Digestive

Organ
Salivary
Glands
Oesophagus

Function

1) Near mouth
2) Produces amylase
1) Carries food from mouth to stomach
2) Made up of thick muscular wall
Stomach
1) Muscular sac with an inner layer that produces enzymes
2) Stores and digests food, especially proteins
3) Has glands that produce enzymes to digest protein
4) Other glands produce mucus to stop actual stomach from being
digested
Pancreas
1) Large gland below stomach; produces secretion called pancreatic
juice
2) secretes protease to digest proteins, lipase to digest lipids,
amylase to digest starch
Small
1) Long muscular tube
Intestine
2) Food is further digested by enzymes
3) Has microvilli to increase surface
Large
1) Absorbs water
Intestine
2) most of water comes from secretions of digestive glands
3) Food becomes drier and thicker; forms faeces
Rectum
1) Final section of intestines; faeces stored before egestion
Starch (i.e. sugars) is known as a Polysaccharide as it is a long chain of monosaccharides
joint together, whereas a disaccharide is just two monosaccharides joint together.

Glucose:- C6H12O6

Disaccharides: Glucose &

Glucose &

Sucrose
Glucose
Lactose

&

Glucose = Maltose
Fructose =
Galactose =

SIMPLIFIED VERSION:

How

is

DISACCHARIDE made from TWO

MONOSACCHARIDES: Condensation (Removing
H2O)

GLYCOSIDIC BOND
How are TWO MONOSACCHARIDES made from
DISACCHARIDE: Hydrolysis (Adding H2O)

How Starch Digestion takes place:

1) Salivary amylase hydrolyses starch to maltose in the mouth.
2) Pancreatic amylase in the pancreas further hydrolyses starch to maltose
3) In small intestine, epithelial cells produce enzyme called maltase which hydrolyses
maltose to -glucose and -glucose by breaking the glycosidic bond.
Lactose Intolerance:
1) Epithelial cells cannot produce enzyme called lactase
2)
Lactose cannot therefore be
hydrolysed
3)
Microorganisms break down
lactose; microorganisms respire
and
therefore produce carbon
dioxide etc.
4)
Individual experiences
diarrhoea, bloating, nauseous,
etc.
A Protein is known as a Polypeptide as it is a long chain of amino acids joint together,
whereas a dipeptide is just two amino acids joint together and a tripeptide is three amino
acids joint together.
The amino
acid:

How DIPEPTIDE
formed from 2
amino acids:
Condensation
(Removing H2O)

PEPTIDE BOND
How 2 AMINO ACIDS are formed from DIPEPTIDE: Hydrolysis (Adding H2O)

is

A carbohydrate is a compound that contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen only.

Two types of protein: 1) Fibrous Proteins: such as collagen; have structural functions
2) Globular Proteins: such as enzymes; have metabolic functions
4 stages of Globular Proteins:Primary Structure Sequence of amino acids (i.e. a polypeptide made of monomers
called amino acid), order determines shape of active site and
properties.
Secondary
Polypeptide forms -helix/-pleated sheet via hydrogen bonding
Structure
Tertiary Structure
Helix made into compact structure via Hydrogen (weak), Ionic (easily
broken) and Disulfide bonding (strongest). These bonds also hold the
active site in an enzyme.
Quaternary
Combination of different polypeptide chains to form large complex
Structure
How structure of FIBROUS PROTEINS is related to their function:
1) Long chain of amino acids
2) Folding of chain into pleated sheet
3) Association of several polypeptide chains together
4) Formation of fibres held by Hydrogen bonds and Disulphide
bonds.
5) Fibres provide strength while sheets provide flexibility
Enzymes are biological catalyst that speed up a chemical reaction but remain chemically
unchanged themselves. They do this by lowering the activation energy which is the
minimum amount of energy required for a reaction to take place.
How they do this: by forming an ENZYME-SUBSTRATE COMLEX
1) Lock and Key Method: Enzyme has a rigid active site, which has a shape
complimentary to the
shape of the substrate (substance reacting with
enzyme). The enzyme then puts a strain on the substrate molecule, therefore
distorting it and reducing the activation energy.
2) Induced Fit Model: Enzyme moulds itself around the substrate as the enzyme is
flexible, but the enzyme does keep its general shape. The enzyme then puts a strain
on the substrate molecule, therefore distorting it and reducing the activation energy.
Involvement of Temperature on enzyme
Before optimum temperature:
1) As temperature increases, the rate of the reaction increases.
2) This is because there is more kinetic energy.
3) Therefore more collisions between enzyme and substrate.
4) Therefore the number of enzyme-substrate complexes increase.
At optimum temperature:
1) Maximum number of enzyme-substrate complexes being formed
2) Therefore maximum products formed
After optimum temperature:
1) As temperature increases, the rate of reaction decreases
2) The enzymes active site, which contains Hydrogen and Ionic bonds is broken
3) Therefore, the enzyme is distorted.
4) This reduces the number of enzyme-substrate complexes formed.
5) Therefore fewer products.
Involvement of pH on enzyme
Too High or Too Low pH:
1) Formation of enzyme-substrate complexes is reliant on the correct pH
2) Alters charges on amino acids that make up the active site on enzyme, this means
less enzyme-substrate complexes will take place. Therefore slower reaction.
3) Ionic bond and Hydrogen bonds that hold active site together will break, which will
change the shape of the active site, therefore denaturing the enzyme and thus
resulting in no enzyme-substrate complex.
Every enzyme has optimum pH:
1) Increasing the temperature increases the pH, and decreasing the temperature
decreases the pH.
Involvement of Substrate Concentration on enzyme

