESPONSE
When any body tissue is damaged, the area becomes red, hot, swollen, and
painful
Blood circulation to this area is increased and the blood vessels dilate and
become leaky
This response helps to confine the pathogen to one area of the body whilst
the body increases production of White Blood Cells to destroy it
The chemicals histamine and prostaglandins are related to this response
PHAGOCYTOSIS
Phagocytes are white blood cells which can actively move from the blood to
tissues, where they ingest and destroy any foreign material (containing
foreign antigens), including pathogens
This action is known as phagocytosis
SEALING OFF THE PATHOGEN
When the body is unable to neutralise an antigen, chronic inflammation

involving macrophages (phagocytes) and lymphocytes (produced in the
lymph nodes) may occur
The reaction forms a cluster of cells which surround the area of infection
7.5 THE IMMUNE RESPONSE
When we are exposed to an antigen for the first time, our body responds by
producing lymphocytes
Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell, the two main types being T-Cells
and B-Cells
Antibodies are produced by the B-Cells in the lymph nodes in response to a
specific antigen entering the body
Antibodies are proteins that bind to antigens, forming the antigen-antibody
complex which activates the production of proteins that results in the
ingestion and destruction of bacteria
T-CELLS
There are four types of T-Cells: Helpers (start immune response), Cytotoxic
(attack infected cells), Suppressors (supresses immune response), and
Memory (aids pathogen immunity)
T-Cells form in the bone marrow, and mature and develop in the thymus
gland
They remain inactive in blood until they come in contact with and antigen,
which binds onto the T-Cell, activating it to multiply
T Cells control the cell-mediated response, in which various T Cells destroy
the antigen or foreign cell
Other T Cells stimulate the activity of B-Cells and phagocytes, whilst some
remain in the body as T Memory Cells, which aid in the quick removal of a
previously encountered antigen
THE ACQUIRED IMMUNE RESPONSE
Cytotoxic T-Cells destroy the cells which carry foreign antigens

Helper T-Cells secrete chemicals which regulate cytotoxic T-Cell and B-Cell
functions
Suppressor T-Cells regulate B and T Cells, suppressing the immune response
once the pathogen has been destroyed
Memory T-Cells recognise an antigen when it reappears and have the Helpers
quickly produce a large amount of antibodies
B-CELLS
Mature and develop in the bone marrow

They control the blood response in which B Cells present in the blood and
lymph nodes are activated by the presence of antigens
Activated B Cells clone themselves and then differentiate into either plasma
cells, which send antibodies to the blood, or memory cells
Primary infection
compared to secondary
infection after Memory
Cells have been created
IMMUNITY AND IMMUNISATION PROGRAMS
Once a pathogen had infected the body and then been destroyed by it, the
infected person is said to be immune to that disease
This immunity can be short-lived, or life-long
VACCINATION
Vaccination, or immunisation, is the process of making people resistant to

infections cause by pathogens
It involves the administering of an injection or oral dose of vaccine
Vaccines are preparations of weakened or dead infective microorganisms that
are injected into the body to provoke the immune response without causing
any symptoms
Some vaccines work for life, whilst some much be readministered
Active immunisation involves the injection of an antigen in the form of a

vaccine, which stimulates the B and T Memory Cells specific to that antigen
Passive immunisation involves the injection of antibodies that another
organism has produced in response to infection by a particular pathogen it
does not provide long term protection, however it is immediate
DELIBERATE SUPPRESSION OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
Suppression of the immune system is necessary for the process of organ

transplants
Because blood drains from the transplanted organ into the new host body,
the body recognises the cells as foreign and begins the immune response,
effectively attacking the new organ, aiming to destroy the tissue
Rejection is reduced by matching transplanted tissue proteins to the
recipients proteins and by giving drugs to suppress the immune response
7.6 EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES

