HSC Chemistry 2nd Part (Group V & VI Elements)

1
Mc-V I VI Gi gjmg~ni
Mc-V I VI Gi gjmg~ni imvqb

Chemistry of the Elements of Group V and VI
Ch
welqe(Syllabus)
AwRb ,bvBUvRb ,dmdivm I mvjdvii Drm(weklZ AvBW Ges mvjdvBW) ;
bvBUvRbi mv_ dmdivm Ges AwRbi mv_ mvjdvii fZ I ivmvqwbK agi Zzjbv ;
chvq mviwYZ Aevb I MVbi wfwZ G mKj gji ivmvqwbK agi evLv ;
AvBWmg~n, avZz mvjdvBW ;
Avgvwbqv ,bvBwUK GwmWi I mvjwdDwiK GwmWi wk Drcv`b cwZ ;
NO2- ,NO3- ,SO32- I SO42- Avqbi iZc~Y wewqvmg~n ;
Kwlwevb bvBUvRb I dmdivmi hMi iZ ;
AvBW, mvjdvBW I mvjwdDwiK GwmWi iZ ;
cwieki Dci KwZcq bvBUvRb I mvjdvi hMi cfve|
Dk(Objectives)
1|
2|
3|
4|
5|
6|
Mc-V I VI Gi gjmg~ni chvqewK ag mK vb jvf|

Mc-V I VI Gi gjmg~ni Drm mK vb jvf|
chvq mviwYZ Aevb I MVbi wfwZ G me gji ivmvqwbK agi evLv w`Z cviv|
bvBUvRbi mv_ dmdivmi Ges AwRbi mv_ mvjdvii fZ I ivmvqwbK agi Zzjbv KiZ cviv|
Mc-V I VI Gi gjmg~ni AvBW I mvjdvBW mK vb jvf|
bvBUvRb, dmdivm I mvjdvii hMmg~ni fZ I ivmvqwbK agvejx,eenvi, cwZ I ivmvqwbK agi
evLv w`Z cviv|
7| Avgvwbqv,bvBwUKGwmW I mvjwdDwiKGwmWi wkvrcv`b Ges wk Gì eenvi mK vb jvf|
8| bvBUvBU,bvBUU, mvjdvBW I mvjdU Avqbi iZc~Y ivmvqwbK wewqv mK aviYv jvf|
9| Kwl bvBUvRb I dmdivm hMi iZ I eenvi mK aviYv jvf|
10| cwieki Dci KqKwU bvBUvRb I mvjdvi hMi cfve mK aviYv jvf Kiv|
1.1 f~wgKv(Introduction)
AvaywbK chvq mviwYZ Mc-V I VI Mc `ywUK Avevi `ywU Ki DcMc h_v: Mc-VA I Mc-VB Ges McVIA I Mc-VIB G fvM Kiv nqQ| GB Aavq Mc-VA(mevaywbK chvq mviwYZ Myc-15) I Mc-VIA
(mevaywbK chvq mviwYZ Mc-16) Gi imvqb weklKi bvBUvRb, dmdivm, AwRb mvjdvi mK wek`
AvjvPbv Kiv ne | Mc-VB I Mc-VIB Gi gjmg~nK d-eK gj ej GìK c_Kfve d-eK
gjmg~ni imvqb Aavqi AvjvPbvi Af~ Kiv nqQ|
Mc-VA gjmg~ni imvqb

1.2.0 cwiwPwZ t
Mc-VA Gi gjmg~nK bvBUvRb Mc gjI ej| AvaywbK chvq mviwYZ GìK

Mc-15 G vb `qv nqQ| mvgwKfve G Mci gjmg~n wbK&UvRb (Pnictogens) bvg cwiwPZ| QK-1.1
G Mc-VA Gi gjmg~ni cvigvbweK msLv, cZxK I wewfb kj BjKUb msLv `Lvbv nqQ|
[ mviwY-1.1t Mc-VA Gi gjmg~ni cvigvbweK msLv, cZxK I wewfb kj BjKUb msLv ]
cvigvbweK msLv
gj
cZxK
BjKUb msLv / kj
7
15
33
51
83
Nitrogen(bvBUvRb)
Phosphorus(dmdivm)
Arsenic (AvimwbK)
Antimony (GwUgwb)
Bismuth (wemgv_)
N
P
As
Sb
Bi
2,
2,
2,
2,
2,
5
8,
8,
8,
8,
5
18, 5
18, 18, 5
18, 32, 18, 5
2
1.2.1 Mc-VA Gi gjmg~ni BjKUb webvm I chvq mviwYZ Aevb

1s2 2s22p3
[Ne] 3s23p3
15P
10
4s24p3
33As [Ar] 3d
10
0
5s2 5p3
51Sb [Kr] 4d 4f
14
5d10 5f 0 6s26p3
83Bi [Xe] 4f
Mc-VA Gi gjjvi BjKUb webvm jbxq h,
1| Gì cZKi cigvYyi ewn:kwi 5wU Ki BjKUb iqQ ;
2| Gì cigvYyi ewn:kwii mvaviY BjUb webvm : ns2np3 [ n=2 6 )
3| Giv mevB P-eK gj|
N, P, As, Sb I Bi gjjvi mevB P-eK gj ; Gì cigvYyi ewn:kwi 5wU Ki BjKUb Ges cigvYyi
ewn:kwii mvaviY BjKUb webvm : ns2np3 ej GìK chvq mviwYZ Mc-VA Z vb `qv nqQ|
7N
1.2.2 Mc-VA Gi gjmg~ni chvqewK ag (Periodic properties)

AvqbxKiY kw
(kJ mol-1)
0.075
0.110
0.121
0.141
0.148
0.171 (N3-)
0.212 (P3-)
0.222 (As3-)
0.076 (Sb3+)
0.103 (Bi3+)
1410
1070
972
840
778
(cvDwjj4.0)
AvqwbK
emva (nm)
-196
280
633
1750
1560
ZworFbvZKZv
cvigvYweK
emva (nm)
-210
44
817
630
271
( Tb 0 C )
Mvm
KwVb
KwVb
KwVb
KwVb
zUbvsK
( Tm0C )
7
15
33
51
83
MjbvsK
cvigvbweK
msLv (Z)
N
P
As
Sb
Bi
fZvev
Mc-VA gj
[ mviwY-1.2 t Mc-VA Gi gjmg~ni chvqewK ag ]
3.0
2.1
2.0
1.8
1.7
Mc-VA Gi gjjvi KqKwU DjLhvM chvqewK ag

1| fZvev ,MjbvsK I zUbvsK t
r.e
bo
ok
mviwY-1.2 j Kij `Lv hvq h, Mc-VA Gi gjjvi cvigvYweK msLv ewi mv_ Gì fZvev
cwiewZZ nq| ^vfvweK Zvcgvv I Pvc- bvBUvRb Mvmxq Aevq weivR Ki , dmdivm KwVb Aevq weivR
KijI DacvwZZ nq | dmdivm cieZx gj As , Sb I Bi ^vfvweK Zvcgvv I Pvc KwVb njI Gì
MjbvsK I zUbvsK gv^q ew cvq| Ze Bi Gi MjbvsK I zUbvsK ewi wgj bB| Bi ZR:wq gj
ej GgbwU NU| As I Sb Gi MjbvsK I zUbvsK AbKUv ewk nIqvi KviY njv- Giv AcavZz (avZz I AavZz
Dfq cKvi ag iqQ), avZz agi KviY Giv Kjvm Rvwj Ges evKvi cwjgvixq KvVvgv MVb Ki|
nb
i
2| cvigvYweK I AvqwbK evmva t
ok
.
co
/ta
cvigvYweK msLv ewi mv_ mv_ Mc-VA Gi gjjvi ewn:kwi GKwU Ki kwi hy nq| ZvB
cvigvYweK msLv ewi mv_ Mc-VA Gi gjjvi cvigvYweK I AvqwbK evmva ew cvq (mviwY-1.2)| McVA Gi gjjvi cigvYyi AvKvii DPg njv: N < P < As < Sb < Bi
3| AvqbxKiY kw t mviwY-1.2 G Mc-VA Gi gjjvi cvigvYweK msLv ewi mv_ Zvì c_g AvqbxKiY
.fa
ce
bo
kw nvmi welqwU `Lvbv nqQ| G, AvqbxKiY kwi wbgg njv: N > P > As > Sb > Bi |
cvigvYweK msLv ewi mv_ Mc-VA Gi gjjvi cvigvYweK evmva Z_v cigvYyi AvKvi ew cvq ej
AvqbxKiY kwi gv^q nvm cvq| cigvYyi AvKvi ew cj wbDwKqvm _K ewn:kwii BjKUbi `yiZ ew
cvq Ges BjKUbi cwZ wbDwKqvmi AvKlY nvm cvq| ewn:kwii BjKUbi cwZ wbDwKqvmi AvKlY nvm
cj Zv _K BjKUb AcmviY KiZ A kw eq nq ; dj AvqbxKiY kw nvm cvq|
3
4| ZworFbvZKZv t
mviwY-1.2 G Mc-VA Gi gjjvi cvigvYweK msLv ewi mv_ Zvì ZworFbvZKZv nvmi welqwU `Lvbv
nqQ| G ZworFbvZKZvi wbgg njv: N > P > As > Sb > Bi | Kvb gji ZworFbvZKZv Zvi
cigvYyi AvKvi I ewn:kwii BjKUb webvmi Dci wbfikxj| mghvRx eb kqviKZ BjKUb RvoK
AcvKZ QvU AvKvii cigvYy AwaK nvi Zvi abvZK PvRhy wbDwKqvmi w`K AvKlY KiZ cvi| ZvB cigvYyi
AvKvi nvm cj ZworFbvZKZv nvm cvq| hnZz Mc-VA Gi gjjvi ewn:kwii BjKUb webvb GKB wK
cigvYyi AvKvi wfb Ges cvigvYweK msLv ewi mv_ Zvì cigvYyi AvKvi nvm cvq; ZvB cvigvYweK msLv ewi
mv_ Zvì ZworFbvZKZv nvm cvq|
[ Mc-VAGi gjjvi ga bvBUvRb I dmdivm nj AavZz ; AvimwbK I AvwUgwb njv AcavZz Ges
wemgv_ njv avZz| bvBUvRb I dmdivm AavZz ej GB Aavqi Mc-VA Gi gj wnmve kyaygv bvBUvRb I
dmdivm mK wevwiZ AvjvPbv Kiv ne|]
1.3.0 BjKUbxq MVbi wfwZ Mc-VA Gi gjjvi ivmvqwbK agi evLv

1.3.1 Mc-VA Gi gjjvi mwqZv t
Mc-VA Gi gjjvi cvigvbweK msLv ewi mv_ mwqZvi Kvb wbqggvwdK cwieZb `Lv hvq bv| hgb:
bvBUvRb h_ ZworFbvZK gj (ZworFbvZKZv 3.0) gj nIqv mI mvaviY Aevq GwU LyeB wbwq| wbwq
Mvmmg~ni ci mePq wbwq Mvm njv bvBUvRb | ZvB bvBUvRbi me wewqv AwZ DP Zvcgvvq msNwUZ
nq| bvBUvRb I AwRbi wgkYK 30000C Zvcgvvq D Kij wewqv NU NO Mvm Zix nq|
0
C
N2(g) + O2(g) 3000
2NO(g)
DP Zvcgvvq bvBUvRb Mvm Zxe ZworabvZK avZz Al, Ca, Mg, Li BZvwì mv_ wewqv Ki bvBUvBW MVb
Ki| Gme avZz bvBUvBW ZworhvRx ev AvqwbK hM| Gì ga bvBUvRbi RviY msLv njv -3 |
N2(g) + 3Mg Mg3N2(s)

bvBUvRbi mwqZv LyeB Kg njI dmdivm ek mwq gj| kZ dmdivm K ZvcgvvqB mZ:zZfve
AwRbi mv_ wewqv Ki P4O6 MVb Ki| Gi KviY njv kZ dmdivm we`gvb P P ebi wwZkxjZvi
Pq P O ebi wwZkxjZv AbK ewk|
0
C
P4(s) + O2(g) 25
P4O6(s)
Avevi, As, Sb I Bi mvaviY Zvcgvvq wbwq | Giv Dvevq AwRbi mv_ AvBW MVb Ki|
1.3.2 Mc-VA Gi gjjvi ga bvBUvRb Mvm AZ vqx Ges wbwq

N-cigvbyi ewn:kwii p-AiweUvjmg~n Aac~Y Ges mylg Aevq AvQ|
7N
2p
2s
1s 2 2s 2 2p1x 2p1y 2p1z
[ N-cigvYyi ewn:kwii BjKUb webvm ]

Avevi, N-cigvYyi hvRZvi 2q kwi( L -kj) nIqvq Gi cigvYyi AvKvi ek QvU| ZvB z`vKvi `ywU NcigvYy Zvì mylg Aac~Y p-AiweUvjmg~ni (1wU cvwq I `ywU cvwkq) AwagY(Overlaping) NwUq 3wU
mghvRx eb(1wU -eb I 2wU -eb) hy nq N2 AYy MVb Ki| mylgZv I NN eb `N (0.1098nm)
N + N
N
N N N
z` nIqvi KviY bvBUvRb-bvBUvRb w-eb(NN) AZ mywZ I `p nq|

N2 AYy mij iwLK, mywZ I `p nIqvi KviY Gi eb wehvRb Gb_vwc AwZ DP (945kJmol-1)| G me KviY
bvBUvRb Mvm AZ vqx I wbwq| wbwqZvi w`K _K wbwq Mvmjvi ciB bvBUvRbi vb| bvBUvRb
AYyi eb weqvRb Gb_vwc AwZ DP ej bvBUvRb MvmK cvq 30000C Zvcgvvq D Kij Gi AYymg~ni
eb weqvwRZ nq mwq cvigvYweK bvBUvRb cwibZ nq|
2[ N ] (mwq bvBUvRb)
N N 3000
0
4
1.3.3 bvBUvRbi Zzjbvq dmdivm ek mwq

Mc-VA Gi gjjvi ga bvBUvRb ek wbwq njI dmdivm ek mwq| kZ dmdivm K ZvcgvvqB
mZ:zZfve evq~ AwRbi mv_ wewqv Ki P4O6 MVb Ki|
0
C
P4(s) + O2(g) 25
P4O6(s)
bvBUvRb cigvYyi gZ dmdivmi ewn:kwi p-AiweUvjmg~n Aac~Y Ges mylg Aevq _vKjI P-cigvYyi
hvRZvi 3q kwi(M-kj) nIqvq P-cigvYyi AvKvi N-cigvYy Acv AbKUv eo|
3p
3s
2
1
1
1
15P [Ne]10 3s 3p x 3p y 3p z
[ P-cigvYyi ewn:kwii BjKUb webvm ]

[ P4-AYyi PZzjKxq MVb
[ P-cigvYy
P-cigvYyi hvRZv kwii AvKvi eo nIqvi KviY `ywU dmdivm cigvYyi 3p1x 3p1x AiweUvjqi gyLvgywL
Awagbi viv wmMgv() eb MVbi ci Aewk 3p1y I 3p1z AiweUvjjv cii cvwkq Awagb NUvZ cvi
bv| dj dmdivm bvBUvRbi gZ PP w-eb MVb KiZ cvi bv| G, cZK P-cigvYy Zvi 3wU
3p AiweUvji mv_ Aci 3wU P-cigvYyi 3p -AiweUvji cvwq Awagb NwUq 3wU -eb MVbi gvag P4-AYy
MVb Ki| P4-AYyi AvKwZ mylg PZzjKxq ; GZ P-P-P eb Kvb 600 | P4 AYyZ P-cigvYymg~n cii P-P
GKK eb hy _vKvq Ges P-P-P eb Kvbi cwigvb Kg nIqvq KviY Gi ebjvZ AwaK cxob(stress)
we`gvb _vK| dj P4 AYy AbKUv AwwZkxj nq| kZ dmdivm P4 AYyjv cii cvq wewQb Aevq _K
cii `yej fviIqvj ej viv Ave _vK| GB KviY kZ dmdivm P-P eb wehvRb Gvjwc(209kJmol-1)
N2-AYy (N-N eb wehvRb Gvjwc 945kJmol-1) Acv ek Kg nq Ges kZ dmdivm ek mwq nq|
1.3.4 jvwnZ dmdivm kZ dmdivm Acv Kg mwq Ges Kvjv dmdivm AbKUv wbwq
r.e
bo
ok
P4-AYyi AvKwZ mylg PZzjKxq ; GZ P-P-P eb Kvb 600 | P4 AYyZ P-cigvYymg~n cii P-P GKK eb
hy _vKvq Ges P-P-P eb Kvbi cwigvb Kg nIqvq KviY Gi ebjvZ AwaK cxob(stress) we`gvb _vK|
dj P4 AYy AbKUv AwwZkxj nq| kZ dmdivm P4 AYyjv cii cvq wewQb Aevq _K cii `yej
fviIqvj ej viv Ave _vK| GBme KviYB kZ dmdivm ek mwq nq|
Aciw`K, jvwnZ I Kvjv dmdivm njv dmdivmi vqx icf`| MVbi w`K _K jvwnZ dmdivm njv
dmdivmi GKwU DP cwjgvi(Pn) |
[ jvwnZ dmdivm Pn- AYy ]
/ta
[kZ dmdivm P4- AYy ]
[ P- cigvYy ]
nb
i
600
bo
ok
.
co
jvwnZ I Kvjv dmdivm P-cigvYymg~n ixf~Z MvVwbK webvm(Layer Structure) hy _vK ej Gì
AvbweK KvVvgvZ P-P-P eb Kvb 600 Acv eo nq| dj Gì AYyZ ebjvi Dci cxobi gvb AbKUv
nvm cvq| ixf~Z cwjgvi MVb I ebjvi Dci cxobi gvb Kg nIqvi KviY jvwnZ dmdivm Kg mwq nq
Ges Kvjv dmdivm AZ mywZ I wbwq nq|
.fa
(2)
bvBUvRb cigvYyi AvKvi dmdivm Acv QvU nIqv(N-Gi cvigvYweK evmva 0.075 nm Ges P-Gi
cvigvYweK evmva 0.110 nm )|
bvBUvRbi hvRZv BjKUb 2q kwi _vKv Ges dmdivmi hvRZv BjKUb 3q kwi _vKv |
(1)
ce
1.3.5 bvBUvRb I dmdivmi ivmvqwbK mwqZvi cv_Ki KviYmg~n
5
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
bvBUvRbi AYy(N2) w-ebhy, mij iwLK nIqv Ges ebjvZ cxob hy bv _vKv| Aciw`K,
dmdivm AYy(P4) P-P GKK eb wewk nIqv Ges P-P-P eb Kvbi cwigvb Kg (600) nIqvq KviY
ebjvZ AwaK cxob we`gvb _vKv|
bvBUvRbi ZworFbvZKZv(3.0) dmdivm (2.1) Acv ewk nIqv |
bvBUvRbi hvRZv kj d -AiweUvj bv _vKv Ges dmdivmi hvRZv kj d -AiweUvj we`gvb _vKv|
bvBUvRbi wbR cigvYy , Kveb I AwRbi mv_ mywZ w-eb I w-eb MVb KiZ cviv |
hgb : N N , N C , C N , N N , C N O , NO2 , H 2 N NH 2
1.3.6 Mc-VA Gi gjjvi mghvRZv I mghvRx hM MVb

Mc-VA Gi gjjvi cZKi cigvYyi ewn:kwi 5wU Ki BjKUb iqQ| Gì cigvYyi ewn:kwii
mvaviY BjKUb webvm t ns 2 np1x np1y np1z | cigvYyi ewn:kwii p -AiweUvjmg~n mylg I Aac~Y Aevq
AvQ| AK c~YZvi Rb Gì cZKi Aviv 3wU BjKUb MnY ev kqvi Kiv cqvRb|
1s2 2s22p3
[Ne] 3s23p3
15P
10
4s24p3
33As [Ar] 3d
10
0
5s2 5p3
51Sb [Kr] 4d 4f
14
5d10 5f 0 6s26p3
83Bi [Xe] 4f
GB KviY Mc-VA Gi gjjv AavZe gji mv_ 3wU AhyM BjKUb kqvi Ki mghvRx hM MVb Ki
mghvRZv 3 c`kb Ki| hgb: NH3, PH3,NCl3, PCl3 BZvw`| Ze Mc-VAGi hme gji ewn:kwi
duvKv d -AiweUvj iqQ Zviv DP ZworFbvZK gji mv_ mghvRx hM MVbi mgq 5 mghvRZv c`kb
Ki| hgb: PCl3, PCl5 ; AsCl3, AsCl5, SbCl5 BZvw`| 5 mghvRZvi Gme gj Zvì cigvYyi
ewn:ii s -AiweUvj BjKUb hyMj f 1wU BjKUb duvKv d -AiweUvj vbvi Ki ; dj Gì ewn:kwi
5wU AhyMj BjKUbi mw nq| GB 5wU AhyMj BjKUb Ab gji mv_ kqvi Ask bq|
7N
3d
3p
3s
[Ne] 3s 2 3p1x 3p1y 3p1z 3d 0
15P
15P
[Ne] 3s 3p 3p 3p 3d
1
1
x
1
y
1
z
3d
3p
3s
[ hvRZv = 3 ]
[ hvRZv = 5 ]
1.3.7 Mc-VAGi gjjvi ZworhvRx ev AvqwbK hM MVb

Mc-VA Gi gjjvi cigvYyi ewn:kwii mvaviY BjKUb webvmt ns 2 np1x np1y np1z | ewn:kwii p AiweUvjmg~n mylg I Aac~Y Aevq AvQ| AK c~YZvi Rb Gì cZKi Aviv 3wU BjKUb Mnb ev kqvi
Kiv cqvRb| ZworabvZK gj wekl Ki Mc- I ,Mc- II , I Mc- III Gi avZzmg~ni mv_ hy nIqvi mgq Giv
ewn:kwi 3 wU Ki BjKUb MnY Ki AK c~YZv ARb Ki Ges ZworhvRx ev AvqwbK hM MVb Ki| Gme
ZworhvRx hM Giv -3 RviYvev c`kb Ki| hgb: bvBUvRb MvmK Li, Mg, Ca, Al BZvw` avZzjvi h
Kvb GKwUi mv_ D Kij avZz bvBUvBW (ZworhvRx hM) Zix nq|
N(1s 2 2s 2 2p 3 ) 3e N 3 (1s 2 2s 2 2p 8 )
N2(g) + 3Mg Mg3N2(s)
1.3.8 Mc-VA Gi gjjvi wewfb RviYvev

Mc-VA Gi gjjv wewfb Aevq cavbZ -3, +3 I +5 RviYvev c`kY Ki| Zwor abvZK avZzi mv_ DP
Zvcgvvq N I P ZworhvRx hM(Mg3N2 ,Ca3P2) MVbi mgq -3 RviYvev c`kb Ki| Sb I Bi Gi avZz
ag iqQ ej Giv -3 RviYvev c`kb Ki bv| mghvRx I mwbek mghvRx hM MVbi mgq Mc-VA Gi
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gjjv +3 I +5 RviYvev c`kb Ki| Mc-VA Gi h me gji ewn:kwi duvKv d -AiweUvj iqQ
Zviv DP ZworFbvZK gji mv_ mghvRx hM MVbi mgq +5 RviYvev c`kb Ki| hgb:PCl3, PCl5 ;
AsCl3, AsCl5, SbCl5 BZvw`|
[ mviwY-1.3 t Mc-VA Gi gjjvi +3 I +5 RviYvev c`kY ]
VA Gi gj +3 RviYvev
+ 5 RviYvev
NCl3
N2O5, HNO3
N
PCl3
PCl5 , P2O5, H3PO4
P
AsCl3
AsCl5 , As2O5, H3 AsO4
As
SbCl3
SbCl5 ,Sb2O5
Sb
BiCl3
Bi2O5
Bi
Avevi, Mc-VA Gi gjjv cigvYyi evwn:kwii 3wU AhyMj BjKUbi mvnvh Ab gji mv_ 3wU
mghvRx eb MVbi ci cZKi ewn: s -AiweUvj GK Rvov wb:m BjKUb Rvo (lone pair) _K hvq|
Mc-VA Gi gjjv D wb:m BjKUb Rvo viv Kvb jyB GwmWi(GK Rvov BjKUb Mnb mg Ggb
ivmvqwbK mv) mv_ mwbek eb MVb Ki +5 RviYvev c`kY Ki| hgb: N2O5 I HNO3 hvM `ywUZ N
cigvby AwRb cigvYyi mv_ mwbek eb MVbi gvag +5 RviYvev c`kY Ki|
[ N2O5 G NO mwbek eb MVbi gvag N Gi +5 Rvib Aev c`kY ]

Mc-VA Gi gjjvi cvigvYweK msLv ewi mv_ mv_ cigvYyi AvKvi ew cvq Ges ZworFbvZKZv nvm cvq|
dj cvigvbweK msLv ewi mv_ Gì FbvZK RviY gvb jvfi cebZv nvm cvq Ges abvZK RviY gvb jvfi
cebZv ew cvq| GB KviY N I P -3 RviYvev c`kb KijI Sb I Bi Zv `Lvq bv| Sb I Bi Gi +3 I
+5 RviYvev c`kbi cebZv ewk|
Mc-VA Gi gjjvi ga bvBUvRb GKwU ewZgx gj| bvBUvRb hgwb nvBWvBW MVb Ki 3 mghvRZv
c`kb Ki Zgwb bvBUvBW MVbi gvag -3 RviYvev `Lvq| ZvQvov bvBUvRb wewfb AvBW MVb Ki
+1,+2,+3,+4 I +5 abvZK RviYvev c`kY Ki|
N2O NO N2O3 N2O4 N2O5
N Gi AvBW
+1
+2
+3
+4
+5
N Gi RviY msLv
bvBUvRbi mv_ AwRbi ZworFbvZKZvi cv_K Ges wewfb msLK mwbek eb MVbi myhvM _vKvi KviY
bvBUvRbi RviY gvbi GB aiYi cwieZbkxjZv `Lv hvq|
ok
1.3.9 Mc-VA Gi gjjvi nvjvBW MVb
.fa
ce
bo
ok
.
co
/ta
nb
i
r.e
bo
Mc- VA Gi gjjvi mKjB mghvRx nvjvBW MVb Ki| Gì mevB UvB nvjvBW MVb KijI P, As, Sb
UvB nvjvBW MVbi cvkvcvwk cUv nvjvBW I MVb Ki|
[ mviwY-1.4 t Mc-VA Gi gjjvi UvB nvjvBW I cUvnvjvBW ]
cUvnvjvBW
VA Gi gj UvB nvjvBW
NCl3
N
PCl3
PCl5
P
AsCl3
AsCl5
As
SbCl3
SbCl5
Sb
BiCl3
Bi
Mc- VA Gi gjjvi cvigvYweK msLv ewi mv_ mv_ Zvì UvB nvjvBWmg~ni mghvRx cKwZ nvm cZ
_vK Ges GKB mv_ ZworhvRx Z_v AvqwbK cKwZ ew cZ _vK| ZvB Gì UvB KvivBWjvi ga NCl3
mevwaK mghvRx Ges BiCl3 mevwaK AvqwbK| G Myci gjjvi cvigvYweK msLv ewi mv_ mv_ Gì
cigvYyi AvKvi ew cvq Ges ZworFbvZKZv nvm cvq ; dj UvB nvjvBWmg~ni mghvRx ebi cvjvwiwU evoZ
_vK Ges AvqwbK cKwZ ew cvq|
Any kind of e-book & Software : www.tanbircox.blogspot.com
7
1.3.10 bvBUvRb Gi Mci Ab gjjvi gZ NCl5 MVb KiZ cvi bv

P, As, Sb KvwiYi mv_ 5wU BjKUb kqvi Ki h_vg PCl5, AsCl5, SbCl5 MVb KijI N Zv cvi bv
A_vr PCl5, AsCl5, SbCl5 MwVZ njI NCl5 MwVZ nq bv| Gic NUvi g~j KviY njv N-cigvYyZ d AiweUvji AbycwwZ Ges P, As, Sb cgvYyi ewn:kwi duvKv d -AiweUvji DcwwZ| N-cigvYyi ewn:kwi
5wU BjKUb _vKjI GZ Kvb d -AiweUvj bv _vKvq Gi 2s AiweUvji BjKUb hyMj f DP kwi
vbvii gvag AhyMjvwqZ nq 5 mghvRZv c`kYi Kvb myhvM bB| GB KviY bvBUvRb NCl5 MVb
KiZ cvi bv| bvBURb aygv Gi ewn:kwii 2p-AiweUvj we`gvb 3wU AhyMj BjKUb 3wU KvwiY cigvYyi
mv_ kqvi Ki NCl3 MVb Ki|
2
2
1
1
1
[ hvRbx =3]
7N 1s 2s 2p x 2p y 2p z
Aciw`K P, As, Sb -cgvYyi ewn:kwi duvKv d -AiweUvji DcwZ _vKvi KviY Giv DwRZ Aevq Zvì
ewn:ii s -AiweUvj we`gvb BjKUb hyMj f 1wU BjKUb ewn: duvKv d -AiweUvj vbvi Ki ; GZ
Gì ewn:kwi 5wU AhyMj BjKUbi mw nq hviv Kvwib cigvYyi mv_ kqvi Ask bq| dj PCl5,
AsCl5, SbCl5 MwVZ nq| hgb:
15P
[Ne]10 3s 2 3p1x 3p1y 3p1z 3d 0
[ hvRZv = 3 ]
*
15P
[Ne]10 3s1 3p1x 3p1y 3p1z 3d1
[ hvRZv = 5 ]
1.3.11 dmdivm PCl5 I PCl3 MVb KijI bvBUvRb aygv NCl3 MVb Ki, NCl5 MVb
KiZ cvi bv
Gic NUvi g~j KviY njv: (1) P cgvYyi ewn:kwi duvKv d -AiweUvji DcwwZ Ges
( 2) N-cigvYyZ d -AiweUvji AbycwwZ|
P-cgvYyi ewn:kwi 3s -AiweUvj 2wU BjKUb hyMjvevq Ges 3p-AiweUvj 3wU BjKUb AhyMj Aevq
iqQ ; ewn:kwi 3d _vKjI GZ Kvb BjKUb bB|
15P
15P
2
1
1
1
0
[Ne]10 3s 3p x 3p y 3p z 3d
1
1
1
1
1
[Ne]10 3s 3p x 3p y 3p z 3d
[ hvRZv = 3 ]
[ hvRZv = 5 ]
mvaviY Aevq P cigvYy Zvi ewn:kwii 3wU AhyMj BjKUb 3wU Kvwib cigvYyi mv_ kqvi Ki 3wU
P Cl mghvRx eb MVbi gvag PCl3 AYy MVb Ki| Avevi P cgvYyi ewnkwi duvKv d -AiweUvji
DcwZ _vKvi KviY GwU DwRZ Aevq Gi ewn:ii 3s -AiweUvj we`gvb BjKUb hyMj f 1wU BjKUb
ewn: duvKv 3d -AiweUvj vbvi Ki ; GZ Gi ewn:kwi 5wU AhyMj BjKUbi mw nq | P cgvYyi Zvi GB
5wU AhyMj viv 5wU Kvwib cigvYyi mv_ kqvi Ki PCl5 AYy MVb Ki|
N-cigvYyi ewn:kwi 5wU BjKUb _vKjI GZ Kvb d -AiweUvj bv _vKvq Gi 2s -AiweUvji BjKUb hyMj
f DP kwi vbvii gvag AhyMjvwqZ nq 5 mghvRZv c`kbi Kvb myhvM bB| GB KviY
bvBUvRb NCl5 MVb KiZ cvi bv| bvBUvRb aygv Gi ewn:kwii 2p-AiweUvj we`gvb 3wU AhyMj
BjKUb 3wU Kvwib cigvYyi mv_ kqvi Ki NCl3 MVb Ki|
7N
1
1
1
1s 2s 2p x 2p y 2p z
[ hvRZv =3]
1.3.12 PCl3 Gi Pq NCl3 axi Av` wekwlZ nq t

cvwbi mv_ wewqv viv Kvb hMK f mij hM cwibZ KivK Av`weklY(Hydrolysis) ej| NCl3 I
PCl3 DfqB Av`wekwlZ nq| Ze NCl3 , PCl3 Acv axi Av`wekwlZ nq|
NCl3 3H - OH
NH3 3HOCl [ axi ]
PCl3 3H - OH
H 3 PO3 3HCl [ `Z ]
Gic NUvi g~j KviY njv:
(1)
P (2.1) Acv N Gi ZworFbvZKZv(3.0) ewk nIqv ,
(2) N-cigvYyZ d -AiweUvji AbycwwZ Ges P-cigvYyZ d -AiweUvji DcwwZ Ges
(3)
P Cl ebi cvjvi nIqv|
N I Cl Gi ZworFbvZKZv (3.0) mgvb nIqvi KviY N Cl eb Kvb cvjvwiwU _vK bv| ZvB NCl3 Gi
Av`weklY cvwbi cvjvi AYyi AvKlY N Cl wehvwRZ nq bv| G cvwbi AYy O -cigvYy nZ wb.m
BjKUb Rvo Cl-cigvYyZ cek Kij O Cl eb MwVZ nq Ges GKB mv_ N Cl eb f Gi eb Rvo
BjKUb N-cigvYyZ cek Ki, N-cigvYy Zvi wb:m BjKUb Rvo cvwbi AYy H -cigvYyK `vb Ki
N H eb MVb Ki , cvwbi GKwU H O eb f Gi eb Rvo BjKUb O -cigvYy BjKUb NvUwZ c~iY
Ki| dj NH 3 I HOCl Drcb nq| m~Y cwqvwU RwUj ej Zv axi msNwUZ nq Z_v NCl3 axi
Av`wekwlZ nq|
Cl 2 N Cl
NCl3 H 2 O
H O H
NHCl2 HOCl
+2H2O
( NH3 + 2HOCl )
P I Cl Gi gva h_ ZworFbvZKZvi cv_K ( P=2.1,Cl =3.0) _vKvq PCl3 Gi P Cl eb cvjvwiwU
_vK| ZvB PCl3 Gi Av`weklY cvwbi cvjvi AYyi AvKlY mnRB P Cl eb wehvwRZ nq Ges `Z
Av`weklY NU H 3 PO3 I HCl Zix nq| ZvQvov, PCl3 Gi P-cigvYyZ duvKv d -AiweUvj _vKvq O P eb
MVb mnR nq Z_v PCl3 Gi Av`weklY `Z NU|
3
H O H
P(OH)Cl 2 HCl
ok
+2H2O
r.e
bo
PCl3 H 2 O
Cl 2 P Cl
[ P(OH)3 + 2HCl ]
nb
i
1.3.13 NF3 Av` wekwlZ bv wK NCl3 Av` wekwlZ nq t
Cl 2 N Cl
NHCl2 HOCl
ce
NCl3 H 2 O
bo
ok
.
co
/ta
Mc- VA Gi gjjvi UvB nvjvBW Av`wekwlZ nIqvi kZ njv nq Mc- VA Gi gj A_ev Gi mv_ hy
nvjvRb cigvYyi Kvb GKwUZ duvKv d -AiweUvj ev BjKUbi AK NvUwZ _vKZ ne| NF3 Gi N ev FcigvYyi KvbwUZB d -AiweUvj ev BjKUbi AK NvUwZ bB ej NF3 Av` wekwlZ nq bv | wK NCl3 Gi
Cl-cigvYyZ d -AiweUvj we`gvb _vKvq cvwbi O-cigvYy Ges NCl3Gi Cl-cigvYyi mv_ Avqx mwbek eb
MVb Ki O Cl eb MVbi gvag NCl3 Av`wekwlZ nq|
.fa
H O H
+2H2O
( NH3 + 2HOCl )
9
1.3.14 NCl5 MwVZ bv njI N2O5 MwVZ nq t