Low Substrate Concentration:

1) Too few substrate molecules
2) Not all active sites occupied
3) Reaction only half of maximum rate
Intermediate Substrate Concentration:
1) All active sites occupied
2) Reaction at maximum rate
High Substrate Concentration:
1) All active sites occupied
2) Further substrate molecules have no effect on
rate

Competitive Inhibitors:
Enzyme rate reached more slowly
Have the same shape of substrate molecules
They attach themselves to active site (but not in a permanent way)
Therefore compete with substrate molecules for available active sites
Do NOT distort the active site
Therefore increasing the substrate concentration will eventually lead to all active sites
being occupied by substrate molecules.
The higher the concentration of competitive inhibitor, the longer this will take.

Non-competitive Inhibitor:
Enzyme rate not reached
Attach themselves to enzyme but NOT at the active site
Thus changing shape of active site
Disallowing enzyme-substrate complexes to be formed at all
Increasing substrate concentration has no effect as the active site is distorted in
shape
When students carry out tests using a carrot with a conducting tissue and storage tissue,
they should cut down the root but through one tissue only to make the test reliable.
When a solution is left overnight, bungs are placed on the tubes to prevent water from
evaporating and hence changing the concentration.
To find a link between water potential of two different solutions, we draw a graph and see
where the ratio is 1:1.
When initial length/final length is one of the independent
variables, it does not matter if the initial length is different in
test because the results are given as a ratio.
TEST
Starch
(Polysaccharide
)

REAGENT
Iodine dissolved in
Potassium Iodide
Solution

Lipids

Ethanol

Reducing Sugar
(monosacchari
de and
maltose)

Copper (II) Sulphate

(Benedicts Reagent)

Non-Reducing
Sugar (all other
disaccharides)

Benedicts Reagent,
then
Hydrochloric Acid,

METHOD
2 drops of iodine into 2cm3 of
test solution
Grind sample with Ethanol.
Add water and shake gently.
An emulsion is formed and
solution goes cloudy
Add 2cm3 of test solution to
Benedicts reagent. Shake,
and then heat to 95oC.
Add Benedicts Reagent to
2cm3 of test solution. If colour
does not change, add HCl,
this will hydrolyse

each
OBSERVATION
Blue/Black Colour

Cloudy White
Colour
Brown/Brick Red
Colour

Orange/Brick Red
Colour

then
Sodium Hydrogen
Carbonate, then
once again
Benedicts Reagent
Protein
(Polypeptide)

Biuret Solution;
Sodium Hydroxide,
Copper (II) Sulphate

disaccharide into
monosaccharide, then add
Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate
to neutralise acid, then add
Benedicts solution.
Add equal volume of sodium
hydroxide solution to 2cm3 of
test solution. Then add a few
drops of dilute copper (II)
Sulphate.

Lilac/Purple/Mauv
e/Violet Colour

A biosensor is better than the above, this is because

1) Biosensors detect specific type of sugar etc.
2) Biosensors provide a reading
3) Biosensors are more sensitive
4) Biosensors can monitor concentration continuously

There are two types of cells: a) Eukaryotic

b) Prokaryotic
Organelle
Function
Nucleus
Controls cell activities and holds
the genetic material of the cell in
the form of chromosomes. Carries
genetic code

Mitochondri
a

Site of aerobic respiration which

produces ATP which is energy used
for movement and other reactions.
Muscle cells would contain lots and
lots of Mitochondria. As it ATP to
release high amounts of energy for
a high metabolic rate.

Rough
Endoplasmi
c Reticulum

Provides large surface area for

protein synthesis, and they make
protein for cells own use in the
cytoplasm.
Synthesises, stores and processes
lipids and carbohydrates.