WHAT IS EPIDEMIOLOGY?
Epidemiology is the study of diseases that affect many people, it describes

the patterns and cause of diseases in populations
Diseases studied include infectious diseases and those related to peoples
life-style and environment
They establish links between lifestyle and disease eg. Smoking and lung
cancer
Modern methods of epidemiological studies involve large groups of people to
collect a large, diverse quantity of information to be statistically analysed
There are three broad categories of epidemiological studies:
Descriptive studies Show patterns in the way diseases happen to be
distributed in populations
Analytic studies Planned investigations to test a specific hypothesis
Intervention studies Measure the effectiveness and safety of certain
interventions
LUNG CANCER
Caused by the abnormal growth of cells in the lung

In NSW 2001, lung cancer was the most common cause of cancer deaths in in
people aged 50-84
Epidemiological studies concluded that smoking is a major cause of lung
cancer
Factors taken into consideration were the time one has been smoking,
cigarettes smoked each day, as well as other factors such as age, gender,
and year
CAUSES OF NON-INFECTIOUS DISEASES
Not caused by pathogens

Include inherited diseases, nutritional deficiencies, and environmental
diseases
INHERITED DISEASES
Include gene and chromosome abnormalities and are genetically inherited

They include minor disorders such a colour blindness, or major disorders such
a cystic fibrosis
They can be successfully treated by such things as surgery, drug treatment,
of special diets
However faulty genes cannot be corrected
NUTRITIONAL DISEASES
Lack of a vital component of diet. Eg. Low vitamin C can lead to Scurvy
CASE STUDY: SCURVY
Caused by a lack of vitamin C in the diet

Was very prevalent in the time of sea exploration, where perishable food
items could not be taken
It caused the capillaries to become fragile and bleed within the tissues, the
gums to become swollen and rotten, teeth to fall out, wounds fail to heal, and
if untreated, death
ENVIRONMENTAL DISEASE
Can include exposure to radiation, heavy metals, pollution in the air, soil or
water, lifestyle, loud noise, stress, and drug abuse
7.7 STRATEGIES TO PREVENT AND CONTROL DISEASE
There is a wide range of strategies to prevent and control disease in humans
PUBLIC HEALTH PROGRAMS
Help to control and prevent disease by strategies directed at three targets;

the pathogen, the host, and the environment
There is an increasing emphasis on PREVENTING disease rather than
TREATING it
Laws requiring government authorities to be notified of the occurrence of

certain diseases has helped stop the spread of disease, requiring people
exhibiting the disease to be quarantined
People are protected by improved awareness from public education
campaigns that influence people to improve their health. Eg. Quit campaign
Vaccination programs and screening programs are also used to help prevent
disease
QUARANTINE AS A CONTROL MEASURE
Quarantine is a period of isolation to prevent the spread of a contagious

disease
Australia in particular has strict quarantine laws to protect the unique plants
and animals from introduced species and disease
Quarantine inspectors patrol the entry of ships and aircrafts into Australia to
ensure the preventing of foreign disease entering the country
Imported animals face a time in isolation and imported plants are examine to
ensure they bring no harmful substances
PESTICIDES
Chemicals that can destroy organisms that directly damage crops or plants,
or cause disease in livestock and animals
They are also used to eliminate vectors eg. Potato leaf roll virus caused by
Aphids
Pesticides are often essential for the efficient production of a healthy
agricultural crop, but their use may also cause environmental problems, such
as accumulation of pesticides in the food chain, and destruction of organisms
other than those intended
An example is DDT, which used to be used as a common pesticide
DDT does not break down easily, and stays in the environment for a long
period of time, poisoning soils and being carried around the world in water.
DDT can have varying negative effects on organisms, for example making the
shells of some bird eggs softer and more vulnerable
GENETIC ENGINEERING
Genetic engineering has produced disease-resistant plants and animals

These plants and livestock have their genes altered to make them resistant to
common pests and diseases
However, genetic engineering remains a controversial topic
IMPLICATIONS FOR THE FUTURE
The prevention and control of disease is a continuing battle
In some areas, there has been immense success, such as the eradication of
smallpox and the decline of once-common human diseases through
vaccination programs
Some controls work well for a time but then their effectiveness declines
The development of drug resistance in pathogens means that without
continued research for new chemicals to destroy them, pathogens will
continue to spread disease
OPTION 2: GENETICS: THE CODE BROKEN?