N-cigvYyi ewn:kwi 5wU BjKUb _vKjI GZ Kvb d -AiweUvj bv _vKvq Gi 2s -AiweUvji BjKUb hyMj
f DP kwi vbvii gvag AhyMjvwqZ nq 5 mghvRZv c`kbi Kvb myhvM bB| GB KviY
bvBUvRb NCl5 MVb KiZ cvi bv| wK N-cigvYy evwn:kwii 3wU AhyMj BjKUbi mvnvh Ab gji
mv_ 3wU mghvRx eb MVbi ci Gi ewn s -AiweUvj GKwU wb:m BjKUb Rvo (lone pair) _K hvq| NcigvYy Zvi GB wb:m BjKUb Rvo viv 3wU mghvRx eb MVbi cvkvcvwk GKwU mwbek eb MVbi gvag 5
mghvRZv c`kb KiZ cvi| hgb: 2wU N-cigvYy Zvì 3wU Ki AhyMj BjKUb I GKwU Ki wb:m
BjKUb Rvo viv 5wU O-cigvYyi mv_ 6wU mghvRx I 2wU mwbek ebi gvag N2O5 MVb Ki 5
mghvRZv `Lvq |
[ N2O5 G NO mwbek eb MVbi gvag N Gi +5 RviY Aev c`kY ]
1.3.15 Mc-VA Gi gjjvi nvBWvBW I Gì ag t

Mc-VA Gi gjjvi ga Bi Qvov evwK mevB nvBWvBW MVb Ki|
[ mviwY-1.5 t Mc-VA Gi gjjvi nvBWvBW ]
VA Gi gj
nvBWvBW(Hydride)
N
NH3 (Avgvwbqv), H2N-NH2(nvBWvwRb)
P
PH3(dmwdb), P2H4 (dmdivm WvB nvBWvBW)
As
AsH3 (AvimvBb)
Sb
SbH3(wevBb)
N _K Sb Gi w`K gk ZworFbvZKZv nvm Ges avZz ag ew cvq ej Mc-VA Gi gjjvi nvBWvBW
mg~ni ag g cwieZb `Lv hvq|
(AvqwbK cKwZ, weRviY ag, AagxZv ew)
NH3
PH3
AsH3
SbH3
(mghvRx cKwZ,viKagxZv, zUbvsK,AYyi cvjvwiwU ew)
1.3.16 PH3 Acv NH3 Gi zUbvsK ewk t

N-Gi ZworFbvZKZv(3.0) P-Acv(2.1) AwaK nIqvi KviY NH3 AYy NH eb giKZ ev cvjvwiwU
PH3 AYy PH eb Acv ewk cwigvb NU (NH eb ZworFbvZKZvi cv_K=3.0 - 2.1=0.9)| NH
eb AwaK cvjvi ej NH3 Gi nvBWvRb eb MVbi cebZv PH3 Acv AbK ewk| Zij NH3 Z PH3
Acv AwaK cwigvb Ges AcvKZ `p nvBWvRb eb we`gvb _vK ejB NH3 Gi yUbvsK PH3 Acv
ewk nq|
(nvBWvRb eb)
[wP:1.1 Zij AvgvwbqvZ nvBWvRb eb]
1.3.17 NH3, PH3 Acv AwaK viKagx t

Mc-VA Gi gjjvi ga Bi Qvov evwK mevB nvBWvBW MVb Ki| N _K Sb Gi w`K AMmi nj cigvYyi
AvKvi, ZworFbvZKZv I nvBWvBWi viKagxZv nvm cZ _vK| GB wnmve NH3 h_ viKagx njI PH3
10
AbKUv g`y viKagx ; AsH3 I SbH3 gvUI viKagx bq| NH3 cvq mKj cKvi(Zxe I g`y) GwmWi wewqv
Ki Avgvwbqvg jeY Zix Ki ; Aciw`K, PH3 aygv KwZcq Zxe GwmWi mv_ wewqv Ki dmdvwbqvg jeY
Zix Ki| PH3 g`y GwmWi mv_ Kvbic wewqv Ki bv| GZ NH3 h PH3 Acv AwaK viKagxZvi cgvb
cvIqv hvq|
2NH3 H 2 CO 3
( NH 4 ) 2 CO 3 ; PH3 H 2 CO3
No Reaction
N-cigvby z`&vKvi I AwaK ZworFbvZK(ZworFbvZKZv 3.0) nIqvq NH3 G NH ebi ebRvo BjKUb
gvSvgvwS Aevb _K N-cigvYyi w`K mi hvq ; dj N-cigvYy z` FbvZK PvR jvf Ki Ges NH eb
cvjvwiwU ARb Ki | NH3 Gi N cigvYyZ BjKUbi chvZv I NbZ AwaK nIqvi KviY NH3 mnRB cvUb
(H+) MnY Ki cvUbxq viK A_ev Ab Kvb ivmvqwbK mvK mnR GKRvov BjUb `vb Ki jyB viK wnmve
wqv Ki|
+ H+ NH4+
H3P
+ H+ PH4+
H3N
[ mnR NU]
[mnR NU bv]
[ NH3 AYyZ BjKUb webvm ]
Aciw`K, P-cigvYyi AvKvi N-cigvYy Acv eo nIqvq Gi

ZworFbvZKZv(2.1) N Acv Kg| ZvB PH3-AYyZ PH
eb ebRvo BjKUb `yB wbDwKqvmi gvS Lvb _vK Ges
GZ Kvb cvjvwiwU _vK bv| PH3-AYyi P-cigvbyZ BjKUbi
NbZ NH3-Gi N cigvYy Acv AbK Kg _vK| PH3-AYyi
P-cigvYyZ BjKUbi NbZ Kg _vK ej GwU NH3 Gi gZ
mnR cvUb MnY KiZ cvi bv ev Ab Kvb ivmvqwbK mvK
BjKUb Rvo `vb KiZ cvi bv|
Avi Gme KviYB- NH3, PH3Acv AwaK viKagx Ges PH3
g`y viK wnmve wqv Ki|
[ PH3 AbyZ BjKUb webvm ]
1.3.18 Mc-VA Gi gjjvi eicZv
r.e
bo
ok
Mc-VA Gi gjjvi ga wemgv_(Bi) Qvov evwK mevB eicx gj| mviwY-1.6 G Gì icf`jv `Lvbv
nqQ|
[ mviwY-1.6 t bvBUvRbi i~cf`((allotropes) ]
VA Gi gj
icf`mg~n (allotropes)
N
-bvBURb(wKDweK Kjvm) ; -bvBURb(nvMvbvj Kjvm) |
P
kZ dmdivm(P4) ; jvj dmdivm(Pn) ; Kvjv dmdivm(Pn) |
aymi AvimwbK ;
njy` AvimwbK ; Kvjv AvimwbK
As
Sb
avZe GwUgwb ;
- GwUgwb ;
weviK GwUgwb |
nb
i
1.4.0 bvBUvRb I dmdivmi fZ I ivmvqwbK agi Zzjbv
co
/ta
bvBUvRb I dmdivm GKB Mci gj ej Gì ga fZ I ivmvqwbK ag mv`k _vKv ^vfvweK| mv`k QvovI
bvBUvRb I dmdivmi ga AbK Awgj ev emv`k iqQ| wbg bvBUvRb I dmdivmi ga fZ I
ivmvqwbK ag mv`k I emv`kmg~n DjL Ki Zvì Zzjbv Kiv njv t
ok
.
1.4.1 N I P-Gi ga mv`kmg~n t
(1) N I P DfqB AavZz|

(2) N I P eicx gj|
(3) Gì DfKB AvaywbK chvq mviwYZ Mc-VA vb `qv nqQ|
L) ivmvqwbK ag mv`kmg~n t
(1) N I P Dfqi cigvYyi ewn:kwii mvaviY BjKUb webvm njv : ns2 np3
2
2
3
2
3
7N1s 2s 2p
15P[Ne]10 3s 3p
.fa
ce
bo
K) fZ ag mv`kmg~n t
11
(2) N I P Dfqi cigvYyi ewn:kwii 5wUKi BjKUb iqQ Ges p-AiweUvjmg~n Aac~Y Aevq AvQ|
2
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
7N 1s 2s 2p x 2p y 2p z
15P[Ne] 3s 3p x 3p y 3p z
(3) N I P DfqB cwieZbkxj hvRbx I RviYvev c`kb Ki|
RviYvev -3
N
NH3
P
PH3
-2
-1
N2H4 NH2OH
P2H4
-
0
N2
P4
+2
NO
-
+3
+4
+5
N2O3 N2O4 N2O5
PCl3 H4P2O6 PCl5
(4) N I P DfqB H,O,Cl BZvw` gji mv_ mghvRx hM MVb Ki|

hgb: NH3,N2O3, N2O5 , NCl3, HNO3 PH3, P2O5 , PCl3, PCl5, H3PO4
(5) N I P DfqB nvBWvBW MVb Ki| hgb: NH3 I PH3 |
(6) N I P DfqB AvBW I Aw GwmW MVb Ki| hgb:
N-Gi AvBW I Aw GwmW N2O, NO, N2O3, N2O4, N2O5 ; HNO3 , HNO2
P-Gi AvBW I Aw GwmW P2O3, P2O5 ; H3PO4, H3PO3
1.4.2 N I P-Gi ga emv`kmg~n t

K) fZ ag
1)
2)
3)
emv`kmg~n t
K Zvcgvv I Pvc N Mvm njI P dmdivm KwVb Aevq weivR Ki|
mvaviY Aevq bvBUvRbi AYy w-cigvYyK(N2) wK dmdivmi Aby Pvi-cigvYyK(P4)|
bvBUvRbi MjbvsK(-2100C) I zUbvsK(-1900C)dmdivm Acv(MjbvsK:440C,zUbvsK:
2800C) AbK Kg|
L) ivmvqwbK ag emv`kmg~n t
1) KZvcgvvq bvBUvRb ek wwZkxj Ges wbwq| Aciw`K- dmdivm weklKi kZ dmdivm
ek mwq|
2) bvBUvRbi AYyZ `ywU bvBUvRb cigvYy cii wZbwU mghvRx eb hy _vK Ges bvBUvRb
AYyi AvKwZ mij iwLK| Aciw`K, ^Z dmdivm AYyZ 4wU P cigvYy cii 600 Kvb GKwU
Ki mghvRx eb hy nq PZzjKxq KvVvgv MVb Ki Aevb Ki|
N2 AYy N N
P4 AYy
3) bvBUvRb AYy LyeB wwZkxj ej GwU mvaviY Aevq evq~ AwRbi mv_ Kvbic wewqv Ki
bv| Aciw`K, mvaviY Zvcgvvq dmdivm evq~i AwRbi mv_ wewqv Ki AvBW MVb Ki|
3000 0 C
250 C
2NO(g) ; P4(s) + O2(g)
P4O6(s)
N2(g) + O2(g)
4) bvBUvRb wbic I Aagx AvBW(NO, N2O5 ) MVb KijI dmdivm a~gv Aagx AvBW
(P2O3, P2O5 ) MVb Ki|
5) N I P DfqB nvBWvBW MVb KijI NH3, PH3 Acv AwaK vqx I Awelv Ges NH3 , PH3
Acv AwaK viKagx| bvBUvRbi nvBWvRwqK GwmW( N 3 H ) bvg AviI GKwU Aagx
nvBWvBW iqQ |
6) dmdivm Kvwibi mv_ PCl 3 I PCl 5 mghvRx hM MVb KiZ cvijI bvBUvRb Kvwibi mv_
aygv NCl3 mghvRx MVb Ki ; NCl5 MVb KiZ cvi bv |
12
bvBUvRb
1.5.0 bvBUvRbi Drm, wbvkb I eenvi
1.5.1 bvBUvRb Avwevi
1772 wLv wUk wPwKrmK Wwbqj iv`vidvW bvBUvRb Avwevi Kib| wZwb GK noxious air ev fixed
air bvg w`qwQjb| 1775.Lxv wevbx Antoine Lavoisier bvBUvRbK gwjK c`v_ wnmve wPwZ Kib
Ges wbwq agi KviY Gi bvg `b "mephetic air" ev "azote" ; hvi A_ wbvY(lifeless)| 1790 Lxv
wevbx Pvc&Uj D gjwUi bvg `b bvBUvRb bvBUvRb kwU Latin Nitrogenium _K bqv nqQ ;
hvi A_ mwcUvi( NaNO3 ) MVbKvix ( MxK-nitron A_ saltpetre Ges genes A_ forming ) |
1.5.2 bvBUvRbi Drm I Aevb

gwjK bvBUvRbi cavb Drm njv evq~| evq~i 78.08% (AvqZb wnmve) Ges 75.3%(fi wnmve) njv
gwjK bvBUvRb| hwMK Aevq bvBUvi( KNO3 ) , wPwjmwcUvi( NaNO3 ) BZvw` LwbR jeY bvBUvRb
cvIqv hvq| mKj Rxe`ni GKwU AZvekKxq MVb Dcv`vb njv bvBUvRb| AvgvBbv GwmW, cvwUb, wbDwKK
GwmW( DNA, RNA ), Kvivwdj, AvjKvjqW BZvw` Re hM bvBUvRb we`gvb|
1.5.3 bvBUvRb P (Nitrogen Cycle)

evq~gj njv bvBUvRbi cavb Ges g~j Drm| evq~gji cvq 78-80% bvBUvRb| evq~gji bvBUvRb
Re-ivmvqwbK cwqvq evq~gj _K Rxe`n ; Rxe`n nZ gvwUZ ev evq~ _K mivmwi gwUZ Mgb Ki |
Avevi Rxe`n I gvwU nZ Re-ivmvqwbK cwqvq D bvBUvRb evq~gj wdi Avm| Re-ivmvqwbK cwqvq
evq~gj, Rxe`n I gvwUi ga bvBUvRbi GB PvKvi AveZbK bvBUvRb P ej|
r.e
bo
ok
nb
i
[ wP:1.2 bvBUvRb P ]
bvBUvRb Pi eYbv t
/ta
bvBUvRb PK wbgv avcmg~ni gvag eYbv Kiv hvq|
(K) evq~gj nZ N2 Gi gvwUZ Mgb t
ok
.
co
1) cvKwZK msebi gvag t evq~gji bvBUvRb cvKwZKfve(eR-we`yZmn ewcvZi viv) msewZ nq

bvBwUK GwmW wnmve gvwUZ cwZZ nq hv gvwUi vi RvZxq c`v_i mv_ bvBUU jeY hgb: Kvjwmqvg bvBUU,
mvwWqvg bvBUU, Avgvwbqvg bvBUU BZvw` MVb Ki|
bo
C
N 2 (g) O 2 (g) 3000
2NO(g) ;
ce
C
2NO(g) O 2 (g) 50
NO2 (g)
.fa
4NO2 (g) 2H 2 O(l) O 2 (g)

4HNO3 (aq)
2HNO3 (aq) CaO(s)

Ca(NO3 ) 2 (s) H 2 O(l)
13
2) gvbyl KZK Kwg msebi gvag t
wk KviLvbvq evq~ I cvKwZK Mvm nZ bvBUvRb mvi hgb: BDwiqv, wWGwc BZvw` Drcv`bi gvag evq~
bvBUvRbK msewZ Ki Dw` ewi Rb gvwUZ cqvM Kiv nq|
CH 4 (g) Air( N 2 O 2 )(g)
CO 2 (g) N 2 (g) H 2 (g)
, 200atm
N 2 (g) 3H 2 (g) Fe
,500
C
2NH3 (g) ;
0
2NH3 (l) CO 2 (g)

CO( NH 2 ) 2 (Uria) H 2 O(l)
3) bvBwUdvBs evK&wUwiqvi gvag t
bvBwUdvBs evwiqv gZ Dw` I cvwY `nK wehvwRZ Ki Re mvi cwibZ Ki| Kwg ev cvKwZKfve Drcb
Re mvi gvwUi mv_ wgkvi dj Dw` I cvwY`n nZ wKQzUv bvBUvRb cybivq gvwUZ wdi Avm|
gib I cPb
(M) N2Gi Dw` _K cvwY`n Mgb t

ZbfvRx cvwY mivmwi Dw`K Lv` wnmve
MnY Ki DwR cvwUbK cvwbR cvwUb
icvi Ki| mef~K cvwY ZbfvRx cvwY,wWg,
gvrm I cvwUb RvZxq kl _K cvwUb msMn
Ki|
(N) Dw` I cvwY`n nZ N2 Gi

evq~gj cZvMgb t
wmgevqvwUK Rxevby viv
bvBUvRbK bvBUU I Avgvwbqvg jeY

wnmve MnY Ki cvwUb cwibZ Ki|
ZvQvov,wkg,gUi,Qvjv BZvw` wjwgbvm RvZxq
Dwì wkKoi byWyj GK aiYi bvBUvRb
msebKvix evKwUwiqv (Rhizobium) emevm
Ki hviv mivmwi evq~gji bvBUvRbK
Dwì MnYvchvMx hM cwibZ Ki Ges
wewbgq Dw` _K kKiv MnY Ki|
Dwì gib I cPb viv
(L) evq~gj I gvwU nZ N2Gi Dw`

Mgbt Dw` g~ji mvnvh gvwU nZ
[ wP:1.3 bvBUvRb P ]
Dw` I cvwYi gZzi ci Gì `ni cvwUb c_g bvBUvmvdvBs evKUwiqvi cfve wehvwRZ nq NH 3 Mvm
cwibZ nq| D NH 3 Mvm bvBUvmvgvbvm(Nitrosomonas)Rxevbyi cfve RvwiZ nq bvBUvm GwmW ( HNO2 )
cwibZ nq| bvBUvm GwmW cybivq bvBwUdvBs Rxevbyi cfve RvwiZ nq bvBwUK GwmW iycvwiZ nq | Drcb bvBwUK
GwmWi GKvsk gvwUi viKagx c`v_i mv_ wewqv Ki bvBUU jeY MVb Ki,hv gvwUZ wgk hvq| bvBUU jeY
I bvBwUK GwmWi Aci Ask wW-bvBwUdvBs Rxevbyi(anaerobic bacteria) cfve wehvwRZ nq N2, N2O I
NO Mvm cwibZ nq evq~gj wgk hvq| dj evq~gj bvBUvRbi NvUwZ c~iY nq Ges N2 Mvmi cwigvb
(78%) wi _vK|
1.5.4 bvBUvRb mseb (Nitrogen Fixation)

cKwZZ we`gvb bvBUvRbi cvq meUzKzB evq~gj N 2 wnmve we`gvb iqQ| Rxei Rxeb aviYi Rb
bvBUvRb GKwU Acwinvh gj| bvBUvRbi cv_wgK MvnK njv Dw` RMr| cvwYK~j mvavibZ Dw` nZ cvwUb
wnmve bvBUvRb MnY Ki| Ze jbxq h, Dw` mivmwi evq~ _K bvBUvRb MnY KiZ cvi bv| evq~gji
bvBUvRbK Ab gji mv_ ivmvqwbKfve hy Ki Dwì MnYvchvMx hM cwibZ KijB Dw` Zv MnY
Ki wbRi Pvwn`v c~iY Ki| h cwqvq evq~gji gwjK bvBUvRbK Ab gji mv_ ivmvqwbKfve hy ev
msewZ Ki Dwì MnYvchvMx hM cwibZ Kiv nq ZvK bvBUvRb mseb ej|
wkg,gUi,Qvjv BZvw` wjwgbvm ev wmgRvZxq Dwì wkKoi byWyj GK aiYi bvBUvRb msebKvix
evKwUwiqv ( Rhizobium) emevm Ki hviv mivmwi evq~gji bvBUvRbK Dwì MnYvchvMx hM cwibZ
Ki Ges wewbgq Dw` _K kKiv MnY Ki |
ZvQvov, eR-we`yZmn ewcvZi viv evq~gji bvBUvRb cvKwZKfve msewZ nq bvBwUK GwmW wnmve gvwUZ
cwZZ nq hv gvwUi viRvZxq c`v_i mv_ wewqv Ki Dwì MnYvchvMx bvBUU jeY hgb: Kvjwmqvg
bvBUU, mvwWqvg bvBUU, Avgvwbqvg bvBUU BZvw` MVb Ki|
14
C
N 2 (g) O 2 (g) 3000
2NO(g) ;
0
C
2NO(g) O2 (g) 50
2NO2 (g)
4NO2 (g) 2H 2 O(l) O 2 (g)
4HNO3 (aq)
0
2HNO3 (aq) CaO(s)

Ca(NO3 ) 2 (s) H 2 O(l)
Kwg Dcvq gvbyl wk KviLvbvq evq~ I cvKwZK Mvm nZ bvBUvRb mvi hgb: BDwiqv, wWGwc BZvw` Drcv`bi
gvag evq~ bvBUvRbK msewZ Ki Dw` ewi Rb gvwUZ cqvM Ki|
CH 4 (g) Air( N 2 O 2 )(g)
CO 2 (g) N 2 (g) H 2 (g)
, 200atm
N 2 (g) 3H 2 (g) Fe
,500
C
2NH3 (g) ;
0
2NH3 (l) CO 2 (g)

CO( NH 2 ) 2 (Uria) H 2 O(l)
1.5.5 bvBUvRbi wbvkb I Drcv`b

evq~i 78.08% (AvqZb wnmve) Ges 75.3%(fi wnmve) njv gwjK bvBUvRb| ZvB wk Zij evq~K
AvswkK cvZb Ki bvBUvRbi evwbwRK Drcv`b Kiv nq| wj cwZZ evq~K Zij Ki AvswkK cvZb Kij
cvZb Kjvg -1960C Zvcgvvq bvBUvRb Mvm Ges -1830C Zvcgvvq AwRb Mvm cvIqv hvq| ZvB
AwRb Mvm Drcv`b wk mn-Drcv`(by-product) wnmveI cPzi bvBUvRb Mvm cvIqv hvq| bvBUvRb
MvmK DP Pvc wmwjvi fi OFN (oxygen-free nitrogen) bvg mieivn Kiv nq|
cixvMvi mvwWqvg bvBUvBW I Avgvwbqvg KvivBWi wgkYK D Ki bvBUvRb Mvm Zix Kiv nq|
NaNO2 NH4 Cl
NaCl N 2 2H 2 O
1.5.5.1 bvBUvRbi iZ
1) cvwYK~ji kvm-ckvm bvBUvRbi h_ f~wgKv iqQ| bvBUvRb evq~i AwRbK jNy Ki Z_v kvm-
nb
i
5)
6)
7)
8)
ok
4)
r.e
bo
2)
3)
ckv m Avgiv h evq~ eenvi Kwi ZvZ 21% AwRbi mv_ wbwq cKwZi 78% bvBUvRb Mvm we`gvb
_K evq~Z AwRbi cwigvbK nvm Ki Avgvì i cevn cwiwgZ cwigvb AwRb kvlY mvnvh
Ki| ^vfvweK Aevq GKRb gvbyl 21% Gi AwaK AwRbhy evq~Z kvm-ckvm wbj Zvi kixii
AwRbi mieivn eo hve Ges `Z kmbi gvag `ni Zvcgvv eo hve |
wbwq cwiek mw Ki e`ywZK evj Gi vwqZ ewZ, AviMbi weK wnmve bvBUvRb Mvm eeZ nq|
evq~i AwRb viv RvwiZ nq web nIqvi mvebv iqQ Ggb Lvè (hgb: Avjy,gq`v,wPwb w`q Zix
wPc&m, wezU) bvBUvRb Mvm fwZ evq~wbivax cvK fi msiY Kiv nq|
wk KviLvbvq wewfb ivmvqwbK èi hgb: Avgvwbqv Mvm, BDwiqv mvi, bvBwUK GwmW BZvwì evwbwRK
Drcv`b evq~i bvBUvRb eeZ nq|
BjKUwbK hvsk hgb: WvqvW, UvbwRi, AvB.wm. BZvw` ZixZ bvBUvRb Mvm eeZ nq|
gwiPvnxb Bvr(stainless steel) Drcv`b bvBUvRb Mvm eeZ nq|
Mvm vgvUvMvwdZ evnK Mvm wnmve bvBUvRb eeZ nq|
Zij bvBUvRb (bp : 195.8 C) wngvqK wnmve, i I wicvWvKwUe Kvl(vg I wW^K) msiK
wnmve eeZ nq|
/ta
1.6.0 bvBUvRbi ag
1.6.1 fZ ag t mvaviY Aevq bvBUvRb eYnxb Mvm wnmve weivR Ki| -bvBUvRb(wKDweK Kjvm)I -
.fa
ce
bo
ok
.
co
bvBUvRb(nvMvbvj Kjvm) bvg bvBUvRbi `ywU icf` (allotropy) AvQ| evq~gjxq Pvc bvBUvRb Mvm
77 K (195.8 C) Zijxf~Z nq Ges 63 K (210.0 C) Zvcgvvq RgvU ea KwVb Aev cv nq| Zij
bvBUvRb `LZ AbKUv cvwbi gZ wK cvwbi Pq AbKUv fvix|
1.6.2 ivmvqwbK agt bvBUvRb GKwU AbZg AavZz| Gi ZworFbvZKZv 3.04| N-cigvYyi ewn:kwi 5wU
BjKUb iqQ| GZ p-AiweUvjmg~n Aac~Y Ges mylg Aevq AvQ|
2
2
1
1
1
7N 1s 2s 2p x 2p y 2p z
bvBUvRbi AvYweK msKZ N2 ; bvBUvRb AYyZ N-cigvYy `ywU cii w eb (NN) hy _vK|
N-cigvYyi hvRZvi 2q kwi( L -kj) nIqvq Gi cigvYyi AvKvi ek QvU| ZvB z`vKvi `ywU N-cigvYy
Zvì mylg Aac~Y p-AiweUvjmg~ni (1wU cvwq I `ywU cvwkq) AwagY (Overlaping) NwUq 3wU mghvRx
15
eb(1wU -eb I 2wU -eb) hy nq N2 AYy NUb Ki| mylgZv I NN eb `N (0.1098nm) z`
nIqvi KviY bvBUvRb-bvBUvRb w-eb(NN) AZ mywZ I `p nq|
NN
N + N
N2 AYy mij iwLK, mywZ I `p nIqvi KviY Gi eb wehvRb Gb_vwc AwZ DP (945kJmol-1)| ZvB
bvBUvRb Mvm AZ vqx I wbwq| wbwqZvi w`K _K wbwq Mvmjvi ciB bvBUvRbi vb| bvBUvRb
AYyi eb wehvRb Gb_vwc AwZ DP ej bvBUvRb MvmK cvq 30000C Zvcgvvq D Kij Gi AYymg~ni
eb wehvwRZ nq mwq cvigvbweK bvBUvRb cwibZ nq| ZvB bvBUvRbi me wewqv AwZ DP Zvcgvvq
msNwUZ nq| hgb : bvBUvRb I AwRbi wgkYK 30000C Zvcgvvq D Kij wewqv NU NO Mvm Zix
nq|
0
C
N2(g) + O2(g) 3000
2NO(g)
DP Zvcgvvq bvBUvRb Mvm Zxe ZworabvZK avZz Al,Ca,Mg, Li BZvwì mv_ wewqv Ki bvBUvBW MVb
Ki| Gme avZz bvBUvBW ZworhvRx ev AvqwbK hM ej Giv cvwb viv Av` wekwlZ nq avZz nvBWvBW I NH3
Mvm Zix Ki| hgb:
N2(g) + 3Mg Mg3N2(s) ; Mg3N2(s) + 6H2O

3Mg(OH)2 + 2NH3
N2(g) + 3Ca Ca3N2(s) ; Ca3N2(s) + 6H2O

3Ca(OH)2 + 2NH3
1.7.0 bvBUvRbi AvBWmg~n

bvBUvRbi gvU cuvPwU AvBW AvQ| mviwY-1.7 G bvBUvRbi AvBWmg~ni bvg,msKZ I fZvev `Lvbv
nqQ|
[ mviwY-1.7 t bvBUvRbi AvBW mg~ni bvg,msKZ , cKwZ I fZvev ]
AvBWi bvg
msKZ
cKwZ
fZvev
1| bvBUvm AvBW (jvwds Mvm)
wbic
ebnxb Mvm
N2O
2| bvBwUK AvBW
wbic
ebnxb Mvm
NO
3| bvBUvRb UvB AvBW
Aagx
bxj Zij
N2O3
4| bvBUvRb cvi AvBW ev
Aagx
ev`vgx Mvm
2NO2 N2O4
WvB bvBUvRb UUv AvBW
5| WvB bvBUvRb cUv AvBW
Aagx
eYnxb KwVb
N2O5
1.7.1 bvBUvm AvBW(Nitrous oxide, N2O)

1.7.1.1 N2O Gi MVb t
N N O
- +
+
[ N N O N N O ]
1.7.1.2 N2O Gi cwZt Avgvwbqvg bvBUvBUK 2500C Zvcgvvq D Kij GwU Zvc wehvwRZ nq bvBUvm
AvBW Mvm Drcb nq|
NH4NO3(g) N2O(g) + 2H2O(g)

NH4NO3 GKwU Avqx hM ej mvavibZ NaNO3 I NH4Cl Gi wgkYK D Ki N2O Mvm Zix Kiv nq|
NaNO3(s) + NH4Cl(s) NH4NO3(s) + NaCl(s)
NH4NO3(s) N2O(g) + 2H2O(g)
bxU wewqv: NaNO3(s) + NH4Cl(s) N2O(g) + 2H2O(g) + NaCl(s)

1.7.1.3 N2O Gi fZ ag t
N2O GKwU eYnxb ckg Mvm| Gi wgw M AvQ| wb:kvmi mv_ N2O Mvm MnY Kij GwU ii mv_ wgk
gvbe `ni mvqy Zi nvwm D`KKvix AskK mwq Ki Zzj ; GB KviY N2O Mvm wb:kvm wbj gvbyl nvmZ
16
_vK| wb:kvm N2O Mvmi cwigvb ewk nj gvbyl nvmZ nvmZ Avb nq hvq ; GbwK gvivI hZ cvi| N2O
Mvm gvbylK nvmvq ej GK jvwds Mvm ej| wZxq wek hy k cK nvwmq Nvqj Kivi Rb jvwds Mvm
eeZ nqwQj|
1.7.1.4 N2O Gi ivmvqwbK ag t
mvaviY Aevq N2O ek wbwq I ckg| Dvevq GwU wehvwRZ nq N2 I cvigvbweK AwRb Zix Ki Ges
RviK wnmve wqv Ki| hgb: N2O Rj Kveb,mvjdvi I dmdivmK RvwiZ Ki AvBW cwibZ Ki Ges
wbR weRvwiZ nq N2 Mvm cwibZ nq|
C(s) + 2N2O(g) CO2(g) + 2N2(g) ; S(s) + 2N2O(g) SO2(g) + 2N2(g)

1.7.1.5 N2O Gi eenvi t
GwU k cK Nvqj KiZ jvwds Mvm wnmve Ges g`y PZbvbvkK wnmve eeZ nq| iKU eeZ Rvjvwbi
RviK wnmve AwRbi mv_ 50-50 wgkY ZixZ bvBUvm AvBW eeZ nq| ZvQvov,gvqì cme Kvj, Ugv
mviRvixZ I nvU AvUvKKvix ivMxì ev_v Dcmg bvBUvm AvBW eeZ nq|
1.7.2 bvBwUK AvBW(Nitric oxide,NO)
N = O ]
1.7.2.1 NO Gi MVb t NO [ N = O
1.7.2.2 NO Gi cixvMvi cwZ t

cixvMvi Kcvi K~wP I gag Mvp (50%) bvBwUK GwmWi wewqv viv NO Mvm Zix Kiv nq| GLvb bvBwUK
GwmW KcviK RvwiZ Ki Kcvi(II)bvBUU cwibZ Ki ; cvkvcvwk bvBwUK GwmW Kcvi viv weRvwiZ nq NO
Mvm Zix Ki|
2HNO3 2NO + H2O + 3[O]
Cu + [O] CuO .3
CuO + 2HNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + H2O.3
bxU wewqv t 3Cu + 8HNO3 3Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O
1.7.2.3 NO Gi ag t
NO Mvm eYnxb ckg Mvm| GwU cvwbZ mvgvb cwigvb èYxq| GwU wbR Rj bv Ges AbK RjZI mvnvh
Ki bv| NO Mvm evq~i msk Avmvgv evq~i AwRb viv RvwiZ nq ev`vgx eYi NO2 Mvm mw Ki|
2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)
/ta
nb
i
r.e
bo
ok
(K) NO Gi RviY ag t Dvevq NO RviK wnmve wqv Ki| hgb: NO Rj Kveb,mvjdvi I dmdivm
BZvw` AavZzK Ges D Kcvi,gvMbwmqvg BZvw` avZzK RvwiZ Ki AvBW cwibZ Ki Ges wbR weRvwiZ
nq N2 Mvm cwibZ nq|
C(s) + 2NO(g) CO2(g) + N2(g) ;
2Cu(s) + 2NO(g) 2CuO(s) + N2(g) ;
.fa
ce
bo
ok
.
co
(L) NO Gi weRviY ag t Av` NO Mvm weRviK wnmve wqv Ki| hgb: AvqvwWbi jNy Rjxq èY NO Mvm
Pvjbv Kij GwU AvqvwWbK weRvwiZ Ki HI G cwibZ Ki Ges wbR AvqvwWb viv RvwiZ nq HNO3 G
cwibZ nq|
2NO(g) + 4H2O(l) 2HNO3(aq) + 6[H]
3I2(s) + 6[H] 6HI(aq)
bxU wewqv t 2NO(g) + 4H2O(l) + 3I2(s) 2HNO3(aq) + 6HI(aq)
(M) NO Gi RwUj hM MVb: NO Mvm K Zvcgvvq FeSO4 Gi Rjxq èY kvwlZ nq cUvAvKzqv bvBUvmv
diU(II)mvjdUi ev`vgx eYi RwUj hM MVb Ki|
17
FeSO4(aq) + 5H2O(l) + NO(g) [Fe(H2O)5.NO]SO4 (ev`vgx )
1.7.3 bvBUvRb UvBAvBW(Dinitrogen trioxide,N2O3)
1.7.3.1 N2O3Gi MVb t O = N O N = O
1.7.3.2 N2O3Gi cwZ: mg cwigvb bvBwUK AvBW I bvBUvRb WvB AvBWi wgkYK 21 C Ki
Zvcgvvi wbP kxZj Kij N2O3 Mvm Zix nq|
NO + NO2
N2O3
gag Mvp (50%) bvBwUK GwmWK Avimwbqvm AvBWi mv_ D Kij N2O3 Mvm Zix nq|
HNO3(aq) + H2O(l) + As2O3(s) N2O3(g) + 2H2AsO4(aq)
1.7.3.3 N2O3Gi ag: mvaviY Zvcgvvq N2O3 ev`vgx eYi NO I NO2 Gi wgkY wnmve weivR Ki| D
wgkYK 21 C Zvcgvvi wbP kxZj Kij bxj eYi N2O3 Zij Zix nq|
N2O3 GKwU A agx AvBW | GwU cvwbZ èxf~Z nq bvBUvm GwmW Zix Ki ej GK bvBUvm Gb&nvBWvBW
ej|
N2O3(g) + H2O(l) 2HNO2(aq)
HNO2 GKwU Avqx GwmW | ZvrwbKfve eenvi bv Kiv nj GwU wehvwRZ nq bvBwUK GwmW I bvBwUK
AvBW cwibZ nq|
3HNO2(aq)
HNO3(aq) +2NO(g) + H2O(l)
N2O3 vii mv_ wewqv Ki vqx bvBUvBU jeY Zix Ki ; GZ cgvwbZ nq q N2O3 GKwU Aagx AvBW|
N2O3(g) + 2NaOH(aq) 2NaNO2(aq) + H2O(l)
1.7.4 bvBUvRb WvBAvBW(NO2) I WvB bvBUvRb UUvvBW(N2O4)

