01 - Cryogenics - Nakai

SRF 2013 Tutorials
20 September, 2013
Cryogenics
NAKAI Hirotaka
Accelerator Laboratory,
High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK)
Tsukuba, Japan
Outline of This Tutorial

1. Introduction
Superconducting RF cavities and cryogenics
2. Helium refrigerators
Thermodynamics of helium liquefaction
Liquefiers and refrigerators
3. Superfluid helium and cryogenic systems
Superfluid helium (He II)
Superfluid helium cryogenic system
2 K cryogenic systems at KEK
4. Cryogenic Engineering
Cryomodules
Transfer Lines
5. Summary
20130920 SRF 2013 Tutorials - Cryogenics: Nakai, KEK
Introduction
What is Cryogenics?
Cryogenics - Science and engineering

concerning with low temperature
Low temperature - below normal boiling point
temperature of oxygen (~ 90 K) or
nitrogen (~ 77 K)
1.3 GHz Superconducting RF Cavity
Nb : Tc = 9.3 K
KEKB Superconducting RF Cavity

(509 MHz)
Normal Boiling Point & Triple Point

Temperatures
Tc
Nb
NbTi
Nb 3 Sn
4 He
n-H 2
Ne
N2
CO
F2
Ar
O2
0
20
40
60
80
100
Temperature [K]
Surface Resistance of Cavities

2.0
1.3 GHz, R
-9
-7
Surface Resistance [x 10 W]
res
1.5
509 MHz, R
= 8x10 W
-8
res
= 3.3x10 W
1.0
0.5
0.0
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
Temperature [K]
Refrigeration Cycle
TH
QH
TH
QH
WR
QH = QL + WR
QL
TL
Cited from Lebrun, Ph., An Introduction to Cryogenics,
CERN/AT 2007-1 (2007)
QL
TL
TH
WR QL
1 = QL b
TL
Carnot factor : b =
TH
TL
TH = 300 K , TL = 4.5 K
QL = 1 W
WR ! 65.7 W
Cavity Loss & Cooling Power (1.3 GHz)

Carnot Factor
Cavity Loss
Arbitary Scale
Cooling Power
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
Temperature [K]
10
Helium Refrigerators
Joule-Thomson Expansion
(Isenthalpic Expansion)
A
PA
A'
B'
PB
VA
VB
Porous Plug
Cited from I. Oshida and T. Fujishiro, Thermodynamics, Shokabo Publishing (1970) in Japanese
External work :
First law of thermodynamics :
Adiabatic condition :
Increased internal energy :
Enthalpy (Gibbs heat function) :
W = PAVA ! PBVB
Q = UB ! U A ! W
Q=0
UB ! U A = PAVA ! PBVB
U + PV = const. = H
12
Joule-Thomson Effect
Joule-Thomson Coefficient
Temperature
Change
Volume
Coefficient of
Cubical (Volume)
Expansion
T
V
m = = (aT 1)
P
c
p
h
Pressure
Change
Isobaric
Specific Heat
Temperature
Isenthalpic
Change
13
Inversion Curve of Helium

4.0
3.5
Pressure [MPa]
3.0
m<0
2.5
2.0
m>0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Critical Point
0
10
20
30
40
50
Temperature [K]
Cited from Verein Deutscher Ingenieure, Lehrgangshandbuch Kryotechnik (1977)
14
T-S Diagrams of Helium

300
40
280
502
90
1507
0.203
0.101
0.203
0.101
95
5.07
3.04
2.03
1.01
0.507
251
45
P [MPa]
100
P [MPa]
5.07
3.04
2.03
1.01
0.507
50
1424
260
1340
240
1256
209
167
H [J/g]
25
126
20
15
80
419
75
H [J/g]
70
377
65
335
60
1089
200
1005
H [J/g]
180
921
837
754
140
670
55
41.9
3.56 16.7 25.1
220
160
83.7
10
Temperature [K]
1172
Temperature [K]
30
461
85
]
5.07
3.04
2.03
1.01
0.507
0.203
0.101
P [MPa
Temperature [K]
35
4.19
8.37
293
33.5
12.6
16.7
Entropy [J/gK]
20.9
25.1
50
8.37
120
12.6
16.7
20.9
25.1
586
29.3
100
12.6
Entropy [J/gK]
16.7
20.9
25.1
29.3
Entropy [J/gK]
Cited from S. Tanuma ed., Cryogenics, Kyoritsu Shuppan (1974) in Japanese
15
Temperature-Entropy (T-S) Diagram