2.1 THE GENETIC CODE
DNA
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) is a double-stranded, helical molecule made up

of repeating units called nucleotides. (Each nucleotide contains a sugar,
phosphate, and a base)
DNA is able to replicate itself, so copies of a certain DNA molecule can be
made
Genes are the particular sequences of bases along a DNA molecule
The information to create a new organism is transmitted by these genes
DNA is present in almost every cell in an organism, contained mostly in the
nucleus
THE DNA CODE
The structure of DNA provides a code containing the information required to

produce a polypeptide
This DNA code is stored in the sequence of bases (A, T, C, G) in the DNA
strands
These bases code for amino acids, which form a chain to make up
polypeptides
In humans, there are 20 of these amino acids, and each is coded by a triplet
of bases called a codon
The code determines:
1. Which amino acids are put into the polypeptide
2. How many amino acids in the polypeptide
3. The arrangement of amino acids in the polypeptide
Not all of the DNA functions as a code, the amount of genetic material in cells
greatly exceeds the amount of coded information used
Only some of this non-coding DNA is essential, the rest being regarded as
redundant or junk DNA, however it may serve uses we do not yet know
POLYPEPTIDE SYNTHESIS
A gene is a region of DNA which controls inherited characteristics through

controlling polypeptide synthesis (which fold to become proteins)
It does this by transferring coded information (bases) to mRNA, determining
the amino acids to be added in a polypeptide
Polypeptide synthesis involves the following processes:
6. DNA A gene on the DNA strand provides the information required to make
the polypeptide
7. Messenger RNA (mRNA) Carries information from the DNA (in the nucleus)
to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm (as DNA cannot exit the nucleus)
8. Transfer RNA (tRNA) Brings amino acids to the ribosomes so they may be
able to be linked together to build the polypeptide chain. Each tRNA contains
an anti-codon which contains complementary bases to those found on the
mRNA
9. Ribosomes Acts as a site for polypeptide synthesis in the cytoplasm as the
linking of amino acids into a polypeptide
chain occurs
10.Enzymes Involved in catalysing the
reactions
STAGES OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

TRANSCRIPTION
The double DNA strand in the nucleus unwinds to form two strands with
revealed bases
RNA then moves along one strand, linking complementary RNA nucleotides
together to form a mRNA strand (NB. There is a specific codon for the
beginning and end of the strand)
After the entire gene is copied, the mRNA moves from the nucleus to the
cytoplasm
ACTIVATION OF AMINO ACIDS
In the cytoplasm, an enzyme attaches amino acids to specific tRNA molecules
TRANSLATION
The mRNA strand binds to a ribosome in the cytoplasm at the end of the
strand which expresses the Start codon (AUG)
A tRNA codon on the tRNA strand carrying amino acids also binds to the
Start codon within the ribosome
The next codon on the tRNA strand is bound to the next on the mRNA strand
and the amino acid is holds is bound, via peptide bond, to the first amino acid
The first tRNA codon is then released from the ribosome, and the ribosome
continues along each strand, continuing this process to form a polypeptide
chain (a chain of bounded amino acids)
Once the Stop codon on the mRNA is reached, the polypeptide chain is
released into the cytoplasm
The chain then undergoes specific twisting, folding, and shape changing to
eventually form a protein
GENE EXPRESSION
A gene undergoing these processes is said to be being expressed, the code