Smooth
Endoplasmi
c Reticulum
Golgi Bodies

Lysosomes

Transport, modify and store lipids. It

also adds carbohydrates to proteins
to form glycoprotein. They also
make lysosomes.
Break down material ingested by
phagocytes. Release enzymes to
destroy material outside the cell. It
digests worn out organelles and

Structure
Largest organelle. Surrounded by a
nuclear envelope, which is a double
membrane, containing pores called
Nuclear Pores. The interior is called
nucleoplasm which is full of
chromatin. It can also contain a
nucleolus which makes ribosomes.
Has a double-membrane, outermembrane is permeable, and the
inner membrane known as cristae
which is folded to increases surface
area. The space enclosed is known
as the matrix and it contains
chromatin (circular strands of DNA)
and ribosomes.
System of membranes enclosing a
fluid filled space. Rough appearance
as it studded with numerous
ribosomes.
System of membranes enclosing a
fluid filled space, but with no
ribosomes attached on its surface.
Fluid filled, fattened vesicles. These
vesicles release their contents at
cell membrane by exocytosis.
It is round and has a membrane,
but no internal structure.

Ribosomes

helps in the complete break-down

of cells after their death (autolysis).
Site of protein synthesis. They make
proteins for export out of cell, at the
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum.

Smallest organelle, usually found

attached to rough endoplasmic
reticulum. 80s type. They are
composed of protein and RNA and
are made in the nucleolus.
Microvilli
Increase surface area to allow more Small finger-like extensions of cell
efficient absorption at plasma
membrane. Found in certain cells
membrane. Allows rapid diffusion.
only.
Protein: - Nucleus Ribosomes Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Golgi Body Cell
Membrane
Size of Object = Size of Image/Magnification
m is 1000 times smaller than mm. Therefore you must divide by 1000 to get a size into
mm.
Ultracentrifugation: Due to organelles having different mass, they can be separated.
Tissue placed in cold isotonic solution.
Cold: reduce enzyme activity that might break down cell
Isotonic: Prevents osmotic loss/gain of water to prevent cell from shrinking or bursting
Buffered Solution: Maintain pH
Homogenation: Breaks up cell, releases organelle from cell, then it is filtered to remove
debris.
It is then spun in ultracentrifuge at low speed then high speed. The heaviest organelle
(nucleus) comes out first, then intermediate (mitochondria) and finally after spinning at a
very high speed, the lightest (ribosome) comes out.
TEM
SEM
Uses electrons. Short wavelengths,
The same limitations as TEM, but specimen
therefore high resolution (0.1nm), only
do not need to be thin. Has lower resolution
black and white but small objects can be
though (20nm) but 3D images can be
seen
produced
Specimen must be thin as electrons pass
Specimen scatters electrons with short
through and in a vacuum. Preparation may wavelength and the pattern depends on
produce artefact.
contours of specimen.
Living Cells cannot be looked at and
Electrons shot from above, not below.
electrons shot from below
How do substances move in and out of a cell: Through a partially permeable/selectively
permeable membrane
Description of Partially permeable/selectively permeable membrane:
1) Made of hydrophobic fatty acid and
hydrophilic phosphate head, this
together is called a phospholipid
2)
Double layer of phospholipid /
Phospholipid bi-layer
3) Intrinsic Proteins extend through bi-layer
4) Extrinsic Proteins attached to surface of
bi-layer
5) Cholestrol
6) Fatty Hydrophobic Acids
7) Surrounds all living cells
It is often called fluid mosaic. WHY? 1)
Phospholipids move relative to each other;
membrane is flexible
2) Proteins and
phospholipids vary in shape and pattern much
like a mosaic
Lipids: Substances that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and are insoluble in water.
Lipid help with: 1) Flexibility of membrane
2) Help with transport of material across membrane
3) Insulation
4) Protection
2 Types of lipids: 1) Triglycerides; contain 3 fatty acids attached to 1 Glycerol molecule via
condensation

2) Phospholipids; contain 2 fatty acids (hydrophobic) and 1 phosphate head

(hydrophilic) attached to Glycerol molecule via condensation
Emulsion test for Lipids: 1) Grind sample with Ethanol
2) Add water and shake gently
3) An emulsion is formed and solution goes cloudy
Saturated Fatty Acid: No double bonds between carbon and carbon atoms in a fatty acid
chain
Unsaturated Fatty Acid: One Double bond between carbon and carbon atoms in a fatty acid
chain
Function of Cell Membrane: 1) Permit fluidity
2) Selectively transport substances
3) Recognition (bio-chemical reactions)
4) Maintain integrity of cell
5) Compartmentalise
Functions of Protein in Cell Membrane: 1) Maintain cells shape
2) Catalyse reactions in cytoplasm
3) Recognition
4) Transport substances
5) Receptors
Endocytosis: Transport of materials into the cell.
Exocytosis: Transport of materials out of a cell.
Movement across membrane: 1) Lipid diffusion (lipid-soluble molecules through bilayer high
to low concentration)
2) Facilitated Diffusion (high to low concentration via protein)
3) Osmosis (water moves from high water potential to low water
potential)
4) Active Transport (low to high concentration with energy via
protein carrier)
1) Lipid diffusion: Movement across lipid bilayer of a partially permeable membrane of a
substance, down the concentration gradient without requiring energy. I.e. from
high concentration to low concentration. The steeper the gradient, the faster
the rate of diffusion. The microvilli on cell membrane provide large surface
area which increases rate of diffusion. Only LIPID-SOLUBLE molecules can
diffuse through the lipid bilayer directly. Lipid diffusion cannot be controlled by
cell.
2) Facilitated Diffusion: Movement of a substance through the carrier/channel intrinsic
protein of a partially permeable membrane which is specific for that
substance, down the concentration gradient without requiring energy.
This process is obviously specific. Also if something tries to pass its way
through a protein against the concentration gradient, facilitated diffusion
will not take place. Also the proteins will not too large a molecule pass
through,
Channel Protein: Allows charged particles to diffuse through
Carrier Protein: Has a binding site for a specific solute to diffuse through.