Isobars ( P3 > P2 > Pc > P1 )
Temperature T
P3 P2
Pc
P1
Isothermal
Compression
G
K
H1
Isenthalpic
Expansion
H2
H3
Tc
F
H4
Isenthalps
( H1 > H2 > H3 > H4 )
Adiabatic
I' Expansion
E
I Isentropic
Expansion
Entropy S
Cited from S. Tanuma ed., Cryogenics, Kyoritsu Shuppan (1974) in Japanese
16
Carnot Cycle and Helium Liquefaction

T
300 K
61.3 GPa
8.2 GPa
0.13 MPa
4.5 K
S
3.89 J/gK
8.07 J/gK
Cited from Lebrun, Ph., An Introduction to Cryogenics, CERN/AT 2007-1 (2007)
17
Various Thermodynamic Processes

Pressure
P1
P2 ( < P1 )
Temperature
A
D
B
isobaric
(heat exchanger)
C'
isenthalpic
(Joule-Thomson vaive)
Enthalpy H
adiabatic
(expansion engine)
C
isentropic
Entropy
18
Joule-Thomson Liquefier
.
Wc
.
mL
.
m
(1)
(2)
Compressor
Isobars
(1)
. .
m - mL
(3)
Heat
Exchanger
(HX)
Temperature
(V)
(2)
Joule-Thomson
Valve
(4) (JT Valve)
(1)
(3')
Isentalps
Liquid
Linde Cycle
.
mL
(3)
C
(L)
(4')
(4)
(V)
Entropy
Cited from S. W. Van Sciver, Helium Cryogenics,

Plenum Press, 1986
19
Claude Liquefier
.
Wc
.
mL
.
m
(1)
(2)
Compressor
. .
m - mL
(2)
(1)
(3)
HX1
(3)
HX2
(9)
.
me
(1)
HX3
(4)
(8) (7)
.
. .
m - me - mL
.
We
Expander
(V)
(e)
JT Valve
(6)
(9)
.
mL
Temperature
. .
(5) m - me
(7)
(4)
Liquid
Claude Cycle
(8)
(5)
(L)
(e)
(V)
(6)
Entropy

Plenum Press, 1986
20
SuperKEKB 6.5 kW
Helium Cryogenic System
Circulation
Compressors
(Screw Type)
Intermediate Pressure
Gas Storage Tanks
100
C1
C2
C3
C5
m3
x 9 = 900
High Pressure Gas Storage

0.5 m3 x 18 x 4 = 36 m3
m3
Pure Helium Gas

Cylinders
C4
Liquefied Nitrogen
Storage Vessel
Impure Helium Gas

Cylinders
Evaporator
50000 L
0.5 MPa
C6
400 kPa
1.7 MPa
15 MPa
110 kPa
Helium Gas
Purifier
80 K
Charcoal
Filter
T4
T5
T1
Recovery/Purifier
Compressor
Drier
150 Nm3/h
80 m3
Nitorgen
Circulation
System
6.5 kW @ 80 K
Adsorber
Cold Box
Subsidiary
Cold Box
Gas Bag
T2
CA
T3
700 kPa
135 kPa
Helium Refrigerator
Cold Box
Nitrogen Gas
Compressor
D10 Test Stand
Liquefied Helium
Storage Vessel
12000 L
CB
120 kPa
Helium Gas Recovery Line
Superconducting
Cavity Under Test
To Open Air
Multi-channel Transfer Line

120 kPa
4 Superconducting Cavities at D10 Section
SuperKEKB Accelerator Nikko Experimental Hall

(Underground Tunnel)
4 Superconducting Cavities at D11 Section
21
SuperKEKB 6.5 kW
Helium Cryogenic System
22
Liquefier and Refrigerator

Liquid Helium
Liquid Helium
Liquefier
Liquid
Helium
Cryostat
Liquid Helium
Refrigerator
Cryostat
Storage Vessel
(Dewar)
Gas Bag
Helium Gas (Cold)
Helium Gas (Warm)
OPEN CYCLE REFRIGERATOR
CLOSED CYCLE REFRIGERATOR