being used to make a polypeptide
We can see this gene expression in the phenotype of a cell or organism, that
is, the observable, physical features
2.2 VARIABILITY WITHIN A TRAIT
MULTIPLE ALLELES
Different forms of a gene that influences one characteristic are called alleles
Each individual can have two alleles for a particular gene, one on each
homologous chromosome
When more than two alleles influence one trait, they are called multiple
alleles
In this case, one allele is normally dominant to a series of recessive alleles,
each with varying degrees of dominance over the others
An example of this is in rabbits, whose coat colour is controlled by 4 different
alleles
They show the following sequence of dominance: Ag > Ch > Hi > Al
THE INHERITANCE OF BLOOD GROUPS IN HUMANS
In humans, there are several blood groups under which blood can be
identified
This is determined by the ABO and Rhesus systems
These systems are important as during blood transfusions, an incorrect blood
group could be fatal, due to a reaction similar to the antigen-antibody
reaction
ABO GROUPS
In the ABO system, there are four blood groups: A, B, AB, and O
There are three alleles for this system: A, B, and O
A and B are completely dominant over O, however are co-dominant to each
other, put simply,
A=B>O
This means that people of the blood group A can have the genotype AA or
AO, whereas people of the blood group O can only have the genotype OO
THE RHESUS BLOOD GROUP
The second system of blood grouping is based on the rhesus factor, and is
represented by a + or a - following the ABO group
The rhesus (or Rh) factor is coded by two alleles, and so relies of simple
Dominant/Recessive inheritance, the + allele being dominant to the -
allele
POLYGENIC INHERITANCE
In many cases, a trait (phenotype) is not expressed by only one gene, but a
combination of many genes, or polygenes, located on different chromosomes
Polygenic inheritance is especially noticeable in height in humans, with

overall height being affected by many different characteristics (Height of:
neck, body, head, legs etc)
DNA FINGERPRINTING
All organisms produced by natural sexual reproduction have unique DNA

Although it is the coding regions of DNA (the exons) which make up an
organism, it is the non-coding regions (the introns) that are able to be used to
uniquely genetically identify an individual This is known as DNA
Fingerprinting
Recombinant DNA technology allows the DNA of an organism to be analysed
and compared with other DNA samples
DNA fingerprinting can be used in medicine, genetics research, and forensic
science
2.3 INHERITANCE OF GENES

MEIOSIS
The traits of offspring reflect the inheritance of genes from the parents
Meiosis is a type of cell division which occurs during sexual reproduction,

resulting in the splitting of a somatic (diploid) cell into two haploid cells
Three different outcomes occur as a result of meiosis:
a. Genes on different chromosomes are inherited according to Mendels
laws
b. Genes on the same chromosomes are inherited together, their traits
usually occurring together. This is known as LINKED
c. Genes on chromosomes that cross over create new combinations of
traits in the offspring
DIHYBRID CROSSES
Mendel also carried out experiments involving two characteristics, known as

dihybrid crosses
For example, crossing Green Round peas with Yellow Wrinkled peas (Two traits
being crossed)
When heterozygous organisms are crossed, they give a ratio of 9:3:3:1
(This is a heterozygous cross GgRr -> GR, Gr, gR, gr)
MENDELS LAWS
Mendel studied the inheritance of genes on different chromosomes using

monohybrid crosses
He summarized his findings into two laws:
The Law of Segregation: The alleles of a gene pair separate at gamete
formation so that each gamete contains only one allele of each gene pair
The Law of Independent Assortment: Each gene pair sorts out independently
of other gene pairs at gamete formation meaning that either allele of a
gene pair can combine with either allele of another gene pair
LINKED GENES
The genes on any given chromosome are usually inherited together and
therefore said to be linked
If genes for colour and shape, for example, were on the same chromosome,
they would not separate independently, and would pass directly into the
gametes together
However linked genes can be separated from each other in meiosis if crossing
over occurs, the further apart they are on the chromosome, the more likely
they will separate
CHROMOSOME MAPPING
Chromosome mapping gives us a picture of the arrangement of an

