World War I Memorials

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WorldWarImemorialsWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
WorldWarImemorials
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
WorldWarImemorialscommemoratetheeventsand
thecasualtiesofWorldWarI.Thesewarmemorials
includecivicmemorials,largernationalmonuments,
warcemeteries,privatememorialsandarangeof
utilitariandesignssuchashallsandparks,dedicatedto
rememberingthoseinvolvedintheconflict.Huge
numbersofmemorialswerebuiltinthe1920sand
1930s,witharound176,000erectedinFrancealone.
Thiswasanewsocialphenomenonandmarkedamajor
culturalshiftinhownationscommemoratedconflicts.
InterestinWorldWarIanditsmemorialsfadedafter
WorldWarII,anddidnotincreaseagainuntilthe
1980sand1990s,whichsawtherenovationofmany
existingmemorialsandtheopeningofnewsites.
Visitornumbersatmanymemorialsincreased
significantly,whilemajornationalandcivicmemorials
continuetobeusedforannualceremoniesremembering
thewar.
Architecturally,mostwarmemorialswererelatively
conservativeindesign,aimingtouseestablishedstyles
toproduceatragicbutcomforting,nobleandenduring
commemorationofthewardead.Classicalthemeswere
TheclassicallyinspiredMeninGateinYpres
particularlycommon,takingtheprevailingstylesofthe
late19thcenturyandtypicallysimplifyingthemto
producecleaner,moreabstractmemorials.Allegoricalandsymbolicfeatures,frequentlydrawingon
Christianimagery,wereusedtocommunicatethemesofselfsacrifice,victoryanddeath.Somememorials
adoptedamedievalistthemeinstead,lookingbackwardstoamoresecurepast,whileothersusedemerging
realistandArtDecoarchitecturalstylestocommunicatethethemesofthewar.
Thecommissioningofmemorialsoccurredthroughawiderangeofnationalandlocalinstitutions,
reflectinglocalpoliticaltraditionsfundingwassimilarlydisparate,withmostcountriesrelyingheavilyon
localcharitablecontributionstocoverthecostsofconstruction.Warcemeteriesandmemorialsto
particularlysignificantbattles,however,weretypicallycentrallycontrolledandfundedbythestate.The
warencouragedthecreationofnewformsofmemorial.Listsofmemorialnames,reflectingthehugescale
ofthelosses,wereacommonfeature,whileTombsoftheUnknownSoldiercontainingaselected,
unidentifiedbody,andemptycenotaphmonumentscommemoratedthenumerousunidentifiablecorpses
andthoseservicemenwhosebodieswereneverfound.Ceremonieswereoftenheldatthememorials,
includingthoseonArmisticeDay,AnzacDayandtheFtesdelaVictoire,whilepilgrimagestothesitesof
theconflictandthememorialstherewerecommonintheinterwaryears.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I_memorials
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Muchofthesymbolismincludedinmemorialswaspoliticalintone,andpoliticsplayedanimportantpartin
theirconstruction.Manymemorialswereembroiledinlocalethnicandreligioustensions,withmemorials
eitherreflectingthecontributionofparticulargroupstotheconflictorbeingrejectedentirelybyothers.In
severalcountriesitproveddifficulttoproducememorialsthatappealedtoandincludedthereligiousand
politicalviewsofallofacommunity.TheFascistgovernmentsthatcametopowerinItalyandGermany
duringtheinterwarperiodmadetheconstructionofmemorialsakeypartoftheirpoliticalprogramme,
resultinginanumberoflargermemorialprojectswithstrongnationalovertonesbeingconstructedinthe
1930s.Whilefewmemorialsembracedapacifistperspective,someantiwarcampaignersusedthe
memorialsforralliesandmeetings.Manyofthepoliticaltensionsoftheinterwarperiodhaddiminishedby
theendofthe20thcentury,allowingsomecountriestocommemoratetheeventsofthewarthrough
memorialsforthefirsttimesincetheendofthewar.InthecentennialofWorldWarI,thememoryofthe
warhasbecomeamajorthemeforscholarsandmuseums.
Contents
1 Background
2 WorldWarI(191418)
2.1 Experienceoftheconflict
2.2 Responsesduringthewar
3 Interwar(191939)
3.1 Construction
3.2 Innovationandgrieving
3.3 Politics
3.4 Architecture
4 SecondWorldWarandPostWar
5 Since1990
6 Notes
7 References
8 Bibliography
Background
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OntheeveofWorldWarItherewerenotraditionsof
nationallycommemoratingmasscasualtiesinwar.Franceand
GermanyhadbeenrelativelyrecentlyinvolvedintheFranco
PrussianWarof1870to1871.Germanyhadbuiltanumberof
nationalwarmemorialscommemoratingtheirvictory,usually
focusingoncelebratingtheirmilitaryleaders.[1]InFrance,
memorialstotheirlosseswererelativelycommon,butfarfrom
beinganationalresponse,andmanytownsandvillagesdidnot
erectmemorialsatall.[2]Aneworganisation,theSouvenir
Franais,wasestablishedinthe1880stoprotectFrenchwar
memorialsandencourageyoungFrenchpeopletoengagein
militaryactivitiestheorganisationgrewtohavemanycontacts
inlocalgovernmentby1914.[3]
OneofmanyGermanwarmemorialsin
BerlintothedeadoftheFrancoPrussian
Warof187071,byJohannesBoese
BritainandAustraliahadbothsentforcestoparticipateinthe
SecondBoerWarof1899to1902,whichspurredanincreased
focusonwarmemorials.TheBoerWarhadinvolved200,000
Britishvolunteersalone,andattractedconsiderablepresscoverage.[4]Numerouswarmemorialswere
erectedontheirreturn,eitherbylocalcommunityleadersorbythelocalLordLieutenant,actingonbehalf
ofthecountyregimentsthesewereoftensituatedinquietlocationstoallowforpeacefulreflectionby
visitors.[5]Australiahadhonoureditsvolunteersbyplacingindividualplaquesinsidebuildings,creating
outdoormemorialtabletsanderectingobelisksinpublicplaces.[6]AlthoughtheBoerWarencourageda
shiftawayfrommemorialsportrayingheroiccommandingofficers,ashadbeenpopularearlierinthe19th
century,towardsdepictingordinarysoldiers,annualceremoniessurroundingthememorialswerenot
commonandnoofficialmemorialdayemerged.[7]BoerWarmemorialsinbothcountrieswerewidelyfelt
tolackasuitablequalityofdesignandexecution,echoingcontemporaryconcernsintheUSaboutthe
statueserectedtocommemoratetheAmericanCivilWar.[8]
ThenewEuropeanstatesthathadformedinthesecondhalfofthe19thcenturytypicallyhadtraditionsof
warmemorials,butnothingonthescalethatwouldlateremergefromWorldWarI.Italybuiltvariouswar
memorialsafterunificationinthe1860s,buttherewaslittleagreementaboutwhoshouldberesponsiblefor
thesewithinthenewItalianstate.[9]Romaniaerectedanumberofheroicallystyledmemorialsafterthe
RomanianWarofIndependencein1877and1878,usuallycelebratingfamousleadersassociatedwith
Romanianindependence,butalsoincludingtheoccasionalmodestlocalmonuments[10]BulgariaandSerbia
constructedmanywarmemorialsaftertheendoftheFirstBalkanWarin1913.[11]Thepublicplayedlittle
roleintheseeasternEuropeanmemorials,however,whichweretypicallyconstructedbythecentralstate
authorities.[11]
WorldWarI(191418)
Experienceoftheconflict
ThememorialstoWorldWarIwereshapedbythetraumaticnatureoftheconflictanditsimpacton