3) Osmosis: Movement of water through the channel/carrier intrinsic protein of a partially

permeable membrane which is specific for water, down the concentration gradient
without requiring energy. A high concentration of water means a high water
potential (always a negative number, therefore pure water has water potential of
zero), and water moves from a high water potential (high concentration of water)
to low water potential (low concentration of water). If the water potential is high,
the osmotic pressure is low, when the osmotic pressure is high, the water potential
is low. The presence of a solute increases the osmotic pressure but lowers the
water potential. A dilute solution has high water potential, but low osmotic
pressure. A concentrated solution has low water potential (more solute present),
but high osmotic pressure.

4) Active Transport: Movement of substance through the carrier (only carrier) intrinsic protein
of a partially permeable membrane which is specific for that substance and
has a binding site for ATP, against the concentration gradient which requires
energy. Cells performing active transport will have lots of mitochondria as
they are the site of aerobic respiration and therefore produce ATP.
Differences of Active Transport & Facilitated Diffusion: 1) Active Transport uses energy
2) Active Transport goes against the
concentration gradient
3) Active Transport only uses carrier proteins
How the products of starch are absorbed by epithelial cell in small intestine lining (these
epithelial cells are just like the ones that are in the alveoli, they have the same features):
1) Glucose moves into epithelial cell with sodium ion via protein
2) Sodium removed from epithelial cell via carrier protein by active transport into blood
maintaining a low concentration of sodium in the epithelial cell
3) Glucose moves into blood by facilitated diffusion
(Epithelial cell will have lots of mitochondria to provide ATP for active transport of sodium
ions into blood as active transport requires energy as it moves against the concentration
gradient.)
Bacteria Cells are Prokaryotic. All cells have cell-surface membrane.
Organelle
Function
Cell Wall
Physical Barrier against mechanical damage
Capsule
Protects against bacterium from other cell
Help bacteria stick together for protection
Cell Surface
Differentially permeable layer which controls the entry and
Membrane
exit of chemicals
Flagellum
Aids movement of bacterium as it is rigid
Plasmids
Posses genes to aid survival in adverse conditions
Mesosomes
Site of respiration
Ribosomes
This is where protein synthesis takes place
Differences between Bacteria Cell and Epithelial Cell: 1) Epithelial Cell is eukaryotic
2) Bacteria Cell is prokaryotic
3) Prokaryotic cell has no Mitochondria
4) Prokaryotic cell has no Golgi Body
5) Prokaryotic cell has Plasmid
6) Prokaryotic cell has Cell Wall
7) Prokaryotic cell has Small Ribosomes only
(70s)
Some bacteria cells have Suckers, this allows them to stick to surfaces and remain in that
area.
Cholera: 1) caused by the Cholera bacterium which survives stomach acid and reaches the
small intestine.
2) Here, they produce a toxin that has two parts
3) One part binds to receptors on the epithelial cell (the only cell that has receptors).
4) The other enters epithelial cell and causes chloride ions to move out reducing
water potential in
lumen and increasing water potential in epithelial cell.
5) Water moves from high water potential in cell to low potential into lumen
(intestine) through osmosis
6) This leads to diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting, etc.
Why it only affects Epithelial Cells: Only Epithelial Cells have this specific carbohydrate
receptor
This receptor is a protein and has a complimentary shape to
the toxic
In the exam, if it asked as to how cholera is caused, and it is 2 marks, you will write:
Water potential lowered in small intestine, therefore osmotic loss of water.
Cholera can be treated with Oral Rehydration Therapy; hence this is a drip which provides
the body with all that which it has just lost.
It contains: Water, Glucose, Sodium, Other Electrolytes, and Starch

How ORT does this:

1) Increases uptake of sodium ions by co-transport channels
2) This lowers water potential in the cell
3) Therefore the water moves back into the cell from the intestine via osmosis

Diseases such as Cholera, are due to drinking contaminated water, therefore the highest
number of Cholera cases are in the summer as it is in Summer that water related activities
are done.

We need lots of respiration as we have lots of living cells and have a high metabolic rate.