Cited from S. W. Van Sciver, Helium Cryogenics, Plenum Press, 1986
23
Latent and Sensible Heats

400
Helium
Nitrogen
n-Hydrogen
Enthalpy (volume) [MJ/m ]
350
300
250
Sensible Heat
Heat
Sensible
200
150
100
Latent
LatentHeat
Heat
50
0
4.2
0 20.4
50
77.3
77.4 100
150
200
250
300
Temperature [K]
Cited from Verein Deutscher Ingenieure, Lehrgangshandbuch Kryotechnik (1977)
24
Heat Accounts of
Liquefier and Refrigerator
Compressor
T0 = 300 K
HP
T
300 K
LP
Liquefier
4.5 K
T1 = 4.5 K
Heat
Load
Compressor
T0 = 300 K
HP
R
S
Q1
4.2
J/gK
Q1
23.1
J/gK
LP
18.8 J/g
Refrigerator
4.5 K
T1 = 4.5 K
Heat
Load
1543
J/g
18.8 J/g
LHe
isobar
(0.13 MPa)
Q1
Q1
4.2
J/gK
25
Superfluid Helium and

Cryogenic Systems
Phase Diagram of Ordinary Substance
C
Saturated Vapor
Pressure Curve
27
Phase Diagram of Helium

5
Saturated Vapor
Pressure Curve
Melting Curve
Solid
Lambda Line
Gas Pumping
2.5
Normal Liquid Helium

He I (Liquid)
Superfluid
Helium
He II
(Liquid)
0.2
Critical
Point
0.1
0
Vapor
0
Temperature [K]
28
Helium Gas Pumping System

Mechanical Boosters
(1020 m3/h)
Oil Rotary
Pumps
29
Superfluid Helium
Superfluidity
Flowing through capillaries without any
friction
Super Thermal Conductivity
Apparent thermal conductivity about 100
times of that of high-purity copper
Film Flow
Flowing in adsorbed layer of helium atoms
30
Two-fluid Model (1)

Normal Fluid
Component
Superfluid Component
Density
rn
rs
Viscosity
Entropy
Transport
Yes
No
Driven by
Pressure Difference
Temperature Difference
31
Two-fluid Model (2)

1.0
r /r
s
r /r or r /r
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
r /r
n
0.0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
l point
2.5
Temperature [K]
Total density is sum of those of each component : r = rs + rn

Density ratio depends on temperature
Independent flow fields of each component
32
Heat Transport of Superfluid Helium

A
B
Superfluid
Helium
Electric
Heater
T+DT
T
Superfluid component flow
Normal fluid component flow
Cited from K. Yamada and T. Ohmi,

Superfluidity,
Baifukan (1995) in Japanese
Superfluid component flows toward higher temperature region

Normal fluid component flows in opposite direction of
superfluid component flow (thermal counterflow)
No net
flow
Entropy (heat) is transported only by normal fluid component
Apparent large thermal conduction (internal convection)
33
Thermomechanical Effect
T+DT
Electric
Heater
Fine
Powder
Superfluid
Helium
Superfluid
Helium
Cotton
Wool
Radiation
Fine
Powder
Cited from Donnelly, R. J., Experimental Superfluidity, University of Chicago Press (1967)
34
Mechanocaloric Effect
Superfluid
Helium
Vacuum
Insulation
Thermometer
Fine Powder
(Porous Plug)
Cited from K. Yamada and T. Ohmi, Superfluidity, Baifukan (1995) in Japanese
35
Film Flow
(A)
(B)
(C)
Cited from Donnelly, R. J., Experimental Superfluidity, University of Chicago Press (1967)
36
Superfluid Helium Refrigerator
Joule-Thomson
Valve 1
Compressor
(Vacuum Pump)
Normal
Helium
T ~ 4.4 K
Heat Exchanger
Joule-Thomson Valve 2
Superfluid
Helium
T~2K