individualsandcommunities.[12]Theexperienceofthedifferentnationsinfluencedvariedconsiderably,but
commonthemesemerged.Thewarrequiredamasscalltoarms,withasignificantpercentageofthe
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populationmobilisedtofight,eitherasvolunteersorthrough
conscription.[13]Campaignswereconductedonmultiplefronts
acrossEuropeandbeyond.Thefightingwasmechanisedand
conductedonanindustrialscaleexistingweapons,suchasmachine
gunsandartillery,werecombinedwiththeinnovativedeployment
ofaircraft,submarinesandpoisongas.Inmanytheatresof
operation,mobilecampaignsdegeneratedintostatictrenchwarfare,
dependingontheslowattritionoftheenemyovermanyyearsfor
victory.Thebattlesspreadacrosslargerareasthaneverbefore,with
keyengagements,suchasthatatVerdunetchedonthememoriesof
thenationsinvolved.[14]
Oneresultofthisstyleofwarfarewasalevelofcasualtiesunknown
inpreviousconflicts.[15]Approximately2millionGermansand1.3
millionFrenchmendiedduringthewar720,000Britishsoldiers
RoyalIrishRiflessoldiersrestingina
died,alongwith61,000Canadian,60,000Australianand18,000
communicationtrenchearlyinthe
NewZealandservicemen.[16]OntheEasternfront,300,000
BattleoftheSomme
Romaniansalonedied.[17]Thewarhadaglobalimpact,andatleast
2,000ChinesediedintheEuropeantheatreoftheconflictalone.[18]
Manyofthedeathsoccurredwithinashortperiodoftime,oraffectedparticulargroups:halfofFrance's
casualtiesoccurredduringthefirst17monthsofthewar,forexample,whiletheFrenchmiddleandupper
classessuffereddisproportionatelosses.[19]Manyofthosewhosurvivedwereinjuredinthecourseofthe
fightingsomeinjuries,suchasfacialtraumas,resultedinthevictimbeingshunnedbywidersocietyand
bannedfrompublicevents.[20]Theselossesalsoleftlargenumbersofwidowsandorphans1.36min
Francealoneandaffectedmostfamiliesinsomeway:inAustralia,everysecondfamilyhadlosta
relative.[21]Eventhoseleftathomehadsufferedextensivelyfromstress,anxietyandgrief.[22]
Thewarhadalsoledtopoliticaltensions,revolutionandturmoil.InRussia,theconflictresultedin
revolutionandcivilwarbetween1917and1923,andtherisetopoweroftheCommunistBolshevik
government.[23]TheGermanEmpirehadseenrevolutionbreakoutattheendofthewar,withviciousstreet
fightinginthemajorcities,includingBerlinsomeGermansfeltthatthisexperiencewastooquickly
forgotteninthepostwaryears.[24]Romaniaalmostdescendedintorevolutionaswell.[25]Therewasturmoil
inIreland210,000IrishservedinthewaraspartoftheBritishforces,buttheEasterRisinginDublinin
1916ledinturntotheIrishWarofIndependenceandthelatercivilwar.[26]Elsewherethewarexposed
simmeringethnicandreligiousdivisions.InCanada,forexample,thedistinctionsbetweentheEnglish,
largelyProtestant,andFrenchspeaking,predominantlyCatholic,partsofthecountrybecomeincreasingly
apparent,withconscriptionbecomingamajorpoliticalissue.[27]
Intheyearsafterthewar,veterans,thebereavedandtherestofsocietyfocused,tothepointofobsession,
withtheproblemofdeath.[28]Therewastremendousinterestincreatingwarmemorialsthatcelebratedthe
themesofglory,heroismandloss.[29]Inpart,therewasaruptureordislocationwiththeprewarnormsof
howmemorialsshouldlookandfeelcommunitiessoughttofindnew,radicalwaystomournthemillions
ofdead,killedinanessentiallymodernconflict.[30]Inotherways,thebuildingofmemorialsdrewon
traditionalformsandideas,drawingonexistingreligiousandarchitecturalthemestoexplorelossand
grief.[31]
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Responsesduringthewar
Asthewarprogressed,memorialsbegantobecreatedinmostcountries,
eitherinciviccentres,personalhomesoronthebattlefieldsthemselves.
MemorialstookvariousnamesacrossEuropeamongstEnglishspeaking
countries,suchmemorialshadpreviouslybeencalledfallensoldiers'
monuments,buttheterm"warmemorial"becamepopularisedbythe
conflict,drawingattentiontotheroleofsocietyasawholeintheevents.[32]
Germanyfollowedsuit,termingthememorialsKriegerdenkmal,war
monuments.[33]BycontrastFranceandItalytermedthemmonumentsaux
mortsandmonumentiaicaduti:monumentstothedead,anexplicit
referencetothedeceased.[34]Manyofthesememorialswereinprivate
homesratherthaninpublicplaces,asbereavedfamiliesoftenmade
domesticmemorials,usingphotographsofthedeceasedandpersonal
objectssentbackfromthefront.[35]
InBritainandAustralia,earlymemorialswerecloselylinkedtotheneedto
promotemilitaryrecruitmentandthestatehadanambivalentattitude
NagelfigurofPaulvon
towardstheinformalmemorialsthatemergedduringtheconflict.InBritain,
HindenburginBerlin,1915
stonememorialstothewarbegantobeerectedintownsandvillagesfrom
1915onwardssomeoftheseweregivenoutbythestateasrewardsto
communitiesformeetingmilitaryrecruitmenttargets.[36]InAustralia,theexistingmemorialstomarkthe
BoerWarwereusedinitiallyusedforcommemorativeceremoniesintendedtoincreasemilitary
recruitment.[37]Ascasualtiesincreased,rollsofhonourlistingthedeadbegantobedisplayedinBritainand
honourtabletswiththenamesofthosewhohadenlistedwereputupinsideAustralianbuildings:Australia
usedtheseliststoapplymoralpressureonthosewhowerenotyetjoinedup.[38]Informalmemorialsbegan
tomultiplyasthewarprogressed.LocalAustraliangroupserectedsmallmonuments,suchasdrinking
fountainsandstonepillars,tothepointwherethegovernmentbecameconcernedabouttheexpenditureon
themandpassedalawin1916tocontroltheirnumbers.[39]InBritain,someAnglicanchurchleadersbegan
tocreatestreetwarshrinestothedead.Thesecheap,localmemorialsweremainlyconstructedinworking
classdistricts,oftenbuiltfromwoodandpaper,andwereusedforholdingshortservicesinhonourofthe
deadandtoholddonationsofflowers.[40]Theywerecriticised,however,aspromotingCatholic
ritualism.[40]Officialsupportfortheshrinesonlycameafteranationalnewspapercampaign,effortsbythe
LordMayorofLondonandawellpublicisedvisitfromQueenMarytoashrine,andstandardisedstone
shrinesthenbegantoreplacetheearlier,temporaryversions.[41]
AcrosstheGermanEmpirenagelfiguren,warmemorialsmadefromironnailsembeddedinwood,became
popular,particularlyinAustria.[42]Thesetookvariousforms,includingknights,shields,eaglesandcrosses,
aswellassubmarines.[43]Thispracticehadmedievalorigins,andthememorialswerereinforcedbythe
promotionofburgfriedenduringthewar,amedievalpactinwhichdisparateGermancommunitieswould
putasidetheirdifferencesduringaconflict.[44]Insomecases,relativesofthedeceasedwereencouragedto
hammermemorialnailsinaspartoftheceremonies,whilechildrenmightbeencouragedtoreadoutpoems
inamedievalstyle.[45]Atsomenagelfigurenachargewasmadeforeachnailused,withtherevenues
donatedtocharitiessupportingsoldiers,orphansandothersaffectedbytheconflict.[43]
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Somerelativelylargememorialswereconstructedduringthewar.