1.7.4.1 bvBUvRb WvBAvBWi MVb t
+
NO2
1.7.4.2 NO2 Gi cwZ t NO MvmK evq~i msk Avbj GwU evq~i AwRb viv RvwiZ nq NO2 Mvm
Zix nq|
2NO(g) + O2(air) 2NO2(g)
cixvMvi jW bvBUUK ZvcwehvwRZ Ki A_ev Kcvi K~wP I Vvv Mvp bvBwUK GwmWi wewqv viv NO2 Mvm
Zix Kiv nq| NO2 K bvBUvRb cvi AvBWI ejv nq|
2Pb(NO3)2 (s) 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
Cu(s) + 4HNO3(conc.) Cu(NO3)2(s) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

ZvQvov, Avgvwbqv Mvmi cfveKxq RviY NwUq Drcb NO MvmK kxZj Ki
evq~ viv RvwiZ Kij NO2 Zix nq|
Pt,750 0 C
4NH3(g) + 5O2(air) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g) ;
50 0 C
2NO2(g)
2NO(g) + 3O2(air)
1.7.4.3 NO2 Gi ag t NO2 GKwU ev`vgx eYi Zxe SvSvjv Mhy Mvm|
[wP t 1.4 NO2 Mvmc~Y evZj ]
18
GK kxZj Kij Gi `ywU Ki Aby hy nq WvB bvBUvRb UUvvBW (N2O4) MVb Ki| N2O4 njv eYnxb Zij
c`v_| 1400C Zvcgvvi wbP NO2 I N2O4 mvgvevq weivR Ki|
Zvc
+ Zvc
2NO2(g)
(e`vgx Mvm)
N2O4(l)
(eYnxb Zij)
(2NO2)
(N2O4)
(N2O4)
11.2 C Zvcgvvq N2O4 RgvU ea KwVb c`v_ cwibZ nq| NO2 MvmK 150 C D Kij GwU wehvwRZ
nq NO2 I O2 Zix Ki|
2NO2(g) 2NO(g) + O2(g) ; H = 114 kJ/mol
1.7.4.4 NO2 Gi Gi A ag t NO2 GKwU Aagx AvBW | ZvB GwU Vvv cwbZ èxf~Z nq bvBwUK
GwmW I bvBUvm GwmW Zix Ki| GRb NO2 K bvBwUK I bvBUvm GwmWi wgk AvbnvBWvBW ej|
2NO2(g) + H2O HNO3(aq) + HNO2(aq)
Avevi, NO2 vii mv_ wewqv Ki jeY I cvwb Zix Ki| GZ cgvwbZ nq NO2 Aagx |
2NO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) NaNO3(aq) + NaNO2(aq) + H2O(l)
1.7.4.5 NO2 Gi Gi RviY ag t NO2 GKwU RviYagx AvBW| Dvevq GwU Fe,Cu,Pb BZvw` avZzK
RvwiZ Ki AvBW cwibZ Ki|
4Cu(s) + 2NO2(g) 4CuO(s) + N2(g)
Pb(s) + NO2(g) PbO(s) + NO(g)
r.e
bo
ok
ZvQvov, NO2 KvebK RvwiZ Ki CO2 Ges H2S K RvwiZ Ki G _K S wegy Ki|
C(s) + NO2(g) CO2(s) + NO(g)
H2S(g) + NO2(g) S(s) + NO(g) + H2O(l)
/ta
nb
i
1.7.4.6 NO2 Gi eenvi t NO2 Abv` avZz bvBUU ZixZ eeZ nq|
MO(s) + 3NO2(g) 2M(NO3)2(g) + NO(g) [ M=Cu,Pb, Fe BZvw` ]
hgb t CuO(s) + 3NO2(g) 2Cu(NO3)2(g) + NO(g)
co
1.7.5 WvB bvBUvRb cUvvBW ev bvBUvRb cUvvBW (N2O5)
.fa
ce
bo
ok
.
1.7.5.1 N2O5 Gi MVb t
19
1.7.5.2 N2O5 Gi cwZ t cixvMvi Mvp bvBwUK GwmWK P2O5 viv wbiw`Z Ki N2O5 Zix Kiv nq|
cixvMvi GKwU KvPi wiUU Mvp HNO3 I P2O5 wgkY wbq cwbMvn ewmq Dvc w`q cvZb Kiv nq| MvnK
dv cvwZZ Zij wnmve Kgjv eYi N2O5 Rgv nq| wiUU Aekl ic gUv dmdwiK GwmW co _vK|
2HNO3 (conc.) + P2O5(s) 2HPO3(l) + N2O5(l)
1.7.5.3 N2O5 Gi ag t KwVb Aevq N2O5 GKwU eYnxb KjvmvKvi c`v_| K Zvcgvvq GwU njy` eYi
Zij Aevq weivR Ki| K Zvcgvvq Zij N2O5 axi axi weqvwRZ I DacvwZZ nq NO2 I O2 Mvm Zix
Ki| 50C Zvcgvvq Zij N2O5 D weqvRb `Z I weviYmn NU|
29 0 C
N2O5(l)
2NO2(g) +O2(g)
N2O5 GKwU weij hMi D`vniY hv Aevi cwZ Acvjvi mghvRx I AvqwbK cKwZi jeY (bvBUvwbqvg
bvBUU) Dfqic _vKZ cvi|
N2O5 (Acvjvi Zij)
[NO2+][NO3](KwVb KjvmvKvi jeY)
1.7.5.4 N2O5 Gi A ag t N2O5 GKwU Aagx AvBW | ZvB GwU cvwb Mvmx Zij | GwU cvwb kvlY Ki
bvBwUK GwmW Zix Ki| GRb N2O5 K bvBwUK AvbnvBWvBW ej|
N2O5(s) + H2O(l) 2HNO3(aq)
ZvQvov , N2O5 vii mv_ wewqv Ki jeY I cvwb Zix Ki| GZ cgvwbZ nq N2O5 Aagx|
N2O5(l) + 2NaOH(aq) 2NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l)
1.7.5.5 N2O5 Gi RviY ag t N2O5GKwU RviYagx AvBW| Dvevq GwU P4 , I2 BZvw`K RvwiZ Ki
AvBW cwibZ Ki Ges wbR weRvwiZ nq N2 Mvm cwibZ nq|
P4(s) + N2O5(l) 2P2O5(s) + N2(g)
I2(s) + N2O5(l) I2O5(s) + N2(g)
1.7.5.6 N2O5 Gi eenvi t KwVb N2O5 G bvBUvwbqvg KvUvqb (NO2+) I bvBUU Avqb(NO3) we`gvb
iqQ ej Gi KvUvqbK avZz ev Avgvwbqvg Avqb viv cwZvwcZ Ki bvBUU jeY Zix Kiv hvq|
1.8.0 bvBUvRbi nvBWvBW (Hydrides of Nitrogen)

bvBUvRb I nvBWvRb hy nq 3wU mywZ nvBWvBW MVb Ki| mviwY-1.8 G bvBUvRbi nvBWvBWmg~ni bvg
msKZ I MVb `Lvbv nqQ|
bvBURbi nvBWvBW
msKZ
MVb(Structure)
1| Avgvwbqv(Ammonia)
NH3
2| nvBWvwRb(Hydrazine)
N2H4
3| nvBWvRwqKGwmW(Hydrazoicacid)
HN3
ev nvBWvRb AvRvBW
bvBUvRbi nvBWvBWjvi ewe` eenvi iqQ| bvBUvRb mvi Drcv`b Avgvwbqvi ic~Y Dcv`vb|
nvBWvwRb I cwZvwcZ nvBWvwRbmg~n weKviK I iKU I wgmvBj Rvjvbx wnmve eeZ nq| nvBWvRwqK GwmWi
fvix avZzi jeY weviY msNUK(detonator) wnmve eeZ nq|
20
1.8.1 Avgvwbqv (Ammonia)

Avgvwbqv bvBUvRbi GKwU AbZg nvBWvBW| mvaviY Aevq Mvmxq Avgvwbqv
GKwU mghvRx hM| Gi Abyi MVb wKvbxq wcovwgW AvKwZi|Avgvwbqvi

AbyZ H-N-H eb Kvb 1070| Rvmd wcwj(Joseph Priestley) 1775
mvj mec_g Sal ammoniac (Avgvwbqvg KvivBW) I slaked lime(KwjPzb)
Gi wgkYK D Ki Avgvwbqv Mvm Zix Kib| 1785 mvj jyBm ev_jU Gi
mshywZ wbYq Kib|
1070
1.8.2 Avgvwbqvi evwbwRK ev wk Drcv`b

Avgvwbqv msklYi g~j Dcv`vb njv bvBUvRb I nvBWvRb Mvm| 1909 mvj
DP Pvc cqvMKvix h(Compressor) Dvebi ci Rvgvb imvqbwe` wdR nevi
mec_g Zij evq~K AvswkK cvZb Ki cv bvBUvRb Mvmi mv_ nvBWvRb
Mvmi wewqv viv Avgvwbqv Mvm Drcv`b mg_ nb| cieZxZ Rvgvb KwgKvj
Kvvbxi mZvwaKvix Kvj em(Carl Bosch) nevii mv_ hy nb | em& jvwnZ
Z KvKi Dci w`q xg Pvjbv Ki IqvUvi Mvm (CO+H2) cZ Ki GK
xgmn (Fe2O3+Cr2O3) cfveKi Dci w`q Pvjbv Ki Gi CO RvwiZ Ki
CO2 Mvm cwibZ Kib| CO2 hy wgkYK g`y vixq èY Pvjbv Kij Zv
CO2 gy Kib|
[ wP t NH3 Abyi MVb ]
[ wP t Fritz Haber]
C(s) + H2O(steam) (CO+H2)(g)[water gas ]
Fe O , Cr O
r.e
bo
ok
3
3
2
CO2(g) + 2H2(g)
(CO+H2) + H2O(steam) 2
emi Rvgvb KwgKvj Kvvbx Zij evq~ _K Drcb N2 Mvm Ges em cwZZ Drcb H2 Mvmi 1 t 3 AbycvZ
wgkY Zix Ki nevi cwZZ 1913 mvj mec_g Avgvwbqvi evwbwRK Drcv`b i Kib| Avgvwbqvi
evwbwRK Drcv`b Dvebi Rb 1918mvj wdR neviK Ges 1931mvj Kvj em&K bvej cyivi c`vb Kiv nq|
eZgvb nevi-em& cwZK cwiewZZ Ki evsjv`kmn wewfb `k KuvPvgvj wnmve evq~ , xg I cvKwZK Mvm ev
Light petrolium gas(LPG) eenvi Ki Avgvwbqvi evwbwRK Drcv`b Kiv nq | G, cvKwZK Mvm ev
LPG (light petrolium gas) Gi mv_ xg I cqvRbxq cwigvb evq~ wgwkZ Ki 7000C Zvcgvvq D wbKj
cfveKi Dci w`q Pvjbv Ki CO, H2 I N2 Mvm wgkY Zix Kiv nq| Drcvw`Z Mvm wgkYK AvqiY AvBW
cfveKi Dci w`q Pvjbv Kij Gi mg CO RvwiZ nq CO2 G cwibZ nq | CO2 hy wgkYK Dchy Kvb
g`y vixq (Na2CO3) èYi gaw`q Pvjbv Ki CO2 gy Ki Avgvwbqv msklYi Rb N2 I H2Mvmi 1t3
AbycvZ wgkY Zix Kiv nq|
Ni , 700 0 C
CO(g) + 3H2(g)
CH4(g) + H2O(steam)
Ni , 700 0 C
2CH4(g) + Air[O2(g) + 4N2(g)]
2CO(g) + 4H2(g) + 4N2(g)
Fe O
/ta
1.8.3 nevi cwZZ Avgvwbqvi evwbwRK ev wk Drcv`b
nb
i
3
CO2(g) + [ 3H2(g) + N2(g) ]
[CO(g) + 2H2(g) + N2(g) ] + H2O(steam) 2
(K) g~jbxwZ t Rvgvb imvqbwe` wdR nevi N2 I H2 Mvmi ga wbgv msLvbycvwZK mgxKiYvbyhvqx wewqv
ok
.
2NH3(g) ; H= 92.4kJ mol-1
bo
N2(g) + 3H2(g)
co
NwUq NH3 Mvm msklY Kib|
.fa
ce
jbxq h, NH3 Mvm msklYi D wewqvwU1) Dfqg~Lx (wewqvwU GKB mgq myL I cvr Dfq w`K Pj) ,
2) Zvcvrcv`x ( cwZ gvj NH3 Mvm Drcv`bi Rb 92.4 wKjvRyj Zvc wbMZ nq) ,
3) Mvmxq Ges GZ AvqZbi msKzPb NU ; KviY 4 gvj wewqK (1 gvj N2 I 3 gvj H2) 2 gvj Drcv`
(NH3 ) MVb Ki| GKB Zvcgvv I Pvc Mvmmg~ni gvjvi AvqZb mgvb|
21
myZivs ivmvqwbK mvgvev mwKZ jv-kvZwjqii bxwZ (Le Chatelier's principle)Abyhvqx D wewqvwUi
wbg Zvcgvvq Ges DP Pvc Gi mvgvevi Aevb Wvb mi wMq Avgvwbqvi Drcv`bi nvi ew Kie|
wK wbg Zvcgvvq wewqvwUi myL I cvr Dfq wewqvi nvi LyeB Kg nIqvq Gi mvgvevq cQZ AbK mgq
jvM| dj wbg Zvcgvvq LyeB wbg nvi Avgvwbqv Mvm Drcb nq Ges Avgvwbqvi evwbwRK Drcv`b AjvfRbK
nq | ZvB immvqbwe`Mb nevi cwZZ mevP cwigvb Avgvwbqv msklYi Rb Dchy cfveK eenvi Ki
wewqv cwieki Zvcgvv I Pvc Dchy cwigvb ew Ki AZvbyK~j kZvejx (Optimum Conditions) wbaviY
Kib|
nevi cwZZ N2 I H2 Mvm nZ mevP cwigvb NH3 Drcv`bi kZvejx t
1| Dchy cfveKi eenvi t imvqbwe`Mb Avgvwbqv msklYi Dfqg~Lx wewqvwUi `Z mvgvev ARbi
j Dchy cfveK wnmve jvnvi ov (Iron dust) Ges cfveK mnvqK wnmve gwjeWbvg (Mo) ev
Al2O3 ov eenvi Kib| eeZ cfveK myL I cvr Dfq wewqvi mwqb kwK mgvb nvi nvm
Ki `Z ivmvqwbK mvgvev ARb mnvqZv Ki| mvgvevq Kkj cvrg~Lx wewqvi MwZ Z_v NH3
Gi weqvRb nvi nvm Ki NH3 Drcv`bi nvi evovbv nq|
2|
3| wewqv cwiekK AZvbyK~j Zvcgvvq ivLv t AZvbyK~j Zvcgvv njv Dchy Pvc I cfveKi DcwwZZ
wewqv cwieki Ggb GKwU Zvcgvv hvZ mevP cwigvb Drcv` cvIqv hvq| cixvj djvdj
weklY Ki `Lv hvq h Dchy Pvc I cfveKi DcwwZZ wewqv cwieki Zvcgvv 4000C nZ
5500C G wi ivLj mevP cwigvb NH3 Drcv`b me nq| ZvB wewqv cwieki AZvbyK~j Zvcgvv
4000C - 5500C wbaviY Kiv nq|
4| wewqv cwiek AZvbyK~j Pvc eRvq ivLv t D wewqvwUZ AvqZbi nvm NU (gvU 4 AvqZb wewqK
2 AvqZb Drcv` cwibZ nq) ej wewqvwU hZB myL w`K AMmi nZ _vK ZvZ wewqv cwieki Pvc
nvm cZ _vK| ZvB, jv-kvZwjqii bxwZ Abyhvqx G wewqv cwieki Pvc ew Kij D Pvc
wewqKi AvqZbK nvm Ki wewqvwUi mvgvevi AevbK Wvb mive; dj NH3Drcv`b ew cve|
cixvj djvdj weklY Ki `Lv hvq 2000C Zvcgvvq Ges
750atm wewqKmg~ni cvq100% wewqv Ki NH3Z icvwiZ
nq| wK 750 atm Pvc cqvMKvix hcvwZi vcb eq AbK ewk
ej NH3 Drcv`b cwqvwU evwbwRKfve AjvfRbK nq ci|
Ze AZvb~j Zvcgvvq m eq vwcZ clY hi mvnvh 200
atm Pvc cqvM Kij NH3 Drcv`b cwqvwU jvfRbK nq| ZvB
G AZvb~j Pvc wnmve 200 atm cqvM Kiv nq|
5| Drcb NH3 K wewqv cwiek _K `Z mwiq bqv t wewqv cKv _K Drcb NH3 MvmK `yZ mwiq
wbj Dvc NH3 Gi wehvRb Z_v cvrg~Lx wewqvi nvi nvm cvq | GfveI NH3 Gi Drcv`b ew
cvq| G AcwiewZZ wewqKmn (N2+ H2) Drcb NH3 MvmK wewqv cKv _K `Z mwiq
wbq kxZKi ga w`q Pvjbv Kiv nq ; dj NH3 Mvm Zijxf~Z nq wgkY _K Avjv`v nq Ges
AcwiewZZ wewqKjv Mvmxq Aevq kxZK _K ewiq Avm| AcwiewZZ wewqKjvK cyb:eenvi
(re-cycle) Kij NH3 Drcv`bi gvv Aviv eo hvq|
(L) nevi cwZi eYbv t
1| cvKwZK Mvm ev LPG (light petrolium gas) Gi mv_ xg I cqvRbxq cwigvb evq~ wgwkZ Ki
7000C Zvcgvvq D wbKj cfveKi Dci w`q Pvjbv Ki CO, H2 I N2 Mvm wgkY Zix Kiv nq|
2| Drcvw`Z Mvm wgkYK AvqiY AvBW cfveKi Dci w`q Pvjbv Kij Gi mg CO RvwiZ nq CO2
G cwibZ nq |
3| CO2hy wgkYK Dchy Kvb g`y vixq (Na2CO3) èYi ga w`q Pvjbv Ki CO2gy Ki Avgvwbqv
msklYi Rb N2 I H2 Mvmi 1 t 3 AbycvZ wgkY Zix Kiv nq|
4| N2 I H2 Mvmi 1 t 3 AbycvZ wgkYK Kcmvii mvnvh 200atm Pvc msKzwPZ Ki xj wbwgZ
wewqv cKv wbP w`K _K mieivn Kiv nq| wewqv cKv my jvnv I gwjeWbvgi ov cfveK
22
eWmg~n Qwoq ivLv nq | cvkvcvwk Zvc wewbgqK bji gvag AwZZ xg Pvjbv Ki wewqv cKvi
Afii Zvcgvv 4000C-5000C G wi ivLv nq| wewqv cKv cfveK DcwwZZ AZvbyK~j
Zvcgvv I Pvc mieivnKZ N2 I H2 Mvmi 15-20% wewqv Ki NH3Mvm cwiewZZ nq|
6| wewqv cKvi Pzov _K Drcb NH3 MvmK AcwiewZZ N2 I H2 Mvmmn `Z mwiq kxZKi ga w`q
Pvjbv Kiv nq ; dj NH3 Mvm Zijxf~Z nq wgkY _K Avjv`v nq MvnK Uv Rgv nq Ges AcwiewZZ
N2 I H2 Mvmxq Aevq kxZK _K ewiq Avm|
7| kxZK _K ewiq Avmv AcwiewZZ N2 I H2 MvmK cyb:eenvii Rb cv Ki bji gvag clY
h cvVvbv nq| cwqvwUZ AcwiewZZ N2 I H2 MvmK evi evi cyb:eenvi(wimvBKj) Ki eeZ N2
I H2 Gi mvgMxK Kbfvikbi gvv 98% G DbxZ Kiv hvq|
xg
cvKwZK Mvm
evq~
Ni-cfveK
7000C
Fe2O3
5000C
Ni-cfveK
7000C
Na2CO3
èY
(N2 I H2 Mvm )
(AcwiewZZ N2 I H2 Mvm)
Kcmvi
200 atm
wewqv cKv
4000C-5000C
Fe-P~Y
Mo /Al2O3
200 atm
cv
kxZK
Zij NH3
r.e
bo
ok
Kcmi[ wP t 1.5 NH Gi wkvrcv`bi cevnwP ]

3
nb
i
1.8.4 Avgvwbqvi cixvMvi cwZ
g~jbxwZ t cixvMvi Avgvwbqvg KvivBWi mv_ KzBK jvBg(CaO) ev KwjPzb [Ca(OH)2] wgwkq cv wgkYK
NH3
ok
.
co
/ta
D Ki Avgvwbqv Mvm cZ Kiv nq|
NH4Cl(s) + CaO(s) 2NH3(g) + CaCl2(s) + H2O(g)

(NH4Cl+CaO)
NH4Cl(s) +Ca(OH)2(s) 2NH3(g) +CaCl2(s)+2H2O(g)
.fa
ce
bo
Gfve Drcb Avgvwbqv Mvmi mv_ cvwb ev wgwkZvevq _K hvq |

CaO
Zvc
ZvB Avgvwbqv MvmK Kiv cqvRb|
UvIqvi
cwZi eYbv t GKwU gUvi KwjPzb ev Pzb wbq cji mvnvh
fvjfve wcl Gi mv_ AaK cwigvb Avgvwbqvg KvivBW wbq cybivq
fvjfve wgwkq wgkYK GKwU k I gvUv cixvbj bqv nq| [ wP t 1.6 cixvMvi NH Mvm cwZ ]
3
cixvbji g~L ivevi KKi mvnvh GKwU wbMg bj hy Ki GK v I
23
Kvi mvnvq wKQzUv mvgbi w`K Kvr Ki AvUKvbv nq| wbMg bji kl cvwU GKwU Pzbc~Y UvIqvii wbP w`K
hy Kiv nq| cixvbji wgkYK eybmb evbvii mvnvh D Kij Dcii wewqv Abyhvqx Av` NH3 Mvm Zix
nq|
Av` Avgvwbqv Mvmi KiY t cixvMvi Av` (cvwbevhy) NH3 MvmK mvaviYZ Pzb viv cvwbg~
Ki Kiv nq|
[ NH3(g) + H2O(g) ] + CaO(s) NH3(g) + Ca(OH)2(s)
DjL h, Avgvwbqv viKagx nvBWvBW ej Av` Avgvwbqv MvmK Aagx wbi`K hgb: Mvp H2SO4 ev P2O5
viv Kiv hvq bv| G viKagx Avgvwbqv Aagx wbi`Ki mv_ ckgb wewqvi gvag jeY MVb Ki |
dj NH3 Mvm hM wnmve Ave nq hvq|
hgb: Av` NH3 MvmK Mvp H2SO4 viv KiZ Mj NH3 mvjwdDwiK GwmWi mv_ ckgb wewqvi
gvag Avgvwbqvg mvjdU MVb Ki|
[ 2NH3(g) + H2O(g) ] + Mvp H2SO4 (l) (NH4)2SO4(s) + H2O(g)
GKBfve, Av` NH3 MvmK P2O5 viv KiZ Mj NH3 ckgb wewqvi gvag
Avgvwbqvg dmdU MVb Ki|
[ 6NH3(g) + 3H2O(g) ] + P2O5(s) 2(NH4)3PO4(s)
Aviv jbxq h, Av` NH3 MvmK wbi`bKvix c`v_ ,CaCl2 viv Kiv hvq bv |
Gi KviY njv NH3 Gi N-cigvYyZ GK Rvov wb:m BjKUb _vKvi Kij GwU wjMv
wnmve wqv Ki| Av` NH3 MvmK CaCl2 viv KiZ Mj NH3 , CaCl2 Gi
mv_ wjMv wnmve hy nq Avg&wgb Kvjwmqvg KvivBW MVb Ki|
[ 8NH3(g)+ H2O(g)] + CaCl2(s) [Ca(NH3)8]Cl2 (s) + H2O(g)
1.8.5 Avgvwbqvi ag
1.8.5.1 Avgvwbqvi fZag t Avgvwbqv GKwU Zxe SvSvjv Mhy eYnxb Mvm| Gi zUbvsK 33.870C
1.8.5.2 Avgvwbqvi `veZv t mvaviY Aevq GwU cvwbZ ek èYxq| Gi Rjxq èY cvq
35-40% NH3 èxf~Z _vK| mvavib Aevq cvwbZ NH3 Mvm Pvjbv Kij NH3 cvwbi
mv_ wewqv Ki g`y viK Avgvwbqvg nvBWvBW (NH4OH) MVb Ki| ZvB NH3 Gi
Rjxq èYK Avgvwbqvg nvBWvBW (NH4OH) ej|
NH3 (g) + H2O(l)
NH4OH(aq) ;
NH4OH(aq)
NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
NH4OH GKwU g`y viK| Rjxq èY Gi gv 0.4% AvqwbZ Aevq _vK| NH3 Gi
m Rjxq èYK wjKvi Avgvwbqv ev Avgvwbqv wwiU ej| wjKvi Avgvwbqvq 35[ NH3-Kwg dvqviv ]
40% NH3 èxf~Z _vK|
1.8.5.3 Avgvwbqvi viKagxZv t Avgvwbqv GKwU viKagx nvBWvBW | hgb: Gi Rjxq èY jvj
wjUgvmK bxj Ki | GwU GwmWi mv_ wewqv Ki jeY Zix Ki|
NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) ; OH-(aq) + jvj wjUgvm bxj wjUgvm
NH3(g) + HCl(aq) NH4Cl(aq)
A-viKi cvUbxq aviYv Abyhvqx GwU GKwU cvUb(H+) MnY Ki NH4+ Avqb MVb Ki viKZ cKvk Ki|
NH3(g) + H+(aq) NH4+(aq) [ NH3 Gi cvUb MnY ]
A-viKi jyB(Lewis) avibvbymvi NH3 GKwU jyB viK ; KviY GwU Kvb ivmvqwbK
mvK GK Rvov BjKUb `vb KiZ cvi|
H3N
+ H+ NH4+
[ NH3 Gi wbm BjKU Rvo `vb ]
24
NH3 Gi viKZi KviY t

Avgvwbqvi viKZi g~j iqQ Gi Abyi N-cigvbyZ GK Rvov wbm Rvo BjKUbi DcwwZ, N-cigvby
z`&vKwZ I AwaK ZworFbvZK(ZworFbvZKZv 3.0)| H Acv N AwaK ZworFbvZK nIqvi KviY NH3
Abyi NH ebjvZ eb Rvo BjKUb `yB wbDwKqvmi gvSvgvwS Aevb _K N -cigvbyi w`K AbKUv
mi hvq ; dj NH3 Gi N cigvbyZ BjKUbi chvZv I NbZ eo hvq Ges NH3 mnRB cvUb Mnb Ki
cvUbxq viK A_ev Ab Kvb ivmvqwbK mvK mnR GK Rvov BjKUb `vb Ki jyB viK wnmve wqv Ki|
1.8.5.4 Avgvwbqvi weRviY ag t

Dchy RviKi DcwwZZ Avgvwbqv weRviK wnmve wqv Ki|
hgb: (1) D CuO Gi Dci w`q NH3 Mvm Pvjbv Kij NH3, CuO weRvwiZ Ki avZe Kcvi cwibZ Ki
Ges wbR CuO viv RvwiZ nq N2 Mvm cwibZ nq|
NH3(g) + CuO(s) N2(g) + Cu(s)

(2) K Zvcgvvq KvwiY Mvmi mv_ Agvwbqv Mvm wgwkZ Kij Avgvwbqv KvwiYK weRvwiZ Ki
nvBWvRb KvivBW cwibZ Ki hv AwZwi Avgvwbqvi mv_ wewqv Ki Avgvwbqvg KvivBWi mv`v
auvqv Zix Ki|
NH3(g) + Cl2(g) N2(g) +HCl(g) ; HCl(g) + NH3(g) NH4Cl(g)
1.8.5.5 Avgvwbqvi wewqvmg~n

(1) Fe3+, Al3+ BZvw` Avqbhy ARe jeYi èYi mv_ Avgvwbqv èY Aa:cb wewqv `q|
hgb : FeCl3(aq) + NH4OH(aq) Fe(OH)3(s) + NH4Cl(aq)
(ev`vgx Aa:c)
AlCl3(aq) + NH4OH(aq) Al(OH)3(s) + NH4Cl(aq)
(mv`v Aa:c)
(2) d-eK gji jeYi èYi mv_ Avgvwbqv èY hvM Kij Avg&wgb wjMvhy RwUj hM MwVZ nq|
hgb(K) Kcvi(II)mvjdUi Rjxq èY axi axi AwZwi cwigvb Avgvwbqv èY hvM Kij c_g vixq Kcvi
(II) mvjdUi nvjKv bxj èY ci UUv Avg&wgb Kcvi(II)mvjdUi Mvp bxj èY Zix nq|
ok
UUv Avg&wgb Kcvi(II)mvjdU
2CuSO4(aq) + 2NH4OH(aq) CuSO4(aq).Cu(OH)2(s) + (NH4)2SO4(aq)

CuSO4(aq).Cu(OH)2(s)+(NH4)2SO4(aq)+6NH4OH(aq) 2[Cu(NH3)4]SO4(aq) + 8H2O(l)
nb
i
r.e
bo
(L) wmjfvi KvivBWi mv_ AwZwi cwigvb Avgvwbqv èY hvM Kij èYxq WvB Avg&wgb wmjfvi KvivBW
Zix nq| ZvB Avgvwbqv èY KwVb wmjfvi KvivBW èxf~Z nq|
AgCl(s) + 2NH4OH(aq) [Ag(NH3)2]Cl(aq) + 2H2O(l)
bo
ok
.
co
/ta
(M) wR mvjdUi èY axi axi AwZwi cwigvb Avgvwbqv èY hvM Kij c_g wR nvBWvBWi
mv`v Aa:c co ; ci D Aa:c AwZwi Avgvwbqv èY èxf~Z nq UUv Avg&wgb wR mvjdU
Zix Ki|
ZnSO4(aq) + 2NH4OH(aq) Zn(OH)2(s) + (NH4)2SO4(aq)
Zn(OH)2(s) + (NH4)2SO4(aq) + 2NH4OH(aq) [Zn(NH3)4]SO4(aq) + 4H2O(l)
.fa
ce
1.8.5.6 Avgvwbqv(NH3) mbvKiY
(K) NH3 mbvKiYi cixv t NH3 Zxe SvSvjv Mhy eYnxb Mvm| NH3-Mvm nvBWvKvwiK GwmW wm
KuvP` cek Kivj Avgvwbqvg KvivBWi mv`v auvqv Zix nq|
NH3(g) + HCl(aq) NH4Cl(s)(mv`v auvqv )
25
(L) NH3 mbvKiYi wm cixv t bmjvi weKviK (Nessler's Reagent) NH3 Mvm Pvjbv Kij Avwgbv
gviwKDwiK AvqvWvBWi e`vgx Aa:c Zix nq|
2NH3(g) + 2K2[HgI4](aq) 4KI(aq) + NH4I(aq) + NH2[Hg2I3](s)
(e`vgx Aa:c)
1.8.5.7 Avgvwbqvg Avqb(NH4+) mbvKiY

(K) NH4+ Aqb mbvKiYi cixv t
(i) NH4+-jeYK D Kij Zv ZvcwehvwRZ nq SvSvjv Mhy NH3 Mvm Zix Ki|
hgb : NH4Cl(s) NH3(g) + HCl(g) ; (NH4)2CO3 (s) 2NH3(g) + H2O(g) + CO2(g)

(ii) NH4+-jeYi mv_ NaOH hy Ki Zvc w`j SvSvjv Mhy NH3 Mvm wbMZ nq ,hvi ga HCl GwmW
wm KuvP` cek Kivj Avgvwbqvg KvivBWi mv`v auvqv Zix nq|
NH4+-jeY + NaOH Na-jeY + H2O + NH3 ; NH3(g) + HCl(aq) NH4Cl(s)(mv`v auvqv)
(L) NH4+ Avqb mbvKiYi wm cixv t NH4+-jeYi èYi mv_ bmjvi weKviK hvM Kij
Avwgbv gviwKDwiK AvqvWvBWi ev`vgx Aa:c Zix nq| ev`vgx eYi
GB Aa:cK wgjb viKi AvqvWvBW ej|
NH4+-jeY(aq) + KOH(aq) K-jeY(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)

2NH3(g) + 2K2[HgI4](aq) 4KI(aq) + NH4I(aq) + NH2[Hg2I3](s)
(e`vgx Aa:c)
1.8.5.8 bmjvi weKviK(Nessler's reagent) I Gi eenvi

Rvgvb Kwg Rywjqvm bmjvi Avgvwbqv mbvKiYi Rb GKwU weKviK Zix Kib ,hvK Zvi bvg Abyhvqx
bmjvi weKviK ej| ivmvqwbKfve bvmjvi weKviK njv cUvwmqvg UUv AvqvWv gviwKDiU(II) Gi 0.09
gvjvi èY I KOH Gi 2.5 gvjvi èYi wgkY| msc, cUvwmqvg UUv AvqvWv gviwKDiU(II) Gi KOH
hy vixq èYB njv bmjvi weKviK|
cwZ t gviKvix(II)KvivBWi èY KI èY hvM Ki cv gviKvix (II) AvqvWvBWi jvj Aa:cK c_K Ki
Gi mv_ cqvRbxq cwigvY Aviv KI èY hvM Ki D Aa:cK èxf~Z Ki cUvwmqvg UUv AvqvWv
gviwKDiU(II) Gi 0.09M èY Zix Kiv nq| AZci, 2.5M KOH èY cZ Ki ZvZ cZKZ cUvwmqvg
UUv AvqvWv gviwKDiU(II) wgwkq wbjB bmjvi weKviK Zix nq|
HgCl2(s) + 2KI(aq) HgI2(s) + 2KCl(aq) ;
HgI2(s) + 2KI(aq) K2[HgI4](aq) [cUvwmqvg UUv AvqvWv gviwKDiU(II)]
eenvi t cixvMvi Avgvwbqv Mvm I Avgvwbqvg jeY Avgvwbqvg Avqbi DcwwZ mbv KiY bmjvi weKviK
eeZ nq|
1.8.5.9 Avgvwbqvi eenvi Ges kwK iZ

Avgvwbqvi ecK eenvi iqQ | weklKi wewfb ivmvqwbK wk Avgvwbqv eeZ nq| wbg Zvi KqKwU DjL
Kiv njv|
1| cixvMvi Avgvwbqvi èY Z_v Avgvwbqvg nvBWvBW weKviK wnmve eeZ nq|
2| nxgvMvi wiwdRviU ev wngvqK Mvm wnmve(zUbvsK 33.870C) Avgvwbqv eeZ nq |
3| bvBUvRb mvi hgb: BDwiqv, wWGwc(WvB Avgvwbqvg dmdU),Avgvwbqvg mvjdU BZvw` ZixZ
Avgvwbqv eeZ nq|
2NH3 (l) CO 2 (g) H 2 N CO NH 2 (s) H 2 O(l)

