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Motors and Generators

Contents
1. Motors use the effect of forces on current-carrying conductors in magnetic
fields...................................................................................................................... 3
Discuss the effect on the magnitude of the force on a current-carrying
conductor of variations in:.................................................................................. 3

The strength of the magnetic field in which it is located...........................3

The magnitude of the current in the conductor.........................................3

The length of the conductor in the external magnetic field......................3

The angle between the direction of the external magnetic field and the
direction of the length of the conductor..........................................................3
Describe qualitatively and quantitatively the force between long parallel
current-carrying conductors:.............................................................................. 3

Fl=kI 1 I 2 d ..................................................................................................... 3
Define torque as the turning moment of a force using:......................................3

=Fd .............................................................................................................. 3
Identify that the motor effect is due to the force acting on a current-carrying
conductor in a magnetic field.............................................................................3
Describe the forces experienced by a current-carrying loop in a magnetic field
and describe the net result of the forces............................................................3
Describe the main features of a DC electric motor and the role of each feature 3
Identify that the required magnetic fields in DC motors can be produced either
by current-carrying coils or permanent magnets................................................3
2. The relative motion between a conductor and magnetic field is used to
generate an electrical voltage...............................................................................4
Outline Michael Faradays discovery of the generation of an electric current by
a moving magnet............................................................................................... 4
Define magnetic field strength B as magnetic flux density................................4
Describe the concept of magnetic flux in terms of magnetic flux density and
surface area........................................................................................................ 4
Describe generated potential difference as the rate of change of magnetic flux
through a circuit................................................................................................. 4
Account for Lenzs Law in terms of conservation of energy and relate it to the
production of back emf in motors.......................................................................4
Explain that, in electric motors, back emf opposes the supply emf...................4
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Explain the production of eddy currents in terms of Lenzs Law.........................4


3. Generators are used to provide large scale power production..........................5
Describe the main components of a generator..................................................5
Compare the structure and function of a generator to an electric motor...........5
Describe the differences between AC and DC generators..................................5
Discuss the energy losses that occur as energy is fed through transmission
lines from the generator to the consumer..........................................................5
Assess the effects of the development of AC generators on society and the
environment....................................................................................................... 5
4. Transformers allow generated voltage to be either increased or decreased
before it is used..................................................................................................... 6
Describe the purpose of transformers in electrical circuits.................................6
Compare step-up and step-down transformers..................................................6
Identify the relationship between the ratio of the number of turns in the
primary and secondary coils and the ratio of primary to secondary voltage......6
Explain why voltage transformations are related to conservation of energy......6
Explain the role of transformers in electricity sub-stations.................................6
Discuss why some electrical appliances in the home that are connected to the
mains domestic power supply use a transformer...............................................6
Discuss the impact of the development of transformers on society...................6
5. Motors are used in industries and the home usually to convert electrical
energy into more useful forms of energy...............................................................6
Describe the main features of an AC electric motor...........................................6

1. Motors use the effect of forces on current-carrying


conductors in magnetic fields
Discuss the effect on the magnitude of the force on a
current-carrying conductor of variations in:

The strength of the magnetic field in which it is located

The force is proportional to the magnetic field strength, B

The magnitude of the current in the conductor

The force is proportional to the current, I

The length of the conductor in the external magnetic field

The force is proportional to the length of the conductor, l

The angle between the direction of the external magnetic field


and the direction of the length of the conductor

The force is proportional to the component of the field that is


perpendicular to the conductor. If the angle between the conductor and
the field is , the force is the maximum value multiplied by sin.
F=BIlsin

Describe qualitatively and quantitatively the force between


long parallel current-carrying conductors:
I I
F
=k 1 2
l
d

k = 2.0 x 10-7 N A-2

The two conductors have a force pushing it towards each other if the
currents are going the same direction right hand palm rule.

Define torque as the turning moment of a force using:


Torque is the tendency for an object to rotate around a pivot point the
product of the tangential component of a force applied a distance away
from the pivot:
=Fd

: torque (Nm)
F: force (N)
d: distance (m)

If an angle is involved, the force component which is perpendicular to the


distance is used or:
=Fd sin

Identify that the motor effect is due to the force acting on a


current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field
The flowing electrons (current) are affected by the magnetic field hence a
force acts upon it. The motor effect is the action of this force on a current
carrying conductor when in an external magnetic field.

Describe the forces experienced by a current-carrying loop


in a magnetic field and describe the net result of the forces
A current carrying loop will experience force due to the motor effect.
Opposite ends of the loop have currents going in opposite directions
therefore the force applied on one end is in the opposite direction to the
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other. If the loop is horizontal, the forces are applied tangentially (on one
end upwards and the other downwards) and it rotates along an axis.