Ventilation: The regular

Bronchi
Consists of branded tubules called
movement of fresh
blood into lungs and
bronchioles which have tiny alveoli at the
stale air out of
end
lungs. It is helped by Trachea
Flexible airway supported by rings. Tracheal
the flow of blood
walls made of muscle and cilia to move
around the body and
mucus.
blood flow removes
Bronchial These are the 2 divisions of trachea each one
blood with high
Tubes
leading to lung and bronchioles.
oxygen
Bronchiol
Subdivisions of the bronchial tubes, walls
concentration and
es
made of muscle and cilia to control
therefore maintains
concentration
movement of air in and out of alveoli.
gradient at alveolus,
Alveoli
Minute air-sacs at end of bronchioles; contain
and the
collagen, elastic fibres (allow it to stretch as
concentration
they fill with air). Alveoli is site of gas
gradient that is
exchange:
maintained at the
alveoli surface.
The lung contains no muscles.
When we breathe in: Inspiration: 1) ACTIVE PROCESS (requires energy[ATP])
2) Diaphram contracts (moves down)
3) External Intercostal muscle (attached to outside of rib)
contracts
4) Internal Intercostal muscle (attached to inside of rib) relaxes
5) Ribs move upwards and outwards, increasing volume of thorax
6) This reduces the pressure in the thorax (chest)
7) Air rushes into lungs as air moves from high pressure to low
pressure
When we breathe out: Enspiration: 1) PASSIVE PROCESS (does not require energy[ATP])
2) Diaphram relaxes (stays up)
3) External Intercostal muscle (attached to outside of rib) relaxes
4) Internal Intercostal muscle (attached to inside of rib)
contracts
5) Ribs move downwards and inwards, decreasing volume of
thorax
6) This increases the pressure in the thorax (chest)
7) Air rushes out of lungs as air moves from high pressure to low
pressure
Always remember, higher volume mean means lower pressure.
Pulmonary Ventilation (dm3 min-1): total volume of air that is moved into the lungs during one
minute
Tidal Volume (dm3): volume of air taken in at each breath (when the body is at rest-0.5dm 2,
here we look at a graph with lung volume on the y-axis as this tells us how much
air is getting into the lungs)
Ventilation Rate (min-1): number of breaths taken in a minute (here we look at a graph with
lung
pressure
on yaxis as
pressure
changes
when
we
breath
in and
out)
PulmonaryVentilation = Tidal Volume x Ventilation Rate
The Tidal Volume is clearly 0.625. In the volume graph, we always must extrapolate the
graph to see one full breath and then read the peak.
1 breath is taken every 5 seconds, therefore 60/5 breaths are taken per minute, this is 12
breaths.
Therefore Pulmonary Ventilation = 0.625 x 12 = 7.5 dm 3 min-1
The essential features of gas exchange are: 1) Large surface area
2) Vey thin; diffusion pathway is shorter
3) Exchange surface is partially permeable

4) Constant concentration gradient.

A tissue is a part of the body that contains a variety of cells. An organ contains a variety of
tissues.
Pulmonary Tuberculosis
Transmision
Course of Infection
What it Does
Cure
Transmission: air
droplets
It is caused by bacteria
called Mycobacterium
Tuberculosis. It is
contagious and is found
when people have a
weak immune system or
are living in
overcrowded conditions.
(This is why HIV
sufferers usually get it).
The bacteria gets into
your body by breathing
in air droplets, it can
activate years later.

The bacteria grow in the upper

region of lung and prosper with
lots of oxygen. Bacteria
ingested by phagocytes, the
bacteria are encased in a
nodule and remain dormant, if
the immune system is
inadequate, the bacteria reactivates. The bacteria destroy
alveoli and epithelial cells and
capillary too. This leads to scar
tissue being formed and the
surface area of alveoli reduced
and the bacteria being able to
enter the blood.

Transmissi
on
It is
caused by
microscopi
c lung
injury and
some are
geneticall
y more
susceptibl
e. The
exact
cause is
unclear.

What it Does

It thickens the

epithelium at alveoli
wall due to the scar

tissue that the bacteria

form and damages
capillary. Therefore the
diffusion pathway is
longer and bacteria
enter the blood. But
remember that it
lengthens the diffusion
pathway, but it does
not reduce surface
area of alveoli exactly,
it thickens it.

Antibiotics
Hygiene
Improved
Health
facilities
Nutrition to
keep
immune
system
strong.