( BDwiqv)
4| Am&Iqv cwZZ bvBwUK GwmWi evwbwRK Drcv`b KuvPvgvj wnmve Avgvwbqv eeZ nq|
5| wewfb cvwK iwRb hgb: gjvgvBb, BDwiqv digvjwWnvBW iwRb ZixZ Avgvwbqv eeZ nq|
6| wewfb ivmvqwbK è hgb: Avgvwbqvg KvebU, Avgvwbqvg bvBUU, nvwgw_wjb UUvwgb (BDivUwcb),
B_vbvgvBW, AvwjdvwUK Avwgb BZvw` ZixZ Avgvwbqv eeZ nq|
26
7| Kwg wm ev iqb wk Avgvwbqv eeZ nq|
8| AvRvBW bvgK weviK è ZixZ Avgvwbqv eeZ nq|
1.9.0 bvBUvRbi AwGwmWmg~n (Oxyacids of Nitrogen)

mviwY-1.9 G bvBUvRbi Aw GwmWjvi bvg msKZ I MVb `Lvbv nqQ|
[ mviwY-1.9t bvBUvRbi AwGwmW ]
AwGwmW
msKZ
1| bvBUvm GwmW
HNO2
2| bvBwUK GwmW
HNO3
MVb(Structure)
1.9.1 bvBUvm GwmW (HNO2)

cwZ t 50C Zvcgvvi wbP mvwWqvg bvBUvBWi mv_ nvBWvKvwiK GwmW hvM Kij bvBUvm GwmW Zix nq|
NaNO2(s) +HCl(aq) HNO2(aq) + NaCl(aq)
mivmwi N2O3 MvmK cvwbZ èxf~Z Kij bvBUvm GwmW Zix nq| GRb N2O3 K bvBUvm Gb&nvBWvBW ej|
N2O3(g) + H2O(l) 2HNO2(aq)
ag t bvBUvm GwmW GKwU Avqx GwmW| K Zvcgvvq Mvp bvBUvm GwmW weqvwRZ nq HNO3 , NO I H2O G
cwibZ nq|
3HNO2(aq)
1.9.2 bvBwUK GwmW (HNO3)

Avj&KvwgMY ZLbKvi w`b eeZ Zijmg~ni ga bvBwUK GwmW Lye mwq ej GK aqua fortis Z_v
kwkvjx cvwb bvg AewnZ KiZb| Ag kZvxZ Avie wevbx Rvwei Beb nvBqvb mviv(NaNO3) èYK
cvZb Ki bvBwUK GwmW Zix Kib|
1.9.2.1 bvBwUK GwmWi Abyi MVb t
ok
1.9.2.2 bvBwUK GwmWi cixvMvi cwZ
nb
i
r.e
bo
cixvMvi KNO3 ev, NaNO3K eKh wbq Gi mv_ Mvp H2SO4 hy Ki cvZb Ki bvBwUK GwmW Zix
Kiv nq|
250 0 C
NaNO3(s) + H2SO4(conc) NaHSO4(s) + HNO3(g)
/ta
1.9.2.3 bvBwUK GwmWi wkvrcv`b ev evwbwRK Drcv`b
co
eZgvb cvq mKj wk KviLvbvq Rvgvb Kvwg DBjng AmIqv (Wilhelm Ostwald) Gi Avgvwbqv RviY
cwZZ bvBwUK GwmWi evwbwRK Drcv`b Kiv nq| c~e evKjv AvBW DvweZ e`ywZK AvK cwZZ bvBwUK
GwmW Zix Kiv nZv| we`yZi DP g~ji KviY e`ywZK AvK cwZ GKwU AjvfRbK cwZ|
ok
.
1.9.2.4 AmIqv ev Avgvwbqv RviY cwZZ bvBwUK GwmWi evwbwRK Drcv`b
.fa
ce
bo
KuvPvgvj t (1) Avgvwbqv Mvm (2) aywjevwj I Kveb WvB AvBW gy evq~ I (3) g`y cvwb |
g~jbxwZ t wk KviLvbvq nevi cwZZ Drcvw`Z we Avgvwbqv MvmK 9000C Zvcgvvq cvjvwUbvg-ivwWqvg
msKi(Pt-90% + Rh-10%) cfveKi DcwwZZ evq~i AwRb viv RvwiZ Ki NO Mvm Zix Kiv nq| Drcb
NO Mvm I AcwiewZZ evq~i wgkYK 500C Zvcgvvq kxZj Kij NO Mvm evq~i AwRb viv RvwiZ nq
NO2 Mvm cwibZ nq| AZci, NO2 MvmK cvwbZ kvlY Kivbv nq| dj bvBwUK GwmW I NO Mvm Zix
nq| NO MvmK cybivq eenvii Rb RviY ciY Kiv nq|
27
Pt-Rh
900 C
4NH3(g) + 5O2(air)
0 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
0
4NO(g) + 5O2(air) 50
C 4NO2(g)
3NO2(g) + H2O(l) 2HNO3(aq) + NO(g)
G, eeZ NH3 Mvmi m~Y RviYi Rb AwZwi cwigvb evq~ (AvqZb wnmve NH3 Mvmi 9 b evq~)
eenvi Kiv nq Ges NH3 Mvmi RviY Drcb NO Mvm I AcwiewZZ evq~i wgkYK `Z mwiq 500C Zvcgvvq
kxZj Kij Drcb H2O ev Zijxf~Z nq wgkY _K c_K nq|
cwZi eYbv t ky evq~K Zvc-wewbgqKvix(Heat-exchanger)Gi ga w`q Pvjbv Ki c~eZ Ki 4-10 evq~ Pvc
evq~ QvKbxi ga w`q Pvjbv Ki aywjevwj gy Kiv nq| nevi cwZZ ZixKZ 1-AvqZb we Avgvwbqv Mvmi
mv_ 9-AvqZb c~eZ I aywj evwjgy evq~ wgwkZ Ki Avjywgwbqvg avZy wbwgZ wmwjvi AvKwZi wewqv
cKv(Reactor) Pvjbv Kiv nq| wewqv cKv KqK mvwi cvwUbvg-ivwWqvg msKi wbwgZ Zvi Rvwj
Avbyf~wgKfve mvRvbv _vK| wewqv cKv wUK e`ywZK Kqji mvnvh 800 - 9000C Zvcgvvq D ivLv
nq| GLvb NH3 evq~i AwRb viv cvq m~Yic RvwiZ nq NO Mvm Zix Ki| Drcb NO Mvm I
AcwiewZZ evq~i wgkYK wewqv cKv Dci w`K _K `Z mwiq Zvc-wewbgqKvix Gi ga w`q Pvjbv Ki RviY
wbq hvIqv nq| Zvc-wewbgqKvix cKvi ga w`q D wgkY cevwnZ nIqvi mgq Zvc eRbi gvag
eeZ evq~K c~e Z Ki 500C Zvcgvvq kxZj nq| RviY Drcb Mvm wgkY nUvr mcmvwiZ nq Aviv
kxZj nq | dj wgkY we`gvb H2O ev Zijxf~Z nq wgkY _K c_K nq Ges NO Mvm AcwiewZZ evq~i
AwRb viv RvwiZ nq NO2 Mvm cwibZ nq| RviY nZ NO2 KvqvR Mvfjc~Y kvlY UvIqvii wbP w`K
_K Pvjbv Kiv nq Ges GKB mgq kvlY UvIqvii P~ov _K Sbvi gvag my cvwbi aviv cevwnZ Kiv nq|
GLvb NO2 Mvm cvwbZ kvwlZ nq HNO3 I NO Mvm cwibZ nq| NO MvmK cybivq eenvii Rb RviY
ciY Kiv nq|
NO
evq~
H2O
Pt-Rh
9000C
kvlY
evq~ QvKbx
kvlY UvIqvi
wewqv
cKv
RviY 500C
ZvcwewbgqK
HNO3
NH3
c~eZ evq~
[ wP t 1.7 AmIqv cwZZ bvBwUK GwmWi wkvrcv`bi cevn wP ]
wekvab t kvlY UvIqvii Zjv _K jNy HNO3 GwmWK msMn Ki AvswkK cvZb Kij 68%HNO3 I
32%H2O Gi mgzUb wgkY Zix nq| D mgyUb wgkYK P2O5 mnhvM cvZb Kij we HNO3 GwmW
cvIqv hvq|
1.9.2.5 wewfb cKvi bvBwUK GwmW

evRvi mvavibZ 4 aiYi bvBwUK GwmW cvIqv hvq| h_v1| evwbwRK ev mvaviY bvBwUK GwmW t GwU 68%HNO3 I 32%H2O Gi mgzUb wgkY | Gi Av:iZ
1.41 ; Nbgvv : 15M Ges zUbvsK 120.5 0C |
2| Mvp bvBwUK GwmW t 98%HNO3 hvi Av:iZ 1.5 I Nbgvv 22M ZvK Mvp bvBwUK GwmW ej
aiv nq|
3| aygvqgvb bvBwUK GwmW t 100% we bvBwUK GwmW GKwU eYnxb Zij| Gi wKQz Ask K Zvcgvvq
weqvwRZ nq ev`vgx eYi NO2 Mvm Zix Ki| NO2 Mvmhy jvjP ev`vgx eYi bvBwUK GwmWB
28
njv aygvqgvb ev wdDwgs bvBwUK GwmW| aygvqgvb bvBwUK GwmWi Nbgvv 16M| GwU kwkvjx RviK
wgkY wnmve eeZ nq|
4HNO3(l)
2H2O(g) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g) (270C)
1.9.2.6 bvBwUK GwmWi ag

we bvBwUK GwmW GKwU eYnxb Zij| GK -42 C Zvcgvvq kxZj Kij KwVb Aev jvf Ki| Gi zUbvsK
83 C| bvBwUK GwmW GKwU Zxe GwmW(Strong acid)( pKa= 1.4) Ges RviYagx c`v_(Oxidizing
reagent)| bvBwUK GwmW Zxe GwmW, Zxe RviK, bvBUwUs weKviK I wewfb avZzi `veK wnvmve wqv Ki| wbg
Gi GwmW ag I RviY ag mK cgvbvw` I evLv `qv njv|
1.9.2.7 bvBwUK GwmWi GwmW ev A ag

bvBwUK GwmW Rjxq èY cvq m~Yic(0.1 M Nbgvvq 93% weqvwRZ nq ) AvqwbZ nq H+ Avqb c`vb Ki
; ZvB GwU bxj wjUgvmK jvj Ki|
HNO3(aq)
H+(aq) + NO3-(aq) ;
H+(aq) + bxj wjUgvm jvj wjUgvm
Avevi, bvBwUK GwmW vii gv_ wewqv Ki jeY I cvwb Drcb Ki|
hgb : HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
bvBwUK GwmWi D agjv cgvb Ki GwU GKwU GwmW ev A|
1.9.2.8 bvBwUK GwmWi RviY ag

h Kvb Nbgvvi bvBwUK GwmW RviKic wqv Ki| wewfb Zvcgvv I Nbgvvq bvBwUK GwmW wewfbfve RviY
wqv mb Ki| hgb:
2NO2+ H2O + [O] [ Vvv I Mvp Aev ]
2HNO3
2NO+ H2O + 3[O]

N2O+ H2O + 4[O]
[ Vvv I gag Mvp Aev ]

[ Vvv I jNy Aev ]
(K) Vvv I Mvp bvBwUK GwmWi RviY wqv t
Vvv I Mvp bvBwUK GwmW Zn, Fe, Mg, Al, Cu BZvw` avZzK RvwiZ Ki bvBUU jeY cwibZ Ki Ges
cvkvcvwk Gme avZz viv wbR weRvwiZ nq NO2 Mvm cwibZ nq|
ok
r.e
bo
nb
i
hgb:
M(s) + 4HNO3(Mvp) M(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O (l) [ M=Zn, Fe, Mg, Cu ]

Zn(s) + 4HNO3(Mvp) Zn(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Cu(s) + 4HNO3(Mvp) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
2HNO3(Mvp) 2NO2(g) + H2O(l) + [O]

[ M= Zn, Fe, Mg ]
M(s) +2HNO3(Mvp) M(NO3)2(aq) + 2[H]
2[H] + [O] H2O(l)
bxU wewqv: M(s) + 4HNO3(Mvp) M(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
ok
.
co
/ta
Kkj t
.fa
ce
bo
Cu mwqZv wmwiR nvBWvRbi wbP Aevb Ki ej GwU HNO3 _K Zn, Fe, Mg Gi Abyic nvBWvRbK
cwZwcZ KiZ cvi bv | ZvB Cu Gi wewqvwUi Kkj wKQzUv wfb|
Cu Gi wewqvwUi Kkj t
2HNO3(Mvp) 2NO2(g) + H2O(l) + [O]
Cu(s) + [O] CuO(s)
CuO(s) + 2HNO3(Mvp) Cu(NO)2(aq) + H2O(l)
29
bxU wewqv: Cu(s) + 4HNO3(Mvp) Cu(NO)2(aq) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
(L) Vvv I gag Mvp bvBwUK GwmWi RviYwqv t

Vvv I gag Mvp bvBwUK GwmW Zn, Fe, Mg, Al, Cu BZvw` avZzK RvwiZ Ki bvBUU jeY cwibZ Ki Ges
cvkvcvwk Gme avZz viv wbR weRvwiZ nq NO Mvm cwibZ nq|
3M(s) + 8HNO3(aq) 3M(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO(g) + 4H2O (l)
hgb:
[ M = Zn, Fe, Mg, Cu ]
3Zn(s) + 8HNO3(aq) 3Zn(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO(g) + 4H2O(l)

3Cu(s) + 8HNO3(aq) 3Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO(g) + 4H2O(l)
2HNO3(aq) 2NO(g) + H2O(l) + 3[O]

[ M= Zn, Fe, Mg ]
M(s) +2HNO3(aq) M(NO3)2(aq) + 2[H]..........3
2[H] + [O] H2O(l) ..........................................3
bxU wewqv: 3M(s) + 8HNO3(aq) 3M(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO(g) + 4H2O(l)
Kkj t
2HNO3(Mvp)) 2NO(g) + H2O(l) + 3[O]
Cu(s) + [O] CuO(s) ......................................................3
CuO(s) + 2HNO3(Mvp)) Cu(NO)2(aq) + H2O(l) ..........3
bxU wewqv: 3Cu(s) + 8HNO3(Mvp)) 3Cu(NO)2(aq) + 2NO(g) + 4H2O(l)
(M) Vvv I jNy bvBUK GwmWi RviYwqv t

Vvv I jNy bvBUK GwmW Zn, Fe, Mg, Al, Cu BZvw` avZzK RvwiZ Ki bvBUU jeY cwibZ Ki Ges
cvkvcvwk Gme avZz viv wbR weRvwiZ nq N2O Mvm cwibZ nq |
4M(s) + 10HNO3(dilute) 4M(NO3)2(aq) + N2O(g) + 5H2O(l) [ M = Zn, Fe, Mg, Cu ]
4Zn(s) + 10HNO3(aq) 4Zn(NO3)2(aq) + N2O(g) + 5H2O(l)
4Cu(s) + 10HNO3(aq) 4Cu(NO3)2(aq) + N2O(g) + 5H2O(l)
Kkj t
2HNO3(aq) N2O(g) + H2O(l) + 4[O]
[ M= Zn, Fe, Mg ]
M(s) +2HNO3(aq) M(NO3)2(aq) + 2[H]..........4
2[H] + [O] H2O(l) ..........................................4
bxU wewqv: 4M(s) + 10HNO3(aq) 4M(NO3)2(aq) + N2O(g) + 5H2O(l)
hgb:
2HNO3(Mvp) 2N2O (g) + H2O(l) + 4[O]
Cu(s) + [O] CuO(s) ......................................................4
CuO(s) + 2HNO3(Mvp)) Cu(NO)2(aq) + H2O(l) ..........4
bxU wewqv: 4Cu(s) + 10HNO3(aq) 4Cu(NO3)2(aq) + N2O(g) + 5H2O(l)
(N) bvBwUK GwmWi KqKwU wekl RviY wewqv t

(1) bvBwUK GwmW ev I Kcvii wewqv t D Kcvi PzYi Dci w`q bvBwUK GwmW ev Pvjbv Kij bvBwUK
GwmW KcviK RvwiZ Ki wKDwcK AvBW cwibZ Ki Ges bvBwUK GwmW wbR Kcvi viv weRvwiZ nq
bvBUvRb cwibZ nq |
HNO3(vap) 2NO2(g) + H2O(l) + [O]
Cu(s) + 2NO2(g) + [O] 5CuO(s) + N2
30
bxU wewqv: 5Cu(s) + 2HNO3(vap) 5CuO(s) + N2(g) + H2O(l)
(2) bvBwUK GwmW I AavZzi wewqv t
AavZe gj hgb : S, P,C, I2 BZvw`K Mvp HNO3 RvwiZ Ki mevP RviYvevi Aw GwmW cwibZ Ki|
2HNO3(conc.) 2NO2(g) + H2O(l) + [O] .................3
S(s) + 3[O] SO3(g)
SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)
bxU wewqv: S(s) + 6HNO3(conc.) H2SO4(aq) + 6NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
2HNO3(conc.) 2NO2(g) + H2O(l) + [O] .................5
2P(s) + 5[O] P2O5(l)
P2O5(l) + 3H2O(l) 2H3PO4(aq)
bxU wewqv: 2P(s) + 10HNO3(conc.) 2H3PO4(aq) + 10NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
ev, P(s) + 5HNO3(conc.) H3PO4(aq) + 5NO2(g) + H2O(l)
2HNO3(conc.) 2NO2(g) + H2O(l) + [O] .................5
I2(s) + 5[O] I2O5(l)
I2O5(l) + H2O(l) 2HIO3(aq)
bxU wewqv: I2(s) + 10HNO3(conc.) 2HIO3(aq) + 10NO2(g) + 4H2O(l)
1.9.2.9 bvBUwUs weKviK wnmve bvBwUK GwmW

+
h me weKviK Kvb hM bvBUvwbqvg (NO
2) g~jKwU cwZvwcZ Ki ZvìK bvBUwUs weKviK ej| bvBwUK
GwmW Dg bvBUwUs weKviK| hgb:
(1) KvivdigK bvBwUK GwmW mnhvM D Kij HNO3 Kvivdigi `H -cigvbywUK bvBUvwbqvg g~jK viv
cwZvwcZ Ki ; dj bvBUv Kvivdig ev Kviv wcKwib(Kuv`yb Mvm) Zix nq|
Cl3C-H + HO-NO2 Cl3C-NO2 + H2O

( KvivwcKwib/Kuv`yb Mvm)
0
(2) 30 C Zvcgvvq ebwRbK Mvp H2SO4 Gi DcwwZZ Mvp HNO3 bvBUkb Kij bvBUv ebwRb Zix nq|
H SO 4
C6H6 + HO-NO2 2
C6H5-NO2 + H2O
300C
1.9.2.10 `veK wnmve bvBwUK GwmW Ges ivR (Aqua Regia)
(3mol)
ok
.
(1mol)
co
/ta
nb
i
r.e
bo
ok
Mvp I Z bvBwUK GwmW GKwU kwkvjx `veK| GRb gahyM Avie wevbxMY bvBwUK GwmWK AvKvqv
diwUm(kwkvjx cvwb) bvgKiY Ki wQjb| wewfb avZz èxf~Z KiZ bvBwUK GwmW eeZ nq| Ze wKQz
AwfRvZ avZz hgb: Au,Pt,Ag BZvw` Mvp ev Z bvBwUK GwmWi KvbwUZB èxf~Z nq bv| imvqbwe`MY Gme
AwfRvZ avZzK èxf~Z Kivi Rb bvBwUK GwmWi mv_ 1 t 3 gvj AbycvZ nvBWvKvwiK GwmW wgwkq GKwU Zxe
RviK wgkY Zix Kib| Mvp bvBwUK GwmW I Mvp nvBWvKvwiK GwmWi 1 t 3 gvj AbycvZ wgkYB njv ivR ev
AvKvqv iwRqv | ivR GKwU Zxe RviK wgkY| ivRK Mig Kij Gi HNO3 , HCl RvwiZ Ki G _K
cvigvbweK KvwiY wegy Ki | GB cvigvbweK KvwiY AwfRvZ avZzi mv_ wewqv Ki Mvp HCl G èYxq avZz
KvivBW cwibZ Ki|
HNO3 + 3HCl NOCl + 2H2O + 2[Cl]
.fa
ce
bo
AwfRvZ avZz + [Cl] HCl G èYxq avZz KvivBW

(K) ^Y ev Mvi ivR èxf~Z nIqvi evLv t ^Y K ivR wbq Zvc w`j ^Y c_g HNO3 KZK HCl Gi
RviY Drcb cvigvbweK KvwiYi mv_ wewqv Ki AwiK KvivBW(AuCl3) Zix Ki| AZci AuCl3 AwZwi
HCl Gi mv_ wewqv Ki èYxq KvivAwiK GwmW MVb Ki| dj ^Y ivR èxf~Z nq| èxf~Z ^Yi wgkYK
KwK mvWv hvM vixq Kij cyivq ^Y wgkY _K c_K nq|
wewqv t
HNO3 +3HCl NOCl + 2H2O + 2[Cl]
Au + 3[Cl] AuCl3
31
AuCl3 + HCl HAuCl4(Kviv AwiK GwmW )
(L) cvwUbvgi ivR èxf~Z nIqvi evLv t cvwUbg avZzK ivR wbq Zvc w`j cvwUbvg c_g HNO3 KZK
HCl Gi RviY Drcb cvigvbweK KvwiYi mv_ wewqv Ki cvwUwbK KvivBW(PtCl4) Zix Ki| AZci, PtCl4
AwZwi HCl Gi mv_ wewqv Ki èYxq KvivcvwUwbK GwmW MVb Ki| dj cvwUbvg ivR èxf~Z nq|
wewqv t
HNO3 +3HCl NOCl + 2H2O + 2[Cl]

Pt + 3[Cl] PtCl4
PtCl4 + 2HCl H2PtCl6(Kviv cvwUwbK GwmW )
1.9.3 wk bvBwUK GwmWi eenvi

wewfb ivmvqwbK wk KviLvbvq bvBwUK GwmWi evcK eenvi iqQ| wbg bvBwUK GwmWi KqKwU iZc~Y
eenvi DjL Kiv njv|
1| UvB bvBUv UjyBb(TNT), UvB bvBUv ebwRb(TNB), bvBUv wMmvwib, bvBUv mjyjvR BZvw` weviK
c`v_ Zix KiZ bvBUwUs weKviK wnmve bvBwUK GwmW eeZ nq|
2| wUqvi Mvm, mvwWqvg bvBUU, Avgvwbqvg bvBUU BZvw` ivmvqwbK è ZixZ bvBwUK GwmW eeZ nq|
3| Ryqjvix wk ^Yi wekvab ev LuvwU ^Yi mv_ cqvRbxq cwigvb Lv` wgkvbvi KvR ivR wnmve bvBwUK
GwmW eeZ nq|
4| Kwg wm , is I mjyjqW ZixZ bvBwUK GwmW eeZ nq|
5| e&v, evm BZvw` avZz msKii Dci wewfb bv Zixi KvR bvBwUK GwmW eeZ nq|
1.9.4 bvBUvBU I bvBUU Avqbi iZc~Y wewqvmg~n

1.9.4.1 bvBUvBU Avqbi wewqvmg~n t bvBUvBU Avqb g~jZ bvBUvm GwmW I bvBUvBU jeYmg~n we`gvb
_vK| èY Gme hMi ivmvqwbK wewqv NO 2 Avqb viv wbqwZ nq|
vi avZzi bvBUU jeYmg~nK Dvc weqvwRZ Kij vqx bvBUvBU jeY Zix nq|
hgb: NaNO3(s) NaNO2(s) + O2(g)

bvBUvBU Avqb GKwU Avqx Avqb ; ZvB èY Gi Nbgvv ew cj ev 50C Zvcgvvi Gi Dcii Zvcgvvq GwU
weqvwRZ nq NO3 Avqb I NO Mvm cwibZ nq|
3 NO 2 (aq) +2H+(aq)
NO3 (aq) +2NO(g) + H2O(l)
hgb: 3HNO2(aq)
50C Zvcgvvi wbP bvBUvBW jeYi Rjxq èY nvBWvKvwiK GwmW hvM Kij NO 2 Avqbi mv_ H+ Avqb
hy nq bvBUvm GwmW Zix nq|
NO 2 (aq) + HCl(aq) HNO2(aq) + NaCl(aq)
hgb : NaNO2(aq) + HCl(aq) HNO2(aq) + NaCl(aq)
0-5 0C Zvcgvvq LwbR GwmWi DcwwZZ bvBUvm GwmW Avwgb(NH2 ) g~jKK WvqvRvwbqvg( N N)
g~jK cwibZ Ki|
C6H5-NH2 + H+ C6H5 - N H3 (wdbvBj Avgvwbqvg Avqb)
C6H5- N H3 + HO-N=O C6H5- N N + 2H2O

(wdbvBj WvqvRvwbqvg Avqb)
0 50 C
hgb: C6H5-NH2 + HCl + HNO2 C6H5- N 2Cl- + 2H2O
32
1.9.4.2 bvBUU Avqbi wewqvmg~n

bvBUU Avqb cavbZ bvBwUK GwmW I bvBUU jeYmg~n we`gvb _vK| èY Gme hMi ivmvqwbK wewqv NO3
Avqb viv wbqwZ nq|
NO3 Avqbi MVb t
NO2 MvmK AwRb wgwkZ cvwbZ èxf~Z Kij ev N2O5 K cvwbZ èxf~Z Kij bvBwUK GwmW Zix nq|
4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) +O2g 4HNO3(aq) ; N2O5(l) + H2O(l) 2HNO3(aq)
bvBwUK GwmWi mv_ avZzz, avZz AvBW ev avZz KvebUi wewqv viv bvBUU jeY Zix nq| hgb:
Cu(s) + 4HNO3(aq) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
FeO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Fe(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
CaCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + CO2(g)
mvwWqvg bvBUU t
mvwWqvg bvBUU wPwj mwcUvi(Chile saltpeter) ev mvWv bvBUvi bvg cwiwPZ| Lwb _K AvnwiZ Awe
mvwWqvg bvBUUK KvwjwP (caliche) ejv nq| `wY AvgwiKvi wPwjZ cw_exi mePq eo KvwjwP Lwb iqQ|
KvwjwP _K mvwWqvg bvBUU, mvwWqvg mvjdU I AvqvwWb wbvlY Kiv nq| wk KviLvbvq mvWv Avmi mv_
bvBwUK GwmWi wewqv NwUq mvwWqvg bvBUU Zix Kiv nq|
Na2CO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) 2NaNO3(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
mvwWqg bvBUU bvBUvRb mvi, Lv` msiK, Mvb cvEWvi, KuvP,Gbvgj BZvw` ZixZ eeZ nq|
Avgvwbqvg bvBUU t K Zvcgvvq NH4NO3 GKwU mv`v `vbv`vi KwVb c`v_|
wk KviLvbvq Mvp bvBwUKGwmW Avgvwbqv Mvm Pvjbv Ki Zij Avgvwbqvg bvBUU
Zix Kiv nq| Zij Avgvwbqvg bvBUUK wbhwZ Zvcgvvq Dvc Mvp Ki c
Ki kxZj Kij `vbv`vi NH4NO3 cvIqv hvq|
HNO3(aq) + NH3(g) NH4NO3(aq)
[ Avgvwbqvg bvBUU ]
ok
Avgvwbqvg bvBUU AwwZkxj hvM| AveiYhy `vbv`vi NH4NO3 Kwl bvBUvRb mvi, BcvfvBRW
weviK, jvwds Mvm BZvw` ZixZ eeZ nq|
r.e
bo
bvBUUmg~ni wewqv t
/ta
nb
i
bvBUU jebmg~ni mKjB cvwbZ èxf~Z nq bvBUU Avqb `q|

(K) viavZzi bvBUUmg~nK D Kij Giv Zvc wehvwRZ nq bvBUvBU jeY I AwRb Mvm Zix Ki|
hgb: NaNO3(s) NaNO2(s) + O2(g)
bo
ok
.
co
(L) gvSvix ev Kg mwq avZzi bvBUUmg~nK D Kij Giv Zvc wehvwRZ nq avZz AvBW, bvBUvRb
WvBAvBW I AwRb Mvm Zix Ki| hgb:
2Cu(NO3)2 2CuO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
2Pb(NO3)2 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
.fa
ce
(M) Avgvwbqvg bvBUU GKwU fvbceb hM | GK D Kij Zv wehvwRZ nq bvBUvm AvBW I cvwb Drcb
Ki|
NH4NO3(s) N2O(g) + 2H2O(g)

33
1.9.4.3 bvBUU g~jK/Avqb mgvKiY t

(K) bvBUU Avqb mbvKiYi cixv t bvBUU jeYK Kcvi K~wP I Mvp H 2SO 4 Gi mv_ Zvc w`j
ev`vgx eYi NO2 Mvm wbMZ nq Ges wKDwcK bvBUUi nvjKv bxj eYi èY Zix nq|
NO3 -jeY + Cu + H2SO4 SO 24 -jeY + Cu(NO3)2 + NO2 + H2O

hgb: jW bvBUUi mv_ Cu-K~wP I Mvp H2SO4 hy Ki Zvc w`j ev`vgx eYi NO2 Mvm wbMZ nq Ges
wKDwcK bvBUUi nvjKvbxj eYi èY Zix nq|
NaNO3(s)+Cu(s)+H2SO4(conc) NaHSO4(s) +Cu(NO3)2(aq) + NO2(g) + H2O(l)
(L) bvBUU Avqb mbvKiYi wm cixv / èY bvBUU Avqb mbvKiY(ejq cixv) t
GKwU cixvbj bvBUU jeYi èY wbq Gi mv_ wb cwigvb m` cZ divm mvjdU èY hvM Ki fvjfve
wgwkq D wgkY Aci GKwU cixv bj nZ Mvp H2SO4 cixv
bji Mv eq A A Ki hvM Kiv nj `yB Ziji mshvM j
cUv AvKzqv bvBUvmv divmmvjdUi ev`vgx ejq ev wis Zix
(Mvp H2SO4)
nq|
ev`vgx ejq
2
4
2 NO -jeY + H2SO4(conc) SO -jeY + 2HNO3
( NO3 -jeY+FeSO4 èY)
[ wP t 1.8 ejq cixv ]

6FeSO4+3H2SO4+2HNO3 3Fe2(SO4)3 +2NO + 4H2O
FeSO4(AwZwi) + NO + 5H2O [Fe(H2O)5NO]SO4 (cUv AvKzqv bvBUvmv divmmvjdU)
( ev`vgx )
ev`vgx ejq ev wis Zixi gvag èY bvBUU Avqb mbvKiYi GB cixvK ejq cixv (Ring Test) ej|
dmdivm(Phosphorous)
1.10.0 cwiwPwZ
1674 mvj Rvgb Kwg ev(Brand)dmdivm Avwevi Kib Ges 1775 mvj divmx imvqbwe` jveqwmqi
gjwUi bvg `b dmdivm| dmdivm bvgwU MxK k dm div(phos phero) Z_v Avjv aviYKvix nZ bqv
nqQ| kZ dmdivmK evq~Z iL w`j GwU Rj Avjv Qovq ej Gic bvgKiY Kiv nqQ|
1.10.1 dmdivmi Drm

dmdivm ek mwq ej cKwZZ GK g~vevq cvIqv hvq bv| cvYxi Aw ev nvo Kvjwmqvg dmdU(c vq
60%) wnmve dmdivm we`gvb _vK| cKwZZ dmdivmK wbgv LwbR wnmve cvIqv hvq|
1| dmdvivBU(Phosphorite)
: Ca3(PO4)2
2| dviAvcvUvBU(Fluorapatite ) : 3Ca3(PO4)2 .CaF2
3| KviAvcvUvBU(Chlorapatite) : 3Ca3(PO4)2 .CaCl2
1.10.2 dmdivmi eicZv

dmdivm GKwU eicx gj | dmdivmi icf`jv njv :
(K) kZ ev mv`v dmdivm
(L) jvwnZ ev jvj dmdivm
(M)ebx dmdivm I
(N) Kvjv dmdivm |
kZ dmdivm K ZvcgvvqB mZzZfve evq~ AwRbi mv_ wewqv Ki P4O6 MVb Ki|
0
C
P4(s) + O2(g) 25
P4O6(s)
bvBUvRb cigvYyi gZ dmdivmi ewn:kwi p-AiweUvjmg~n Aac~Y Ges mylg Aevq _vKjI P-cigvYyi
hvRZv i 3q kwi(M-kj) nIqvq P-cigvYyi AvKvi N-cigvby Acv AbKUv eo|
34
3d
3p
3s
[Ne] 3s 2 3p1x 3p1y 3p1z 3d 0
15P
[ hvRZv = 3 ]
3d
3p
3s
*
1
1
1
1
1
15P [Ne] 3s 3p x 3p y 3p z 3d
[ P-cigvbyi ewn:kwii BjKUb webvm ]

[ P4-AYyi PZzjKxq MVb
[ P-cigvYy
P-cigvYyi AvKvi eo nIqvi KviY `ywU dmdivm cigvYyi 3p1x 3p1x AiweUvjqi gyLvgywL Awagbi viv
wmMgv() eb MVbi ci Aewk 3p1y I 3p1z AiweUvjjv cii cvwkq Awagb NUvZ cvi bv| dj
dmdivm bvBUvRbi gZ PP w-eb MVb KiZ cvi bv| G cZK P-cigvYy Zvi 3wU 3p AiweUvji
mv_ Aci 3wU P-cigvYyi 3p -AiweUvji cvwq Awagb NwUq 3wU -eb MVbi gvag P4-AYy MVb Ki|
P4-AYyi AvKwZ mylg PZzjKxq ; GZ P-P-P eb Kvb 600 | P4 AbyZ P-cigvYymg~n cii P-P GKK eb
hy _vKvq Ges P-P-P eb Kvbi cwigvb Kg nIqvq KviY Gi ebjvZ AwaK cxob(stress) we`gvb _vK|
dj P4 AYy AbKUv AwwZkxj nq| kZ dmdivm P4 AYyjv cii cvq wewQb Aevq _K cii `yej
fviIqvj ej viv Ave _vK| GB KviY kZ dmdivm P-P eb weqvRb Gvjwc(209kJmol-1) N2-AYy (NN eb weqvRb Gvjwc 945kJmol-1) Acv ek Kg nq Ges kZ dmdivm ek mwq nq|
Aciw`K, jvwnZ I Kvj dmdivm njv dmdivmi vqx icf`| MVbi w`K _K jvwnZ dmdivm njv
dmdivmi GKwU DP cwjgvi(Pn)|
600
[ P- cigvby ]
[kZ dmdivm P4- Aby ]
[ jvwnZ dmdivm Pn- Aby ]
mv`v dmdivm AYy
.fa
ce
bo
ok
.
co
mv`v dmdivm
/ta
nb
i
r.e
bo
ok
jvwnZ I Kvj dmdivm P-cigvYymg~n ixf~Z MvVwbK webvm (Layer Structure) hy _vK ej Gì AvbweK
KvVvgvZ P-P-P eb Kvb 600 Acv eo nq| dj Gì AYyZ ebjvi Dci cxobi gvb AbKUv nvm
cvq| ixf~Z cwjgvi MVi I ebjvi Dci cxobi gvb Kg nIqvi KviY jvwnZ dmdivm Kg mwq nq Ges
Kvj dmdivm AZ mywZ I wbwq nq|
jvj dmdivm Gi MVb
jvj dmdivm
35
1.10.3 dmdivmi icf`jvi cviwiK cwieZb ev icvi

kZ dmdivmi jvwnZ dmdivm icvi t
kZ dmdivmK wbwq cwiek hgb: bvBUvRb ev KvebWvB AvBW Mvm mvgvb AvqvwWb cfveKi
DcwwZZ 2500C Zvcgvvq D Kij Gi AYyjv cwjgviKiY Ges ixf~Z MvVwbK webvmi gvag jvwnZ
dmdivm MVb Ki |
250 0 C, I 2 , N 2
kZ dmdivm(P4)
jvwnZ dmdivm(Pn)
jvwnZ dmdivmi kZ dmdivm icvi t
jvwnZ dmdivmK wbwq cwiek hgb: bvBUvRb Mvm 5500C Zvcgvvq D Kij dmdivm ev Zix nq|
Drcb dmdivm evK `Z kxZj Kij P4 AYy MVbi gvag kZ dmdivm Zix nq |
550 0 C, N 2
`
Z kZ dmdivm(P )
jvwnZ dmdivm(Pn)
dmdivm(P)ev
4
kxZjKiY
1.10.4 dmdivm wbvlY