Describe the main features of a DC electric motor and the


role of each feature

Stator: the stationary permanent magnets or electromagnets used


to produce the external magnetic field
Armature: the frame in which the current carrying coil is wound
around this is the component which rotates on an axis due to the
motor effect
Brush: a device used to connect the positive and negative terminals
from the power source to the commutator they brush against the
commutator as it rotates.
Commutator: a split metal ring device used to reverse the direction
of the current to allow the armature to continue rotating in one
direction. At each half turn, the brushes connect to the other part of
the commutator since it is two separate parts allowing the current to
flow in the opposite direction in the coil. Each brush retains the
same polarity

Identify that the required magnetic fields in DC motors can


be produced either by current-carrying coils or permanent
magnets
The magnetic fields used in DC motors can be produced from either
permanent magnets or an electromagnet (by wounding coils around a soft
iron core). The coils used in the armature can also be used to coil around
an iron core to produce an electromagnet e.g.

2. The relative motion between a conductor and


magnetic field is used to generate an electrical voltage
Outline Michael Faradays discovery of the generation of an
electric current by a moving magnet
Faraday firstly performed an experiment observing that when a current
runs through the primary coil it will induce a temporary current in the
secondary coil i.e. the galvanometer needle responded but returned to its
original position.

Then by winding coils around an iron ring (iron core), he found the same
result but with greater temporary currents induced when there was a
current in the primary coil. This led to his conclusion that during the
change of magnetic fields from the primary coil, a current is induced in
the second coil.
A moving magnet can induce a current in a coil; the magnitude of the
current is affected by the speed of the magnet, direction and which end of
the magnet (north or south).

Define magnetic field strength B as magnetic flux density


The magnetic field strength, B, can be defined as the magnetic flux
density measured in Tesla (T) or Weiber per square metre (Wbm-2) how
much magnetic flux is passing through a unit area

Describe the concept of magnetic flux in terms of magnetic


flux density and surface area
Magnetic flux B is the amount of magnetic field passing through an area
(or threading through a coil) measured in Weiber (Wb). This can be
calculated as the product of the component of the strength of the
magnetic field flowing perpendicularly through a given area:
B=BA

B: magnetic flux (Wb)


B: magnetic field strength (T or Wbm-2)
A: area (m2)

Describe generated potential difference as the rate of


change of magnetic flux through a circuit
Faradays Law of Induction: The induced emf in a circuit is equal in
magnitude to the rate at which the magnetic flux through the circuit is
changing with time
=

n B
t
: electromagnetic force
n: number of turns/coils
B: change in magnetic flux (Wb)
t: change in time (secs)

A change in magnetic flux could mean that there was a change in


magnetic field strength and/or the area of the coil.

Note that in rotating coils (motors and generators) the magnetic flux is at
a maximum when the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the flux
direction and is at a minimum when it is parallel.

Account for Lenzs Law in terms of conservation of energy


and relate it to the production of back emf in motors
Lenzs law: An induced emf always gives rise to a current that creates a
magnetic field that opposes the original change in flux through the circuit
An induced emf is produced in a way so that a current creates a magnetic
field which opposes the change in the incoming magnetic flux or the
motion of the magnet.
This is because of the conservation of energy. It has to oppose the change
in magnetic flux otherwise if not, the magnetic field from the coil will
attract the magnet, increasing the magnetic flux and increasing the
current produced which increases the magnetic flux further and it keeps
going the induced current keeps increasing. This is not possible as
energy would be created without doing work. The electrical energy
produced is from the work done when moving a magnet towards or further
away from the coil thus the induced emf produces a current where the
magnetic field opposes the change in flux.
In motors, there is a constant change in magnetic flux threading through
the coil as it rotates thus inducing an emf (back emf) opposite in direction
to the input supply (supply emf), slowing the motor.

Explain that, in electric motors, back emf opposes the supply


emf
Back emf is induced in a rotating coil opposing the change producing it.
Originally, the rotation is caused by the supply emf which induces the
back emf and opposes this direction thus the back emf opposes the supply
emf. At higher speeds, there will be a higher back emf which means less
net emf (net emf = supply emf back emf) meaning there will be a
reduction in current going through the armature. If there was a load
slowing down the motor, then there will be little back emf thus high
currents will flow through the coil and could possibly burn out the motor.
A motor rotating rapidly will induce a back emf which opposes the supply
emf thus reducing the net emf or current.

Explain the production of eddy currents in terms of Lenzs


Law
Eddy currents are produced when there is a change in flux and therefore
back emf is induced. The charges flow in a circular path or a loop to create
a magnetic field, under Lens Law, opposing the change in flux. If there is
an increase in flux, the eddy currents will produce a magnetic field to
counteract the increasing flux. If there is a decrease in flux, it will produce
a magnetic field to increase back the flux. This can occur when a
conductor is entering or leaving a magnetic field or when there is a
change in magnetic field. Also, there is a force on the charges opposing
the direction of movement (right hand grip rule) of the conductor because
the emf opposes the change in flux.