Plenum Press, 1986
37
2 K Refrigerator Cold Box

Heat
Exchanger
He I Pot
J-T Valve
He II Pot
38
J-T Valve Inlet Temperature and

Liquefaction Rate
10
8
P = 0.1 MPa
Temperature [K]
6
(1)
T = 4.2 K
He I
(3)
2
P = 1.66 kPa
T = 2.2 K (P = 5.32 kPa)
(4)
(L) 89 %
(2)
62 %
T = 1.8 K
(V)
He II
1
10
Entropy [J/(gK)]
15
Cited from S. W. Van Sciver, Helium Cryogenics, Plenum Press, 1986
39
Heat Exchanger
40
2 K Cryogenic Systems at KEK

Superconducting RF Test Facility (STF)
Concerning with ILC project
Pulse mode operation
Capture cryomodule (2 x 9-cell cavities) +
STF2-CM1 (8 x 9-cell cavities) + STF2CM2A (4 x 9-cell cavities)
Compact Energy Recovery Linac (cERL)
CW mode operation
Injector linac (3 x 2-cell cavities) + Main
linac (2 x 9-cell cavities)
41
Superconducting RF Test Facility (STF)

Ground Level
Liquid
Nitrogen
Helium Liquefier/
Refrigerator
Cold Box
Helium Gas
Pumping System
Liquid
Helium
To Gas Bag
To Open Air
2K
Refrigerator
Cold Box
He I
Pot
Heat
Exchanger
Tunnel Level
Cryomodule
Gas Return Pipe

He II
Pot
J-T
Valve
Superconducting Cavities
5K Thermal Shield
80K Thermal Shield
42
STF Flow Diagram

Liquefied Nitrogen
Storage Vessel
(10000 L)
He li u m L iq u e f ie r /
Refrigerator Cold Box
Cold Helium Gas Return
Liquefied Helium
Storage Vessel
(2000 L)
Liquid
Nitrogen
Liquid
Helium
To Open Air
M u l t i - ch a n n e l T r a n sf e r L i n e
He li u m G a s
Pumping System
He I
5K Shield
He li u m G a s
Pumping System
He I
Liquid Helium
Level Sensor
Gas Return Pipe
Gas Return Pipe
He II
He II
2 K R e f r i g e ra t o r
Cold Box
5K Shield
80K Shield
C a p t u r e C a vi t y C r y o m o d u l e
2 K R e f ri g e r a t o r
Cold Box
80K Shield
STF2-CM1+CM2A Cryomodules
43
STF Layout
Helium Liquefier/
2000 L
Liquefied Helium
Storage Vessel
Connection
Box
Ground Level
Tunnel Level
Helium Gas
Pumping System
Shaft down to
Tunnel Level
2K Refrigerator
Cold Box
Gas Bag
End
Box
2K Refrigerator
Cold Box
End
Box
Capture
Cryomodule
STF2-CM1
Cryomodule
STF2-CM2A
Cryomodule
44
Compact Energy Recovery Linac (cERL)
Liquid
Nitrogen
Helium Liquefier/
Refrigerator
Cold Box
Helium Gas
Pumping System
Liquid
Helium
To Gas Bag
To Open Air
2K
Refrigerator
Cold Box
He I
Pot
He II
Pot
Heat
Exchanger
J-T
Valve
To Compressor/
Gas Bag
Cryomodule
Superconducting Cavities
5K Thermal Shield
80K Thermal Shield
45
cERL Flow Diagram

Helium Liquefier/
Cold Helium Gas Return

Liquefied Nitrogen
Storage Vessel
(10000 L)
Liquid
Helium
Liquefied Helium
Storage Vessel
(3000 L)
Liquid
Nitrogen
To Open Air
Helium Gas
Pumping System
Helium Gas
Pumping System
Precooling Line
He I
He II
Cavities
He I
He II
J-T
Valve
2K Refrigerator
Cold Box
Precooling Line
80K Shield
Injector Linac
Cryomodule
5K
Cryopanel
Cavities
J-T
Valve
2K Refrigerator
Cold Box
80K Shield
Main Linac
Cryomodule
5K Shield
46
cERL Layout
HeliumGasPumpingSystem/
GasBag
HeliumLiquefier/
Refrigerator
ColdBox
Helium
Purifier
3000LLiquefiedHelium
StorageVessel
ConnectionBox
Multichannel
TransferLine
RadiationShieldConcreteBlocks
EndBox
2KRefirigerator
ColdBox
10
20
Scale(m)
EndBox
MainLinac
Cryomodule
30
2KRefirigerator
ColdBox
InjectorLinac
Cryomodule
40
47
Helium Liquefier/Refrigerator (cERL)
48
Superfluid Helium Cryogenic Systems