Aw f I dmdivBU AvKwiKK wmwjKv I KvK Kvebi mv_ wgwkq e`ywZK PzwjZ wbq 1200-15000C
Zvcgvvq D Kij Kveb weRviYi gvag dmdivm Zix nq| Pzwji wbMg bj w`q dmdivm ev I CO Mvm
wbMZ nq| wbMZ Mvm wgkYK `Z kxZj Kij kZ dmdivm cvIqv hvq|
1200 0 C
6CaSiO3 + 2P2O5
2Ca3(PO4)2 + 6SiO2
2P2O5 + 10C 4P + 10CO
1.10.5 dmdivmi eenvi

dmdivm GKwU AwZ cqvRbxq gj| Gi ewe` eenvi iqQ| wbg dmdivmi KqKwU eenvi DjL Kiv njv :
1| wbivc` w`qvkjvB (gvP) Zix wk KvwVi gv_vi evi` I gvPi `ycvki Mvqi NlY AveiY Zixi KvR
jvwnZ dmdivm eeZ nq|
2| dmdi e&v(Zvgv-wUb-dmdivm msKi) ZixZ dmdivm eeZ nq|
3| dmdwiK GwmW, dmdivm cUvvBW, dmdivm mvi(wU.Gm.wc ; wW.G.wc BZvw`) cwZZ dmdivm
eeZ nq|
1.10.6 dmdivmi AvBWmg~n

dmdivmi cavbZ 3wU mywZ AvBW iqQ | mviwY-1.10 G dmdivmi AvBWjvi bvg I msKZ `Lvbv
njv|
[ mviwY-1.10 t dmdivmi AvBWjvi bvg I msKZ ]
mvaviY bvg
AvaywbK bvg
AvbweK msKZ
1| dmdivm UvB AvBW
dmdivm (III) AvBW
P2O3 ev, P4O6
2| dmdivm UUv AvBW
dmdivm (IV) AvBW
P2O4 ev , P4O8
3| dmdivm cUv AvBW dmdivm (V) AvBW
P2O5 ev, P5O10
36
1.10.7 dmdivm UvBAvBW ev dmdivm(III)AvBW

dmdivm UvB AvBW mv`v imybi M wewk gvg m`k KwVb c`v_| c~e aviYv Kiv nZv dmdivm UvB AvBW Gi
AvbweK msKZ P2O3| wK AvaywbK Kvj P2O3 Gi WvBgviK Z_v P4O6 K dmdivm UvB AvBWi mwVK
AvbweK msKZ aiv nq|
[ wP: P2O3 Abyi MVb ]

kZ dmdivmK axi axi mxwgZ evq~ cevn `nb Kij dmdivm UvB AvBW Drcb nq|
P4(s) + 3O2(air) P4O6(s)

[ wP: 1.9 P4O6 Abyi MVb ]
dmdivm UvB AvBW GKwU Aagx AvBW | GwU Vvv cvwbi mv_ wewqv Ki dmdivm GwmW Zix Ki| ZvB
dmdivm UvB AvBWK dmdivm AvbnvBWvBW ejv nq|
P2O3(s) + 3H2O(l) 2H3PO3(l)
dmdivm UvB AvBW Mig cvwbi mv_ wewqv Ki dmwdb Mvm I dmdwiK GwmW Zix Ki|
2P2O3(s) + 6H2O(l) PH3(g) + 3H3PO4(l)
dmdivm UvB AvBW NaOH Gi Rjxq èYi mv_ wewqv Ki dmwdb Mvm I mvwWqvg dmdU Zix Ki|
2P2O3(s) + 9NaOH(aq) PH3(g) + 3Na3PO4(l) + 3H2O(l)
1.10.8 dmdivm cUv AvBW ev dmdivm(V) AvBW

dmdivm cUvAvBW GKwU Mnxb cvDWvi m`k KwVb c`v_| P2O5 Gi WvBgviK Z_v P4O10 K dmdivm
cUv AvBWi mwVK AvbweK msKZ aiv nq|
[ wP: 1.10 P2O5 Abyi MVb ]
ok
kZ ev jvwnZ dmdivm chv evq~ cevn ev AwRb Mvm `nb Kij

dmdivm cUv AvBW Drcb nq|
P4(s) + 5O2(air) P4O10(s)
r.e
bo
P2O5 Gi ag t dmdivm cUv AvBW GKwU Aagx AvBW Ges Zxe

wbi`K |
nb
i
1.10.8.1 P2O5 Gi A ag t
/ta
(K) P2O5 Vvv cvwbi mv_ wewqv Ki gUv dmdwiK GwmW Zix Ki|
P2O5(s) + H2O(l) 2HPO3(l)
co
[ wP:1.11 P4O10 Abyi MVb ]
ce
bo
ok
.
(L) P2O5 Mig cvwbi mv_ wewqv Ki A_v dmdwiK GwmW Zix Ki|
ZvB dmdivm cUv AvBWK dmdwiK AvbnvBWvBW ejv nq|
P2O5(s) + 3H2O(l) 2H3PO4(l)
.fa
(M) P2O5, NaOH Gi Vvv I Mig èYi mv_ wewqv Ki h_vg mvwWqvg gUv dmdU I mvwWqvg dmdU
Zix Ki|
P2O5(s) + 2NaOH(aq) 2NaPO3(l) + H2O(l) [ kxZj Aevq ]
P2O5(s) + 6NaOH(aq) 2Na3PO4(s) + 3H2O(l) [ Mig Aevq ]
37
1.10.8.2 P2O5 Gi wbi`b ag t

P2O5 GKwU kwkvjx wbi`K c`v_| P2O5 ivmvqwbK wewqvi gvag Kvb hMi Aby nZ H2O AcmvwiZ Ki
wbiw`Z Ki| hgb: Mvp HNO3 Gi mv_ P2O5 wgwkq D Kij P2O5, HNO3 K wbiw`Z Ki N2O5
cwibZ Ki|
2HNO3(conc) + P2O5(s) N2O5 (l) + 2HPO3(l)

GKBfve, P2O5 , Mvp H2SO4 K wbiw`Z Ki SO3 Mvm cwibZ Ki|
2H2SO4(conc) + P2O5(s) SO3(g) + 2HPO3(l)
1.10.8.3 P2O5 Gi eenvi t P2O5 wbi`K wnmve, dmdwiK GwmW I N2O5 ZixZ eeZ nq|
1.10.9 dmdivmi nvBWvBW

dmwdb t dmdivmi AbZg nvBWvBW njv dmwdb(PH3)| dmwdb eYnxb cPv gvQi Mhy fvix Mvm|
kZ dmdivmi mv_ KwK mvWv ev KwK cUvmi èY hvM Ki D Kij dmwdb Mvm Zix nq|
P4(s) + 3NaOH(aq) +3H2O(l) 3NaHPO2(l) + PH3(g)

dmwdb Avgvwbqv nZ AbKUv evwZg agx| hgb : Avgvwbqv cvwbZ ek èYxq njI dmwdb cvwbZ A
èxq| dmwdb evq~i msk Avmvgv Rj DV Ges evq~i AwRb viv RvwiZ nq dmdivm cUvvBW Zix Ki|
4PH3(g) + 8O2(air) P4O10(s) + 6H2O(l)
PH3 , NH3 Acv Zxe weRviK| hgb PH3 Kcvi(II) jeY, wmjfvi jeYK weRvwiZ Ki h_vg Kcvi I
wmjfvi avZzZ cwibZ Ki|
6Ag+(aq) + PH3(g) +3H2O(l) 6Ag(s) + H3PO3(aq) + 6H+(aq)
dmdivm bvBUvRb Acv Kg ZworFbvZK nIqvq PH3 , NH3 Acv Kg viKagx|
WvB dmwdb t nvBWvwRbi Abyic WvB dmwdb(P2H4) njv dmdivmi GKwU nvBWvBW| dmwdb Zixi mgq
cvkvcvwk mgvb cwigvb WvB dmwdb Zix nq|
1.10.0 dmdivmi AwGwmWmg~n

dmdivmi ek KqKwU Aw GwmW iqQ| mviwY-1.11 G dmdivmi Aw GwmWjvi bvg I msKZ `Lvbv
nqQ|
[ mviwY-1.11 t dmdivmi AwGwmWjvi bvg I msKZ ]
mvaviY bvg
Ava~wbK bvg
AvbweK msKZ
1| nvBcv dmdivm GwmW
dmwdwbK GwmW
H3PO2
2| dmdivm GwmW
dmdvwbK GwmW
H3PO3
3| A_v dmdwiK GwmW
H3PO4
dmdvwiK(V)GwmW
4| cvBiv dmdmdwiK GwmW cvBiv dmdvwiK(V)GwmW H4P2O7
5| gUv dmdmdwiK GwmW
HPO3
gUv dmdvwiK(V)GwmW
1.10.1 dmdivm GwmW ev dmdvwbK GwmW

P2O3 I Vvv cvwbi wewqv viv dmdivm GwmW Zix Kiv nq|
P4O6(s) + 6H2O(l) 4H3PO3(aq)
PCl3 Gi Av` weklY NwUqI dmdivm GwmW Zix Kiv hvq|
PCl3 (l ) + 3H2O(l) H3PO3(aq) + 3HCl(g) [ wP:1.12 H3PO3 Abyi MVb ]
38
dmdvwbK GwmW GKwU gag kwi w-viKxq GwmW| GwU wbR Ges Gi jeYmg~n weRviK wnmve wqv Ki|
H3PO3(aq) + H2O(l) H3PO4(aq) + 2[H]

2AgNO3(aq) +2[H] 2Ag(s) + 2HNO3(aq)
2AgNO3(aq) + H3PO3(aq) + H2O(l) 2Ag(s) + H3PO4(aq) + 2HNO3(aq)
1.10.2 dmdwiK(V)GwmW ev A_v dmdwiK GwmW

P2O5 Gi mv_ awi axi Mig ev dzU cvwb hvM Kij dmdwiK(V)GwmW
Zix nq|
P2O5 (s) + 3H2O(l) 2H3PO4(aq)
[ wP: 1.13 H3PO4 Abyi MVb ]
wk dmdivBU AvKwiKi mv_ AaNb H2SO4 hy Ki wgkYK dzwUq dmdwiK GwmW I Kvjwmqvg mvjdU
Zix Kiv nq| AZci Drcb wgkYK cwimveY Ki cv cwimyZK Dvc Mvp Ki dmdwiK GwmWi wmivcx Zij
(85% H3PO4 ) Zix Kiv nq|
Ca3(PO4)2 (s) + 3H2SO4(aq) 2H3PO4 (aq) + 3CaSO4(s)

we dmdwiK GwmW eYnxb, cvwbMvnx AvVvjv c`v_| Gi AvbweK Kjvm nvBWvRb eb we`gvb _vKvq GwU
AvVvjv KwVb cKwZi nq| GwU `yej w-viKxq GwmW| dmdwiK GwmW wewfb gvvi vii mv_ wewqv Ki
h_vg Axq ckg I viKxq dmdU jeY Zix Ki|
H3PO4 + NaOH NaH2PO4(Axq) + H2O
H3PO4 + 2NaOH Na2 HPO4(ckg) + 2H2O
H3PO4 + 3NaOH Na3PO4(vixq) + 3H2O
dmdwiK GwmWi ewe` eenvi iqQ| wekl Ki dmdU mvi hgb:wUcj mycvi dmdU(wU.Gm. wc.) WvB
Avgvwbqvg dmdU(wW.G.wc) mvi Drcv`b dmdwiK GwmW eeZ nq|
1.11.0 Kwl wevb bvBUvRb I dmdivm hMi iZ
nb
i
r.e
bo
ok
Kwl bvBUvRb I dmdivm hMi iZ Acwimxg| meyR Dw` Kvivwdji DcwwZZ mvjvKmsklYi
gvag mKiv Zix Ki Zvi `ni ew I weKvk NUvq| Avi GB Kvivwdj njv bvBUvRb MwVZ GKwU RwUj|
Avevi dmdivm Dw` `ni KvK `p I gReyZ KiZ Ges g~ji ewZ f~wgKv ivL| Dw` g~ji mvnvh gvwU
nZ bvBUvRbK bvBUU I Avgvwbqvg jeY wnmve Ges dmdivmK dmdU jeY wnmve kvlY Ki Zvi Pvwn`v
wgUvq| GKB RwgZ eve evi Pvlvevì KviY gvwUZ bvBUvRb I dmdivm jeYi NvUwZ `Lv `q| dj gvwUi
DeiZv nvm cvq| ZvB Kwl KvR gvwUi DeiZv ivq gvwUZ ivmvqwbK mvi wnmve bvBUvRb I dmdivm hM
ecKfve cqvM Kiv nq| wbg ivmvqwbK mvi wnmve eeZ nq Ggb KqKwU bvBUvRb I dmdivm hMi
cwiwPwZ aiZzjv njv|
bvBUvRb mvi
.fa
ce
bo
ok
.
co
/ta
bvBUvRb hMi ga cavbZ BDwiqv bvBUvRb mvi wnmve eeZ nq| evsjv`k cjvk BDwiqv mvi KviLvbvNvovkvj ; wRqv mvi KviLvbv-AvM ; hgybv mvi KviLvbv-Rvgvjcyi ; PMvg BDwiqv mvi KviLvbv-PMvg I
cvKwZK Mvm mvi KviLvbv-dzM G cvKwZK Mvm _K cPzi cwigvb BDwiqv mvi Zix Kiv nq| Gme KviLvbvq
cvKwZK Mvm, evq~ I wgi cfveKxq widwgs viv N2, H2 I CO2 Mvm Zix Kiv nq| N2 I H2 nZ nevi
cwZZ NH3 msklY Ki NH3 Gi mv_ CO2 wewqv NwUq BDwiqv Zix Kiv nq|
2NH3 (l) CO 2 (g) H 2 N CO NH 2 (s) H 2 O(l)

(BDwiqv)
Abvb bvBUvRb mvimg~n njv Avgvwbqvg bvBUU, mvwWqvg bvBUU, Kvjwmqvg bvBUU BZvw`|
39
dmdivm mvi
dmdivm mvijvi ga wmj mycvi dmdU(SSP) I wUcj mycvi dmdU(TSP) AbZg| ivmvqwbK fve
wmj mycvi dmdU(SSP) njv gbv Kvjwmqvg dmdU gbvnvBWU I wRcmvgi wgkY| Gi msKZ t [Ca
(H2PO4)2.H2O + CaSO4.2H2O ] | SSP mvi 16-20% P2O5 _vK|
PzY-wePzY iK dmdU ev dmdvivBU AvKwiKi mv_ Mvp H2SO4 Gi wewqv viv SSP mvi Zix Kiv nq|
Ca3(PO4)2 + 2H2SO4 + 5H2O Ca (H2PO4)2.H2O + 2CaSO4.2H2O

Aciw`K. wUcj mycvi dmdU(TSP) njv gbvKvjwmqvg dmdU; Gi msKZ t Ca(H2PO4)2 | TSP mvi 4246% P2O5 _vK| GB mvi mycvi dmdU Acv wZbb cwigvb gbv Kvjwmqvg dmdU _vK ejB GK
wUcj mycvi dmdU (TSP) ejv nq|
MvpxKZ iK dmdU ev dmdvivBU AvKwiKi mv_ dmdwiK(V)GwmWi wewqv viv TSP mvi Zix Kiv nq|
Ca3(PO4)2 + 4H3PO4 3CaH4(PO4)2
bvBUvRb-dmdivm wgk mvi

WvB Avgvwbqvg dmdU(DAP) GKwU bvBUvRb I dmdivmhy wgkmvi| nevi cwZZ Drcvw`Z Avgvwbqvi
mv_ dmdwiK GwmWi wewqv viv DAP mvi cZ
Kiv nq|
2NH3 + H3PO4 (NH4)2HPO4
DAP mvi 20-30% dmdivm I 16-18% bvBUvRb _vK|
bvBUvRb-mvjdvi wgk mvi

Avgvwbqvg mvjdU GKwU bvBUvRb I mvjdvi wgwkZ wgkmvi| GwU GKwU Axq mvi| weklKi Pv Drcv`b G
mvi eeZ nq| nevi cwZZ Drcvw`Z Avgvwbqvi mv_ Mvp mvjwdDwiK GwmWi wewqv viv Avgvwbqvg
mvjdU mvi cZ Kiv nq|
2NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4
Mc-VIA gjmg~ni imvqb

1.12.0 cwiwPwZ(Introduction)
Mc-VIA Gi gjmg~n njv AwRb(O) , mvjdvi(S) , mwjwbqvg(Se) , Ujywiqvg(Te) I cvjvwbqvg(Po)|
cvjvwbqvg ZR:wq ej GwU AwwZkxj| Mc-VIA Gi cjvwbqvg Qvov evwK gjjvK cKwZZ gyvevq ev
hM wnmve cvIqv hvq| AwaKvsk avZz AwRb I mvjdvii mv_ hy nq h_vg AvBW I mvjdvBW AvKwiK
wnmve cKwZZ weivR Ki| ZvB Mc-VIA Gi cjvwbqvg Qvov evwK gjjvK PvjKvRb(ChalcogensOre forming) Z_v AvKwiK Drcv`bKvix gj ejv nq|
mviwY-1.12 G Mc-VIA Gi gjmg~ni cvigvYweK msLv, cZxK I wewfb kj BjKUb msLv `Lvbv nqQ|
[ mviwY-1.12t Mc-VIA Gi gjmg~ni cvigvbweK msLv, cZxK I wewfb kj BjKUb msLv ]
cvigvbweK msLv
8
16
34
52
84
gj
Oxygen(AwRb)
Sulphur(mvjdvi)
Selenium (mwjwbqvg)
Tellurium (Ujvwiqvg)
Polonium (cjvwbqvg)
cZxK
BjKUb msLv / kj
O
S
2, 6
2, 8, 6
Se
Te
Po
2, 8, 18, 6
2, 8, 18, 18, 6
2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 6
1.12.1 Mc-VIA Gi gjmg~ni BjKUb webvm I ewk

8O
16S
34Se
52Te
84Po
1s2 2s22p4
[Ne]10 3s23p4
[Ar]18 3d10 4s24p4
[Kr]36 4d10 4f 0 5s2 5p4
[Xe]54 4f 14 5d10 5f 0 6s26p4
40
Mc-VIA Gi gjjvi BjKUb webvm jbxq h,
1| Gì cZKi cigvbyi ewn:kwi 6wU Ki BjKUb iqQ ;
2| Gì cigvbyi ewn:kwii mvaviY BjKUb webvm : ns2np4 [ n=2 6 )
3| Giv mevB P-eK gj|
1.12.2 Mc-VA Gi gjmg~ni chvqewK ag
0.074
0.104
685
990
962
0.114
0.137
0.152
0.140
0.184
0.198
0.221
0.230
1323
1007
948
876
820
(cvDwjj4.0
)
AvqbxKiY kw
(kJ mol-1)
-183
444
ZworFbvZKZv
AvqwbK
emva (nm)
-219
113(rh)
217
450
254
cvigvbweK
emva (nm)
MjbvsK
Mvm
KwVb
KwVb
KwVb
KwVb
( Tb 0 C )
fZvev
8
16
34
52
84
zUbvsK
cvigvbweK
msLv (Z)
O
S
Se
Te
Po
( Tm0C )
gj
[ mviwY-1.13 t Mc-VA Gi gjmg~ni chvqewK ag ]
3.5
2.44
2.4
2.1
2.0
Mc-VIA Gi gjjvi ga AwRb AbKUv evwZgx gj| K ZvcgvZvq AwRb Mvm njI evwK gj
jv KwVb| cvigvbweK msLv ewi mv_ mv_ Mc-VIA Gi gjjvi cigvbyi AvKvi , MjbvsK I zUbvsK ew
cvq| Avevi Gì cvigvbweK msLv ewi mv_ mv_ AvqwbKiY kw I ZworFbvZKZv nvm cvq| AwRb evwZg
nIqvi KviY Gi ZworFbvZKZv AbK ewk(3.5) Ges hvRbx wi(2)|
1.12.3 BjKUbxq MVbi wfwZ Mc-VIAGi gjjvi ivmvqwbK agi evLv

1.12.3.1 Mc-VIAGi gjjv AvqwbK I mghvRx hM hM MVb Ki t
(K) AvqwbK hM MVb t Mc-VIAGi gjjvi cigvYyi ewn:kwi 6wU Ki(ns2np4) BjKUb iqQ|
ewn:kwi AKc~Y(ns2np6) nZ Gì Avi 2wU BjKUb cqvRb| ZvB Giv avZe gji mv_ wewqv Kvj
ewn:kwi `ywU BjKUb MnY Ki AvqwbK hM MVb Ki| hgb:
avZz AvBW(M2Ox) t CaO, MgO, Na2O, Al2O3, FeO, Fe2O3 BZvw`|
r.e
bo
2-
2+
ok
avZz mvjdvBW(M2Sx) t CaS, MgS, Na2S, CuS, FeS, Fe2S3 BZvw`|
CaO
bo
ok
.
co
/ta
nb
i
jbxq h, Mc-VIAGi gjjvi ga AwRb Qvov evwK gjmg~ni ZworFbvZKZv Kg ej Giv aygv Zxe
Zwor abvZK gji mv_ AvqwbK hM MVb Ki|
(L) mghvRx hM MVb t Mc-VIAGi gjjvi cigvYyi ewn:kwi `ywU wb:m BjKUb iqQ| Giv Ab
cigvYyi mv_ G `ywU wb:m BjKUb kqvi Ki wbwq gji gZ AK c~YZvi gvag mghvRZv 2 c`kb Ki
mghvRx hM MVb Ki| hgb:
2p
2
2
2
1
1
8O 1s 2s 2p x 2p y 2p z /
2s
H H O H H O H
.fa
H + O +
ce
[ O-cigvbyi ewn:kwii BjKUb webvm ]
41
Mc-VIAGi gjjvi ga AwRb Qvov evwKjvi cigvYyi ewn:kwi duvKv d-AiwUvj _Kvq Giv
mghvRZv 2 c`kbi cvkvcvwk 4 I 6 mghvRZv c`kb Ki| hgb: mvjdvi 2, 4 I 6 mghvRZv `Lvq|
16S
16S
[Ne] 3s 2 3p 2x 3p1y 3p1z [ hvRbx 2] / 3p

3s
[Ne]10 3s 2 3p1x 3p1y 3p1z 3d1xy [ hvRbx 4] /

[ S-cigvYyi 4 mghvRZv ]
3d
3p
3s
3d
[Ne]10 3s1 3p1x 3p1y 3p1z 3d1xy 3d1yz [ hvRbx 6] / 3p
3s
H2S, SF4, SF6 hM wZbwUZ mvjdvi h_vg 2, 4 I 6 mghvRZv c`kY Ki|
16S
1.12.3.2 cvigvbweK msLv ewi mv_ mv_ Mc-VIAGi gjjvi mwqZv nvm cvq t
Mc-VIAGi gjjvi cvigvbweK msLv ewi mv_ mv_ Gì mwqZv nvm cvq| hgb vi avZz I grviavZzmg~n A Zvc AwRbi mv_ wewqv Ki AvBW MVb Ki| wK D avZzmg~n mvjdvii mv_ Abyic
mvjdvBW MVbKvj AwaK Zvcgvvi cqvRb nq| Gme avZz mvaviYZ mjbvBW I UjyivBW MVb Ki bv|
cvigvbweK msLv ewi mv_ Mc-VIAGi gjjvi ZworFbvZKZv nvm cvIqvi KviYB Gic NU|
1.12.3.3 AwRb I mvjdvi GKB Mc Aevb KijI AwRbi hvRbx wi wK mvjdvii

hvRbx cwieZbkxj t
Mc-VIAGi gjjvi ga AwRb ewZgagx| AwRbi hvRZvi 2q kwi nIqvq Gi cigvYyi AvKvi
QvU Ges ZworFbvZKZv A^vfvweK iKgi ewk(3.5)| AwRbi ewn:kwi `ywU wb:m BjKUb _vKvq Ges
AwaK ZworFbvZK nIqvq GwU Ab gji mv_ 2wU BjKUb kqvi Ki A_ev Ab gj nZ 2wU BjKUb MnY
Ki AK c~YZvi gvag aygv 2 hvRZv I RviYvev c`kY Ki|
8O
1s 2 2s 2 2p 2x 2p1y 2p1z
2p
2s
[ O-cigvYyi ewn:kwii BjKUb webvm ]
Aciw`K, mvjdvii hvRZv i 3q kwi nIqvq Gi cigvbyi AvKvi AwRb Acv eo Ges ZworFbvZKZv
(2.44)AwRb Acv Kg| mvjdvii ewnkwi `ywU wb:m BjKUb _vKvq GwU Ab gji mv_ 2wU BjKUb
kqvi Ki ev Ab gj nZ 2wU BjKUb MnY Ki AK c~YZvi gvag 2 hvRZv I RviYvev c`kY Ki| Ze
S-cgvYyi ewnkwi duvKv d -AiweUvji DcwZ _vKvi KviY wewfb Aevq Gi ewn:ii 3p Ges 3s -AiweUvj
we`gvb BjKUb hyMj f ewn: duvKv 3d -AiweUvj vbvwiZ nq ; GZ wewfb Aevq mvjdvii ewn:kwi
4wU ev 6wU AhyMj BjKUbi mw nq Ges mvjdvi 4 I 6 hvRZv I RviYvev c`kY Ki| H2S, SF4, SF6
hM wZbwUZ mvjdvi h_vg 2, 4 I 6 mghvRZv c`kY Ki|
16S
16S
16S
3p
[Ne] 3s 2 3p 2x 3p1y 3p1z [ hvRbx 2] /
3s
[Ne]10 3s 2 3p1x 3p1y 3p1z 3d1xy [ hvRbx 4] /
3d
3p
3s
[Ne]10 3s1 3p1x 3p1y 3p1z 3d1xy 3d1yz [ hvRbx 6] /
3d
3p
3s
AZGe, AwRb cigvYyi AwaK ZworFbvZKv I Ges GZ d -AiweUvji AbycwwZi KviY Gi hvRbx I
RviYvev wi | Aciw`K, mvjdvi cigvbyi ZworFbvZKZv Kg Ges GZ d -AiweUvji DcwwZi KviY Gi
hvRbx I RviYvev cwieZbkxj |
42
1.12.3.4 SF6 MwVZ njI OF6 MwVZ nq bv- Gi evLv t

mvjdvii hvRZvi 3q kwi nIqvq Gi cgvYyi ewnkwi duvKv d -Dckwi iqQ| ZvB DwRZ Aevq
mvjdvi Gi ewn:ii 3p Ges 3s -Dckwi we`gvb BjKUb hyMj f ewn: duvKv 3d -AiweUvjmg~n
vbvwiZ Ki ewn:kwi 4wU ev 6wU AhyMj BjKUbi mwi gvag 4 I 6 hvRZv I RviYvev c`kY Ki|
mvjdvi 6 hvRZv I RviYvev c`kY Ki 6wU F cigvYyi mv_ mghvRx eb hy nq SF6 MVb Ki| FcigvYyi AvKvi AZ y` I dvwiYi ZworFbvZKZv AZvwaK nIqvq SF6 GKwU mywZ hM|
16S
16S
[Ne]10 3s 2 3p 2x 3p1y 3p1z [ hvRbx 2]

[Ne]10 3s 2 3p1x 3p1y 3p1z 3d1xy [ hvRbx 4]
**
[Ne]10 3s1 3p1x 3p1y 3p1z 3d1xy 3d1yz [ hvRbx 6]

Aciw`K, AwRbi hvRZvi 2q kwi nIqvq Gi cgvYyi ewnkwi Kvb d -Dckwi bB| ZvB Gi
DwRZ Aevq ewn:ii p Ges s -Dckwi BjKUb hyMj f 3d -AiweUvjmg~n vbvwiZ Kivi Kvb
myhvM bB| ZvB AwRbi hvRbx(2) I RviYvev (+2) wi|
2
2
2
1
1
8O 1s 2s 2p x 2p y 2p z
16S
AwK&Rbi hvRbx(2) I RviYvev (+2) wi ejB GwU OF6 MVb KiZ cvi bv|
1.12.3.5 cvigvbweK msLv ewi mv_ mv_ Mc-VIAGi gjjvi nvBWvBWi wwZkxjZv nvm
cvq, AagxZv I weRviYagxZv ew cvq|
Mc-VIAGi gjjv -2 RviY msLv wewk nvBWvBW MVb Ki| hgb : H2O, H2S, H2Se, H2Te, H2Po |
cvigvbweK msLv ewi mv_ mv_ Mc-VIAGi gjjvi nvBWvBWmg~ni wwZkxjZv gv^q nvm cvq| Gì
ga GKgv H2O B wwZkxj| mvaviY Zvcgvvq H2O eY I Mnxb Zij(cvwb) njI Abvb nvBWvBWjv Zxe
Mhy welv Mvm| hgb H2S cPv wWgi Mhy welv Mvm| mvaviY Zvcgvvq H2O Abymg~n nvBWvRb ebi
gvag hy nq eo AvKvii AvbweK Q Zix Ki ej mvaviY Zvcgvvq H2O Zij Aevq weivR Ki| wK
Abvb nvBWvBWmg~n Kvb nvBWvRb eb _vK bv ej Giv mvaviY Aevq Mvm wnmve weivR Ki|
Avevi, cvigvbweK msLv ewi mv_ mv_ Mc-VIAGi gjjvi nvBWvBWmg~ni AagxZv I weRviY gZv ew
cvq| hgb H2O ckg I weRvK bv njI H2S Aagx I weRviK| cvigvbweK msLv ewi mv_ mv_ Mc-VIAGi
gjjvi nvBWvBWmg~ni vwqZ nvmi gvag mwqZv ewi KviY Gic NU|
1.12.3.6 mvaviY Zvcgvvq H2O Zij njI H2S Mvmxq Aevq weivR Ki t
co
/ta
nb
i
nvBWvRb eb
r.e
bo
ok
AwRbi hvRZv i 2q kwi nIqvq Gi cigvbyi AvKvi QvU Ges ZworFbvZKZv A^vfvweK iKgi
ewk(3.5)| nvBWvRb I AwRbi ZworFbvZKZvi cv_K AwaK nIqvq HO mghvRx ebi eb Rvo
BjKUb gvSvgvwS Aevb _K mi AwRb cigvYyi w`K cwie nq ; dj HO eb cvjvwiwU ARb Ki
Ges H2O Aby cvjvi nq| K Zvcgvvq H2O Gi cvjvi AYymg~n cii nvBWvRb ebi gvag hy nq
QvKvi Aevb Ki| GB KviY mvaviY Aevq H2O Zij Aevq weivR Ki|
ok
.
[ wP t 1.14 H2O AYyZ nvBWvRb eb ]
.fa
ce
bo
Aciw`K, mvjdvi cigvYyi hvRZv i 3q kwi nIqvq Gi cigvYyi AvKvi AbKUv eo Ges ZworFbvZKZv
AwRb Acv Kg (2.44)| nvBWvRb I mvjdvii ZworFbvZKZvi cv_K AwaK bv nIqvq HS mghvRx
ebi cvjvwiwU LyeB Kg | ZvB mvaviY Zvcggvvq H2S Gi AYymg~ni ga Avqx WvBcvj-WvBcvj eb
Z_v fviIqvj ej wqv Ki Ges H2S AYymg~n cvq gyvevq weivR Ki| GB KviYB mvaviY Aevq H2O
Zij Aevq weivR KijI H2S Mvm Aevq weivR Ki|
43
1.12.3.7 Mc-VIA Gi gjjv nvjvRbi mv_ wewfb cKvi nvjvBW MVb Ki t

Mc-VIA Gi AwRb Qvov Abvb gjmg~n gbvnvjvBW, WvB nvjvBW, UUv nvjvBW, nv nvjvBW MVb Ki|
AwRb dvwiYi mv_ aygv WvB dvivBW(OF2) MVb Ki | WvB nvjvBWmg~n ek AwwZkxj | GìK Zvc
w`j UUv nvjvBW cwibZ nq| GK ^Z:RviY-weRviY ej|
hgb: 2SeCl 2 SeCl 4 Se

WvB nvjvBWmg~ni ga SCl 2 ek iZc~Y| GwU ivevi fjKvbvBRkb eeZ nq| UUv nvjvBWi ga SF4
Mvm , SCl 4 -Zij Ges SeCl 4 , TeCl 4 , TeF4 -KwVb| UUv njvBWBWmg~n wKvbxq wcivwgW AvKwZi| McVIAGi AwRb Qvov Abvb gjmg~n aygv dvwiYi mv_ nvdvivBW MVb Ki| hgb: SF6 , Se F6 , TeF6
| nv dvivBWmg~ni AYy AZjKxq| nv dvivBWjv mghvRx Mvm|
1.12.4 AwRb I mvjdvii fZ I ivmvqwbK ag Zzjbv

1.12.4.1 AwRb I mvjdvii fZ I ivmvqwbK ag mv`kmg~n t
AwRb I mvjdvii ga DjLhvM mv`kjv njv t
1| AwRb I mvjdvi DfqB mwq AavZz|
2| Giv DfqB eicZv `Lvq| hgb: AwRbi GKwU icf` njv IRvb(O3)Ges mvjdvii
icf`jv njv iw^K mvjdvi, gbvwKwbK mvjdvi, cvwK mvjdvi BZvw`|
3| AwRb I mvjdvi Dfqi cigvbyi ewn:kwi 6wU Ki(ns2np4) BjKUb iqQ|
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
8O 1s 2s 2p x 2p y 2p z ; 16S [Ne]10 3s 3p x 3p y 3p z
4| Giv DfqB 2 mghvRZv ( hgb : H2O, H2S ) Ges -2 RviYvev ( hgb : CuO, CuS) `Lvq|
5| Giv DfqB vqx (H2O, H2S ) I Avqx (H2O2, H2S2 ) nvBWvBW MVb Ki|
6| Giv DfqB C, P, As BZvw` gj mv_ GKB aiYi hM MVb Ki| hgb:
AwRb H2O , CO2 , P2O5, As2O3
mvjdvi H2S , CS2 , P2S5, As2S3
7| Giv DfqB mwq avZyi mv_ AvqwbK cKwZi AvBW I mvjdvBW MVb Ki| hgb: Na2O, Na2S |
1.12.4.2 AwRb I mvjdvii fZ I ivmvqwbK ag emv`kmg~n t