organisms genes on its chromosomes
If genes are close together on a chromosome, they usually stay together
during meiosis
Studying the frequency of recombination of traits in breeding experiments
has allowed scientists to produce maps of the genes on chromosomes
The formula for estimating the distance between two genes on a
chromosome is:
These maps provide an insight into genetic linkage and show the relative
distance between genes
Today, recombinant DNA technologies can produce more accurate maps
showing the position of genes in term of the sequence and number of bases
involved
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPECIES
Organisms of the same species share a common gene pool and have similar
chromosome maps
The more closely related organisms are, the more genes they have in
common
The identification of linkage groups (grouped genes) in different organisms is
one method of analyzing these relationships between species
Evidence of similarities in linkage groups between species indicates the
possibility that each organism shared a common ancestor
Ultimately, chromosome mapping of gene linkage provides another source of
evidence for the evolution of living organisms
2.4 THE HUMAN GENOME PROJECT
The genome of an organism is all the genetic material of an individual or

species
In a haploid (half the total amount of chromosomes), the human genome
consists of about 3 billion DNA bases arranged along the chromosomes
The Human Genome Project (HGP) is an international project which aimed to

identify all the human genes and to determine the sequences of these 3
billion bases in human DNA
18 countries participated in the HGP (this included Australia, The USA, Japan,
the EU, China, UK, Italy, and France)
The project began in 1990 and aimed to take 15 years to complete, however
finished 2 years early in 2003, achieving the goal of completely identifying
the human genome
This achievement was made possible largely by rapid advancements in
technology
A collaborative approach was also taken, which allowed the results to be
more quickly obtained and work together, each participating country being
assigned a particular task
These tasks included:
1. Genetic mapping of the human genome
2. Physical mapping of the human genome
3. DNA sequencing
4. Analysing the genomes of other organisms
BENEFITS OF THE HUMAN GENOME PROJECT
The benefits of the HGP will be enormous to advancing our knowledge and
technology in biology and medicine, as detailed DNA information will be
available in further research
In medicine, the benefits include significantly aiding in diagnosing, treating,
and preventing disease (For example, insulin bacteria)
People with family history of a particular disease are also able to find out
whether or not they carry the diseased genes, resulting in faster diagnosis
and quicker prevention of diseases
In the future, this may lead to the ability to identify disease-causing genes in
a foetus and splice out the defective alleles
Biologically, the HGP allows for more detailed comparisons to be made
between species and improved and easier genetic research
LIMITATIONS OF THE PROJECT
Despite providing a significant leap in our understanding of the human

genome, the HGP is looked at as preliminary data, and not a final
understanding of cell and organism functioning
What we do with this preliminary data provides the real challenge, as simply
knowing the base sequences does not determine the functioning of every
gene
Ethical, legal, and social implications and issues also arise from the possible
information gathered as a result of the HGP
PRODUCING RECOMBINANT DNA
Recombinant DNA is produced in cells as a result of chromosome crossingover in meiosis

Before the HGP, this could only be achieved through the deliberate crossing
of organisms, however now, recombinant DNA is able to be produced in a lab
using molecular technologies
Restriction enzymes cut pieces of DNA, and are resealed to other pieces of
DNA using sealing enzymes to form new recombinant DNA
EXAMPLE: INSULIN
1. The human gene for making insulin is cut out of the chromosome taken from
a human pancreas cell (Islets of Langerhans cell) using an enzyme called
restriction enzyme.
2. A ring of DNA called a plasmid is removed from the E.coli bacterium and cut
open with a restriction enzyme.
3. The human insulin gene is mixed with the cut plasmid. All of the cut ends
("sticky ends") can bond together using the enzyme DNA ligase to make a
new DNA molecule.
4. The "new" plasmid, that contains the recombinant DNA, is inserted back into
the bacterial cell.
5. When the bacterial cell reproduces, so does the plasmid and hence the
human insulin gene. When provided with the appropriate nutrients, these
cells produce human insulin which can be extracted and used by diabetics.
EXAMPLES OF RECOMINANT DNA TECHNOLOGIES
Cutting and rejoining DNA using restriction enzymes and sealing enzymes
Use of vectors to act as carriers of DNA fragments or genes
Polymerase chain reactions to produce multiple copies of DNA
DNA hybridization
Use of genetic probes (radioactive segments of RNA or DNA) which are
complementary to a DNA sequence being sought
MAPPING GENES USING RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY
Recombinant DNA has played a large part in mapping genes on chromosomes