ThelargestnagelfigurenwasastatueofGeneralHindenburg,
famousforhisvictoryovertheRussiansinPrussiaatthebattleof
Tannenbergthe12mtallstatuewasputupinBerlin,completewith
scaffoldingtoallowparticipantstoreachthestatueandhammer
nailsin.[46]Bytheendofthewar,architectsinGermanyalready
consideringhowtocommemoratethedead.[47]Alarge,temporary
memorialshrinewasbuiltinHydeParkinAugust1918,withover
100,000visitorsinitsfirstweek:itlastedoverayear.[48]TheHyde
ParkshrineencourageddebateinBritainaboutpermanentwar
Britishwarcemeteryinearly1918
withtemporarycrossesatAbbeville,
memorialsinthemajorcitiesandtowns.[49]Museumstoremember
France
theeventsofthewaralsobegantobecommissioned
governmentally:theImperialWarMuseuminBritainin1917,
AustraliabeganaWarMuseumin1917privately,therepositoryofwartimerecordsinFrance,Germany
theKriegsbibliothek.[50]
Duringtheconflictitself,monumentswereerectednearthebattlefieldsandthetemporarycemeteriesbeing
usedtostorethedead.[51]IthadbeenhopedinBritaintorepatriatethewardead,butthisrapidlyproved
entirelyimpractical,leadingtohaphazard,improvisedarrangementsaroundthebattlefields.[52]By1916
over200warcemeterieshadbeencommissionedinFranceandBelgium,promptingdebateaboutwhat
longertermmemorialsmightbeappropriateatthesesites.[52]Thegovernmentwasconcernedthat
unsuitable,evendistastefulmemorialsmightbeerectedbyrelativesatthecemeteriesandthedecisionwas
takenthatthecemeterieswouldbecontrolledbythestate,andthatauniformdesignwouldbeappliedto
thememorialsatthegraves.[53]Frenchcemeterieswereusedforasmemorialsitesforceremoniesby
injuredsoldiersduringthewarandmanytownsbegantonamestreetsandsquaresafterVerdun.[54]In
Belgium,wherethemovementofthewarandlossesofterritoryhadmeantthattheFlemishelementsofthe
populationwereincreasinglyformingadisproportionatepercentageofthearmy,thelanguageonthe
memorialheadstonegraduallybecameanissue,leadingtocallsforthecreationofheldenhuldezerkjes,
headstonesinscribedinFlemish,ratherthantheusualFrench.[55]InImperialRussia,theMoscowCity
FraternalCemeterywasconstructedforthewardeadin1915bytheImperialroyalfamilyandsenior
Moscowpoliticalleaders,whohopedthatitsinspiringarchitecturewouldensurepatriotisminfuture
generationsofRussians.[56]
Interwar(191939)
Construction
Commissioningmemorials
Variousdifferentmechanismsforcommissioningtheconstructionofwarmemorialsemergedduringthe
interwarperiod.Inmostofthenationsinvolvedintheconflict,thememorialserectedintownsandcities
wereusuallycommissionedbylocalcommunityleadersandothercivicgroups,withrelativelylittleorno
centralstateinvolvement.Somenationalorganisationsemerged,includingtheBritishWarMemorials
CommitteeandtheCanadianWarMemorialsFund,butthesefocusedonnarrow,limitedprojects,rather
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thantryingtocoordinateanationalresponse.[57]Thelocalprocesses
andcommitteescouldresultinmultiplememorialsbeingcreatedfor
thesamecommunityorevent:thesiteofVerdunwas
commemoratedbythreedifferentmemorials,forexample,while
someBritishtownssawrivalmemorialscreatedbycompeting
groupsinthecommunity.[58]
Incontrast,theconstructionofwarcemeteries,gravesandtheir
associatedmemorialsweretypicallyplacedunderthecontrolofa
centralstateauthority.TheImperialWarGravesCommission
Designforawarmemorialchurchin
[59]
TsarskoyeSelo,Russia,1916
(IWGC)tookonthisroleforBritainandherempire. The
CommissionenazionaleperlaonoranzeaicadutidiguerrainItaly
coordinatedthemilitaryrepatriationofbodiesandtheconstructionofcemeteries.[60]TheGermanwar
gravescommission,theVolksbundDeutscheKriegsgrberfrsorge(VDK),wasestablishedin1919,and
tookstrictcontroloverthecreationandstyleofGermanwarcemeteries.[61]TheAmericanBattle
MonumentsCommissionoversawUSmilitarygravesinasimilarfashion.[62]
InBritainandAustralia,localcommunityleaderswereexpectedtoorganiselocalcommitteestocreatewar
memorials.[63]Britainhadastrongtraditionoflocalgovernmentandmayors,councilchairmenorsimilar
leaderswouldusuallystepforwardtoestablishamemorialcommittee.[64]Thesecommitteesmightthen
bringinawidercrosssectionoflocalcommunityleaders,includingChristianclergy,Jewishleaders,
voluntaryorganisations,rifleclubsandvolunteerpolice,althoughsometimescommitteesweremoretightly
controlledbylocalgovernmentofficials.[65]Formerservicemenoccasionallyfeltthattheiropinionswere
excludedfromtheformalprocesses,whileinothercasescomplaintsweremadethatthewealthiermembers
ofthecommunityweregivenadisproportionateroleindecisionmaking.[66]InbothBritainandAustralia,
localmemorialswerealsosupplementedbyothermemorialsthatreflectedwidergroupsinsociety,suchas
militaryunitsorparticularsports,hobbiesorevenanimals.[67][nb1]NorthAmericalargelyfolloweda
similarprocess.InCanada,theearlymemorialstothewarweretypicallyorganisedbygroupsofformer
soldiers,theCanadianLegionorlocalauthorities.[69]TherewasconsiderablediscussionintheUSduring
1919abouttheneedtoconstructasuitablygrand,nationalmonumenttocommemoratethewardead,but
thediscussionsfailedtoproduceaconsensusandnoprojectwasundertaken.[70]
CompetitiondesignsfortheCanadian
NationalVimyMemorial
Inothercountries,thestateplayedastrongerroleintheprocessof
commissioningmemorials.France,forexample,mostlyreliedon
localcommunitiestoorganiseandcommissionmostwarmemorials,
butthestateplayedacomparativelylargerrolethaninBritainand
similarcountries.Alawwaspassedin1919establishinganofficial
roleforlocalgovernmentofficialsintheprocessofcommissioning
memorialsmanytownsthenformedcommitteestotakethisprocess