AwRb I mvjdvii ga DjLhvM emv`kjv njv t
1| AwRb eY I Mnxb Mvm| Aciw`K,mvaviY Aevq mvjdvi nvjKv njy` eYi KwVb c`v_|
2| mvavibZ AwRbi AYy w-cigvYyK( O 2 ) njI mvjdvii AYy A-cigvYyK( S8 )|
3| AwRbi hvRbx (2) I RviYvev(-2) wi njI mvjdvi cwieZbkxj hvRbx (2,4,6) I RviYvev (2,+2,+4,+6) c`kY Ki|
4| SF6 MwVZ njI OF6 MwVZ nq bv|
5| AwRb Acv(3.5) mvjdvii ZworFbvZKZv (2.1)Kg nIqvq H2O AbKUv cvjvi njI H2S
Acvjvi | ZvB mvaviY Aevq H2O AYymg~n cii nvBWvRb ebi gvag hy nq Zij Aevq
weivR Ki| Aciw`K, mvaviY Aevq H2S AYymg~ni ga Kvb nvBWvRb eb MwVZ nqbv ej H2S
Mvm wnmve weivR Ki|
6| AwRbi nvBWvBW, H2O ckg I AweRviK njI mvjdvii nvBWvBW, H2S GwmW agx I weRviK|
7| AwRb wbR Rj bv ,AbK RjZ mvnvh Ki wK mvjdvi wbR Rj|
8| AvBW (O2-)Avqbi AvKvi Acv mvjdvBW (S2-) Avqbi AvKvi eo nIqvq mvjdvBWmg~n AvBW
Acv AwaK cwigvY cvjviY NU| ZvB AvBWmg~n mvjdvBW Acv AwaK AvqwbK cKwZi|
44
AwRb(Oxygen)
1.13.0 AwRbi Aevb t AwRbi cavb Drm njv evq~gj| evq~ gji gvU AvqZbi 21% AwRb
Mvm| cvwbZ A cwigvb AwRb èxf~Z Aevq iqQ| ZvQvov f~-ZKi gvU fii 89% AwRb hM viv
Zix| wewfb AvBW, KvebU, mvjdU, bvBUU, dmdU, wmwjKU, vP, mjyjvR, cvwUb, wbDwKK GwmW BZvw`
hMmg~ni meB AwRbi hM|
1.13.1 AwRbi ag t Mc-VIAGi gjjvi ga AwRb AbKUv evwZg agx gj|

ZworFbvZKZvi w`K _K dvwiYi (4.0) ciB AwRbi (3.5) vb| AwRbi AYyZ `ywU AwRb cigvYy
cii w-eb hy _vK|
O + O
O
O O
O O2
AwRbi MjbvsK I zUbvsK h_vg -219 C I -1830C| AwRb AZ mwq gj ej wbwq gj Qvov
cvq mKj gji mv_ hM MVb Ki|
1.13.2 AwRbi Drcv`b t wk Zij evq~K AvswkK cvZb Ki AwRbi evwbwRK Drcv`b Kiv
nq| wj cwZZ evq~K Zij Ki AvswkK cvZb Kij cvZb Kjvg -1960C Zvcgvvq bvBUvRb Mvm Ges 1830C Zvcgvvq AwRb Mvm cvIqv hvq| Drcb AwRb MvmK DP Pvc wmwjvi fi eenvii Rb
mieivn Kiv nq|
1.13.3 AwRbi eenvi t AwRb GKwU AwZe iZc~Y gj| Rxe`ni kmb wqvq AwRb eeZ
nq| kmb cwqvq Drcb Zvckw w`qB Rxe mRxe I Kgg nq|
Re spiration
C 6 H12O 6 + 6O 2 6CO 2 6H 2 O Heat
IqjwWs ev SvjvBqi KviLvbvq avZz KvUv, Rvov jvMvbvi KvR eeZ DP Zvcgvv mwKvix Aw-AvwmwUwjb ev
Aw-nvBWvRb wkLv Zixi KvR AwRb Mvm eeZ nq| gyg~l ivMx, Wyeyix, ceZvivnx, Lwb kwgKì Kwgfve
kvm-ckv m Pvjvbvi Rb AwRb Mvm eeZ nq|
1.13.4 AwRbi hM t AwRb GKwU mwq gj| wbwq Mvm Qvov cvq mKj gji mv_ AwRb hM
MVb Ki| f~-ZKi gvU fii 89% AwRb hM viv Zix| wewfb avZe I AavZe AvBW, KvebU, mvjdU,
bvBUU, dmdU I wmwjKUmg~n AwRbi hM| vP, mjyjvR, cvwUb, wbDwKK GwmW, AvjKvnj,
AvjwWnvBW, wKUvb, dvwU GwmW, dbj BZvw` Re hMmg~ni meB AwRbi hM|
1.13.5 AvBWmg~n t AwRbi mv_ Ab gji wewqvq Drcb w-gj hMmg~nK AvBW ej|
hgb:
C O2
CO 2 ;
2Na 2 O
S O2
SO 2 ; 4Na O 2
ok
1| avZz AvBW Ges 2| AavZz AvBW|
r.e
bo
h_v :
1.13.5.1 AvBWmg~ni kYx webvmt AvBWmg~nK cavbZ `ywU kYxZ fvM Kiv hvq|
/ta
nb
i
cKwZ Abyhvqx AvBWmg~nK wbgv 4wU kYxZ wef Kiv nq|

h_v:
K| Axq ev GwmwWK AvBW
L| viKxq ev ewmK AvBW
M| Dfqagx AvBW Ges
N| wbic ev ckg AvBW|
co
G Qvov cvi AvBW, mycvi AvBW, mve AvBW, cwj AvBW I hwMK ev wgk AvBW bvgi AvBW iqQ|
ok
.
1.13.5.2 avZz AvBW : avZzi mv_ AwRbi wewqvq Drcb AvBWK avZz AvBW ej| hgb: CaO,
bo
MgO, FeO, Fe2O3, ZnO, PbO, Na2O, Al2O3 BZvw`|
ce
1.13.5.3 AavZz AvBW : AavZzi mv_ AwRbi wewqvq Drcb AvBWK AavZz AvBW ej| hgb:
.fa
CO, CO2, NO, N2O3, SO2, SO3, P2O5, As2O3 BZvw`|
45
1.13.5.4 Axq ev GwmwWK AvBW : h mKj AvBW cvwbi mv_ wewqv Ki GwmW ev A Zix Ki Ges
vii mv_ wewqv Ki jeY I cvwb Zix Ki ZvìK Axq ev GwmwWK AvBW ej| mvaviYZ AavZzi
AvBWmg~n Axq ev Aagx AvBW wnmve wqv Ki|
hgb : CO2, NO2, N2O3, N2O5, SO2, SO3, P2O5 BZvw` Axq ev GwmwWK AvBWi D`vniY|
(1) NO2 Gi AagxZv : NO2 cvwbi mv_ wewqv Ki bvBwUK GwmW I bvBUvm GwmW Ges vii mv_
wewqv Ki jeY I cvwb Zix Ki| GZ cgvwbZ nq NO2 Aagx |
2NO2(g) + H2O HNO3(aq) + HNO2(aq)
2NO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) NaNO3(aq) + NaNO2(aq) + H2O(l)
(2) N2O5 Gi AagxZv t N2O5 cvwbi mv_ wewqv Ki bvBwUK GwmW Ges vii mv_ wewqv Ki jeY I
cvwb Zix Ki| GZ cgvwbZ nq N2O5 Aagx|
N2O5(s) + H2O(l) 2HNO3(aq)
N2O5(l) + 2NaOH(aq) 2NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l)
(3) SO2Gi AagxZv t SO2 cvwbi mv_ wewqv Ki mvjwdDivm GwmW Ges vii mv_ wewqv Ki jeY I
cvwb Zix Ki| GZ cgvwbZ nq SO2 Aagx|
SO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO3(aq) + H2O(l)
(4) SO3Gi AagxZv t SO3 cwbi mv_ wewqv Ki mvjwdDwiK GwmW Ges vii mv_ wewqv Ki jeY I
cvwb Zix Ki| GZ cgvwbZ nq SO3 Aagx|
SO3(g) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
(5) P2O5 Gi AagxZv t P2O5 Vvv cvwbi mv_ wewqv Ki gUv dmdwiK Ges Mig cvwbi mv_ wewqv
Ki A_v dmdwiK GwmW Zix Ki|
P2O5(s) + H2O(l) 2HPO3(l)
P2O5(s) + 3H2O(l) 2H3PO4(l)

Avevi, P2O5vii mv_ wewqv Ki jeY I cvwb Zix Ki| GZ cgvwbZ nq P2O5 Aagx|
P2O5(s) + 2NaOH(aq) 2NaPO3(l) + H2O(l) [ kxZj Aevq ]
P2O5(s) + 6NaOH(aq) 2Na3PO4(s) + 3H2O(l) [ Mig Aevq ]
1.13.5.5 viKxq ev ewmK AvBW t h mKj AvBW cvwbi mv_ wewqv Ki viK Zix Ki Ges
GwmWi mv_ wewqv Ki jeY I cvwb Zix Ki ZvìK viKxq ev ewmK AvBW ej| mvaviYZ avZzi
AvBWmg~n viKxq ev ewmK AvBW wnmve wqv Ki|
hgb : CaO, Na2O, MgO, K2O BZvw` viKxq ev ewmK AvBWi D`vniY|
viKxq AvBWi ewk njv- Gì AbK cvwbi mv_ wewqv Ki vi Zix Ki Ges GwmWi mv_ wewqv
Ki jeY I cvwb Zix Ki|
Na2O + H2O 2NaOH(vi) ; Na2O + 2HCl 2NaCl + H2O
CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2
; CaO + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O
1.13.5.6 Dfqagx AvBW:
h mKj AvBW Kvb wewqvq GwmW Ges Kvb wewqvq viK wnmve
wqv Ki A_vr h mKj AvBW cwieki cwZ GwmW I viK Dfqic wewqv Ki ZvìK Dfqagx
AvBW ej| hgb: Al2O3, ZnO, PbO, SnO BZvw` Dfqagx AvBWi D`vniY|
46
(1) Al2O3 Gi Dfqagx AvBW wnmve wqv t Al2O3, HCl-GwmWK ckwgZ Ki jeY I cvwb Zix
Ki| G Al2O3 viK wnmve wqv Ki|
6HCl + Al2O3 2AlCl3 + 3H2O [ Al2O3 viK ]
Avevi-Al2O3, vi NaOH K ckwgZ Ki jeY I cvwb Zix Ki| G Al2O3 GwmW wnmve wqv Ki|
Al2O3 + 2NaOH 2NaAlO2 + H2O [ Al2O3 GwmW ]
(2) ZnO Gi Dfqagx AvBW wnmve wqv t ZnO, HCl-GwmWK ckwgZ Ki jeY I cvwb Zix Ki|
G ZnO viK wnmve wqv Ki|
2HCl + ZnO ZnCl2 + H2O [ ZnOviK ]
Avevi- ZnO vi NaOH K ckwgZ Ki jeY I cvwb Zix Ki| G ZnO GwmW wnmve wqv Ki|
ZnO + 2NaOH Na2ZnO2 + H2O [ZnO GwmW ]
(3) PbO Gi Dfqagx AvBW wnmve wqv t PbO , HCl-GwmWK ckwgZ Ki jeY I cvwb Zix Ki|
G PbO viK wnmve wqv Ki|
2HCl + PbO PbCl2 + H2O [ PbO viK ]
Avevi- PbO vi NaOH K ckwgZ Ki jeY I cvwb Zix Ki| G PbO GwmW wnmve wqv Ki|
PbO + 2NaOH 2Na2PbO2 + H2O [ PbO GwmW ]
1.13.5.7 wbic ev ckg AvBW t
h mKj AvBW GwmW ev viK KvbwUi mv_B wewqv Ki bv
Z_v hviv Kvb GwmwWK ev viK ag `Lvq bv ZvìK wbic ev ckg AvBW ej| hgb: CO, N2O, NO,
H2O BZvw` ckg ev wbic AvBWi D`vniY|
1.13.6.0 cviAvBW t h mKj AvBW mvaviY Axq ev viKxq AvBW Acv AwaK cwigvb AwRb
hy _vK Ges LwbR GwmWi mv_ wewqv Ki nvBWvRb cviAvBW Zix Ki ZvìK cvi AvBW ej| hgb:
Na2O2, BaO2 BZvw` |
BaO2 + 2HCl BaCl2 + H2O2
1.13.6.1 cwjAvBW t h mKj AvBW mvaviY Axq ev viKxq AvBW Acv AwaK cwigvb AwRb
hy _vK Ges LwbR GwmWi mv_ wewqv Ki nvBWvRb cviAvBW Zix Ki bv ZvìK cwj AvBW ej|
hgb: MnO2, PbO2 BZvw` |
PbO2 + 4HCl PbCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2
1.13.6.2 mycvi AvBW t
r.e
bo
ok
h mKj AvBW cwj AvBW Acv AwaK cwigvb AwRb hy _vK

ZvìK mycvi AvBW ej| hgb: KO2 BZvw` |
PbO2 + 4HCl PbCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2
1.13.6.3 wgk AvBW t
/ta
nb
i
h mKj AvBW GKB gji `ywU wfb RviYvevq weivRgvb AvBWi mg^q
MwVZ nq ZvìK wgk AvBW ev hwMK AvBW ej| hgb: divmv dwiK AvBW (Fe3O4) GKwU wgk ev
hwMK AvBW| GwU divm AvBW (FeO) I dwiK AvBW(Fe2O3) Gi mg^q MwVZ|
Fe3O4 = FeO.Fe2O3 ; iW AvvBW (Pb3O4)wgk AvBW | Pb3O4= 2PbO.PbO2
co
1.13.7.0 AvBWi iZ/eenvi
.fa
ce
bo
ok
.
AvBWmg~ni ewe` eenvi iqQ|

1 | gvSvix mwq avZzi AvBW hgb: gvMbUvBU (Fe3O4), ngv&UvBU (Fe2O3.xH2O), evBU
(Al2O3.2H2O) , vgvBU(FeO.Cr2O3), wRsKvBU (ZnO) BZvw` AvBWjv mswk avZzi AvKwiK
wnmve eeZ nq| Gme AvKwiK nZ Kveb weRviY cwqvq avZz wbvlY Kiv nq|
2 | Al2O3 _gvBU cwZZ avZz Rvov `qvi KvR eeZ nq|
3 | Avjywgwbqvgi AvBWmg~n iZ cv_i hgb-bxjv cv_i ev Shaphire(mvgvb cwigvb Fe3O4 I TiO2
eRvjhy Al2O3),iwe(Ruby)cv_i(mvgvb cwigvb Cr2O3 eRvjhy Al2O3)
4 | wKQz avZz AvBW hgb: ZnO, Fe2O3, PbO,Pb2O3,Pb3O4 BZvw` is ZixZ eeZ nq|
47
5 | PbO2 jW mqK Kvl ZixZ eeZ nq|
6 | avZz wbvkb CaO I SiO2 weMvjK wnmve eeZ nq|
7 | CaO `vjvb-KvVvi PzbKvg, KwjPzb Drcv`b, cvb LvIqvi KvR, mvWv-jvBg ZixZ, wbi`K wnmve
eeZ nq|
8 | ZnO PvqwbR nvqvBU is, PgivMi gjg ev xg I cmvab KvR dm&cvDWvi wnmve Ges ùvZi wPwKrmvq
eZ nq|
9 | AavZzi AvBWjvi ga CO2Gi ewe` eenvi iqQ| CO2 WvB AvBm ZixZ, mjf cwZZ
mvWvAvm ZixZ, Kvgj cvwbq ev mvWv IqvUvi hgb-ccwm, mfbAvc, vBU BZvw` ZixZ , Avb
wbfvbvi KvR eeZ nq|
10 | SO3 I P2O5 wbi`K wnmve eeZ nq|
11 | H2O2 Gi 30% cvwbq èY (cvinvBWj) RviK, weiK I RxevbybvkK wnmve wqv Ki|
12 | nvBWvRbi iZc~Y AvBW njv cvwb(H2O)| Avgvì GB myì cw_ex I Gi RxeK~ji mw I Rxeb
aviYi g~j iqQ cvwb|
1.13.7.1 KqKwU wekl AvBW

1| iW AvBW t dwiK AvBW (Fe2O3) evRvi iW AvBW ev Ryqjvi eR ev iR cvDWvi bvg cwiwPZ|
GwU jvnvi Zix KvVvgv,ìRv-Rvbvjvi wMj BZvw`K gwiPvivax Kivi Rb iW evwYk wnmve eenvi Kiv nq| Bnv
RyqjvixZ ^YvjsKvi cwjki KvR iR cvDWvi wnmve eeZ nq| KmgwUK wnmve eeZ fbmxq iW
bvgi jvj is ZixZ dwiK AvBW eeZ nq|
2| wR AvBW t ZnO PvqwbR nvqvBU bvg mv`v is wnmve eeZ nq| GwU Pg ivMi gjg ev xg ZixZ
I cmvab KvR dmcvDWvi wnmve Ges ùvZi wPwKrmvq wdjvi wnmve eZ nq|
3| jW AvBW ev wj_vR t jW gbvvBW (PbO)K wj_vR ev gvwmKU ej| GwU wd KvP, Gbvgj KvwUs,
is I evwbk ZixZ eeZ nq|
4| iW jW ev wgwbqvg t UvB cvw^K UUvvBW(Pb3O4)K iW jW ev wgwbqvg ej| GwU wmu`yi I jvj is
wnmve , wdU KuvP I w`qvkjvB ZixZ eeZ nq|
5| gvMbwmqv ev gvMbwmqvg AvBW t GwU AwMmn BU,zwmej ZixZ; wPwKrmv wg Ae gvMbwmqv
A bvkK(GUvwmW), jwUf(Rvjvc)Ila wnmve eeZ nq| Avm&emi mv_ Zvc AcwievnK wnmve
gvMbwmqvg AvBW eeZ nq|
6| wmwjKv t wmwjKv (SiO2 )GKwU iZc~Y AavZz AvBW| avZz wbvkb wekl Ki Kcvi gvU _K wevi
Kcvi Drcv`b wmwjKv weMvjK wnmve eeZ nq| KuvP wki cavb KvPvgvj njv wmwjKv | GRb wmwjKvK KuvP
evwj ej|
7| Kveb gbvvBW(CO)t CO ckg wK wRviYagx Mvm| Achv evq~Z Kveb I nvBWvKvebi `nbi dj
CO Mvm Zix nq| weRviY agx ej CO ek mwq I welv| wewo-wmMviU, hvwK hvb-evnb I Kj KviLvbvi
auvqvq CO we`gvb _vK| CO eYnxb I Mnxb Mvm ej Gi DcwwZ Ui cvIqv hvq bv| ZvB mevi ARv CO
ckv mi Z_v kvm MnYi mv_ kixii Afi XyK ii wngvMvwebi mv_ wewqv Ki RwUj hM MVb Ki Ges
ii AwRb cwienb gZvK enZ Ki| dj gvbe `n kvmK `Lv `q | `xN w`b hveZ ev AwaK cwigvb
CO Mvm kvm wbj ìvM I kvmK ivM gvbyl gviv hvq| Gme KviY CO K bxie NvZK ev Silent
killerej|
mvjdvi (Sulfur)
1.14.0 cwiwPwZ t
KZvcgvvq mvjdvi big I fyi GKwU nvjKv njy` KwVb

c`v_| GwU GKwU eicx gj| Gi icf` jvi ga iwK mvjdvi mePq
wwZkxj| 1777 Lxv Avb&Ubx jvfqwmq (Antoine Lavoisier)mvjdvi hM
bq eis GwU GKwU gwjK c`v_ Zv cgvb Kib| 1867 Lxv hy ivi
jywmqvbvq jeY Lwbi kwgKiv mvjdvi AvweKvi Kib| KwVb mvjdvi mvaviYZ
PvKvi gyKzU AvKwZi A cigvbyK (S8) Aby wnmve weivR Ki|
[Crown-shaped S8 Aby ]
48
1.14.1 mvjdvii Drm t hyiv, B`vbwmqv, Rvcvb, wmwmwj,gvwKv cfwZ `k AvMqwMwi Aji LwbZ
ev f~-Mf gwjK mvjdvi cvIqv hvq| mvaviYZ cKwZKfve hM wnmve weivRgvb mvjdvi Drmjv njv (K) mvjdvBW LwbR t AvqibwcivBU-FeS2, wmbevi(cinnabar)-HgS,
Mvjbv(galena) PbS, wRsKe (sphalerite) -ZnS,
Kcvi wcivBU-CuFeS2 ,webvBU (stibnite)-Sb2S3 BZvw`|
(L) mvjdU LwbR t wRcmvg(gypsum)-CaSO4.2H2O , eivBU(barite)-BaSO4 ,
Bcmg jeY-MgSO4.7H2O BZvw`|
1.14.2 mvjdvi wbvlY

mvjdvi cavbZ `ywU Dcvq wbvkb Kiv nq| Gì GKwU njv wmwmwjqvb cwZ Ges AciwU njv dvm cwZ|
BUvwji wmwmwjZ AvMqwMwi Aj cv AvMq wkjvmg~n cPzi mvjdvi _vK| wmwmwjqvb cwZZ AvMqwMwi
Aj Lwb nZ mvjdvihy wkjvmg~n msMn Ki cvnvox Xvjy Aj BU wbwgZ PzwjZ cvKvi Rgv Ki cyovbv nq|
dj wkjvq we`gvb mvjdvi Mj Mwoq wbPz Ask w`q ewoq Avm| MwjZ mvjdviK KvVi ev fi msMn Kiv
nq|
(Z evq~)
(MwjZ
dvm cwZZ mvjdvi wbvkYt 1894 mvj Rvgvb Rb MnYKvix
mvjdvi)
AvgwiKvb imvqbwe` Herman Frasch mec_g f~-Mf _K mvjdvi (AwZZ
Drcv`b cwqv Dveb Kib| G KviY GB cwZZ mvjdvi wbvkb cvwb ev)
cwqvK dvm cwZ(Frasch process) ev jywmqvbv cwZ ej| 1903 mvj
jywmqvbvq dvm cwZZ A_bwZK jvfRbKfve mvjdvi Lwb _K mvjdvi
Drcv`b i nq| dvm cwZZ wZbwU wfb evmi GKKw`K wj cvBcK
f~-Mfi h i mvjdvi iqqQ ZvZ cek Kivbv nq| mePq gvUv
bjwUi wbP w`K wQ`hy _vK| gvUv bjwUi ga w`q 1800C Zvcgvvq
AwZZ cvwbev cvq 10 atm. Pvc mvjdvi eW Pvjbv Kiv nq| mvjdvii
MjbvsK (115.21C) cvwbi zUbvsK (100C) Acv mvgvb ewk ej
PvjbvKZ Mig cvwbi cfve mvjdvi eW we`gvb KwVb mvjdvi Mj Zij
mvjdvi cwibZ nq| GKB mgq wfZii mi bjwU w`q DP Pvc Mig evq~ (mvjdvi
Pvjbv Kiv nq| dj gvSi bjwU w`q ei nq Avmv Da g~Lx evq~ eW)
cevni mv_ MwjZ mvjdvi dbv AvKvi f~-Mf _K ei nq Avm| dvm [wP t 1.15 dvm cwZZ mvjdvi wbvkY ]
cwZZ cvq 99.5% we mvjdvi cvIqv hvq|
1.14.3 mvjdvii eenvi t

mvjdvii ewe` eenvi iqQ| mvjwdDwiK GwmWi evwbwRK Drcv`b mvjdvi eeZ nq| w`qvkjvB I evi`
ZixZ mvjdvi eeZ nq| Jla wk mvjdvWvM hgb : mvjdvwbjvgvBW, mvjdvbvgvBW BZvw` cwZZ mvjdvi
eeZ nq| SO2 I CS2 cwZZ Ges iqb wk mvjdvi eeZ nq|
1.14.4 mvjdvii eicZv t
r.e
bo
ok
Kvb gji cKwZZ wewfb fZvevq weivR Kivi agK eicZv ej| h me gj ecZv ag `Lvq ZvìK
eicx gj ej| Kvb eicx gji GK GKwU fZvevK Gi GK GKwU icf` ev allotrope ej | mvjdvi
GKwU eicx gj| Gi 30 wUiI ewk KwVb icf` AvQ|
t iwK ev AZjKxq mvjdvi ev -mvjdvi I

gbvwKwbK ev GKvx ev -mvjdvi|
mvjdvii A`vbv`vi icf`jv njv t cvwK ev bgbxq mvjdvi ev -mvjdvi ,
[ AZjKxq mvjdvi ]
`y mvjdvi ev -mvjdvi |
[ GKvx mvjdvi ]
mvjdvii Zij icf`jv njv
t jvg&Wv ()mvjdvi I wgD () mvjdvi |
ZvQvov, KjqWvj mvjdvi bvg mvjdvii GKwU icf` AvQ|
iw^K I gbvwKwbK Dfq cKvi mvjdvii AvbweK msKZ GKB (S8) wK Gì Kjvmi MVb wfb| 95.60C Gi
wbP iw^K mvjdvi vqx nq Ges 95.60C Gi Dci gbvwKwbK mvjdvi vqx nq | iw^K I gbvwKwbK mvjdvii
gZ Zvcgvvq Dci wbfikxj eicZvK GbvbwmDUvwc(enantiotropy) ej|
0
2300C
nvjKv njy` 180 C Mvp Kgjv
Zij mvjdvi
Zij mvjdvi
0
gbvwKwbK 113 C
mvjdvi
0
iw^K 95.6 C
mvjdvi
.fa
ce
bo
ok
.
co
/ta
nb
i
mvjdvii `vbv`vi icf`jv njv
KvjP KwVb
mvjdvi
49
1.14.5 mvjdvii ag t
mvjdvi nvjKv njya KwVb c`v_| gwjK mvjdvi g`y Mhy| mvjdvi cvwbZ AèYxq wK Kveb WvB mvjdvBW
èYxq| mvjdvi evq~Z bxj wkLvmn Rj SO2 Mvm Zix Ki| mvjdvi cwieZmkxj WvRbx I RviY msLv c`kb
Ki| Gi mvaviY RviY msLv njv 2, +2, +4 Ges +6. mvjdvi wmwq
Mvm Qvov cvq mKj gji mv_ mywZ hM MVb Ki| mvjdvii GKwU ewZg ag
njv 200 0C Gi Dci GK hZB D KiZ _vKj cwjgvi MVbi KviY Gi
mv`Zv(viscosity) ew cZ _vK| 2000C Gi Dci mvjdvi KvjP jvj eY aviY
Ki| AwZ DP Zvcgvvq mvjdvii cwjgvi MVb f hvq ej cybivq Gi mv`Zv
nvm cvq| MwjZ mvjdviK `Z kxZj Kij bgbxq A`vbv`vi mvjdvi cvIqv hvq|
mvjdvii MjbvsK 115.21C.
1.14.6 mvjdvii AvBWmg~n
[ MwjZ i jvj mvjdvi I Rj mvjdvii bxj wkLv ]
mvjdvii cavb `ywU AvBW njv : mvjdvi WvB AvBW(SO2) I mvjdvi UvB AvBW (SO3)| mvjdvii Abvb
AvBWjv njv mvjdvi gbvvBW(SO),mvjdvi mmKzBvBW(S2O3), WvB mvjdvi nvvBW(S2O7) , mvjdvi
UUvvBW(SO4) |
1.14.6.1 mvjdvi WvB AvBW(SO2)

MVb t
OSO eb Kvb = 119
mvjdvi WvB AvBWi Aci bvgjv njv : mvjdvi(IV) AvBW ev mvjwdDivm AbnvBWvBW |
1.14.6.2 mvjdvi WvB AvBWi cwZ

evq~Z mvjdviK `nb Kij mvjdvi WvB AvBW Zix nq|
S8(s) + 8O2(g) 8SO2(g)
evq~Z nvBWvRb mvjdvBWK `nb KijI mvjdvi WvB AvBW Zix nq|
2H2S(g) + 3O2(g) 2H2O(g) + 2SO2(g)
MvpxKZ mvjdvBW AvKwiKmg~nK ZvcRvwiZ ev ivws Kij mvjdvi WvB AvBW Zix nq|
4FeS2(s) + 11O2 (g) 2Fe2O3(s) + 8SO2(g)
2ZnS(s) + 3O2 (g) 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)
HgS(s) + O2(g) Hg(g) + SO2(g)
1.14.6.3 mvjdvi WvB AvBWi cixvMvi cwZ

g~jbxwZ t cixvMvi D Mvp H2SO4 Gi mv_ Kcvi K~wPi wewqv NwUq SO2 Mvm Zix Kiv nq|
Cu(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O (l)
cwZi eYbv t GKwU MvjZjx dv wKQz Kcvi K~wP wbq Gi
g~L `yB wQ` wewk GKwU ivevi KKi mvnvh GKwU wbMg bj
I GKwU w_mj dvbj hy Kiv nq| dwUK v I Kvi
mvnvh GKwU wcw` vi ZviRvwji Dci emvbv nq Ges
wbMg bjwUi Lvjv cv GKwU Lvovfve ivLv MvmRvi cek
Kivbv nq| AZci, w_mj dvbji mvnvh MnxZ Kcvi K~wPi
mv_ Mvp H2SO4 hvM Ki wgkYwUK eybmb evYvii mvnvh
D Kij SO2 Mvm Drcv`b i nq| Drcvw`Z SO2 Mvm
wbMg bj w`q ei nq evq~i Da g~Lx AcmviY viv MvmRvi
Rgv nq|
wekvab : Drcb SO2 MvmK Mvp H2SO4Iqvk evZji ga
Pvjbv Ki cvwb I SO2 Mvm gy Kiv nq|
H2SO4
Cu
SO2
[ wP t 1.16 cixvMvi SO2 cwZ ]
50
1.14.6.4 mvjdvi WvB AvBWi ag t SO2 GKwU eYnxb welv Mvm| GwU cvwbZ èxf~Z nq
mvjwdDivm GwmW Zix Ki ej GK mvjwdDivm AbnvBWvBW ej| SO2 evq~ Acv 2.5 b fvix | (evq~i Av:
NbZ 14.4, SO2 Gi Av: NbZ =64/2=32)| SO2 Aagx ; GwU RviK, weRviK I weiK wnmve wqv Ki|
SO2 Gi Abyi AvKwZ euvKvbv(bent) , GwU GKwU AK mmvwiZ hM, KviY Gi AbyZ mvjdvi cigvbyi Pvi w`K
5 Rvov BjKUb iqQ|
1| SO2 Gi Aag t SO2 cvwbZ èxf~Z nq mvjwdDivm GwmW Drcb Ki| ZvB SO2 Rjxq èY bxj
wjUgvmK jvj Ki| ZvQvov, SO2 vii mv_ wewqv Ki jeY I cvwb Zix Ki| SO2 Gi Gme wewqv Gi
AZK cgvb Ki|
SO2 + H2O 2H+ + SO32- ; 2H+ + bxj wjUgvm jvj wjUgvm
SO2 + 2NaOH Na2SO3 + H2O
2| SO2 Gi weRviYag t
Av` SO2 Z_v SO2 Gi Rjxq èY weRviK wnmve wqv Ki| hgb: Av` SO2 KvwiYK weRvwiZ Ki nvBWvRb
KvivBW Ges dwiK KvBWK weRvwiZ Ki divm KvivBW cwibZ Ki|
SO2 + 2H2O + Cl2 2HCl + H2SO4
SO2 + 2H2O + 2FeCl3 2HCl + H2SO4 + 2FeCl2
3| SO2 Gi RviYag t
Zxe weRviKi mv_ wewqvi mgq SO2 RviK wnmve KvR Ki| hgb : SO2 nvBWvRb mvjdvBWK RvwiZ Ki
G _K mvjdvi wegy Ki|
SO2 + 2H2S 3S + 2H2O
4| SO2 Gi weiY ag t
SO2 cvwb wm iwOb eK weRvwiZ Ki eYnxb Ki Z_v weiwZ Ki| GLvb SO2 I cvwbi wewqvq Drcb
cvigvbweK nvBWvRb weRviY wqvq AskMnY Ki| ZvB SO2 Gi weiY wqv mb Kivi Rb cwb AvekK |
r.e
bo
ok
SO2 + 2H2O H2SO4 + 2[H] ;

iwOb e + [H] weRvwiZ eYnxb ev weiwZ e
/ta
nb
i
KvMRi g ev cv Zixi KviLvbvq SO2 weiK Z_v wewPs GRU wnmve eeZ nq| jbxq h, SO2 KZK
weiwZ eK `xN mgq hveZ Lvjv Aevq evq~Z iL w`j Zv cybivq evq~i AwRb viv RvwiZ nq eYhy nq
co| GKviY, SO2 viv weiwZ KvMRi Zix eBc cyivb nj AbKUv ev`vgx is aviY Ki|
co
1.14.6.5 mvjdvi WvB AvBWi eenvi
ce
bo
ok
.
mvjwdDwiK GwmW Drcv`b SO2 GKwU gaeZx hM wnmve KvR Ki| SO2 KvMR wk weiK wnmve eeZ
nq| Zv Qvov ci GjvKvq cvwb kvabvMvi KvwiY viv cwikvwaZ cvwb(KvwibUW cvwb) nZ AwZwi KvwiY `yi
KiZ SO2 eeZ nq|
SO2 + Cl2 SO2Cl2 (sulfuryl chloride)
.fa
SO2 Gi Rxevbybvkb ag iqQ ej GwU mnbxq gvvq E220 bvg wcRvifwUf wnmve k~ dj, bvmcvwZ BZvw`
msiY I IqvBb ZixZ eeZ nq| mnR Zijxf~Z nq Ges evxfebi wjbZvc ewk ej SO2 evwoNi eei
wiwdRviUi wngvqK Zij wnmve eeZ nq|
51
1.14.6.6 mvjdvi UvB AvBW(SO3)