Sub-atmospheric
compressor
Sub-atmospheric
compressor
MP
MP
MP
CC
CC
CC
CC
CC
Liquid
helium
HP
LP
3
CC
CC
CC
Liquid
helium
HP
4.5 K Refrigerator
Liquid
helium
LP
4.5 K Refrigerator
CC: Cold compressor

HP: High pressure
MP: Medium pressure
LP: Low pressure
HP
4.5 K Refrigerator
Electrical
heater
LP
~ 3 kPa
Subcooling
heat exchanger
Joule-Thomson
Heat Load expansion
Subcooling
heat exchanger
Joule-Thomson
Heat Load expansion
Subcooling
heat exchanger
Joule-Thomson
Heat Load expansion
Warm
Compression
(a)
Cold
Compression
(b)
Mixed (Hybrid)
Compression
(c)
Cited from Ph. Lebrun and L. Tavian: The technology of superfluid helium,
European Graduate Course in Cryogenics Helium Week, WUT & CERN, August-September 2010
49
Cryogenic Engineering
Heat Transfer
Three Modes of Heat Transfer
Conduction
Thin-wall pipe
Low thermal conductivity material
Convection
Vacuum insulation
Radiation
Multi-layer insulation (MLI)
51
ILC Cavity & Cryomodule

Support Post
80 K Thermal Shield
5 K Thermal Shield
Vacuum Vessel
Gas Return Pipe
52
Cross Section of ILC Cryomodule

Support Post
40-80K Thermal
Radiation Shield
30
5-8K Thermal
Radiation Shield
High Power RF
Input Coupler
Gas Return
Pipe
2K Superfluid
Helium
Supply Pipe
Superconducting
RF Cavity
53
High-Performance Transfer Line

(Multi-channel)
Insulation
Vacuum
Stainless Steel
Pipe
Liquid
Helium
Aluminum
80K Shield
Liquid
Nitrogen
Liquid
Nitrogen
Gas
Helium
Glass Fiber
Reinforced Polyester
Glass Fiber Reinforced

Plastic Plate (G-10)
0
10
15
Scale (cm)
54

Nitrogen Return
Helium Return
Helium Supply
Nitrogen Supply
55

(Single Channel)
Stainless Steel Pipe
Insulation Vacuum
Liquid Nitrogen
Aluminum
80K Shield
Glass Fiber
Reinforced Polyester
Liquid Helium
Glass Fiber Reinforced

Plastic Plate (G-10)
0
Gas Helium
5
10
Scale (cm)
56

(2 K Connection of cERL)
MLI 30 Layers
U-Tight Seal H15040

MLI 10 Layers
5K Shield
(A5052)
80K Shield
(A5052)
MLI 10 Layers
Cryomodule
Side
LHe
LN2
2K Line Support
(G10 / Polyester)
t2
8
31
14 t0.5
ICF34
2
170 t
240
14 t0.5
Refrigerator
Side
2K GHe Return
76.3 t0.8
t3
MLI 10 Layers
2K LHe Supply
5K Shield Support
(G10)
ICF34
80K Shield Support

(G10)
80K Shield Pipe
SS316L TP-SC
14 t0.5
5K Shield Pipe
SS316L TP-SC
14 t0.5
2K LHe Supply Pipe SS316L TP-SC
17.3 t0.8
2K GHe Return Pipe SS316L TP-SC
60.5 t0.8
57

(2 K Connection of STF)

" *

!