forward,typicallyatthecommunelevel.[71]Membersofthe
SouvenirFranaisorganisationplayedanimportantroleinmanyof
theresultinglocalcommittees.[72]Inothercases,governments
increasedtheirroleincommissioningmemorialsduringtheinter
warperiod.InRomania,mostmemorialsintheearly1920swere
initiallyerectedbylocalcommunitiesin1919theroyalfamily
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createdtheSocietateaCultulEroilorMoritooverseecommemorationofthewarmoregenerallythe
organisationwasheadedbythePatriarchoftheRomanianOrthodoxChurch.[73]Bythe1930sofficial
concernoverthediverserangeofdesignsledtoincreasedcentralcontrolovertheprocess.[74]
TheriseofFascisminparticularfrequentlyencouragedgreaterstateinvolvement.InItaly,betweentheend
ofthewarand1923localgroupsandorganisationshadestablishedtheirownlocalmemorialsinvillages
andtowns.[75]Notallvillagesagreedthatmemorialswereappropriate,eitherforpoliticalorreligious
reasons.[76]WiththeFascistrevolution,thisprocessbecamemorecentralisedveterangroupswere
assimilatedbytheFascistgovernmentin1926,andasystematicattempttoconstructsuitablenationaland
localmemorialsfollowed.[76]InGermany,thepoliticalandeconomicchaosoftheimmediatepostwar
yearsdiscouragedtheconstructionofcivicwarmemorialsandcomparativelyfewcivicmemorialsintheir
largertowns,mainlyduetotheshortageoffundsintheinterwarGermaneconomyandpolitical
disagreementsbetweenlocalgroupsastowhattocommemorateandhow.[77]Thosememorialsthatwere
constructedwereoftenbuiltinsteadbylocalmovements,representingparticularfactionalinterests.[78]It
wasonlyaftertheriseoftheGermanNazipartytopowerin1933thatsubstantialfundingbegantoflow
intoconstructionprogrammes,controlledfromBerlin.[79]
Asaresultofalltheseprocesses,largenumbersofmemorials,morethanforanyotherconflict,werebuilt
acrosstheworldduringtheinterwarperiod.[80][nb2]ItisestimatedthatFrancebuiltaround176,000war
memorials,includingaround36,000inthelocalcommunes.[82]Mostofthelocalcommunememorialswere
builtby1922,butthoseinthetownsandcitiestypicallyrequiredmoreprotractednegotiations,andtheir
constructionstretchedintothe1930s.[83]The1920swereparticularlybusyforconstructionofmemorialsin
Britain,althoughthetrendtailedoffin1930s,withthelastinterwarmemorialunveiledatthetownof
Mumblesin1939.[84]ThecommissioningofAustralianwarmemorialssimilarlyreducedafterthemid
1920s.[85]Over3,500Romanianmemorialswereerected.[17]ManyGermanmemorialswerebuiltduring
the1930s.[79]RussiawasunusualinbuildingveryfewwarmemorialstotheeventsofWorldWarI,mainly
asaresultofthedevastationoftheCivilWarandthepoliticalviewsofthesubsequentBolshevik
government.[86]
Communityandcivicmemorials
Civicandprivatememorialsinresponsetothewartookmanyforms,frommonuments,sculpture,
buildings,gardens,artisticworksorspecialfundstosupportparticularactivities.[87]Oneofthemajor
distinctionsbetweenproposedwarmemorialsinvolvedadistinctionbetweenutilitarianandnonutilitarian,
symbolicdesignsintheUS,utilitarianmemorialsweretermed"livingmemorials".[88]Utilitarian
memorialswereintendedtocommemoratethedeadbyhavingapracticalfunctionandtypicallyinclude
projectssuchaslibraries,smallhospitals,cottagesfornursingstaff,parks,clocktowersorbowlinggreens,
althoughinBritainandCanada,largescaleurbanredevelopmentprojectswerealsoproposed,including
rebuildingthecentreofWestminster,toformahugewarmemorialcomplexandbuildingasubwayunder
theDetroitRiver.[89]Incontrastnonutilitarianmemorials,suchasmonuments,rememberedthedead
purelythroughtheirsymbolismordesign.[88]Locationscouldbealsocontentious:inFrance,some
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argumentsastowhethermarketplaces,forexample,weresuitable
locations:wasitgoodtochooseacentrallocation,ordidthischeapenthe
symbolism?[82]InBritain,inashiftfrom19thcenturypractices,memorials
weretypicallyplacedinbusypublicplaces.[90]
Insomecountries,suchasFranceandGermany,utilitarianmemorialswere
consideredtotallyunsuitabletheGermans,forexample,thoughtthem
unpatrioticanddisrespectfultothedead.[91]Inother,particularlymore
Protestantcountries,however,avigorousdebateragedastowhether
utilitarianorsymbolicmemorialsweremoreappropriate.[92]InBritain,this
debatewasspurredonbytheformationofvariousnationalsocietiesto
promoteparticularperspectives.[93]Somefeltthatpracticalmemorialsfailed
AFrenchobeliskmemorial,
torememberthewardeadproperlyothersarguedthatthesememorials
decoratedwiththecroixde
helpedsupportthesurvivorsofthewarandsocietyasawhole.[94]Although
guerre,palmofpeaceanda
theseargumentsfrequentlybecameembroiledinlocalpolitics,therewas
Gallicrooster
littlecorrelationbetweennationalpoliticalviewsandopinionsontheform
ofmemorials.[95]MostmemorialsinAustraliaweremonumentalratherthan
utilitarian,butpracticalmemorialssuchashospitals,schoolsornewroadswereincreasinglypopularinthe
postwarperiod,althoughsomeconcernswereraisedthatthesememorialsmightbelaterdemolishedas
Australia'stownsexpanded.[96]InAmerica,utilitarianmemorialsweremorepopular,andtheestablishment
oftheNationalCommitteeonMemorialBuildingssupportedthistrend.[97]TheAmerican"living
memorial"movementwasaidedbywidespreadcriticismofthewarmonumentstotheAmericanCivilWar,
whichmanyfelttohavebeenpurelyexecuted.[88]
Churchmemorial,designed
in1920forMalvern
PresbyterianChurch,
Melbourne
Forsymbolicmemorials,numerousdesignswerepossible,fromsimple
monumentsthroughtomuchmorecomplexpiecesofsculpture.Obelisks
hadbeenapopularmemorialforminthe19thcenturyandremainedsoin
theinterwaryears,includinginBritain,France,AustraliaandRomania.