Pulmonary Fibrosis
Symptoms due to it

When scars form on the epithelium of

Shortness of Breath:
the LUNGS causing their tissue to be
1) Volume of lung is smaller, therefore less
irreversibly thickened. It thickens that
air taken in
tissue of the lung that supports the
2) Alveoli walls are thick, therefore longer
structures of the alveoli. Therefore this
diffusion pathway
causes alveoli walls to thicken, and this 3) Reduces elasticity, therefore lung cannot
leads to the diffusion pathway being
fully ventilate
longer. Also the scarring inhibits (sucks
Dry chronic Cough:
in oxygen), reducing amount of blood
1) Scars create obstruction in airway, the
going into blood. Furthermore, the
bodys reflex is a cough in attempt to
scarring also reduces the volume of the remove it, it doesnt work though
lungs leading to less amounts of oxygen Pain and Discomfort in chest:
taken in. Finally the scarring reduces
1) High pressure in lungs due to scarred
the elasticity of the lung, as the lung
tissue
cannot fully deflate and exhale due to Weakness and Fatigue:
the scarring tissue and therefore cannot 1) Reduced intake of oxygen into blood
fully ventilate, this makes it hard to
2) Body releases energy through cellular
maintain a concentration gradient
respiration, leading to tiredness.
across exchange surface.
Asthma
Transmission
What it Does
Symptoms due to it
Transmission: Allergens
The linings of the airways
Difficult Breathing:
It is caused by white
(bronchioles) become inflames.
1) Due to restriction of the bronchi
blood cells at the linings The muscle surrounding the
and bronchioles
of the bronchioles and
bronchioles and bronchi contract
2) Inflamed lining of bronchi and
bronchi releasing
restricting the passage of air into bronchioles and additional mucus
histamine due to
the bronchioles. Also extra mucus and fluid within them.
something in the
is released by the cells of the
Wheezing sound:
environment such as
epithelial lining which can block
1) Due to air passing through very
dust, house mites, etc.
the airways (bronchioles) as
restricted bronchi and bronchioles
These are called
airways become thicker. Also
Tight Feeling:
allergens. Therefore
fluid leaves the capillaries and
1) Due to lungs not ventilating
asthma is a localised
enters the airways. Overall, a
properly as the bronchi and
allergic reaction.
much greater resistance to flow
bronchioles are restricted
Histamine causes a lot
of air in and out of alveoli. This
Cough:
of problems in the lungs. makes it difficult to ventilate the
1) An effort to clear the bronchi and
Genetics has a huge
lungs and so maintain a diffusion bronchioles
input in the cause of
gradient at alveoli.
Less Oxygen Diffuses into blood:
Asthma.
1) Asthma narrows airways
2) Air in alveoli not replace

3) Lower difference in concentration

therefore slower rate of diffusion

Emphysema
Transmissi
What it Does
Symptoms due to it
on
The lungs contain
The lungs are not able to
Shortness of Breath:
elastic tissue made
force out all the air from the 1) Loss of elasticity in lungs
of the protein called
alveoli. The surface area of
2) stale air not exhaled, therefore fresh air
elastin. This tissue
the alveoli is reduced and
difficult to inhale
stretches when we
alveoli burst, therefore
3) Reduced surface area of alveoli leads to
breathe in and out.
creating abnormally large
less oxygen in blood, therefore more rapid
In emphysema, the
alveoli. As a result, little if
breathing required
elastin is
any gas exchange takes
Chronic Cough:
permanently
place across the stretched
1) Bodys effort to remove damaged tissue
stretched. It is
and damaged alveoli. Also
Bluish Skin Colour:
caused significantly
the cilia on the bronchi and
1) Low levels of oxygen in blood
by smoking, but not
bronchioles are destroyed.
entirely.
When diffusion takes place at the alveoli: The diffusion is through a concentration gradient,
through the epithelium of alveoli and then through the epithelium of the capillary wall.
Why is hard to breathe when lungs have reduced elasticity:
1) Lungs cannot inflate properly
2) Breathing out is affected
3) The concentration gradient is reduced
Change in lung tissue in fibrosis can reduce efficiency of gas exchange: WHY:
1) Alveolar walls thicken
2) Longer Diffusion pathway
3) Scarred tissue reduces surface area
Risk Factors of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD):
1) Smoking
2) Air Pollution
3) Genetic Make-up
4) Infections
5) Occupation
How the Lung is adapted to intake high levels of oxygen:
1) Many Alveoli provide large surface area
2) Alveoli walls thin, therefore shorter diffusion pathway, therefore faster diffusion
3) Walls of capillary thin and there are many capillaries
4) Wall of capillary have flattened cells
5) Cell membrane of cells in capillary is partially permeable
6) Many blood capillaries provide large surface area
7) Intercostal Muscles to ventilate lungs and maintain concentration gradient
8) Wide trachea
9) Cartilage rings keep airways open

10)
Ventilation maintains concentration gradient, therefore faster diffusion
Risk: measure of the probability that damage to health will occur as a result of a particular
hazard.
Factors: Time Periods, Alcohol, Occupation, Pollution, Gender, Stress, No. of Cigarettes
smoked n day
Factors associated with cancer: Smoking, Diet, Physical Activity, Sunlight, and Obesity
Factors associated with Coronary Heart Disease (CHD): Smoking, Diet, High BP, High
Cholesterol, Obesity, and Physical Activity
In Graph Analysis and Drug Trials:
1) When explaining mention peak points, increase and decrease in graph and overall
increase/decrease in graph
2) Sometimes the evidence from the graph may not be enough to draw a certain
conclusion. WHY:
Any correlation does not mean there is a causal relationship
There may some other factor producing a rise/fall in both factors
Sometimes, there is no relation between both factors as the graph moves along
3) Sometimes, data is given in a logarithmic form; this exaggerates the numbers and
allows the effect of low numbers to be seen.
4) In some graphs, medical cases are presented for the prevalence of a certain disease,
however, the number presented may not be the actual number of people with that
disease as many people do not go the doctors.
5) If it asks you why a drug may not be perfect:
Unknown Long-Term side effects
Study should be carried out on humans and the study should be repeated