cwiwPwZ t mvjdvi UvB AvBW GKwU cej cvwbMvmx KwVb c`v_ | GwU wewfb cwjgvwiK Aevq weivR Ki| 170C
MjbvsK wewk mvjdvi UvB AvBWi GKwU KwVbvev njv SO3 Gi UvBgvi Z_v (SO3)3|
MVbt
( SO3)
[(SO3 )3 Gi PvwK KvVvgv ]
cwZ t SO2 I O2 Mvm wgkYK 400-5000C Zvcgvvq D cvwUbvg AvmemUm cfveKi Dci w`q Pvjbv
Kij SO3 Gi mv`v auvqv Zix nq| Drcb MvmK eid kxZj wgkYi mvnvh Vvv Kij SO3 Gi m~Pvjv
Kjvm cvIqv hvq|
Pt,4000 C
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
ag t SO3 GKwU Aagx AvBW| GwU cwbZ èxf~Z nq mvjwdDwiK GwmW Zix Ki ej GK mvjwdDwiK
AbnvBWvBW ej| GwU viKi mv_ wewqv Ki mvjdU MVb Ki|
SO3(g) + CaO(s) CaSO4(aq)
SO3(g) + NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
SO3 , H2SO4 G èxf~Z nq cvBivmvjwdDwiK GwmW(H2S2O7) ev Iwjqvg MVb Ki| IwjqvgK Lvjv Aevq
iL w`j G _K SO3 Gi mv`v auvqv ei nZ _vK| GRb Iwjqvgi AviK bvg njv wdDwgs ev aygvqgvb
mvjwdDwiK GwmW|
SO3(g) + H2SO4(l) H2S2O7(l)
[ H2S2O7 = H2SO4.SO3 ]
SO3 Gi RviY ag t SO3 GKwU kwkvjx RviYgx AvBW| GwU Mvp H2SO4 Gi Abyic RviY ag `Lvq| hgb SO3 nvBWvRb AvqvWvBW K RvwiZ Ki G _K AvqvwWb wegy Ki|
nvBWvRb mvjdvBW(H2S)
1.15.0 cwiwPwZ
nvBWvRb mvjdvBW mvjdvii GKwU iZc~Y nvBWvBW| GwU eYnxb I cuPv wWgi Mwewk, SvSvjv welv Mvm|
Gi wewfb bvg iqQ ; hgb- mvjwdDiUW nvBWvRb, nvBWv mvjwdDwiK GwmW, mvjdb(sulfane), wmDqvi
Mvm(sewer gas), iUb GBM Mvm | Gi NbZ 1.363 g/L, gvjvi fi 34.082 g/mol , Mjbvq I zUbvsK
h_vg -82.30 C I -60.28 C| GwU cvwbZ A cwigvb èYxq [ 0.4 g/100 mL (20 C) 0.25 g/100
mL (40 C)]|
AvbweK MVbt Abyi AvKwZ euvKv(bent),H-S-H ebKvb 92.10 ; S-H eb `N 133.6pm
1.15.1 H2S Gi cw Z
avZe mvjdvBWi mv_ cvwb ev RviYagx bq Ggb GwmWi jNy èYi wewqvq H2S Zix nq| hgb :
Al2S3(s) + H2O(l) H2S(g) + Al2O3(s)
FeS(s) + HCl(aq) H2S(g) + FeCl2(aq)
FeS(s) + H2SO4(dil.) H2S(g) + FeSO4(aq)
jYxq h,avZe mvjdvBWi mv_ Mvp H2SO4 ev HNO3 Gi wewqv viv H2S Zix Kiv hvq bv | Gi KviY njv
Mvp H2SO4 ev HNO3 RviK wnmve wqv Ki| Mvp H2SO4 ev HNO3 DcwwZZ wewqvq Drcb H2S
weRviK wnmve wqv Ki; dj H2S RvwiZ nq mvjdvi cwibZ nq ; H2S Gi cwieZ mvjdvi Aa:w nq|
52
hgb- FeS Gi mv_ Mvp H2SO4 Gi wewqvq Drcb H2S MvmK AwZwi Mvp H2SO4 RvwiZ Ki mvjdvi
cwibZ Ki| dj H2S Gi cwieZ SO2 Mvm I mvjdvi Aa:w nq|
FeS(s) + H2SO4(conc.) H2S(g) + FeSO4(aq)
H2SO4(conc.) SO2(g) + H2O(l) + [O]
H2S(g) + [O] H2O(l) + S(s)
bxU wewqv t FeS(s) + 2H2SO4(conc.) FeSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + SO2(g) + S(s)
GKBfve, FeS Gi mv_ HNO3Gi wewqvq Drcb H2S MvmK AwZwi HNO3 RvwiZ Ki mvjdvi cwibZ
Ki| dj H2S Gi cwieZ NO2 Mvm I mvjdvi Aa:w nq|
FeS(s) + 2HNO3(conc.) H2S(g) + Fe(NO3)2 (aq)
2HNO3(conc.) 2NO2(g) + H2O(l) + [O]
H2S(g) + [O] H2O(l) + S(s)
bxU wewqv t FeS(s) + 4HNO3(conc.) Fe(NO3)2 (aq) + 2H2O(l) +2NO2(g) + S(s)
1.15.2 cixvMvi H2S Mvm cwZ I Gi gvMZ mieivn

g~jbxwZt cixvMvi divm mvjdvBW(FeS) I Vvv I jNy H2SO4 wewqv NwUq H2S Mvm Zix Kiv nq|
FeS(s) + H2SO4(dil.) H2S(g) + FeSO4(aq)
cixvMvi ARe jeYi bMZ weklY H2S Mvm viKxq g~jKi Mc wbaviY Myc weKviK wnmve eeZ nq|
G KviY cixvMvi H2S Mvmi gvMZ mieivni cqvRb nq| Dcihy g~jbxwZ Abyhvqx cixvMvi mvaviYZ
wKc h ev wKc RbviUi eenvi Ki H2S Mvm gvMZfve mieivn Kiv nq|
wKc hi MVb t wKc hwU wZbwU Lvovfve mwZ MvjKi mg^q MwVZ
w_mj dvbj
KuvPh | DveK Petrus Jacobus Kipp Gi bvgvbymvi Gi bvg Kipp's

apparatus ivLv nqQ| wbPi MvjKwU PvvZjx| GwU H2SO4 Gi Avavi
wnmve KvR Ki| gvSi I wbPi MvjKq vqxfve mshyvevq _vK|
gvSi MvjKwU FeS evi I wewqvq Drcb H2S Mvmi Avavi wnmve KvR
Ki ; GZ GKwU cKK& hy wbMg bj jvMvbv _vK| cqvRb Abyhvqx
cKKwU Nywiq H2S Mvm cevn bqv hvq ev e Kiv hvq| Dcii MvjKwUi
wbP w`K j^v I gk myi bjhy| Dcii MvjKwUK gvSi MvjKi gyL
evq~ivax fve vcb Kiv nq| Dcii MvjKwUi j^v bjwU wbPi MvjKi cvq
Zjv ch cQvbv _vK ; Dcii MvjKwU H2S Mvm wbMg bji cKK&
e _vKv Aevq H2SO4 Gi Avavi wnmve KvR Ki |
cKK&
ok
(e Aev)
r.e
bo
H2S Mvm
FeS evi
wKc hi Kvhcbvjx t gvSi MvjKwUZ FeS evi wbq w_mj dvbji
.fa
ce
bo
ok
.
co
/ta
nb
i
jNy H2SO4
gvag jNy H2SO4 viv wbPi MvjKwU c~Y Ki gvSi MvjKi FeS evimg~n
wbgwZ Kiv gv wewqv i nq | wewqvq Drcb H2S Mvm gvSi MvjK [wP t 1.17 Kipp's apparatus ]
Rgv nZ _vK Ges Mvmi Pvc ew cj Zv wbMg bj w`q ewiq Avm| GLb eenviKvix H2S Mvm eenvi kl
wbMg bji cKK&wU Nywiq e Ki w`j gvSi MvjKwUZ Drcb H2S Mvm Rgv nq cwigvb ew cZ _vK|
H2S Mvmi cwigvb ewi mv_ PvcI ew cZ _vK| GK mgq DP Pvc gvSi MvjKi H2SO4 wbPi MvjK
bg hvq Ges bj w`q Dcii MvjK cek Ki| dj FeS evi I H2SO4 msk enZ nq Ges wewqv e
nq hvq| Avevi,cKK&wU Nywiq H2S Mvm cevn,bqv gv gvSi MvjK H2S Mvmi Pvc nvm cvq ; dj Dcii
MvjK _K H2SO4 wbPi MvjK c~Y Ki gvSi MvjK cek Ki FeS evi Gi msk Avm Ges cybivq
wewqv i nq| Gfve wKc h H2S Mvmi mieivn wbj wewqv PjZ _vK Ges mieivn e Kij wewqv
_g hvq|
53
1.15.3 H2S Gi ivmvqwbK ag

1.15.3.1 H2S Gi A ag t H2S GKwU `yej ev g`y GwmW| g`y ej GwU KvebU jeY ev evB KvebU
jeYi mv_ wewqv Ki CO2 Mvm
wegy KiZ cvi bv| H2S cvwbq èY mvgvb cwigvb weqvwRZ nq H+ Avqb `q evj Gi cvwbq èY g`y A
ev GwmW wnmve wqv Ki| GwmW agi KviY H2S K nvBWv mvjwdDwiK GwmW ejv nq| H2S Gi wbgv
agjv Gi AZK cgvb Ki|
1| H2S Gi cvwbq èY bxj wjUgvmK jvj Ki|
H2S(g) + H2O(l) H2O+ (aq) + HS (aq) ;
bxj wjUgvm + H2O+(aq) jvj wjUgvm + H2O
2| H2S viKi mv_ wewqv Ki jeY I cvwb Zix Ki|
H2S(g) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2S(aq) + 2H2O(l)
1.15.3.2 H2S Gi weRviY ag t

H2S GKwU Zxe weRviY agx hM| Dchy RviKi DcwwZZ H2S weRviK wnmve wqv Ki| H2S RviKK
nvBWvRb mieivn Ki weRvwiZ Ki Ges cvkvcvwk wbR RviK viv RvwiZ nq gwjK mvjdvi cwibZ nq|
hgb1| H2S KvwiYK weRvwiZ Ki HCl G cwibZ Ki Ges wbR KvwiY viv RvwiZ nq S-G cwibZ nq|
H2S(g) + Cl2 (g) 2HCl(g) + S(s)
2| H2S, FeCl3 K weRvwiZ Ki FeCl2 G cwibZ Ki Ges wbR FeCl3 viv RvwiZ nq S-G cwibZ nq|
H2S(g) + 2FeCl3(aq) 2FeCl2(aq) + S(s) + 2HCl(aq)
3| H2S, HNO3 K weRvwiZ Ki NO2 Mvm cwibZ Ki Ges wbR HNO3 viv RvwiZ nq S-G cwibZ nq|
H2S(g) + 2HNO3(aq) 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + S(s)
1.15.3.3 H2S Gi Aatcb wewqv I eenvi t

ivmvqb jveviUwiZ H2S GKwU iZc~Y AatcY weKviK(reagent) wnmve eeZ nq| ARe jeYi bMZ
weklY jeYi viKxq g~jKi ev KvUvqbi Mc wbaviY Mc-II I Mc-IIIB Gi Mc weKviK wnmve H2S Mvm
eeZ nq|
Mc-II Gi KvUvqb ev viKxq g~jK(hgb- Cu2+, Pb2+, Hg2+, As3+,Sb3+, Sn2+ ) wewk jeYi èYK mvgvb
jNy HCl hvM Axq Ki GZ H2S Mvm Pvjbv Kij Kvjv ev eYhy mvjdvBW jeY Aatw nq|
H
Cu2+(aq) + H2S(g) CuS(s)+2H+(aq) [ CuS Gi Kvjv Aatc ]
H
Pb2+(aq) + H2S(g) PbS(s) +2H+(aq) [ PbS Gi Kvjv Aatc ]
Mc-IIIB Gi KvUvqb ev viKxq g~jK(hgb- Zn2+, Ni2+, Mn2+, Co2+ ) wewk jeYi èYK NH4OH hvM
vixq Ki GZ H2S Mvm Pvjbv Kij eYhy mvjdvBW jeY(ZnS-mv`v, NiS,CoS-Kvjv, MnS-Mvjvcx
Aatc) Aatw nq|
Zn2+ Avqbhy jebi wewqvwU wbgic NU
2NH4OH(aq) + H2S(g) (NH4)2S(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Zn2+(aq) + (NH4)2S(aq) ZnS(s) +2NH4+(aq) [ ZnS Gi mv`v Aatc ]
Zn2+(aq) + 2NH4OH(aq) + H2S(g) ZnS(s) +2NH4+(aq) + 2H2O(l)
jbxq h, Mc-II Gi KvUvqb ev viKxq g~jK wewk jeYi mv_ H2S Gi Aatcb wewqvi jeYi
èYK mvgvb jNy HCl GwmW hvM Axq Ki bqvi KviY njv Axq cwiek AwZwi H+ Avqbi cfve H2S
weqvRb gvv nvm cvq ; dj èY S2- Avqbi Nbgvv nvm cvq| èY 0.3M HCl èY hvM Kij wewqv
54
wgkY S Avqbi Nbgvvi h gvb cvIqv hvq ZvZ aygv Mc-II Gi KvUvqbhy mvjdvBW Aatw nq wK
Mc-IIIB Gi KvUvqbjv èY èxf~Z Aevq _K hvq|
2-
H2S(aq) 2H+(aq) + S2(aq) ;

H2S Gi weqvRb aeK, K a
[H ]2 [S2 ]
1.110 22
[H 2S]
ev, [H ]2 [S2 ] 1.1 1022 [H 2S]

Mc-II Gi KvUvqbhy mvjdvBWmg~ni `veZv bdji gvb Mc-IIIB Gi KvUvqbhy mvjdvBWmg~ni `veZv
bdji gvb Acv Kg Z_v cwbZ Mc-II Gi KvUvqbhy mvjdvBWmg~n Mc-IIIB Gi KvUvqbhy mvjdvBW
Acv Kg èYxq| GB KviY wewqv wgkY S2- Avqbi Nbgvv m nj aygv Mc-II Gi KvUvqbhy
mvjdvBW Aatw nq |
Avevi, Mc-IIIB Gi KvUvqbhy mvjdvBWmg~ni `veZv bdji gvb ek DP| GìK Aa:w Kivi Rb
jeYi èYK NH4Cl I NH4OH hvM Ki vixq Ki GZ H2S Mvm Pvjbv Kiv nq| G wewqv wgkYK
NH4OH vixq Kivi KviY wgkY H+ Avqbi Nbgvv nvm cvq | dj H2S weqvRb gvv ew cq èY S2Avqbi Nbgvv eo hvq|
H2S(aq) 2H+(aq) + S2(aq) ;
2H+(aq) + OH(aq) H2O(l)
hLb wewqv wgkY S2- Avqbi Nbgvv eo D mvjdvBmg~ni `veZv bdji gvbK AwZg Ki ZLbB Giv
Aatw nq|
1.15.3.4 H2S Gi KqKwU Aatcb wewqv

1| jW jeYi mv_ H2S Gi Aa:cY wewqv t jW jeYi èYK jNy HNO3 GwmW hvM Axq Ki GZ
H2S Mvm Pvjbv Kij jW mvjdvBWi Kvjv Aa:c co|
H
Pb2+(aq) + H2S(g) PbS(s) +2H+(aq)
H
hgb: Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2S(g) PbS(s) +2HNO3 (aq)
ok
2| Kcvi(II)jeYi mv_ H2S Gi Aa:cY wewqv t Kcvi(II)jeYi èYK jNy HCl GwmW hvM Axq Ki
GZ H2S Mvm Pvjbv Kij Kcvi(II)mvjdvBWi Kvjv Aa:c co|
H
Cu2+(aq) + H2S(g) CuS(s) +2H+(aq)
H
hgb: CuSO4(aq) + H2S(g) CuS(s) +2H2SO4 (aq)
/ta
nb
i
r.e
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3| wRsK jeYi mv_ H2S Gi Aa:cY wewqv t wRsK jeYi èYK NH4Cl I NH4OH hvM vixq Ki
GZ H2S Mvm Pvjbv Kij wRsK mvjdvBWi mv`v Aa:c co|
Zn2+(aq) +2NH4OH + H2S(g) ZnS(s) +2NH4+(aq) +H2O(l)
hgb: ZnSO4(aq) +2NH4OH + H2S(g) ZnS(s) + (NH4)2SO4(aq) +H2O(l)
1.15.3.5 H2S Gi DcwwZ mbvKiY t
ok
.
co
H2S Mvmi SuvSvjv I cuPv wWgi M iqQ| jW AvwmUU èY H2S Mvm Pvjbv Kij jW mvjdvBWi
Kvjv Aatc co| A_ev, H2S Mvm jWAvwmUU wm KvMR cek Kivj Zv Kvjv eY aviY Ki|
Pb(CH3COO)2(aq) + H2S(g) PbS(s) +2CH3COOH(aq)
ce
bo
1.15.3.6 èY S2- Avqbi DcwwZ mbvKiY

cixv t mvjdvBW jeYi mv_ jNy H2SO4 hvM Kij SuvSvjv I cuPv wWgi M wewk Mvm wbMZ nq
.fa
hvZ jW AvwmUU wm KvMR cek Kivj Zv Kvjv eY aviY Ki|
S2-(s) + H2SO4(dil.) H2S(g) + SO42Pb(CH3COO)2(aq) + H2S(g) PbS(s)(Kvjv) +2CH3COOH(aq)

55
wm cixv t mvjdvBW jeYK NaOH èY hvM èxf~Z I vixq Ki GZ KqK duvUv bvBUv cmvBW èY
hvM Kij ebx ev Mvjvcx eYi èY Zix nq|
S2-(s) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2S(aq) + 2OH(aq)
Na2S(aq) + Na2[Fe(NO)(CN)5] Na4[Fe(NOS)(CN)5] (ebx)
[ mvwWqvg cUv mvqvbv mvjdv bvBUvmv diU(II) ]
1.16.0 mvjdvii Aw GwmW

mvjdvii AwGwmWjv njvmvjwdDivm GwmW(H2SO3),
mvjwdDwiK GwmW(H2SO4)
_vqv mvjwdDwiK GwmW(H2S2O3)
cvBiv mvjwdDwiK GwmW(H2S2O7)
cvi mvjwdDwiK GwmW (H2S2O8)
mvjwdDwiK GwmW(H2SO4)
1.16.1 cwiwPwZ
mvjwdDwiK GwmW GKwU kwkvjx qKviK LwbR GwmW| Zxe cvwb Mvmx I mwq ej GwU evq~i Rjxq ev I
Abvb Dcv`vb viv Avv nq Ges wevevq _vK bv| we H2SO4 mQ ,eYnxb I Mwenxb AvVvjv Zij|
GwU cwbZ h Kvb Nbgvvq èYxq| Gi NbZ 1.84 g/cm3 , MjbvsK I zUbvsK h_vg 10 C I 337 C|
H2SO4 Abyi MVb t

[ mvjwdDwiK GwmW H-eb ]
Ag kZvxZ gymwjg ivmvqbwe` I Avj&Kwg Jabir ibn Hayyan H2SO4
Avwevi Kib| beg kZvxZ cvwmqvb wPwKrmK I Avj&Kwg Ibn Zakariya
al-Razi wewfb wfwUIj weklKi meyR wfwUIj(FeSO47H2O) I ey-wfwUIj
(CuSO45H2O) Gi cvwbq èYK cvZb Ki H2SO4 cZ Kib|
FeSO 7H O cvZb
FeO + H SO + 6H O
4
cvZb
CuSO45H2O
CuO + H2SO4 + 4H2O
BDivwcqvb Avj& KwgMY H2SO4K Aqj Ae wfwUIj ev wwiU Ae wfwUIj ejZb| Latin k vitreus
(glass) nZ vitriol kwU D~Z| hv viv KuvP m`k Av` mvjdU jeYmg~nK evSvq| Avj& KwgMYi eeZ
wfwUIjmg~ni iZ wePvi ZrKvj wfwUIjK `vkwbKi cv_i(philosopher's stone) ejv nZv|
1.16.2 H2SO4 Gi wkvrcv`b

18 kZvxZ alchemical cwZZ cvBivBU (FeS2)AvKwiKK cvZb Ki H2SO4 cZ Kiv nq| G
AvqiY cvBivBUK evq~Z ZvcRvwiZ Ki Fe2(SO4)3 Zix Kiv nq Ges Drcb Fe2(SO4)3K 480 C Zvcgvvq
ZvcwehvwRZ Ki Fe2O3 I SO3 Mvm cwibZ Kiv nq| AZci SO3 MvmK cvwbZ kvwlZ Ki h Kvb
Nbgvvi H2SO4 Zix Kiv nq|
FeS2 + 3O2(air)
FeSO4 + SO2 ;
2FeSO4 + SO2 + O2(air)

Fe2(SO4)3
2Fe2(SO4)3 2Fe2O3 + 6SO3 ; SO3 + H2O H2SO4

H2SO4 Gi wkvrcv`bi Abvb cwZjv njv : P^vi ev cKv cwZ Ges KbUv ev k cwZ|
56
1.16.3 P^vi cwZZ H2SO4 Gi wkvrcv`b

1746 mvj evwgsnvg John Roebuck jW cKv cwZZ( lead chamber process) H2SO4 Gi wkvrcv`b
i Kib | cieZxZ dv Kwg Rvmd-jyBm-M jymvK I wewUm Kwg John Glover jW cKv cwZK
msvi Ki Gi mvnvh 78% H2SO4 cZ KiZ mg nb|
KuvPvgvj t gwjK mvjdvi(S8), wcivBU AvKwiK(FeS2) ,wPwj mwcUvi (NaNO3) , cvwb , evq~ |
g~jbxwZ t evq~ cevn gwjK mvjdviK cywoq Ges wcivBU AvKwiKK ZvcRvwiZ Ki SO2 Mvm Zix Kiv nq|
S8(s) + 8O2(air) 8SO2(g)
3FeS2 (s) + 8O2(air) Fe3O4(s) + 6SO2(g)
Mvp H2SO4 Gi DcwwZZ wPwj mwcUvi ev bvBUviK D Ki NO2 Mvm Zix Kiv nq|
2NaNO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + 2HNO3(g)
4HNO3(g)
4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
Drcb Mvm wgkYK wewqv cKv cvwbZ èxf~Z Kij NO2 I H2O Gi wewqvq bvBUvm GwmW I bvBwUK
GwmW Zix nq| bvBwUK GwmWi mv_ wKQz SO2 bvBUvwmj mvjwdDwiK GwmW(fvqvjU GwmW) Zix Ki| ci
bvBUvm GwmW SO2 I bvBUvwmj mvjwdDwiK GwmWK RvwiZ Ki H2SO4, NO2 I NO G cwibZ Ki|
2NO2 + H2O HNO2 + HNO3
SO2(aq) + HNO3 NOHSO4
NOHSO4 + HNO2 H2SO4 + NO2 + NO
SO2(aq) + 2HNO2 H2SO4 + 2NO
wewqv cKv _K ei nq Avmv NO MvmK cybivq evq~ viv RvwiZ Ki NO2 G cwibZ Ki c~bivq eenvi
Kiv nq|
2NO(g) + O2(air) 2NO2(g)
mvweK cwqvwUZ NO2 Mvm GKevi kvwlZ nq Ges cybivq Drcvw`Z nq ej NO2 K P^vi cwZZ cfveK
wnmve weePbv Kiv nq Ges mvweK wewqvwUK wbgic `Lvbv nq|
NO2
2SO2(g) + 2H2O(g) + O2(g)
2H2SO4(aq)
cwZi eYbv t
1) wcivBU evYvi gwjK mvjdvi A_ev mvjdvi wewk LwbR Z_v wcivBU AvKwiKmg~nK evq~ cevn cvovbv
nq| GZ SO2 Mvm Zix nq|
r.e
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ok
2) bvBUvi Ifb bvBUvi ev wPwj mwcUviK Mvp H2SO4 Gi mv_ D Ki NO2 Mvm Zix Kiv nq|
AvaywbKKvj NH3 MvmK cvwUbvg cfveKi DcwwZZ evq~ viv RvwiZ Ki c_g NO Mvm I ci D
NO Mvm I evq~i wgkYK kxZj Ki NO2 Mvm cwibZ Kiv nq|
.fa
ce
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ok
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/ta
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i
3) wcivBU evYi I bvBUvi Pzjx _K cv evmn 450-6500C Zvcgvvq Z Mvm(SO2 , NO2, evq~ I A
HNO3) wgkYK Mvevi UvIqvi(C) Gi wbP w`K _K Dci w`K Pvjbv Kiv nq| Mvfvi UvIqviwU GKwU
jW I GwmW cd BU I wmgU w`q Zix PKvbvKvi 10-17 dzU PIov 25-50 dzU DPz | Gi Afi
KvqvR I BUi Mfj w`q Zix cvwKs w`q c~Y Ki ivLv nq| Mvfvi UvIqvi cevwnZ D Mvm wgkY
cvwKs Gi duvK w`q Dci DVvi mgq wbP w`K cZbiZ jW P^vi(W)_K Avmv jNy H2SO4 (65%) I
M-jymvK UvIqvi(D)_K Avmv bvBUvwmj mvjwdDwiK(NOHSO4)GwmWi msk Avm Ges 701100C Zvcgvvq kxZj nq| cvkvcvwk Mvm wgkYi Dvc NOHSO4cvwb wekwlZ nq H2SO4, NO2
I NO Mvm Zix Ki| kxZj cwiek NO Mvm evq~ viv RvwiZ nq NO2 Mvm cwibZ nq|
2NOHSO4 + H2O
2H2SO4 + NO2 + NO ;
2NO(g) + O2 (air) 2NO2(g)
2NO2 + H2O HNO2 + HNO3
NOHSO4 + HNO2 H2SO4 + NO2 + NO
57
Mvfvi UvIqvi jWP^vi _K Avmv jNy H2SO4 cvwb nvwiq Nb nq Ges NOHSO4 wewk nq H2SO4
Zix Ki ej mvgMxKfve GZ 78% H2SO4 Zix nq|
NOHSO4
H2O
H2SO4
M-jymvK Uv&Iqvi(C)
jW P^vi(W)
jW P^vi(W)
jW P^vi(W)
Mvfvi Uv&Iqvi(D)
eR Mvm
78% H2SO4
(SO2,NO2,evq~ )
[ wP t 1.18 P^vi cwZZ H2SO4 Gi wkvrcv`b ]

4) Mvfvi UvIqvii _K P~ov w`q ewoq Avmv AcwiewZZ Mvm wgkYK (NO2, SO2, NO,evq~ )
mvwiefve mvRvbv KvqvRc~Y jW P^vimg~ni(W-I,II,III) wbP w`K _K Dci w`K Pvjbv Kiv nq|
GKB mgq P^vijvi P~ov _K wbP w`K cvwbi aviv cevwnZ Kiv nq| GLvb,NO2Gi DcwwZZ SO2,
H2O I O2 Gi wewqvq H2SO4 Zix nq|
NO2
2H2SO4(aq)
2SO2(g) + 2H2O(g) + O2(g)
5) mekl Mvfvi UvIqvi _K wbMZ AcwiewZZ Mvm wgkYK M-jymvK UvIqvii(D) wbq Mvp H2SO4 Gi
avivi wecixZ Pvjbv Kiv nq| dj Mvm wgkY _vKv bvBUvRi AvBWmg~n H2SO4 viv kvwlZ nq
NOHSO4 Zix Ki| Drcb NOHSO4 K cv Ki Mvfvi UvIqvi ciY Kiv nq|
2H2SO4 + NO2 + NO 2NOHSO4 + H2O
1.16.4 Kb&Uv ev k cwZZ H2SO4 Gi wkvrcv`b

1831mvj wewUk wfbMvi eemvqx Peregrine Phillips KvbUv(contact) ev k cwZZ Mvp I we H2SO4
Drcv`bi m~Pbv Kib| eZgvb wek DP Nbgvvi H2SO4 Drcv`bi KbUv ev k cwZ eeZ nQ|
P^vi cwZ Acv GwU A_bwZKfve jvfRbK|
Kuvvgvj(Rawmaterials) t gwjK mvjdvi, mvjdvi mg wcivBU AvKwiK ,cvwb , aywjevwj gy evq~ , A cwigvb
98% H2SO4 | cfveK t fbvwWqvg cUvvBW(V2O5) |
g~jbxwZ t gwjK mvjdvi I mvjdvi mg wcivBU AvKwiKK chv evq~ cevn `nb Ki SO2 Mvm Zix Kiv nq|
SO2 Mvm I evq~i wgkYK aywjevwj I Rjxq evg~ Ki V2O5 cfveKi DcwwZZ 2 atm. Pvc 450 - 5000C
Zvcgvvq D Kij SO2 evq~i O2 viv RvwiZ nq SO3 Mvm cwibZ nq| Drcb SO3 MvmK 98% H2SO4 G
kvwlZ Kij cvBiv mvjwdDwiK GwmW ev Iwjqvg (H2S2O7) Zix nq| Iwjqvgi mv_ cqvRbxq cwigvb cvwb
wgwkq wewfb Nbgvvi H2SO4 Zix Kiv nq|
S8(s) + 8O2(air) 8SO2(g)
2SO2(g) + O2(g)
2SO3(g) ; H = 197 kJ mol1
3FeS2(s) + 8O2(air) Fe3O4(s) + 6SO2(g)

98%H2SO4 + SO3(g) 100%H2SO4 [ SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4]
100%H2SO4 + SO3(g) H2S2O7(Oleum)
H2S2O7(Oleum) + H2O(l) 2H2SO4(l)
58
k cwZZ mevP cwigvb H2SO4 Drcv`bi kZvejx t

2SO2(g) + O2(g)
2SO3(g) ; H = 197 kJ mol1
jbxq h, H2SO4 Gi evwbwRK Drcv`b SO2 Gi RviY viv SO3 Zixi wewqvwU1) Dfqg~Lx (wewqvwU GKB mgq myL I cvr Dfq w`K Pj) ,
2) Zvcvrcv`x ( cwZ gvj SO3 Mvm Drcv`bi Rb 197 wKjvRyj Zvc wbMZ nq) Ges
3) Mvmxq ; GZ AvqZbi msKzPb NU( 3 gvj wewqK 2 gvj Drcv` MVb Ki)|
myZivs jv-kvZwjqii bxwZ Abyhvqx D wewqvwUi wbg Zvcgvvq Ges DP Pvc Gi mvgvevi Aevb
Wvb mi wMq SO3 Drcv`bi nvi ew Kie| wK wbg Zvcgvvq wewqvwUi myL I cvr Dfq wewqvi nvi
LyeB Kg nIqvq Gi mvgvevq cQZ AbK mgq jvM| dj wbg Zvcgvvq LyeB wbg nvi SO3 Mvm Drcb nq
Ges H2SO4 evwbwRK Drcv`b AjvfRbK nq | ZvB immvqbwe`Mb k cwZZ mevP cwigvb H2SO4
Drcv`bi Rb Dchy cfveK eenvi Ki wewqv cwieki Zvcgvv I Pvc Dchy cwigvb ew Ki wbgv
AZvbyK~j kZvejx wbaviY Kib|
1|
Dchy cfveKi eenvi t imvqbwe`Mb SO3 Mvm Drcv`bi Dfqg~Lx wewqvwUi `Z mvgvev ARbi j
Dchy cfveK wnmve cvwUbvg ev V2O5 cfveK eenvi Kib| Ze cvwUbvg `vgx I mnRB cfveKwel viv
Av nq ej V2O5 KB Dchy cfveK wnmve eenvi Kiv nq| V2O5 Gi cfveb wqvi Kkj wbgic2SO2 + 4V5+ + 2O2- 2SO3 + 4V4+
4V4+ + O2 4V5+ + 2O2V O5
2SO3
2SO2 + O2 2
cfveKK cfveKwel nZ gy ivLv t mvjdvi evYvi nZ cv SO2 I evq~ wgkY we`gvb ayjvevwj ,mvjdvi
KYv I AvimwbK AvBW cfveK wel wnmve wqv Ki | ZvB SO2 I evq~ wgkYK Dchy cwqv viv
cfveKwel gy Kiv nq|
3|
wewqv cwiek AZvbyK~j Zvcgvv I Pvc eRvq ivLv t cixvj djvdj weklY Ki `Lv hvq h V2O5
cfveKi DcwwZZ wewqv cwieki AZvbyK~j Pvc 2atm.Ges AZvbyK~j Zvcgvv 4500C eRvq ivLj
mieivnKZ SO2 Gi 95% RvwiZ nq SO3 G cwibZ nq|
4|
Drcb SO3 K wewqv cwiek _K `Z mwiq bqv t wewqv cKv _K Drcb SO3 MvmK `yZ mwiq
wbj Dvc SO3 Gi wehvRb Z_v cvrg~Lx wewqvi nvi nvm cvq | GfveI SO3 Gi Drcv`b ew cvq|
G, Drcb SO3 K hZ `Z me cfveK cKv _K mwiq wbq GKvwaK kvlY UvIqvi 98%
H2SO4 viv kvwlZ Ki SO3 Gi wehvRb iva Ki Drcv`b ew Kiv nq|
5|
AcwiewZZ SO2 K wimvBKj ev cyb:eenvi Kiv t AcwiewZZ SO2 MvmK cfveK cKv cybivq ciY
Kij SO2 Gi cyb:eenvii gvag Drcv`bi cwigvb Aviv eo hvq|
ok
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/ta
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ok
2|
ce
.fa
(1) SO2 Mvm Zix |