Using linkage studies in the 1980s, scientists were able to construct genetic
maps using genetic markers, regions of DNA that were either exons or
introns (coding or non-coding)
Markers that usually occurred together were assumed to be determined by

genes on the same chromosome and were said to be linked
These linkage maps however, only showed relative positions of the marker
regions, and so genetic mapping using new technology enabled the rapid and
accurate advancement of the HGP
Two such technologies were Restriction Mapping, and DNA Sequencing
2.5 GENE THERAPY
If faulty genes can be replaced, switched off, or corrected, then diseases can
be treated at its source this method of treatment is known as gene therapy
Gene therapy becomes possible only when the genes responsible for the
harm are identified
It represents a more efficient way to diagnose, treat, and prevent disease,
however, is still largely experimental
In short, gene therapy aims to replace faulty genes with healthy ones
There are several steps the need to be followed to achieve this:
o Identification of the disease-causing gene
o Location of cells or tissues involved in the disease
o Access to multiple copies of the normal gene
o Insertion of the normal gene into the affected cells
Most commonly, viruses are used as vectors to carry the replacement gene to
a cell, the virus being injected with the normal gene, and then the human
being injected with the virus
Whilst this is the most efficient way, it also poses risk as viruses are
commonly pathogens themselves
Non-viral methods, such as direct introduction, nanotechnology, and
constructing artificial chromosomes are also being used, however none are as
effective as the viral method
2.6 GENETIC CHANGE
Any permanent change in the DNA is called a mutation

A mutation therefore, can involve changes in either the chromosome, or a
single gene
CHROMOSOME MUTATIONS
Some mutations involve a change in chromosome number, which arises

through an abnormality in meiosis, leaving the person with either too many
or too few chromosomes
In most cases, this occurs prior to gamete formation, and the gametes
produced do not produce viable offspring on fertilization
In Downs Syndrome, three copies of chromosome 21 are inherited, resulting
in a total of 47 chromosomes in the offspring, this is known as Trisomy
Another chromosome mutation is Polyploidy, which results in an individual

having whole extra sets of chromosomes, possibly resulting from improper
separation in mitosis
Polyploidy is much more common in plants and often results in larger,
stronger plants
In animals however, polyploidy is fatal
Parts of a chromosome may also be rearranged and the sequence of DNA
altered, causing visible changed in the chromosome structure
GENE MUTATIONS
Mutations may often not be large enough to affect chromosome structure, but
can be as small as to affect only a single base, or the involve a whole gene
DNA sequence
There are two main types of gene mutations, base substitution, and
frameshift mutations
Base substitution is when a single base may be replaced by another, causing
a point mutation which changes codons, and by extension, disrupts normal
amino acid production
For example, ATG might change to ACG. These codons each code for a
different amino acid and so regular bodily functioning is affected
Despite this, some base substitutions can result in no amino acid change, or
an amino acid change with no visible effect to the organism
Frameshift mutation occurs when a single base is added or deleted from a
DNA sequence
This loss or addition results in a change in the codon sequence after it has
occurred, thus affecting amino acid production and the functioning of
produced proteins
For example, the sequence THE FAT CAT ATE THE MAT, would change to THE
FFA TCA TAT ETH EMA T, if an extra F was added after the first codon
Cystic Fibrosis (CF) is a disease caused by gene mutation, most commonly a
base deletion (frameshift mutation) from chromosome 7
Mutations can occur spontaneously during DNA replication, and the rate can
be increased by environmental factors such as radiation, chemicals, or
viruses
DNA REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE
Changes that occur to the DNA in a fully differentiated specialized cell may
lead to the malfunctioning or death of that cell
In dividing cells, it is important that DNA is checked and repaired, if