Onefactorinthispopularitywasthatobeliskswererelativelycheapto
build,whiletheyalsofittedwellwiththeexistingcivicarchitectureinmany
towns.[98]Memorialplaqueswereanotherpopularmemorialstylearound
theworld.[99]Soldiers,eitherindividuallyoringroups,wereapopular
sculpturalfeatureinmostcountries,portrayedinvariousstancestypically
thesewereallegorical,althoughinFrancethestyleofthesoldiercouldalso
carrypoliticalmeaningandreflectlocalpoliticalsympathies.[100]Although
thetrendpredatedtheFirstWorldWar,veryfewWesternwarmemorials
portrayedheroiccommandingofficers,ashadbeenpopularearlierinthe
19thcenturyifsoldiersweredepicted,theywereinvariablyordinary
soldiers,usuallyinfantrymen.[101]AftertheunveilingoftheCenotaphin
London,itbecameapopulardesigninmanyotherlocationsinBritainand
Australiatoo.[102]
Inotherrespects,individualcountrieshaddifferentpreferencesforstylesofmemorial.Frenchcommunities
usuallychosesimplemonuments,locatedinpublicspaces,anddeliberatelyavoidedpoliticalorreligious
imageryandrhetoric.[103]InAustraliaandtheUS,memorialhallssomeofwhichwerelarge,grand
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structureswerepopular.[104]AustraliaalsocreatedtheideaofanAvenueofHonour,involvinglinesof
trees,withmemorialplaques,alongaroad.[104]CanadiansoftenbroughtbackvariousmaterialfromEurope
fortheirmemorials,includingpiecesoflocalEuropeanchurchesandsoilfromtherelevantbattlefields.[105]
Individualcountriesalsohadtypicalnationalsymbolsthatwerewidelyincorporated,fromtheBritish
Britannia,totheGallicroostertotheRomanianvulture.[106]Postcardsofwarmemorialswerewidely
producedinBritainandItaly,andceramicmodelsofthemorefamousones,suchastheCenotaph,were
soldassouvenirs.[107]
Cemeteries
TheWorldWarIwarcemeteriesrepresentedimportantmemorialssitestotheconflictandtypically
incorporatedspecificmonumentscommemoratingthedead.UndertheTreatyofVersailles,eachcountry
wasmadeofficiallyresponsibleformaintainingthemilitarygravesinsidetheirterritories,buttherelevant
countriesofthefallensoldiersweretypicallygrantedthefreedomtodesignandbuildthemilitary
cemeteriesthemselves.[108]Somecountries'cemeterieswouldnaturallybeontheirownsoil,butinother
cases,suchasforBritainandtheDominions,thecemeteriescouldberelativelydistantthefailureto
repatriateBritishwardeadfromEuropeearlyinthewarhadproveddomesticallycontroversial,andwhen
theUSjoinedthewarin1917theirgovernmenthadpromisedrelativesthatbodieswouldberepatriatedto
theUSaround70percentoftheUSwardeadweresentback.[109]AlongtheWesternfront,thecemeteries
weretypicallyconcentratedinspecificlocations,withthebodiesbroughtinsomedistancestoformlarger
cemeterieselsewhere,thecemeteriestendedtobesmallerandmorescattered.[110]
TherewasmuchdiscussionacrosstheBritishempireabouthowtheIWGCshouldcommemoratethewar
dead.Theconstructionofwarcemeterieswasaclearpriority,buttherewasanambitiontoproducea
groundbreakingseriesofmemorialstothefallensoldiersandthekeybattlesalongtheWesternfront,while
intheeasttherewasanurgentpoliticalrequirementtoconstructmemorialstoreinforceBritain'sinterwar
claimstoinfluenceandterritoriesacrosstheregion.[111]TheDominionsalsowantedtohavetheirown
nationalmonumentsaspartoftheprogrammeofwork.[112]Initiallytwelvemajormemorialswereplanned,
eachofwhichwouldcombineamemorialtoakeybattlefield,acemeteryandamonumenttoaspecific
Dominion,buttheFrenchgovernmentraisedconcernsovertheconsiderablenumberandsizeofthese
memorials,leadingtotheplansbeinghalvedinscale.[113]
IWGCwarcemeteriesfeaturedgrassandflowerswithina
walledarea,intendedtoresembleanEnglishgardenalmostall
wereconstructedaroundaWarStoneandaCrossofSacrifice,
describedinmoredetailbelow.[114]Thestylevariedslightlyby
architectandlocation,buttypicallythecemeteriesfollowed
classicalinfluencesinbuildingsandmonuments,sometimes
OhlsdorfCemetery,Germany
adaptedslightlytoappealtothestyleofaparticular
Dominion.[115]Thebuildingsatthecemeterieswereimportant
symbolicallyandformedakeypartofthesedesigns.[116]Thegravesprovedcontroversial:initiallythey
weremarkedbywoodencrossesbut,aftersomeargument,itwasagreedtoreplacethesewithPortland
stonemarkerstheoriginalwoodenmemorialswereinsomecasesreturnedtothesoldier'snextofkin.[117]
Eachmarkerwasidenticalinshapeandindividualisedonlythroughtheinscriptionofthename,regiment,
dateofdeath,areligioussymbolandashorttextagreedbythenextofkin.[117]Publicdebateensuedabout
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thesegravesthroughoutthe1920s.Britishofficialswereconcernedaboutfamilieserectingtheirown
memorialsonthesitesanddetractingfromtheappearanceofthecemeteriescriticscomplainedaboutthe
secularnatureofthememorials,thelimitedoptionsforfamiliestoindividualisethegravesandthe
excessiveroleoftheIWGCindetermininghowthesoldierswereburied.[118]
TheconstructionoftheFrenchcemeterieswascomplicatedbyevenmoreheatedargumentsoverhowthe
bodiesofthewardeadshouldbedealtwith.[59]DuringtheconflicttheFrenchwardeadhadendedupbeing
splitbetweenspecialwarcemeteries,localciviliancemeteriesandsomehadbeenreturnedtotheiroriginal
villages.[59]Catholictraditionalistsinthegovernmentcalledforthebodiestobeburiedtogetherinspecial
cemeteriesalongtheWesternfront,whileotherscampaignedforthemtobereturnedtolocal
cemeteries.[119]In1919,thedecisionwastakentousespecialwarcemeteriesandtobantherepatriationof
bodies,butby1920thisdecisionhadbeenreversedand300,000Frenchbodieswererepatriatedtotheir
originalhomes.[120]TheFrenchwarcemeteriesweretypicallymuchlargerthantheirIWGCequivalents
andusedconcreteCatholiccrossesforallthegraves,withtheexceptionoftheIslamicandChinesewar
dead.[121]
GermanwarcemeteriesaresomewhatdifferentfromFrenchandBritishones,beingmoreaustereand
simpleindesign.[108]Theywerebuiltaroundlawns,withoutflowersorotherdecorations,intendedto
highlightacceptanceofthetragedyandavoidtheexpensiveandpretentioussentimentalitythattheGerman
VDKfeltAlliedcemeteriesinvoked.[122]Germanwarcemeteriesalsoincludedheldenhaine,heroes'groves
populatedwithoaktreesandlargeboulders,dolmen.Bothsymbolisingnaturethislandscapingwas
consideredtobeparticularlyimportantforGermanwarcemeteries.[123]Thecemeteriesusedslategrave
markers,lessindividualisedthanBritishorFrenchequivalents,andfelttobettersymbolisetheimportance
Germannationasawhole.[124]