(2) wewqv wgkY Zix I cfveK wel AcmviY|
(3) SO2 Gi cfveKxq RviY|
(4) SO3 kvlY I Iwjqvg Drcv`b |
(5) Iwjqvgi jNyKiY|
bo
cwZi eYbv t myY cwZwUK mvaviYfve wbgv avcmg~ni gvag eYbv Kiv hvq|
59
H2SO4
evq~
(S8)
kxZK
evYvi
wdvi
WvBqvi
(Vvv cvwb)
evq~
98%
H2SO4
98%
H2SO4
Iwjqvg
KbfviUvi
kvlY
cvwb
kvlY
(98%H2SO4)
SO3
Iwjqvg
[ wP: 1.19 k cwZZ H2SO4Drcv`b ]
(1) SO2 Mvm Zix t MwjZ mvjdviK jvn wbwgZ wmwjvi AvKwZi NyYvqgvb evYvi chv cwigvb evq~ cevn
`nb Ki SO2 Mvm cZ Kiv nq| Drcb SO2 Mvm fRvj wnmve aywjKYv, gy mvjdvi, AvimwbK hM BZvw`
wgwkZ _vK|
(2) wewqv wgkY _K cfveK wel AcmviYt Drcb SO2 Mvm cybivq cqvRbxq cwigvb evq~ wgwkq aywj
P^vi cvwb c Ki aZ I kxZj Kiv nq| GZ SO2 Mvm we`gvb aywjevwj,mvjdvi KYv,AvimwbK AvBW
cvwb viv wm nq c_K nq| kxZj I aywjevwjgy SO2 Mvm wgkYK KvqvUR c~Y Wvwqs UvIqvi Mvp H2SO4 Gi
avivi wecixZ Pvjbv Ki Kiv nq| AZci I kxZj Mvm wgkYK c_g KvK Kqjv c~Y wdvi I ci
Fe(OH)3 hy Avmem dvBevihy wdvii gvag Aewk aywjevwj, cfveK wel I H2SO4 ev gy Kiv nq|
mekl wewqv wgkY fRvj gy nqQ wKbv Zv wUj e kwkvjx AvjvK iwk dj cixv Kiv nq | cqvRb
eva cybivq wdvi Kiv nq|
(3) SO2 Gi cfveKxq RviY t 4500C Zvcgvvq c~eZ wewqv wgkYK wmwjvi AvKwZi 2-4wU cfveK eW
wewk KbfviUvi 2atm. Pvc cek Kivbv nq| Zvc wewbgqK ev evq~ cevni gvag KbfviUvii Afii
Zcgvv 4500C-5000C G eRvq ivLv nq| cfveK eWmg~n V2O5 ev Pt-hy Avmem ivLv _vK| GLvb
mieivnKZ SO2 Mvmi 97-99% O2 viv RvwiZ nq SO3 Mvm cwibZ nq|
(4) SO3 kvlY I Iwjqvg Drcv`b t KbfviUvi _K cv Mvm wgkYK chvqg KvqvURc~Y `ywU kvlY
UvIqvi Zjvi w`K _K Dci w`K 98%H2SO4 Gi my avivi wecixZ Pvjbv Kiv nq| GLvb wKQz SO3 cvwb viv
kvwlZ nq H2SO4 Zix Ki Ges Aewk SO3, H2SO4 Gi mv_ hy nq H2S2O7(Iwjqvg) Zix Ki| Drcb
Iwjqvg UvIqvii Zjvq Rgv nq|
(5) Iwjqvgi jNyKiY t Drcb IwjqvgK kvlY UvIqvi _K msMn Ki Gi mv_ cqvRbxq cwigvb we
cvwb hvM Ki 98%H2SO4 Gi cwibZ Kiv nq | GLvb _K wKQz 98%H2SO4 cybivq kvlY UvIqvi eenvi
Kiv nq| evi evi Iwjqvgi jNyKiY I 98%H2SO4 Gi cyb:eenvii dj H2SO4 Gi cwigvb gvMZ ew cZ
_vK|
1.16.5 we H2SO4 Ges Iwjqvg

mvjdvb t 100% we H2SO4 K mvjdvb ej| Iwjqvgi mv_ cqvRbxq cwigvb we cvwb hvM Kij ev
98%H2SO4 G cqvRbxq gvvq SO3 Mvm Pvjbv Kij mvjdvb Zix nq|
(98%H2SO4 + 2%H2O) + SO3(g) 100%H2SO4(l) [mvjdvb ]
H2S2O7(Oleum) + H2O(l) 2H2SO4(l) [mvjdvb ]
60
Iwjqvg t cvBivmvjwdDwiK GwmW ev aygvqgvb mvjwdDwiK GwmWK Iwjqvg ej| Iwjqvg `LZ Zj m`k
ev`vgx avqvhy| 98%H2SO4 G AwZwi gvvq SO3 Mvm Pvjbv Kij c_g we H2SO4 I ci
cvBivmvjwdDwiK GwmW (H2S2O7) Z_v Iwjqvg Zix nq|
(98%H2SO4+2%H2O) + SO3(g) 100%H2SO4(l) [ SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4]
100%H2SO4 + SO3(g) H2S2O7(oleum)
Iwjqvgi eenvi t Iwjqvgi mv_ cvwb hy Ki wewfb Nbgvvq mvjwdDwiK GwmW (hgb-100%H2SO4,
98%H2SO4 BZvw`) Zix Kiv nq| Iwjqvg mvjdvbwUs weKviK, wbi`K I RviK wnmve eeZ nq|
1.16.6 H2SO4 Gi eenvi

mvjdvii Aw GwWjvi ga H2SO4 mePq iZc~Y| AwaKvsk ivmvqwbK wk KviLvbvi Kvb bv Kvb i
H2SO4 eeZ nq| 2001 mvji GK cwimsLvb `Lv hvq H mvj mviv wek 165 wgwjqb Ub H2SO4 Zix Kiv
nq hvi g~j cvq 8 wewjqb BD Gm Wjvi| Drcvw`Z GB H2SO4 cavbZ1) hvb-evnb I BbU cvIqvi mvcvB(IPS) G eeZ jW-GwmW mqK evUvix ZixZ ;
2) ivmvqwbK mvi hgb: Avgvwbqvg mvjdU, wmj mycvi dmdU Drcv`b ;
3) AvKwiK cwqvKiY ;
4) ivmvqwbK e hgb meyR wfwUDj, ey wfwwUDj, Avjywgwbqvg mvjdU, Bw_b, BZvw` msklY ;
5) cUvwjqvg widvBbvixZ ;
6) eRcvwb wekvaY I
7) jn I wj KviLvbvq ivj wmU _K gwiPv I j (scale) `yixKiY|
8) bvBUvwMmvwiY[CH2(ONO2)-CH(ONO2)-CH2(ONO2)]cwZZ; bvBUv wMmvwiY weviK
(wWbvgvBU) ZixZ, ìvMi Jla wnmve Ges ii WvqvjUi(vasodilator) wnmve eeZ nq|
evjv nq GKwU `k hZ ewk H2SO4 eenvi Ki m ZZ abx| Abb ivmvqwbK èe Zzjbvq Gi eenvi AwaK
ej GK ivmvqb ivR I ejv nq|
Nbgvvi Dci wfw Ki H2SO4 eenvi t

eenvi
ok
jveviUixZ weKviK wnmve |

jW-GwmW mqK evUvix ZixZ|
P^vi cwZZ H2SO4 ZixZ, mvjdvi I dmdivm mvi ZixZ|
P^vi cwZZ H2SO4 ZixZ Mvevi UvIqvi|
k cwZZ Mvp H2SO4, mvjdvb,Iwjqvg ZixZ, evwbwRK H2SO4 wnmve|
r.e
bo
H2SO4Gi Nbgvv
10%, (1.1M)
33.53%(4.2M
62.18%(9.6M)
73.61%(12.3M)
98%(Approx.18M)
1.16.7 H2SO4 Gi ag
K| fZ ag t we H2SO4 ^Q, eYnxb,Mnxb Zjm`k Nb c`v_| Mvp H2SO4 cvwbMvnx c`v_ | cvwbi cwZ
co
/ta
nb
i
Gi h_ Avmw iqQ | GwU cvwbZ h Kvb gvvq èYxq ; H2SO4 cvwbZ èxf~Z nIqvi mgq cPzi Zvc wbMZ
nq| GB KviY cvwbZ axi axi H2SO4 Xj jNy èY Zix Kiv nq wK H2SO4 nUvr Ki cvwb Xvjv hvq bv|
H2SO4 G AvAby nvBWvRb eb we`gvb _vK ej Mvp H2SO4 (98.7%)Gi zUbvsK 3380C |
ok
.
L| ivmvqwbK ag t H2SO4 GKwU Zxe GwmW, RviK , wbi`K (dehydrating agent) I mvjdvbwUs weKviK
.fa
ce
bo
wnmve wqv Ki|

1| `veZv t cvwbi cwZ H2SO4 Gi hZ Avmw iqQ | GwU cvwbZ h Kvb gvvq èYxq ; H2SO4 cvwbZ
èxf~Z nIqvi mgq cPzi Zvc(nvBWkb Gb_vjwc) wbMZ nq| GB KviY cvwbZ axi axi H2SO4 Xj jNy èY
Zix Kiv nq wK H2SO4 nUvr Ki cvwb Xvjv hvq bv|
[ Note : One should always add the acid to the water rather than the water to the acid, because of the
relative densities of these two liquids. Water is less dense than sulfuric acid, and will tend to float on top
of it. Thus, if water is added to the concentrated sulfuric acid, it can boil and splatter dangerously. ]
61
H2SO4 cvwbZ èxf~Z nq nvBWvRb Avqb ( hv cwbZ nvBWvwbqvg Avqb wnmve weivR Ki) Ges evBmvjdU
Avqb I mvjdU Avqb Zix Ki|
H2SO4 + H2O H3O+ + HSO 4
HSO 4 + H2O H3O+ + SO 24
2| H2SO4 Gi GwmW ev A ag t H2SO4 GKwU Zxe GwmW | GwU h Kvb Nbgvvq cvwbZ myYi c
wehvwRZ nq H+ I SO 24 Avqb Zix Ki| ZvB H2SO4 bxj wjUgvmK jvj Ki|
H2SO4(aq) H+(aq) + SO 24 (aq) ; H+(aq) + bxj wjUgvm jvj wjUgvm
jNy H2SO4 Gi nvBWvRb cigvbyK mwqZv wmwiR nvBWvRbi Pq mwq avZz hgb- Na, Ca,Mg, Al, Zn
viv cwZvwcZ Kij avZe jeY I H2 Mvm Zix nq|
Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Na(s) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + H2(g)
H2SO4 viK ckwgZ Ki jeY I cvwb Zix Ki | hgbNaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + H2O (l)
avZz KvebUi mv_ H2SO4 wewqv Ki mvjdU jeY, CO2 Mvm I cvwb Zix Ki| hgbNa2CO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
[ sulfuric acid + metal metal sulfate + hydrogen gas
sulfuric acid + carbonate metal sulfate + carbon dioxide gas + water
sulfuric acid + base salt + water
sulfuric acid + ammonia ammonium sulfate ]
3| H2SO4 Gi RviY ag t Mvp H2SO4 Dchy weRviK c`v_i DcwwZZ RviK wnmve wqv Ki| hgbmwqZv wmwiR nvBWvRbi Pq Kg mwq avZz hgb- Cu, Hg, Ag BZvw` avZzK RvwiZ Ki mvjdU jeY
cwibZ Ki Ges cvkvcvwk Gme avZz viv wbR weRvwiZ nq SO2 Mvm cwibZ nq|
H2SO4(conc.) SO2(g) + H2O (l) + [O]
Cu(s) +[O] CuO(s)
CuO(s) + H2SO4(conc.) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Cu(s) + 2H2SO4(conc.) CuSO4(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Mvp H2SO4 weRviYagx nvBWvwmW hgb- H2S, HBr, HI K RvwiZ Ki h_vg mvjdvi,e&vwgb I AvqvwWb
wegy Ki|
H2S(g) + H2SO4(conc.) SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + S(s)
2HI(g) + H2SO4(conc.) SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + I2(s)
4| H2SO4 Gi wbi`b ag t Mvp H2SO4Gi cvwbi cwZ cej Avmw iqQ| ZvB Mvp H2SO4
wbi`K(Dehydrating agent)wnmve wqv Ki| Mvp H2SO4 nvBWvRb I nvBWwj g~jKhy hMi msk
Gj GwU D hM nZ cvwb kvlY Ki wbiw`Z Ki| hgbwPwb ev MyKvRi mv_ Mvp H2SO4 hvM Kij H2SO4 wPwbi Aby nZ H I OH-g~jKK cvwb wnmve kvlY
Ki wbiw`Z Ki| dj gy Kvebi mw nq Ges wPwb cyo Kvjv nq ; Mvp H2SO4 wKQzUv jNy nq|
C12H22O11(cane sugar) + H2SO4(conc.) 12C(s) + [11H2O(l)+H2SO4]
GKBfve,KvMR,KvV BZvw` mjyjvR RvZxq c`v_i Dci Mvp H2SO4 coj H2SO4GìK wbiw`Z Ki Kvjv
cvov(gy Kvebhy) eZ cwibZ Ki|
(C6 H10O5)n(s) + H2SO4(conc.) 6nC(s) + [5nH2O(l)+H2SO4]
[ When concentrated sulfuric acid is spilled on paper; the cellulose reacts to give a burnt appearance, the carbon
appears much as soot would in a fire. A more dramatic reaction occurs when H2SO4 is added to a tablespoon
of white sugar in a beaker; a rigid column of black, porous carbon will quickly emerge. The carbon will smell
strongly of caramel.]
62
B_vbj I AwZwi cwigvb Mvp H2SO4 K 1650C Zvcgvvq D Kij H2SO4 B_vbjK wbiw`Z Ki Bw_b
Mvm cwibZ Ki|
0C
CH -CH OH(l) + H SO (conc.) 165
CH =CH (g) + [ H O + H SO ]
3
5| H2SO4 Gi mvjdvbwUs weKviK wnmve wqv t aygvqgvb H2SO4 mvjdvbwUs weKviK(-SO3H g~jK
mieivnKvix ) wnmve wqv Ki| hgb- ebwRb I aygvqgvb H2SO4 K D Kij ebwRb ejq BjKUbvKlx
cwZvcb wewqvi gvag ebwRb mvjdvwbK GwmW Zix nq|
SO 3
C6H6 + HO-SO3H
C6H5-SO3H + H2O
1.17.0 mvjdU ( SO 24 )Avqbi iZc~Y ivmvqwbK wewqv

SO 24 Avqb cavbZ Av` ev mv`K mvjdU jeY wnmve weivR Ki| hgb
Mevi jeY(Na2SO4.10H2O), Mxb-wfwUIj(FeSO4.7H2O), nvqvBUwfwUIj(ZnSO4.7H2O),
ey-wfwUDj(CuSO4.5H2O),
wRcmvg(CaSO4.2H2O ) ,
Bcmg jeY(MgSO4.7H2O) BZvw`|
1| mv`K mvjdU jeYK D Kij GwU axi axi Kjvm cvwbgy nq Abv` mvjdU jeY cwibZ nq| mekl
DP Zvcgvvq Na, K I NH4+ -mvjdU jeY Qvov Abvb mvjdU jeYmg~n ZvcwehvwRZ nq avZz AvBW, SO2
Mvm I O2 Mvm Zix Ki|
0C
0C
ZnO(s) + SO (g) + O (g)

hgb t ZnSO .7H O (s) 280
ZnSO (s) 800

4
-7H2O
cvwim cvvi ev mv`v wmgUt wRcmvgK 1200C Zvcgvvq D Kij Gi cwZ `yB Aby nZ 3 Aby cvwb
AcmvwiZ nq 2CaSO4.H2O Gi mv`v cvDWvi Zix nq| 2CaSO4.H2O Gi mv`v cvDWviK cvwim cvvi
ej|
0C
2(CaSO4.2H2O)(s) 120
2CaSO4.H2O(powder) + 3H2O(l)
cvwim cvvi mv`v wmgU wnmve dvi gvRvBKi KvR, fvR wbgvb, gvws KviLvbvq QvP wbgvb, fvv nvoi
Rvov jvMvbvi Rb cvvi evR Kivi KR eeZ nq|
FeSO (s)
FeO(s) + SO (g) + O (g)
FeSO4.7H2O (s)
4
2
2
nb
i
-7H2O
r.e
bo
ok
nq dwiK AvBW, mvjdviWvB AvBW I AwRb Zix Ki| Abv` dwiK AvBWK Ryqjvi eR ej|
Ryqjvi eR t meyR wfwUIjK D Kij Zv c_g Abv` FeSO4 Zix nq| ci Zv AwaK Dvc ZvcwehvwRZ
1.17.1 mvjdU jeY ev SO42- Avqb mbvKiY t
/ta
(K) mvjdU jeY ev SO42- Avqb mbvKiYi cixv t
Na2SO4 + 2C
Na2S + 2CO2
Na2S + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + H2S
ce
.fa
bo
ok
.
co
GKwU KvV Kqjvi MZ wKQz mvjdU jeY I Gi wb cwigvb Na2CO3 Gi wgkY wbq 2/3 duvUv cvwb viv wk
Ki eybmb xc wkLvi weRviY gj dzrbji mvnvh D Kiv nq Ges cv AeklK cixvbj wbq Gi mv_
KqK dvUv jNy H2SO4 hvM Kij cPv wWgi M wewk eYnxb Mvm wbMZ nq hv jW AvwmUU èY wm
KvMRK Kvj Ki|
Na SO + CO - jeY
SO -jeY + Na CO
63
2-
(L) mvjdU jeY ev SO4 Avqb mbvKiYi wm cixv / èY SO42- Avqb mbvKiYt
(1) GKwU cixv bj mvjdU jeYi èY wbq Gi mv_ ewiqvg bvBUU èY hvM Kij ewiqvg mvjdUi
mv`v fvix Aa:c co hv HCl GwmW AèYxq|
SO42-(aq) + Ba(NO3)2(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2NO3-(aq)
(2) GKwU cixv bj mvjdU jeYi èY wbq Gi mv_ jW AvwmUU èY hvM Kij jW mvjdUi mv`v
fvix Aa:c co |
SO42- (aq) + (CH3COO)2Pb (aq) PbSO4(s) + 2CH3COO- (aq)
1.17.1.1 SO42- Avqb mbvKiY BaCl2 eenvi wevw t

mvjdU jeYmg~n èY ewiqvg KvivBW (BaCl2) èYi mv_ ewiqvg mvjdUi mv`v fvix Aa:c `q hv
HCl GwmW AèYxq|
SO42-(aq) + BaCl2(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2Cl-(aq)
ZvB, èY SO42- AvqYK BaCl2 èY vivI mbv Kiv hvq | Ze BaCl2 , jW,gviKvix, wmjfvi BZvw` avZzi
èYxq jeYi èYi mv_I mvjdU jeYi Abyic mv`v fvix Aa:c Zix Ki|
hgb: Pb(NO3)2(aq) + BaCl2(aq) PbCl2(s) + Ba(NO3)2(aq)
D KviY, SO42- AvqYK BaCl2 èY viv mbv KiZ Mj jeYwU Pb, Hg ev Ag Gi jeY wKbv Zvi m`n
ev wevw _K hvq|
Aciw`K, SO42- Avqb mbvKiY Ba(NO3)2 eenvi Kij Ba(NO3)2 aygv SO42- Avqbi mv_ ewiqvg
mvjdUi mv`v fvix Aa:c `q; Pb, Hg ev Ag Gi jeY èYi mv_ BaCl2 Gi gZ Kvb mv`v fvix Aa:c
`q bv|
SO42-(aq) + Ba(NO3)2(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2NO3-(aq)
ZvB, èY mvjdU jeY ev SO42- AvqY mbvKiY BaCl2 Gi cwieZ Ba(NO3)2 eenvi Kiv Dg|
1.18.0 cwieki Dci KqKwU bvBUvRb I mvjdvi hMi cfve

m~Pbv t gvbe mgvR I Kwl bvBUvRb I mvjdvi hMmg~ni weklKi bvBUvRb I mvjdvi mvimg~n,
bvBwUK GwmW, mvjwdDwiK GwmWi eecK wnZKi eenvi _vKjI KwZcq bvBUvRb I mvjdvi hMi cwiek
`~lY hZ f~wgKv iqQ| eZgvb ej AvjvwPZ MxY nvDR cfve wevi Mxb nvDR Mvm wnmve CO2,CH4,CFC
Gi cvkvcvwk N2O, NO, NO2 NH3 I SO2 ,SO3, H2S Mvm jviI f~wgKv iqQ| cwiek wechq mwKvix
GwmW ewi g~j iqQ KjKviLvbv I hvwK hvbevnb eeZ Rxev Rvjvbx(cvj, wWRj, Kqjv) Gi `nb wbMZ
NO, NO2,SO2, SO3 I CO2 Mvm|
1.18.1 cwiek `~lY bvBUvRb hMi cfve t

Kwl Drcv`b ewi Rb gvbyl ecKnvi bvBUvRb mvi hgb-BDwiqv, wW.G.wc, Avgvwbqvg mvjdU BZvw`
eenvi KiQ| KwlKvR gvvwi cwigvb eeZ Gme bvBUvRb hM evq~ gvwU I RjR cwiekK wZM KiQ|
AwZwi BDwiqv mvi gvwUi wnDgvmK cuwPq web Ki `q ;dj gvwU k I wbwQ` nq co, gvwUi Afi
cqvRbxq AwRb cek KiZ cvi bv, gvwU gv^q Abyei nq| AwZwi bvBUvRb mvi RjR cwiekKI
wZM Ki| gvvwZwi bvBUvRb mvi cvwbZ wgk ayq-gyQ Lvj-wej-b`x-bvjvq Gm co| bvBUvRb mvi
Rjvavi AwaK cyw hvMvb `qvi dj RjR kIjv I AvMvQv AZvwaK cwigvb ew cvq I cieZx mgq gZy
NU, evKUwiqv Gme gZ AvMvQv I kevji cPb NUvZ AwaK cwigvY cvwbi èxfZ AwRb MnY Ki| hvi dj
cvwbZ AwRbi NvUwZ `Lv `q Ges AwRbi Afve gvQ gviv co| RjR cwieki G aiYi `~lYK
mycywKiY (eutrophication) ej|
64
evqy `ylY bvBUvRbi DjLhvM hMmg~n njv N2O, NO, NO2 I NH3 ; Kwl KvR eeZ bvBUvRb mvii
wKQz Ask I cvYxi gjgy we`gvb BDwiqvi wehvRb Ges gZ Rxe-Ri `ni cPbi dj cwZwbqZ evZvm
NH3, I bvBUvRbi AvBW (NOx) wgkQ| dmj KvUvi ci Lvjv gvV h evqvgvm co _vK Zv cvovbvi
dj CO2, CH4, N2O Ges NOx Mvm wbtmwiZ nq| Abygvb Kiv nq h Avgvì `k eQi evqvgvm cvovbvi
dj 695.4 Gg Kveb Ges 9.7Gg bvBUvRb wbtmwiZ nq| evq~ `ylYi dj gv_v ev_v , kvmZi c`vn,nvcvwb
I Abvb ^v mgmv `Lv `q| NOx Mvm GwmW ew NUvbvi GKwU KviY| DavKvk ev vUvwqvi RU wegvb
PjvPji mgq wbMZ NO Mvm evqvgji IRvb ii wZ mvab Ki| NO Mvm IRvbi weqvRb wewqvK
cfvweZ Ki Zivw^Z Ki ;dj IRvb i nvjKv nq Ges m~hi AwZebx iwk mnR cw_exZ cQZ cvi|
O3(g) O2(g) + [O]
NO(g) + O3(g) NO2(g) + O2(g)
NO2(g) + [O] NO(g) + O2(g)
1.18.2 cwiek `~lY mvjdvi hMi cfve t

cvKwZK I gvbe mgvR msNwUZ wewfb KgKv evq~gj mvjdvii wewfb hM wekl Ki SO2, SO3, H2S Mvm
cwZwbqZ hy nQ| aviYv Kiv nq KjKviLvbv I hvbevnb Rxevk Rvjvbx hgb-cvKwZK Mvm, cUvj, wWRj,
Kiwmb, Kqjvi eenvi ; Dby cwZZ Lwb _K Kqjv I mvjdvi AvniY ; cUvwjqvg widvBbvix I BUi fvUvi
wPgbx w`q wbMZ dz-Mvm ; BvZ wk ; mvjdvi I avZz mvjdvBW wfwK wk KviLvbvi wbMZ avqv BZvwì KviY
cwZ ermi evq~gj KqK j NbdzU SO2 Mvm Rgv nq| Pvgov cwqvRvZ KiYi mgq KvwiY, SO2, H2S I
NH3 Mvm wbMZ nq| Kvb Kvb mgq Kzqvkvi mv_ SO2 Mvm wgk cwieki wechq mwKvix smogs (smoke
+ fogs =smogs) Zix Ki| evq~gj Rjxq evi mv_ wgwkZ SO2 Mvm AbyNUKxq ev AvjvK ivmvqwbK
wqvq RvwiZ nq H2SO4G cwibZ nq Ges GwmW ewic f~wgZ cwZZ nq| GwmW ewi dj f~-fvMi meyR MvQcvjv I dmj Sjm hvq ; Rjvmq gvQ gviv co Ges wUb I `vjvb KvVvi q mvwaZ nq|
SO2(g) + O2(g) Catalyst
SO3(g) ;
SO2(g) + NO2(g) SO3(g) + NO(g)
SO3(g) + H2O(g) H2SO4(aq)
SO2(g) + H2O(g) H2SO3(aq)
1.18.3 GwmW ew I Gi cfve t
co
/ta
nb
i
r.e
bo
ok
bvBUvRb I mvjdvii AwGwmW wekl Ki bvBwUK I mvjwdDwiK GwmW wgwkZ ewvcvZK GwmW ew ej| GwmW
ewi cvwbi pH gvv 3.0 - 6.5 ch nq _vK| KjKviLvbv I hvwK hvbevnb Rxevk Rvjvbx hgb-cvKwZK
Mvm, cUvj, wWRj, Kiwmb, Kqjvi `nb wbMZ Mvm wgkY ; Dby cwZZ Lwb _K Kqjv I mvjdvi AvniY
; cUvwjqvg widvBbvix I BUi fvUvi wPgbx w`q wbMZ dz-Mvm ; BvZ wk ; mvjdvi I avZz mvjdvBW wfwK
wk KviLvbvi wbMZ avqv BZvwì KviY cwZ ermi evq~gj KqK j NbdzU SO2 Mvm Rgv nq| ZvQvov
KwlKvR eeZ bvBUvRb mvii wKQz Ask I cvYxi gjgy we`gvb BDwiqvi wehvRb Ges gZ Rxe-Ri `ni
cPbi dj cwZwbqZ evZvm bvBUvRbi AvBW (NOx) wgkQ| dmj KvUvi ci Lvjv gvV h evqvgvm co
_vK Zv cvovbvi dj CO2, CH4, N2O Ges NOx Mvm wbtmwiZ nq| evq~ `~lYM GjvKvi evq~gj Rjxq
evi mv_ wgwkZ SO2 I NOx Mvm wgkY AbyNUKxq ev AvjvK ivmvqwbK wqvq RvwiZ nq Ges ewi cvwbZ
kvwlZ nq GwmW cwibZ nq Ges GwmW ewic f~wgZ cwZZ nq|
SO3(g) ;
SO2(g) + O2(g) Catalyst
SO2(g) + NO2(g) SO3(g) + NO(g)
.fa
ce
bo
ok
.
2NO2(g)
2NO(g) + O2(g) Catalyst
2NO2(g) + H2O(l) HNO3(aq) + HNO2(aq)
2NO2(g) + H2O(l) + O2(g) HNO3(aq)
65
SO2 I NO2
Mvm wgwkZ gN
SO2
NO2
SO2
HNO3, H2SO4
HNO2, H2SO3
NO2
GwmW iBb
(Rxevk Rvjvbx cyoQ)

(GwmW I Al3+Avqbi
cfve Rjvmq gvQ giQ)
(GwmW I Al3+Avqbi cfve

meyR ebf~wg ask nQ )
[ wP t 1.20 GwmW ew I Gi cfve ]
GwmW ewi cfve t

GwmW ewi dj cwieki evcK wZ mvwaZ nq | wbg Zvi KqKwU DjL Kiv njv GwmW ewi dj1| Rjvmqi cvwb Axq( pH gvv 7 _K bg 3 ch nq _vK) nq co| dj Rjvmqi gvQ I
Dw`,cvsUb gviv co|
2| gvwUZ we`gvb AèYxq Al-hM GwmW èxf~Z nq èYxq Al-jeY cwibZ nq | gy Al3+ Avqb
gvwU I Rjvmq AwRbi cwigvb Kwgq `q ; dj Dw` I gvQi ew enZ nq|
3| meyR MvQcvjvi big Ask I gvVi dmjvw` Rjm hvq|
4| `vjvb KvVvi Pzbv I wmgUi AviY q cv nq |
5| wUbi Pvjv, avZy wbwgZ AeKvVvgv, exR BZvw` q cv nq |
KqKwU welq ev Mmvwi(Glossary)

(1) cvwb Mvm (Water Gas) t KvebgbvvBW I nvBWvRb Mvmi mggvjvi wgkYK cvwb Mvm (Water
gas) ej| jvwnZ Z KvKi (cvq 13000C) mv_ xg Pvjbv Kij cvwb Mvm Drcb nq|
C
C(s) + H2O (g) 1300
(CO + H2)
0
cvwb Mvm
eenvi: wg_vbj cwZZ, avZz wbvkb I Agvwbqv msklY nvBWvRb Mvmi Drm wnmve IqvUvi Mvm
eenvi Kiv nq|
(2) cwWDmvi Mvm t `yB gvj Kveb gbvvBW I GK gvj bvBUvRb Mvmi wgkYK cwWDmvi Mvm ej|
jvwnZ Z KvKi mv_ evqyi AwRb I bvBUvRb hy nq cwWDmvi Mvm Drcb Ki|
2C + N2 + O2
(2CO + N2)
cwWDmvi Mvm
eenvi: Avgvwbqv msklb bvBUvRb Mvmi Drm wnme eenvi Kiv nq|
(3) NO2, NO3, SO32 Ges SO42 Avqbmg~ni KqKwU iZc~Y wewqv t
NO2- Gi wewqv t
(i) 2I-(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 2NO2(aq) I2(s) + 2H2O(l) + 2NO(g)
66
(ii) Fe (aq) + 2H (aq) + NO2- (aq) Fe3+(aq) + H2O(l) + NO(g)
(iii) MnO4-(aq) + 5NO2-(aq) + 6H+(aq) 2Mn++ + 5NO3- (aq) + 3HO(l)
(iv) C6H5NH2 + 2HCl + NaNO2 C6H5N2Cl + NaCl + NaCl + H2O
2+
ebwRb WvqvRvwYhvg KvivBW
NO3 Gi wewqv t
(i) 2NaNO3(s)
2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)
(ii) 2PbNO3(s)
2PbO(s) + 4NO2 (g) + O2(g)
SO32 Gi wewqv t
Cl2(aq) + SO32- (aq) + H2O(l) 2Cl-(aq) + SO42-(aq) + 2H+(aq)
SO42 Gi wewqv t
(i) Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
(ii) 2FeSO4(s)
Fe2O3 + SO2 + SO3
(iii) Na2SO4(s) + 4C(s)

Na2S(s) + 4CO(g)
(4) KqKwU iZc~Y wewqv

i) SO2 + 2H2S 3S + 2H2O
ii) 2NH3(g) + 3Cl2(g) N2 + 6HCl
iii) 2FeCl3 + H2S 2FeCl2 + 2HCl + S
H
iv) Cu2+ + H2S
CuS + 2H+
v)
K2Cr2O7 + 4H2SO4 + 3H2S K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + 7H2O + 3S
vi) 2HNO3 + P2O5 N2O5 + 2HPO3.

vii) 2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 + 5H2S K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 8H2O + 5S
viii) C + HNO3 (conc.) CO2 + H2O + NO2
ix) 2NaOH + SO2 Na2SO3 + H2O
x)
Cu + 2H2SO4 (conc.) CuSO4 + SO2 + 2H2O
xiii) FeSO4 + H2SO4 + HNO3 Fe2(SO4)3 + H2O + NO
nb
i
(xiv) Cu (hot) + HNO3 (vap.) CuO + H2O + N2
/ta
(xv) 2Pb(NO3)2
2PbO + 4NO2 + O2
ce
bo
(xviii) 2HgO
2Hg + O2
ok
.
(xvii) 2Hg(NO3)2
2HgO + 4NO2 + O2
co
(xvi) NH4NO3
N2O + 2H2O.
r.e
bo
xii) 2NaX + 3H2SO4 + MnO2 2NaHSO4 + MnSO4 + 2H2O + X2
ok
xi) Pb(NO3)2 + H2S PbS + 2HNO3
.fa
(xix) 2Zn(NO3)2
2ZnO + 4NO2 + O2
(xx) Cu + HNO3 (conc.) Cu(NO3)2 + H2O + NO2
(xxi) NH4Cl + NaNO3 NaCl + NH4NO3

67
(xxii) ZnSO4 + H2S + NaOH ?
ZnSO4 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + Zn(OH)2
Zn(OH)2 + NaOH Na2ZnO2 + 2H2O
Na2ZnO2 + 2H2S ZnS + Na2S + 2H2O
ZnSO4 + 3NaOH + 2H2S Na2SO4 + ZnS + Na2S + 2H2O
(xxiii) 2NH4Cl + CaO

2NH3 + CaCl2 + H2O
(xxiv) Cu(s) + H2SO4 (conc.) CuSO4 + SO2 + 2H2O

(xxv) NO + KOH KNO2 + N2O + H2O

HSC Chemistry 2nd Part (Group V & VI Elements)

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HSC Chemistry 2nd Part (Group V & VI Elements)

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1

Mc-V I VI Gi gjmg~ni imvqb

Mc-V I VI Gi gjmg~ni chvqewK ag mK vb jvf|

Mc-VA gjmg~ni imvqb

Mc-VA Gi gjmg~nK bvBUvRb Mc gjI ej| AvaywbK chvq mviwYZ G`iK

1.2.1 Mc-VA Gi gjmg~ni BjKUb webvm I chvq mviwYZ Aevb

1.2.2 Mc-VA Gi gjmg~ni chvqewK ag (Periodic properties)

[ mviwY-1.2 t Mc-VA Gi gjmg~ni chvqewK ag ]

Mc-VA Gi gjjvi KqKwU DjLhvM chvqewK ag

2| cvigvYweK I AvqwbK evmva t

1.3.0 BjKUbxq MVbi wfwZ Mc-VA Gi gjjvi ivmvqwbK agi evLv

N2(g) + 3Mg Mg3N2(s)

1.3.2 Mc-VA Gi gjjvi ga bvBUvRb Mvm AZ vqx Ges wbwq

1s 2 2s 2 2p1x 2p1y 2p1z

[ N-cigvYyi ewn:kwii BjKUb webvm ]

z` nIqvi KviY bvBUvRb-bvBUvRb w-eb(NN) AZ mywZ I `p nq|

1.3.3 bvBUvRbi Zzjbvq dmdivm ek mwq

[ P-cigvYyi ewn:kwii BjKUb webvm ]

[ jvwnZ dmdivm Pn- AYy ]

[kZ dmdivm P4- AYy ]

1.3.5 bvBUvRb I dmdivmi ivmvqwbK mwqZvi cv_Ki KviYmg~n

1.3.6 Mc-VA Gi gjjvi mghvRZv I mghvRx hM MVb

[Ne] 3s 2 3p1x 3p1y 3p1z 3d 0

1.3.7 Mc-VAGi gjjvi ZworhvRx ev AvqwbK hM MVb

N2(g) + 3Mg Mg3N2(s)

1.3.8 Mc-VA Gi gjjvi wewfb RviYvev

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[ N2O5 G NO mwbek eb MVbi gvag N Gi +5 Rvib Aev c`kY ]

1.3.9 Mc-VA Gi gjjvi nvjvBW MVb

1.3.10 bvBUvRb Gi Mci Ab gjjvi gZ NCl5 MVb KiZ cvi bv

[Ne]10 3s 2 3p1x 3p1y 3p1z 3d 0

[Ne]10 3s1 3p1x 3p1y 3p1z 3d1

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1.3.12 PCl3 Gi Pq NCl3 axi Av` wekwlZ nq t

1.3.13 NF3 Av` wekwlZ bv wK NCl3 Av` wekwlZ nq t

Any kind of e-book & Software : www.tanbircox.blogspot.com

1.3.14 NCl5 MwVZ bv njI N2O5 MwVZ nq t

[ N2O5 G NO mwbek eb MVbi gvag N Gi +5 RviY Aev c`kY ]

1.3.15 Mc-VA Gi gjjvi nvBWvBW I G`i ag t

1.3.16 PH3 Acv NH3 Gi zUbvsK ewk t

[wP:1.1 Zij AvgvwbqvZ nvBWvRb eb]

1.3.17 NH3, PH3 Acv AwaK viKagx t

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Aciw`K, P-cigvYyi AvKvi N-cigvYy Acv eo nIqvq Gi

[ PH3 AbyZ BjKUb webvm ]

1.3.18 Mc-VA Gi gjjvi eicZv

1.4.0 bvBUvRb I dmdivmi fZ I ivmvqwbK agi Zzjbv

1.4.1 N I P-Gi ga mv`kmg~n t

(1) N I P DfqB AavZz|

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(4) N I P DfqB H,O,Cl BZvw` gji mv_ mghvRx hM MVb Ki|

1.4.2 N I P-Gi ga emv`kmg~n t

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1.5.2 bvBUvRbi Drm I Aevb

1.5.3 bvBUvRb P (Nitrogen Cycle)

bvBUvRb PK wbgv avcmg~ni gvag eYbv Kiv hvq|

(K) evq~gj nZ N2 Gi gvwUZ Mgb t

1) cvKwZK msebi gvag t evq~gji bvBUvRb cvKwZKfve(eR-we`yZmn ewcvZi viv) msewZ nq

4NO2 (g) 2H 2 O(l) O 2 (g)

2HNO3 (aq) CaO(s)

2NH3 (l) CO 2 (g)

(M) N2Gi Dw` _K cvwY`n Mgb t

(N) Dw` I cvwY`n nZ N2 Gi