3. Generators are used to provide large scale power


production
Describe the main components of a generator

Stator: the stationary parts in a generator, includes magnets or


electromagnets providing the magnetic field
Rotor: the rotating coil in the generator experiencing changes in flux
which induces an emf
Slip rings (AC): the two ends of the wire are each connected to a
rotating slip ring where brushes are used to transfer current
Commutator (DC): a split ring where each end of the wire is
connected to each part used to provide a single direction of current
into a circuit exactly like the one used in motors

Compare the structure and function of a generator to an


electric motor
The structure of a generator is similar to that of a motor however the
difference is its functions. A motor converts electrical energy into kinetic
energy (e.g. car engine turns the wheels) and a generator converts kinetic
energy into electrical energy uses the rotation of the rotor to generate
electricity.

Describe the differences between AC and DC generators


In a DC generator, emf produced is at a maximum when the magnetic flux
is zero since it is the greatest change in flux and emf is at a minimum
when the magnetic flux is at a maximum no change in flux. Also, there is
only one direction of current in the external circuit hence a split ring
commutator is used so that the brushes retain the same polarity even
when the current in the coil reverses.

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In the figure to the right, the


current is flowing from d to a
because it wants to oppose the
increase in magnetic flux.
Once the coil reaches
maximum flux (half cyle) it
then reverses the direction of
the current but the split ring
commutator keeps the brushes
at the same polarity (positive or
negative) thus the varying-in-magnitude
current in the external circuit always
flows in one direction hence direct
current (DC)
AC generators use slip rings instead of the split ring commutator. Each
end of the wire is connected to a different slip ring. Their only function is
to simply conduct the current onto the brushes and into the external
circuit without the entanglement of the wires. But because of the
changing current in the wire, the polarity of the brushes also changes
periodically (graph below) hence the direction of current in the external
circuit alternates hence alternating
current (AC)

In the power industry, three-phase AC generators are used which


produces three sets of identical currents but are out of phase by 120o
(current waves shown below in the graph). The magnet rotates such that
the magnetic flux changes in each stationary coil (stator) thus producing
the currents.

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Advantages

Disadvantage
s

AC generator
Voltage can be changed
using transformers

Frequencies of all AC
generators in a region must
be synced (outputs in
phase)
Dangerous frequency (50
Hz)
Greater insulation required
Unwanted induction

DC generator
Certain devices utilise DC current
(battery recharges and cathode
ray tubes)
Generally more powerful
More costly (construction and
maintenance)
Sparks are produced between the
split gap
Output loses more energy during
transmission

Discuss the energy losses that occur as energy is fed


through transmission lines from the generator to the
consumer
Energy is always lost during transmission due to the heat produced when
current flows in the wires and since the wires are very long (resistance is
higher) energy losses are considerable. The equation describes the energy
losses occurring:
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P=I R
(Can be derived from V = IR and P = IV)
Transformers are used to minimise energy losses by changing the voltage
thus changing the current
Westinghouse VS Thomas Edison
There was a competition between AC (Westinghouse) and DC (Edison)
transmission for supplying electricity to cities. The AC system was much
more efficient and was favoured. In AC the high speed rotating

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commutators were not a problem and energy losses during transmission


can be minimised using transformers.
Transmission wires had to be:

Protected from lightning


An overhead parallel wire is connected to the earth
Current from lightning will run through this neutral wire down
to earth
Insulated from supporting towers
Ceramic or porcelain disk stacks are used (insulator and
minimises the chance of a spark)
Prevents the wire from touching the tower (stops becoming
live or short circuiting)

Assess the effects of the development of AC generators on


society and the environment
Positive
Improved standard of living
Consumers enjoy the benefits of
having electricity
Efficient and clean energy
Compared to using fuelled
devices such as diesel lamp or
wood-fire stove
Concentration in production
AC production can be mass
produced in one centre; pollution
can be managed
Regulation
In one centre, data can be
recorded easily
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Negative
Pollution
Fossil fuels are used; global
warming. Discharge of hot
water; thermal pollution.
Loss of natural habitats
Production of large centres
requires large plots of lands
possibly destroying the animal
inhabitants
Accidents
Electrical shocks can cause
serious harm or death. Fires are
also possible
Labour replacement

Minimised energy loss


Generators can be far away
without losing too much energy
during transmission
Development of industry
Improves the speed of
technological advances

Labour tasks are replaced by


electrical tools and devices thus
loss in jobs
Overwhelmed industrialisation
Increasing industrialisation can
cause effects to society and the
environment