IneasternEurope,Romaniabuiltwhatweretermedheroes'wargravecemeteries,eitherinexistingheroes'
cemeteries,onthesitesoftheWorldWarIbattles,orinnewcemeteriessymbolicallyplacedontheedges
oftowns.[125]ThesituationwassomewhatdifferentinRussia,however,wheretheMoscowCityFraternal
CemeterywasusednotjustforthewardeadofWorldWarI,butalsoforthecasualtiesoftheCivilWar,
andthenthevictimsofthesecretpolice.[126]ItwasfinallyclosedbytheBolsheviksin1925andturnedinto
aparksubsequently,possiblyontheordersofJosephStalin,theEasternOrthodoxchurchandthe
headstonesweresystematicallydestroyeduntilalmostnotraceofthecemeteryremained.[127]
Afinalwaveofwarcemeterymemorialswerecompletedinthe1930sundertheFascistgovernmentsof
GermanyandItaly.ThemainItalianwarcemeterieswerenotfinisheduntil1938,andtheirpositioningin
somecasescarriedspecialpoliticalmeaning,emphasisingItaly'srighttoclaimimportant,butethnically
diverse,borderregions.[128]InGermany,thesamedecadesawthecompletionoftotenburgen,fortressesof
thedead,usedaswarcemeteriesandmemorials.[79]Thesewereinsomesensesanextensionofthe
cemeterydesignsofthe1920s,celebratinganaturalGermanlandscape,butincludedextensivemodernist,
monumentalfeatures,intendingtohighlightGermanartisticskill.[129]
Battlefields
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Mostnationsconsideredcertainbattlefieldsparticularlyimportantbecause
ofthenationallossesthathadbeenincurredthere,andtookstepstoerect
specialmemorialstothem,alongsidethecemeteriesthatheldtheirwar
dead.TheFrenchregardedthebattlesaroundVerdunassymbolicofthe
entirewar,whilefortheBritishthebattleofYpresinBelgiumandthe
battleoftheSommeinFranceinparticularThiepvalhillhadsimilar
resonances.[130]AustralianandNewZealandforcesplacedspecial
significanceontheeventsofGallipoli.Inthesameway,Romaniaregarded
thebattlesofMretiandMrtiashugelysignificantsites,worthof
specialremembrance.[125]Intheinterwaryears,thesebattlefieldswere
frequentlydescribedasforming"sacred"groundbecauseofthenumber
deathsthathadoccurredthere.[131]
Nationalgovernmentalbodiesandcharitieswererapidlyformedtoproduce
memorialsforthesesites.TheBritishgovernment,forexample,setupthe
BattleExploitsCommitteein1919tocreatenationalbattlefieldmemorials,
Turkishbattlefieldmonument
[132]
andcemeteryatGallipoli
alongsidetheworkoftheIWGC.
Initiallytheirintentwastocelebrate
themoreheroicaspectsofthefighting,andtoavoidtheflavourof
memorialstothefallenthatwerebeingbuiltelsewhereby1921,however,thecommitteehadenteredintoa
partnershipwithIWGCandadoptedthesamefocusonthesacrificeofthefallensoldiers.[133]TheCanadian
BattlefieldsMemorialsCommission(CBMC)wassimilarlyestablishedin1920toproducewarmemorials
forthemajorbattlefieldsinvolvingCanadianforces.[134]
MausoleumofMreti,
dedicatedtothe27.000
soldierslostintheBattleof
Mreti
Arangeofbattlefieldmemorialsemerged.ThehugeDouaumontossuary
wasbuilttorememberVerdunthroughaprivateFrenchcharity,organised
bytheBishopofVerdun.[135]Theossuarywasdeliberatelymultifaith,
however,withCatholic,Protestant,JewishandIslamicfacilities.[136]The
RomanianauthoritiesbuiltasimilarmausoleumatMreti,explicitly
likenedtotheuseFrenchossuaryatVerdun.[137]CanadianVimy
Monument.Amidstsomeconcernsaboutdenigratingtheimportanceof
otherbattlefields,theCBMCfocusedonproducingasinglemajormemorial
atVimy.[138]InTurkey,theentirebattlefieldofGallipoliwascededto
Britainandherimperialalliesin1923,andtheareawasturnedintoan
extendedmemorialtothewardead.[139]Therewerenosettlementsto
reconstruct,sothegraveswerelargelyleftscatteredinindividualgravesor
smallcemeteries,andtheslopeswereplantedwithAustralian
vegetation.[140]ObeliskswereparticularlypopularmemorialsatGallipoli
alongtheridges,includingoneobelisk100fthigh.[141]
Therewasuncertaintyastohowtotreatthewiderbattlefieldssurrounding
thesemonuments.Attheendofthewar,visitorsandtouristscouldeasily
seethedamagecausedbythewarandthedetritusofthefighting,butpost
warreconstructionmeantthatbythe1930smostofthisdamagealongtheWesternfronthadbeen
restored.[142]Inseveralcases,veteransfeltthatthebattlefieldsshouldbemaintainedintheirimmediate
postwarconditionasmemorialsthereconstructionofthetownofYpreswasopposedbysomewho
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favouredkeepingtheruinsasamemorial.[143]ItwasproposedtoleavethefortificationsofDouaumontin
ruinsasamemorialtothedeadofVerdun,andtheissueofwhetherornottoreplanttheregionwithtreesin
the1930sprovedcontroversialwithveterans.[144]Somepartsofthetrenchsystemswerepreservedintactas
memorials,however,includingtheBeaumontHamelNewfoundlandMemorialandthetrenchsystematthe
CanadianNationalVimyMemorial.[145]Inothertheatres,suchasIraqandPalestine,reconstructiontook
muchlongerandbodiesremainedunburiedatleastuntil1929.[146]
Economics
Resourcesandfundswereneededtoconstructmostmemorials,
particularlargermonumentsorbuildingprojectssometimes
professionalservicescouldbeacquiredfornothing,butnormally
designers,workmenandsuppliershadtobepaid.[147]Different
countriesapproachedthisprobleminvariousways,dependingon
localcultureandtheroleofthestate.Despitethespecialnatureof
thememorials,contractualargumentsandissuesovercosts,timings
andspecificationswerecommon,fromsmallerworksinvillages
throughtomajorworks,suchastheVimyMemorial.[148]Thesheer
volumeofworkencouragedindustrialinnovation:carvingthe
inscriptionsintothemanythousandsofBritishmemorialstoneshad
tooriginallybeundertakenbyhand,forexample,untilaLancashire
companyinventedanautomatedengravingprocess.[117]
Workersin1928constructingthe
NationalWarMemorial,Adelaide
InBritain,voluntarysubscription,ratherthanfundingfromlocalorcentralgovernment,wasconsideredthe
onlycorrectwaytopayforawarmemorial,althoughitwasdisputedwhetheractiveproactivefundraising
wasappropriate.[149]Raisingthesumsrequiredcouldbequitedifficult,andmanycommitteestriedvarious
means,includingmoralblackmail,toexhortlargersumsoutofthemorewealthymembersofthe
community.[150]Theamountofmoneysuccessfullyraisedvariedconsiderably:thecityofGlasgow,witha
millioninhabitants,raisedapproximately104,000formemorialsLeeds,witharoundhalfamillion
inhabitants,only6,000.[151]AtypicalmemorialmonumentinBritaincostedbetween1,000and2,000,
butsomecouldbecheaperstilllargerpieces,suchastheRoyalArtilleryMemorial,couldcostasmuchas