necessary, by DNA repair genes to ensure healthy, somatic cells
This repair reduces the chance of continuing a possible harmful mutation that
has arose in a cell
JUMPING DNA
Jumping DNA refers to the idea that some pieces of DNA are transposable,
they can move from one position in the DNA to another
Many types exist, differing in length and behavior, but their movement is not
common
As well as moving themselves, jumping DNA can rearrange neighboring
segments of DNA due to deletion, addition, or relocation of some bases
Jumping DNA are likely to have played a major role in the evolution of life on
earth, as they:
o Destabilise the DNA in cells
o Deregulate the reading of genes
o Become active in bursts after periods of inactivity, causing several
characteristics to change at the same time
Transposable elements (jumping DNA) is thought to be linked so some
genetic diseased such a breast cancer and leukemia
GERM LINE AND SOMATIC MUTATIONS
Mutations that arise in an organisms somatic cells (body cells) affect only the
organism in which the mutation occurred. This is common in cancers and is
known as somatic mutations
Germ line mutations however, arise in an organisms germ cells (cells that
form sperm or eggs) and so will be passed on to, and affect the offspring,
possibly causing inherited diseases
A favorable germ line mutation provides the basis for natural selection and
the evolution of a species, however favorable mutations are much more rare
than unfavorable
2.7 SELECTIVE BREEDING
Selective breeding is the practice of choosing individuals in a population of a

species for mating, to obtain offspring with certain characteristics
Repetition of this will result in a population in which the majority of
individuals express these desired characteristics
Humans have been controlling the breeding of domestic animals and plants
in this way for thousands of years, particularly today in livestock and
agriculture to produce animals and plants as superior food sources
WHEAT BREEDING
In terms of volume, wheat is the more important agricultural crop in Australia

The selective breeding of wheat has been practiced in Australia since the
times of the early settlers, as European wheat did not grow effectively in
Australian conditions
Over time, wheat has been bred to have certain characteristics and provide a
maximum yield. Some of these characteristics are:
o Rapid progression through life cycle
o Increased grain yield
o Disease resistance, particularly to rust fungi
o Increased tolerance to frost, drought, and acidic soils
o Improved flour quality
Wheat in Australia has changed dramatically from the time of European
settlement, as humans have cross-bred many different species to end up with
a species of wheat best suited to both the environmental conditions and the
needs of the human population
For example, in the early 1900s, wheat was cross bred with Indian wheat to
increase rust resistance and shorten ripening time
Federation Wheat is a notable example from the 1920s, being a wheat
cultivar, that is it cannot be found in the wild and has been selectively bred
for specific characteristics
GENE CLONING
A clone is an exact genetic copy, and DNA, cells, and whole organisms can be
clones
Gene cloning uses genetic engineering techniques to produce unlimited
numbers of identical copies of genes clones
A number of recombinant DNA technologies may be used in cloning, for
example, genes can be inserted into bacteria, which multiply to produce
more than billions of copies of the inserted gene
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is the newest and fastest form of gene
cloning
Gene cloning has many practical uses, particularly in research, forensics, and
medicine
WHOLE ORGANISM CLONING
Whole organism cloning is a method of reproduction that results in

genetically identical offspring which are exact genetic copies of the parent
Plants can be cloned using a tissue culture, cells taken from the parent plant
being grown into a whole plant
Animals however, require a nuclear transfer, where the entire genome (46
chromosomes) from a cell of the parent is inserted into an egg cell that has
had its nucleus removed
The egg cell is then implanted into a surrogate mother where is develops
normally
The offspring that results is a genetically identical copy of the parent animal
2.8 DEVELOPMENT
EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
GENE CASCADES IN LIMB FORMATION
All animals have at least one cluster of homeotic genes (genes that
determine what parts of the body form what body parts) that lay down the
pattern for the front-to-back body axis
In vertebrates, the development of the body and limbs is always organized
the same way, the body developing from head to tail and limbs from the base
to the tips
EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIP REVEALED BY HOMOLOGY