)

" * )

'%(
)
! "

! "
& $

" #$ % $
&
#$ % $
& "

'%(( +, )
%( % '-
58
Cryogenic Hazards
Asphyxiation (Anoxia)
Lack of oxygen
Cold and heavy nitrogen gas - lower level
Cold but light helium gas - higher level
Frostbite
Low temperature liquid and gas on skin
Appropriate equipments for protection
Explosion
Pressure rise of liquefied gas in closed space
such as vessels and pipes
Evaporated oxygen
59
Summary
Summary (1)
1. Superconducting RF cavities and cryogenics
Liquid helium (He I) for 509 MHz RF cavities
Superfluid helium (He II) for 1.3 GHz RF
cavities
2. Helium refrigerators
Joule-Thomson expansion (isenthalpic
change)
Inversion curve
Difference of liquefiers and refrigerators
61
Summary (2)
3. Superfluid helium and cryogenic systems
Two-fluid model to understand unique
properties of superfluid helium
Helium gas pumping system
J-T valves and heat exchangers
4. Cryogenic Engineering
Cryomodules and transfer lines
Cryogenic hazards
62
Thank you for your attention!

01 - Cryogenics - Nakai

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

01 - Cryogenics - Nakai

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SRF 2013 Tutorials

Outline of This Tutorial

20130920 SRF 2013 Tutorials - Cryogenics: Nakai, KEK

Cryogenics - Science and engineering

20130920 SRF 2013 Tutorials - Cryogenics: Nakai, KEK

1.3 GHz Superconducting RF Cavity

KEKB Superconducting RF Cavity

20130920 SRF 2013 Tutorials - Cryogenics: Nakai, KEK

Normal Boiling Point & Triple Point

Surface Resistance of Cavities

20130920 SRF 2013 Tutorials - Cryogenics: Nakai, KEK

Cavity Loss & Cooling Power (1.3 GHz)

20130920 SRF 2013 Tutorials - Cryogenics: Nakai, KEK

20130920 SRF 2013 Tutorials - Cryogenics: Nakai, KEK

Inversion Curve of Helium

20130920 SRF 2013 Tutorials - Cryogenics: Nakai, KEK

T-S Diagrams of Helium

Cited from S. Tanuma ed., Cryogenics, Kyoritsu Shuppan (1974) in Japanese

20130920 SRF 2013 Tutorials - Cryogenics: Nakai, KEK

Temperature-Entropy (T-S) Diagram

20130920 SRF 2013 Tutorials - Cryogenics: Nakai, KEK

Carnot Cycle and Helium Liquefaction

20130920 SRF 2013 Tutorials - Cryogenics: Nakai, KEK

Various Thermodynamic Processes

20130920 SRF 2013 Tutorials - Cryogenics: Nakai, KEK

Cited from S. W. Van Sciver, Helium Cryogenics,

20130920 SRF 2013 Tutorials - Cryogenics: Nakai, KEK

Cited from S. W. Van Sciver, Helium Cryogenics,

20130920 SRF 2013 Tutorials - Cryogenics: Nakai, KEK

High Pressure Gas Storage

Pure Helium Gas

Impure Helium Gas

D10 Test Stand

Multi-channel Transfer Line

4 Superconducting Cavities at D10 Section

SuperKEKB Accelerator Nikko Experimental Hall

4 Superconducting Cavities at D11 Section

20130920 SRF 2013 Tutorials - Cryogenics: Nakai, KEK

20130920 SRF 2013 Tutorials - Cryogenics: Nakai, KEK

Liquefier and Refrigerator

OPEN CYCLE REFRIGERATOR

CLOSED CYCLE REFRIGERATOR

20130920 SRF 2013 Tutorials - Cryogenics: Nakai, KEK

Latent and Sensible Heats

Enthalpy (volume) [MJ/m ]

20130920 SRF 2013 Tutorials - Cryogenics: Nakai, KEK

20130920 SRF 2013 Tutorials - Cryogenics: Nakai, KEK

Superfluid Helium and

20130920 SRF 2013 Tutorials - Cryogenics: Nakai, KEK

Phase Diagram of Ordinary Substance

20130920 SRF 2013 Tutorials - Cryogenics: Nakai, KEK

Phase Diagram of Helium

Normal Liquid Helium

Helium Gas Pumping System

20130920 SRF 2013 Tutorials - Cryogenics: Nakai, KEK

Two-fluid Model (1)

20130920 SRF 2013 Tutorials - Cryogenics: Nakai, KEK

Two-fluid Model (2)

Total density is sum of those of each component : r = rs + rn

Heat Transport of Superfluid Helium

Cited from K. Yamada and T. Ohmi,

Superfluid component flows toward higher temperature region

20130920 SRF 2013 Tutorials - Cryogenics: Nakai, KEK

& $