4. Transformers allow generated voltage to be either


increased or decreased before it is used
Describe the purpose of transformers in electrical circuits
Transformers alter the voltage that passes through them, either increases
or decreases. It consists of:

Primary coil: input voltage


Secondary coil: output voltage; number of coils usually differ from
the primary coil
Soft iron core: where the coils are wound so flux can flow through
the coils

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The input voltage in the primary coil produces a changing magnetic flux
flowing through the core. The secondary coil experiences the same
changing magnetic flux from the input and because the number of coils is
different, the voltage output is also different.
But it is not 100% efficient; some energy is lost mainly due to heat in the
coils and in the soft iron core. Eddy currents will produce heat to the
changing magnetic flux and thus some energy is lost. To prevent this
lamination is used where insulating material is placed between sheets of
iron to increase the resistance to the flow of eddy currents.

Compare step-up and step-down transformers

Step-up: output voltage is higher; number of coils in secondary are


higher than primary
Step-down: output voltage is lower; number of coils in secondary are
lower

Identify the relationship between the ratio of the number of


turns in the primary and secondary coils and the ratio of
primary to secondary voltage
Using Faradays Law:
V P =n P

V S =nS
t
t
Divide one on the other
V P nP
=
V S nS

This means that if the secondary coil has more or less coils than the
primary coil the output voltage will be more or less respectively.

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Explain why voltage transformations are related to


conservation of energy
The conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed. Energy is measured as Power (P) and in transformers the input
power is the same as the output power. In P=IV power remains
constant and voltage and current change accordingly.

Explain the role of transformers in electricity sub-stations


From

P=I 2 R

it is seen that current affects the power losses in

transmission lines by heating it up and dissipating into the air and also
increases the resistance. To minimise energy losses as much as possible,
the voltage is increased at a step-up transformer so that current
decreases but the power is still the same: P=IV . This allows an efficient
wide distribution of electricity so that users do not have to be located near
a power station. A step-down transformer reduces the voltage to a safe
and suitable level for use.

Discuss why some electrical appliances in the home that are


connected to the mains domestic power supply use a
transformer
Generally, appliances run on low DC voltage (3V-12V). However the
electricity supplied is 240V so a step-down transformer, as well as a
rectifier, is needed to provide suitable power to the appliance. The
transformer is usually a power-cube plugged into the socket or is in-built
with the appliance.

Discuss the impact of the development of transformers on


society
Transformers have allowed the wide distribution of electricity across a
wide area resulting in more people having access to higher standards of
living and cheaper electricity prices since it is an efficient system. Also the
power station can efficiently supply electricity in a large area reducing the
fossil fuels burnt and also means that users do not have to be very close
to the station. This also means that the pollution is not produced in
metropolitan areas but rather in a concentrated and isolated area.
However, with the increasing demand for electricity, fossil fuels are being
used more and more which contributes to the enhanced global warming
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effect and reducing our limited supply. It also means that there is a
reduction in unskilled jobs or manual labour which leads to unemployment
for many people. Thus transformers have had a significant impact on
society providing electricity to homes and industries but also have
detrimental effects on the environment.

5. Motors are used in industries and the home usually to


convert electrical energy into more useful forms of
energy
Describe the main features of an AC electric motor
AC electric motor
Similar structure to that of a DC motor except uses slip rings
commutators. The coil still rotates fully because the current is alternating
thus the frequency is one of the factors of the rotational speed.
AC universal motor
Similar structure to that of a DC motor using a commutator except the
wires are wound around the stator making it electromagnets. It can run on
both DC and AC because of this feature. It is similar to how a DC motor
functions. AC works as well because there is changing magnetic flux along
with the direction of current.
AC induction motor (three-phase)
This motor induces current in the rotor instead of supplying it from a direct
source. Because of this there is no contact thus the rotor can rotate freely
and there is little wear and tear.
The stator
The stator has 6 coils (3 pairs) around iron cores. The magnetic field
rotates around because each pair is connected to each phase from the AC
supply.

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The rotor
This consists of aluminium bars attached to two end rings forming a
cylindrical squirrel-cage. Iron laminates are then used to reduce heating
due to the induced eddy currents and intensify the magnetic flux.

In the diagram below, the magnetic field is moving to the right or it could
be thought as the magnet moving to the left. The rotating magnetic flux
induces currents (according to the right hand push rule below). There is a
force pushing the wire due to the motor effect and the rotor rotates with
the magnetic field.

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RIGHT HAND PUSH RULE (inducing currents in wires)


1. The thumb points in the direction of movement of positive charges
relative to the magnetic field
2. The fingers point in the direction of the magnetic field
3. The palm of the hand shows the direction of the force on positive
charges and consequently the direction of the induced current.

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