The evolution of life on Earth over billons of year has produced tremendous
variation in the appearance of living things
However, studies in comparative anatomy, such as that of the pentadactyl
limb have revealed similarities between what would otherwise be considered
very different organisms
Comparative embryology has shown how differences in an initially similar
structure appear as development proceeds
As scientists delve further into comparing the inner workings and
biochemistry of organisms, the common origins of living things is revealed
repeatedly
It has been shown that nucleotide sequences in the genes of different
organisms is extremely similar
For example, the enzyme needed for a particular reaction in the respiration
pathway in bacteria has a similar structure to humans
This similarity provides evidence for evolutionary relationships between these
organisms and so is another point of evidence for evolution, particularly from
a common ancestor
THE EVOLUTION OF GENES
Current research suggests that many gene contain nucleotide sequences that
have changed only slightly and slowly during the evolution of life on Earth
For this reason, they are able to be used to compare relationships and
relatedness between organisms, as they would not have changed much since
their time of creation
Because the homeobox sequence (closely similar sequences that occur in
various genes and are involved in regulating embryonic development) is
similar in Hox genes, it is thought that they are homologous genes and all
share a common ancestral gene
Hox genes are also arranged in clusters on chromosomes and can be found in
similar positions within these clusters across the animal kingdom
Because of this, it seems likely that all animal species inherited their Hox
genes from a common ancestor
The study of mutations in homeotic genes show that a small mutation can
result in a dramatic and sudden change in an organism as the developmental
cascade is altered
The study of the evolution of gens, particularly homeotic genes, and the
expression of genes, particularly during development, is giving us an
understanding of their effects on living organisms and providing new
information about evolutionary relationships
END OF HSC COURSE

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BIOLOGY MASTER NOTES [PRELIM + HSC] SUMMARY

CHAPTER 1: A LOCAL ECOSYSTEM

An ecosystem is any environment containing living organisms interacting

ABIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS INCLUDE:

Viscosity a measure of how hard it is to move through a gas or liquid.

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Light availability Aquatic may be reflected scattered or absorbed,

Distribution WHERE a species is found

PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION

AEROBIC CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Involved a series of chemical reactions, releasing small amounts of energy

1.2 LOCAL ECOSYSTEMS: INTERACTIONS AND RESPONSES

The relationships between organisms in an ecosystem can be complex,

BIOMASS AND ENERGY PYRAMIDS

Biomass is the amount of living material in an organism or group of

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An adaptation is a feature of an organism that makes it well suited to its

CHAPTER 2: PATTERNS IN NATURE

THE STRUCTURE OF CELLS

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CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTION VISIBLE WITH A LIGHT

Nucleus Contains the chromosomes, which controls the development and

WHAT THESE ORGANELLES DO FOR A CELL

Mitochondrion Composed of folded layers of membrane, its involved in

CELL STRUCTURES IN DETAIL

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2.2 SKIPPED: THE SUBSTANCES IN CELLS

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SURFACE AREA TO VOLUME RATIO

A new cell beginning to grow receives nutrients through its surface

2.3 OBTAINING NUTRIENTS

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CELLS AND SYSTEMS

OBTAINING NUTRIENTS PLANTS

Plants use specialised structures to obtain the materials required for

OBTAINING SUNLIGHT AND CO2

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INTERNAL STRUCTURES OF A LEAF

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ensuring every leaf cell is close to a vein.

HERBIVORES AND CARNIVORES COMPARED MOUTH AND TEETH

FEATURES OF THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

2.4 EXCHANGING GASES

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Insects have a system of tubes called tracheae within their body

Respiratory surface is gills over which water flows

Two respiratory surfaces Lungs and skin

Gases exchanged in the lungs

TRANSPORT SYSTEMS IN FLOWERING PLANTS

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Transports sugars produced in photosynthesis around the plant

GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS

Stomates are pores in leaves through ehich gases can diffuse

2.5 GROWTH AND REPAIR

Mitosois is the process by which a multicellular organism grows, repairs,

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THE STAGES OF MITOSIS

THE NEED FOR CYTOKINESIS

Cytokinesis usually happens immediately after mitosis, ensuring the

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CHAPTER 3: LIFE ON EARTH

CHEMOSYNTHETIC FORMATION ON EARTH

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A closed system was set up and powerful electrical sparks (simulating