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Highway Eng.

Embankment and Compaction

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Soil Engineering for Highway Design - Overview


In this lecture;
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A- Soil Characteristics
B- Soil Classification
C- Embankments
D- Soil Compaction
The information listed in this lecture is mainly taken from; Standard Specifications
for Engineering Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing (AASHTO, 2013),
Iraqi General Specifications for Roads and Bridge (SCRB, 2007), Traffic and Highway
Engineering (Garber and Hoel, 2009) and Highways (OFlaherty, 2007).

A- Soil Characteristics
The basic characteristics of a soil are usually described in terms of its origin,
formation, grain size, and shape. The principal engineering properties of any soil are
mainly related to the basic characteristics of that soil.
- Origin and Formation of Soils (weathering)
- Surface Texture (fine and coarse)
Basic engineering properties of soils
Highway engineers must be familiar with those basic engineering properties of soils
that influence their behaviour when subjected to external loads. Highway engineers
must always keep in mind that the behaviour of any soil depends on the conditions
of that soil at the time it is being tested.
- Phase Relations (includes; porosity, void ratio, moisture content, degree of
saturation, soil density)
- Atterberg limits (includes, PL, SL and Liquid limit.
- Permeability (DArcy law v = k i)
- Shear strength (S = C + tan )
Lecture 10 & 11

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Dr. Firas Asad

Highway Eng.

Embankment and Compaction

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B- Soil Classification
Soil can be classified according to their probable engineering characteristics. It helps
as a means of identifying suitable subbase materials and predicting the probable
behaviour of a soil when used as subgrade material.
The most commonly used classification system for highway purposes is the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
Classification System. The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) also is used to a
lesser extent.

AASHTO Soil Classification System


The system has been described by AASHTO as a means for determining the relative
quality of soils for use in embankments, subgrades, subbases, and bases.
In AASHTO classification, soils are classified into seven groups, A-1 through A-7, with
several subgroups, as shown in the table below. The classification of a given soil is
based on its particle size distribution, LL, and PI.
Soils are evaluated within each group by using an empirical formula to determine
the group index (GI) of the soils, given as
GI = (F - 35)[0.2 + 0.005(LL - 40)] + 0.01(F - 15)(PI - 10)
where
GI = group index
F = percent of soil particles passing 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve in whole
number based on material passing 75 mm (3 in.) sieve
LL = liquid limit expressed in whole number
PI = plasticity index expressed in whole number
The GI is determined to the nearest whole number. A value of zero should be
recorded when a negative value is obtained for the GI. Also, in determining the GI
for A-2-6 and A-2-7 subgroups, the LL part of the above equation is not used - that
is, only the second term of the equation is used.

Lecture 10 & 11

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Dr. Firas Asad

Highway Eng.

Lecture 10 & 11

Embankment and Compaction

124

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Dr. Firas Asad

Highway Eng.

Embankment and Compaction

14 15

Under the AASHTO system, granular soils fall into classes A-1 to A-3. A-1 soils consist
of well-graded granular materials, A-2 soils contain significant amounts of silts and
clays, and A-3 soils are clean but poorly graded sands.A-4 to A-7 are silty to clayey
soils.
Classifying soils under the AASHTO system will consist of first determining the
particle size distribution and Atterberg limits of the soil and then reading the Table
from left to right to find the correct group. The correct group is the first one from
the left that fits the particle size distribution and Atterberg limits and should be
expressed in terms of group designation and the GI. Examples are A-2-6(4) and A6(10).

C- Embankments Foundation (formation and construction)


Highway embankments are formed by spreading thin layers of uniform thickness of
the material and compacting each layer at or near the optimum moisture content.
The process of constructing one layer at a time facilitates obtaining uniform strength
and moisture content in the embankment. Compaction of thick layers may result in
variable strengths within the embankment, which could lead to differential
settlement between adjacent areas.
Most states specify a thickness of 6 to 12 inches for each layer.
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Dr. Firas Asad

Highway Eng.

Embankment and Compaction

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The table below gives commonly used relative density values for different
embankment heights. The relative density is given as a percentage of the maximum
dry density obtained from the standard AASHTO (T99) test.

Lecture 10 & 11

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Dr. Firas Asad

Highway Eng.

Embankment and Compaction

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The construction control of an embankment entails frequent and regular checks of


the dry density and the moisture content of materials being compacted. The bulk
density is obtained directly from measurements obtained in the field, and the dry
density is then calculated from the bulk density and the moisture content. The
laboratory moisture-density curve is then used to determine whether the dry
density obtained in the field is in accordance with the laboratory results for the
compactive effort used.

D- Soil Compaction
Compaction equipment used in the field can be divided into two main categories.
The first category includes the equipment used for spreading the material to the
desired layer or lift thickness, and the second category includes the equipment used
to compact each layer of material.

Lecture 10 & 11

127

Dr. Firas Asad

Highway Eng.

Lecture 10 & 11

Embankment and Compaction

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Dr. Firas Asad

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