25,000.[152]AustraliancommunitiesraisedfundsinsimilarwaystotheirBritishequivalents,butthe
processoffundraisingwasmuchmoreopen,andincludeddirectlycanvassingfordonations.[153]Typical
Australianprojectscostbetween100and1,000,withthelargermemorialscostingupto5,000bank
loanswerealsosometimesused.[154]MemorialsalongtheWesternfront,beinglarger,costrathermorethan
theircivicequivalentstheVillersBretonneuxAustralianNationalMemorial,forexample,costtheIWGC
andAustraliangovernmentaround40,000.[155]
TheFrenchapproachtofundingmemorialsalsoreliedmainlyonvoluntaryfundraising,butfeatureda
greaterroleforthestate.Alawpassedin1919providedforasubsidyfromcentralgovernmenttolocal
authoritiestoassistinbuildingmemorialsthemoneywasdistributedinproportiontothenumberoflocal
citizenswhohaddiedinthewar.[156]NonethelessthelargestFrenchprojects,suchastheOssuaryof
Douaumont,werestillpaidformostlythroughprivatefundraisingacrossFranceandtheinternational
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community:itcouldtakemanyyearstoraisethesumsrequired.[136]
TheOssuarycost15mfrancstobuildattheotherendofthescale,
moremodesturbanmemorialscostaround300,000francs.[157]
CarvingthenamesintotheCanadian
NationalVimyMemorial
Muchoftheinterwarperiodsaweconomicrecessionorstagnant
growth,makingfundraisingmorechallenging.Partiallyasaresult,
manymemorialprojectshadtobecutbackoralteredduetolackof
money.[158]ThefinalsizeofDouaumonthadtobecutinsizebya
thirdwhenfundraisingslowed.[159]Proposalstoturntheplanned
ImperialWarMuseumintoagrandmemorialforthewardeadwere
shelvedduetolackoffunds.[160]
Theconstructionofmemorialsproducedalotofbusinessinallthecountriesinvolvedinthewar.[161]In
BritainandAustralia,stonemasonsprovidedlargequantitiesofmassproduceddesign,oftenadvertising
throughcatalogues,whileprofessionalarchitectsacquiredthebulkofthespecialisedcommissionsforwar
memorials,makinguseoftheirprofessionalorganisations.[162]Professionalsculptorsarguedthattheirwork
wassuperiorandmoreappropriatethanthatofarchitects,buttheyreceivedfarfewercommissions.[163]
Britishstonemasonsprovidedcheapproductsthroughcatalogues.[164]InFrance,funeraldirectorsplayeda
largepartinthebusinessofproducingdesigns,producingcataloguesoftheirdesignsforlocalcommunities
tochoosefrom.[165]IntheUS,therewassufficientinterestthataspecialistmagazine,MonumentalNews,
wascreatedtosupportthetradeinwarmemorials.[88]
Innovationandgrieving
Namingthedead
ThedeathscausedbyWorldWarIweredifficultforpostwarsocietiestocopewith:theirunprecedented
scalechallengedexistingmethodsofgrieving.[166]Furthermore,anexpectationhadarisenduringthewar
thatindividualsoldierswouldexpecttobecommemorated,eveniftheywerelowrankingmembersofthe
military.[167]Onemethodusedtoaddressthiswastheinclusionoflistsofnames.Inpart,thiswasa
responsetothepracticalproblemofcommemoratingsuchlargenumbersofdead,butitcarriedadditional
symbolicimportanceinsomeways,thephysicalpresenceofanameactedtocompensateforanabsent
body.[168]Thelistscouldvaryinsizefromthe21nameslistedinasmallEnglishvillagelikeEastIlsley,to
the54,896namesinscribedontheMeninGateandthe73,357ontheThiepvalMemorial.[169]
CivicmemorialsinBritainandFrancetypicallyhadnamesinscribedinBritain,thesewereoftencombined
withothermottosorscript,inFrance,wherethesignificanceofthenametookevengreaterimportance,just
thenameswereusedwithasimpleintroduction.[170]InFrancethenameswereusuallylistedinalphabetical
order,resemblingamilitarypresentation.[171]TheBritishphrase,adoptedbyIWGC,"theirnamelivethfor
evermore",waspopularisedbyRudyardKipling,whohadlostasonduringthewar.[172]Britishlistsoften
omittedthesoldier'srank,creatinganimpressionofequalityindeath.[173]Longlistsofnamesupto
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6,000incorporatedintochurchesinEnglandandGermany.[174]InAustralia,wheretheforceswere
solelyvolunteers,allthosewhoservedweretypicallyrecordedonmemorials,whileinNewZealand,where
conscriptionapplied,onlythefallenwererecordedonmemorials.[175]
Touchingthenamesofthedeadonmemorialswascommongestureofgrievingintheinterwarperiod
sometimesmournerswouldalsokissthenames.[176]VisitorstothememorialsontheWesternfrontwould
oftenphotographortraceonpapertherelevantnamesonthememorials,takingtheseremindersbackwith
themtotheirhomes.[177]Bycontrast,thenamingofthedeadplayedalesssignificantroleinItaly,where
formallistsofthewardeadwerenotestablisheduntilthemid1920slocalcommunitiescompiledtheir
ownlists,usedtoproducelocalmemorialplaques,butthenationallistsremainedinaccurateformany
years.[178]
Afterthewar,abronzememorialplaque,inscribedwiththenameofthedeceasedalongsideBritanniaanda
lion,andascroll,senttothenextofkinofthosehaddiedintheserviceoftheBritishEmpire.[179]Honour
rollsinCanadawereverypopular,particularlyimmediatelyaftertheendofthewar,althoughthedecision
onwhichnamestoincludeonthemprovedcontentious:shouldaccidentaldeaths,forexample,be
included?[180]Whereitwasimpracticaltoinscribenamesinchurches,usuallyduetothenumberof
casualtiesandavailablespace,booksofnameswereoftenrecordedinstead.[181]
CenotaphsandTombsoftheUnknownSoldier
Alargenumberofsoldierswhodiedinthewarwereneverfound,
andsimilarlybodieswererecoveredthatcouldnotbeidentified
onceagain,thisrequirednewformsofmemorial.Thescaleofthe
issuewasonceagainhuge:73,000Allieddeadwereneverfoundat
theSomme,forexample,eitherbecausetheirbodieshadbeenlost,
destroyedorwereunrecognisable,morethanoneintenofthelosses
inthebattle.[182]
Oneofthekeydevelopmentsinmemorialstothewar,thecenotaph,
usedanemptytombtosymbolisetheseaspectsofthewar.In1919,
BritainandFranceplannedvictorymarchesthroughtheirrespective
capitalsandaspartofthisFrancedecidedtoerectatemporary
cenotaph,anemptysarcophagusmonument,whichwouldbesaluted
bythemarchingtroops.[183]TheBritishPrimeMinisterDavidLloyd
GeorgedecidedthatasimilarmemorialshouldbebuiltinLondon,
UnveilingoftheCenotaphin
despiteministerialoppositionthatacenotaphwasaninappropriate,
London,1920
Catholicformofmonument.[184]Thevictorymarcheswentahead
FrenchpoliticalleadershadthememorialinParisremoved
immediatelyaftertheparade,onthebasisthatitwastooGermanicinappearance,buttheLondoncenotaph
provedverypopularandhundredsofthousandsflockedtoseeit.[185]Thepopularityofthetemporary