6) When taking drug trial, scientists should consider the following of volunteers:
Age
Health
Gender
Ethnicity
7) If scientists use two drugs/vaccines and both combined have higher effect, then both
must be similar i.e. they must have the same antibodies, etc.
When working out percentage increase: ((big number-small number)/small number) x 100

The most important thing about

the heat structure is that we must
look at the heart and consider the
right and left side from the hearts
point of view. In other words, the
right-hand side and left-hand side will be the other way round. The left side of the heart
collects oxygen from the lung and provides it to the body whilst the right side collects
deoxygenated (no oxygen) blood from the body and sends it to the lung to become
oxygenated.
Vein: blood flow to the heart
Artery: Blood flow away from heart

RIGHT HAND SIDE:

Deoxygenated blood flows from the body through the two largest veins (Vena Cava) into the
right atrium. Blood flows from the right atrium through the ventricular valve into the right
ventricle. When the right ventricle is filling, atrial systole (atrium contracts) takes place.
Then the ventricular valve closes and ventricular systole (ventricle contracting) takes place,
this propels blood through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary artery, which goes to the
lung.
LEFT HAND SIDE:
Oxygenated blood from the lung enters the left atrium via the Pulmonary vein. Blood flows
from the left atrium through the ventricular valve into the left ventricle. When the left
ventricle is filling, atrial systole (atrium contracts) takes place. Then the ventricular valve
closes and ventricular systole (ventricle contracting) takes place, this propels blood through
the aortic valve into the aorta, which goes to the rest of the body providing oxygen.
The heart gets its own supply of oxygen from coronary arteries, therefore if a coronary artery
is blocked, the heart muscle cannot respire and therefore die. This is called a myocardial
Infarction (Heart Attack).
How Atrial Systole and Ventricular Systole takes place:
1) SAN initiates heartbeat by sending impulses to atria so that it contracts (atrial systole)
2) AVN delays to allow ventricle to fill up

3) Once Ventricle is full, it sends down electrical impulse down Bundle of His
4) This causes ventricles to contract
Atheroma:
How can diet increase risk of Myocardial Infarction:
High salt in diet increases blood pressure
High intake of cholesterol can result in fat accumulating under lining of artery, this is
called an Atheroma
This can cause a blood clot in the coronary artery
A blood clot prevents oxygenated blood from flowing
Hence the heart muscle is deprived of oxygen and therefore cannot respire, thus it
dies.
If your diet is low in LDL, less cholesterol will be absorbed by the blood and therefore the
chances of a myocardial infarction will be reduced.

Pathogen: disease-causing organisms. HOW: damage tissues/cells and release toxins

Ways in which pathogen causes damage in body:
1) Damage Cells
2) Damage tissues
3) Produce Toxins
Defence Mechanisms:
Non-Specific: 1) Physical Barrier
2) Phagocytosis
Specific: 1) Cell-Mediated Response
2) Humoral Response
Physical Barrier: Stop microbes from entering skin.
Skin = 1) Keratin
Lungs = 1) Mucus
Stomach = Hydrochloric Acid
2) Sebum
2) Cilia
3) Sweat
4) Skin Flora
Eyes = 1) Tears contain Lysozyme
5) Skin Acidity
2) Tears contain Bactericide
Phagocytosis:
Stage 1:
1) The pathogen releases chemoattractant
2) Phagocyte white blood cell moves towards pathogen along concentration gradient
3) Phagocyte binds to pathogen forming phagosome by engulfing the pathogen
Stage 2:
4) Lysosomes within phagocyte migrate towards phagosome
5) Lysosome surround phagosome and release their lyctic enzymes into it, where
enzymes digest pathogen down
6) Breakdown products of the bacterium are absorbed by the phagocyte
Cell-Mediated Response:
1) Pathogens invade normal body cells
2) Normal body cell presents antigen from pathogen on its cell-surface membrane
3) Receptors on T-Helper Cell fits exactly onto these antigens
4) This activates the T-Helper Cell and other T-Cells to clone themselves rapidly by
mitosis
5) They then form:
Memory Cells; enable rapid response to future invasion
Stimulate Phagocytes; to engulf pathogens
Stimulate B Cells to divide
Kill infected cells by making holes in their cell-surface membrane
T-Lymphocytes (T-Cell): involved in cell-mediated immunity, they increase in number via
mitosis, produce Lymphokines, Killer T-Cells kill infected cells and finally they
aid in B-Lymphocyte (B-Cell) cloning

Antigen: Molecule that stimulates an immune response, it has a number of epitopes;

different parts of the antigen than can be recognised as foreign by the immune
system and can stimulate immune response. Different antigens have different
number of epitopes, some can have 2,3,4, etc. Each one binds to different antibody.
Humoral Response:
1) The surface antigens of invading pathogen taken up by B-Cells.
2) B-Cells process antigenson and present them on their specific receptors, if antigen
does not fit the receptor, then this whole process of antibody-production will not take
place as the B-Cells will not be able to divide.
3) T-Helper Cells attach to the processed antigens on B-Cells thereby activating them
4) B-Cells, now activated, divide by mitosis to give a clone of Plasma Cells and Memory
Cells
PRIMARY RESPONSE:
5) Plasma Cells (have a large cytoplasm as it contains mitochondria for ATP and Rough
Endoplasmic Reticulum for the production of glycoproteins) produce antibodies that
exactly fir antigens on pathogens surface
6) Antibodies attach to the antigen and destroy them
SECONDARY RESPONSE:
7) Memory Cells respond to future infections by the same pathogen rapidly and develop
into Plasma Cells that produce more antibodies. The more antigens that are presented
by B-Cell, the higher number of antibodies produced.
Sometimes, a person can contract two strains of influenza, this is because they are different
strains although he
may have memory cells for one type of influenza, he may not have memory cells for the
other.
Antibodies: They are Proteins and can be polysaccharides too. They have a quaternary
structure as they are mad of different polypeptide chains, they would be detected
through Biurets solution.
Antigen-Antibody Complex: Antibodies have binding site that is specific to one consists of
different sequences of amino acids that determine the binding site an
type of antigen, the binding site of different antibodies is different
and the binding site forms a specific shape, this shape is
complimentary to the epitope of the antigen. However, the binding
site has a tertiary structure; it weakens the bonds in the antigen to
destroy it.
Antigenic Variability: The antigens from pathogens such as viruses and bacteria that are
constantly changing.
Some antibodies attack nerve cells too; this is because they have sugars that have the same
shape as the antigen, therefore the antibodys binding site is complimentary to this sugar
and the antibody binds to it.
Monoclonal Antibodies: We need them because they give the B-Cells that have a short life, a
very long life. Also these antibodies attack a disease and release a
signal so as when drug is inserted in the body, it knows where to go.
They bind to their specific antigen.
2 Monoclonal antibodies are used when testing if a person has a specific
type of antigen. The first Monoclonal antibody binds to antigen, the
second one does too however the second has an enzyme attached to it,
then the sample is WASHED, a substrate is added which forms enzymesubstrate complexes with the enzyme and thus the colour changes.
Why it is important to WASH the sample:
1) Second antibody would be removed by washing if it has not binded to the antigen
2) The enzyme could then react with another substrate giving a false-positive result.
What Monoclonal Antibodies Are: Antibodies produced from a single clone of B-Cells/Plasma
Cells.
Vaccination: Contains weakened pathogen that stimulates production of antibodies. This is
how:
1) Contains dead/weakened pathogen
2) When it enters the body, memory cells are made

3) On second exposure, memory cells rapidly produce more antibodies

4) Antibodies destroy pathogen
5) Therefore, fewer people to pass on disease
Successful Vaccination Program:
1) Economically Viable
2) Few Side-Effects
3) Transport must be Hygienic and it must be kept Refrigerated
4) Trained Medical Staff to carry out vaccination
Why Vaccination does not get rid of disease:
1) Sometimes there is a deficiency in the Immune System/weak Immune System
2) The disease may have been contracted immediately after, therefore not enough time
for vaccination to work.
3) Antigenic Variability, the antigens from a pathogen can constantly change shape
4) Certain pathogens hide in the body
5) Individuals may have objections due to ethical issues
Why you must give a Specific Vaccination:
1) Antigenic Variability
2) No memory cells have been made for the other types
3) Antibodies are complimentary for that antigen
Why at times more than one Vaccination must be given:
1) More antigens, therefore more Memory cells, therefore more Antibodies
Why it may take many years to see the effect of a Vaccination:
1) The disease may take long to develop
2) The vaccination may have been given to children whose symptoms cannot yet be
observed as a child
Smear Tests may also be carried out after the Vaccination:
1) Disease may be caused by other types of antigens
2) As a precaution, because mutation may have occurred
A Large Number of people are Vaccinated:
1) Virus cannot replicate
2) Non-Vaccinated people more likely to contract
Doctors need to look at common influenzas before creating Vaccine:
1) Vaccines only work against certain influenzas
2) This is because each influenza contains different antigens
3) Therefore they can produce vaccine for the most common influenza
Control Group: Treated for disease without active ingredients of drug. Instead, they are given
a placebo/dummy drug, however all other treatment is the same WHY IS IT
IMPORTANT? To see effectiveness of drug