Cenotaphresultedinitremainingopenuntilthefollowingyear,whenthedecisionhadtobetakenabout
whattodowiththedecayingstructure:therewasconcernfromthegovernmentthatapermanentmemorial
mightbevandalised,whilethepopularpresscriticisedanysuggestionofdismantlingtheexisting
structure.[186]Anew,permanentcenotaphdesignedbyEdwinLutyenswascommissionedandunveiledon
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WhitehallStreetonArmisticeDay1920,effectivelyturningthispartofLondonintoamemorialtothewar
overamillionpeoplevisitedthesiteduringNovemberthatyear.[187]Thememorialstylebecamevery
popularandspreadtoothercountriesinthesubsequentyears.[188]
Incontrasttotheemptycenotaph,anothernewformofmemorial,theTomboftheUnknownSoldier,used
theideaofburyingoneoftheunidentifiedbodiesfromthewarasasymbolicmemorialtoallofthelost
soldiers.[189]Thisideahadbeguntoemergetowardstheendofthewar,andwasactivelypromotedbysome
Britishveterans'groupsin1919.[190]Initially,however,itfailedtogaintractionwiththegovernment
becauseofthesuccessoftheWhitehallCenotaph,andasecondmemorialwasfelttobeunnecessary.[191]
Finally,in1920,followinglobbyingbyBritishclericDavidRailton,BritainandFrancebothdecidedto
createaTomboftheUnknownSoldier,choosinganunknownbodyandcreatingaspecialmemorialaround
itthetombswereinauguratedonArmisticeDay.[189]ThechoiceoflocationfortheFrenchtombproved
controversial,however,anditwasnotfinaliseduntilthefollowingyear,whenthebodywaslaidtorest
undertheArcdeTriumph.[189]Theconceptprovedpopular,andencouragedsimilarmemorialsinother
countries.[192]
InItaly,theideaofanUnknownSoldiermemorialwas
particularlypopular,bothbecauselistsofmemorialnameswere
lesscommonandbecausetheItalyhadsufferedparticularly
heavilyfromunidentifiablecasualtiesasaresultofthe
campaignsintheAlpsasmanyof60%ofthecorpsesburied
atRedipugliawereunidentifiable.[193]TheTombofthe
UnknownSoldierinRomewasbuiltin1921,withother
unidentifiablebodiesbeingadoptedbylocalcultsofthedead
acrossItaly.[193]TheItaliantombwassignificantinpolitical
termsItalywasdeeplydividedinthepostwaryearsandthe
Liberalgovernmenthopedthattheopeningwouldreunifythe
TheTomboftheUnknownSoldier,Paris
country.[194]Inpractice,thetombbecameapointoftension
betweentheLiberalsandtheItalianFascistmovement,and
BenitoMussoliniclaimedtohavetimedhisseizureofpowerthenextyeartoensurethatthe1922
ceremoniesatthetombwouldoccurunderaFascistgovernment.[194]
Othercountriesconsideredsimilarmemorials.TheUSconstructedaTomboftheUnknownSoldierin
1921whiletheideawasclearlyaforeignconcept,itprovedverypopularwiththeAmericanpublicandby
1936wasattractingover1.5mvisitorsayearandactingasaninformalnationalmonumenttothewar.[70]
EdwinRedslob,partoftheGermangovernment,supportedasimilarschemein1925,butwithoutsuccess,
andMainzCathedralandUlmMinsterwerelaterproposedasoptionsforatomb.[195]InGermany,atomb
wasnotfinallybuiltuntil1935,whenitwassponsoredbytheNazigovernmentthefinalmemorial
contained20bodiesofunknownGermansoldiersfromtheEasternfront.[196]Othercountriesalso
constructedtombs,includingBelgiumandPortugal,andasinFranceandBritainthesetombswereplaced
incapitalcitiestherewasanabortiveattempttoplacetheRomaniantombatMreti,butthisproved
impracticalforbothlogisticandceremonialreasons.[197]Canada,AustraliaandNewZealanddeclinedto
buildtheirowntombs,astheywereconsideredtoberepresentedbytheburialinLondon.[198]
Ceremonies
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Ceremoniescametosurroundmanymemorialsmanymemorialswereformallyopenedorunveiledin
publicceremonies,whileotherswereusedforrecurringceremonies
oncommemorativedays.MemorialsinBritainandFrancewere
typicallyopenedincivicceremoniesinvolvinglocaldignitaries,
veteransandthenextofkinoffallenservicemen.[199]Some
memorialsacquireddailyceremoniesin1928itbecamecustomary
toplaytheLastPostbuglecallattheMeninGatememorialeach
evening,forexample,andthispracticespreadtomanyothersimilar
memorialsinFrance.[200]
AnzacDayceremonyatCanungra's
Someceremonieswereformedaroundthememorialsonspecific
honourboardmemorial,Australia,
daysoftheyear.Duringthewar,theBritishhadcommemoratedthe
1937
4AugustasRemembranceDay,butthiswassupersededattheend
oftheconflictbyArmisticeDayon11Novembereach
year.[201][nb3]Itbecamethenormforceremoniestobeheldat
memorialsacrossBritainat11amonthisday,supportedbytwominutesofsilence,institutedbythe
Government,policeandlocalauthorities.[203]TheLondonCenotaphformedthenationalhubforthese
ceremoniesfrom1919onwardsatthefirstArmisticeDayceremony,itreceived500,000visitorsinfour
days.[202]TheceremonyattheCenotaphwasequatedtoareligiousevent:theDailyMail,forexample,
describedtheemotionandthe"mysticmeaning"attheceremonywhichcombinedtoproduceaspecial
"halo"andan"aura".[204]CeremoniesattheCenotaphwerecoveredandphotographedbythenational
papers,andnationalradiobroadcastsoftheeventcommencedin1928.[205]
ArmisticeDayceremoniesalsobecameimportantinFrance.The
earlyceremonieswereorganisedbyveterans'associationsonthe11
November,butin1921theFrenchgovernmentbecameconcerned
thattheseceremonieswereimpactingonindustrialproductivityand
movedthecommemorationtothefirstavailableSunday.[206]
Followingprotests,anationalFrenchholidaywasdeclaredin
1922.[207]Theceremonieswereheavilyinfluencedbythestate,with
nationalandlocalofficialsplayinganimportantpart,andtherewas
PresidentCalvinCoolidgeattheUS
anexpectationofuniversalnationalparticipation.[208]Attendees
TomboftheUnknownSoldier,1923
wouldmarch,oftenfromthelocalchurch,pastthelocalcemeteries
toarelevantmemorialtricolourflags,blackwreathsandwreathsof
flowerswouldbeplaceonoraroundthememorials,butunlikeBritaintherewasalmostnomilitary
symbolisminvolvedintheceremony.[209]Uptoahundrednamesofthedeadwouldthenbereadout,
typicallybyawarorphan,andthecrowdwouldfolloweachnamebysaying"MortpourlaFrance""He
diedforFrance"inunison.[210]
Otherimportantdayswerecommemoratedatmemorialsaroundtheworld.Australiacommemorated
ArmisticeDay,butheldlargerscalecommemorationsaroundAnzacDayon25April.[211]AnzacDaywas
foundedtoremembertheGallipolicampaign,andmemorialswereerectedforthefirstceremoniesin1916
dawnservicesatlocalmemorialsformedakeypartofthenationalevent.[212]InFrance,theauthoritiesin
VerdunorganisedtheFtesdelaVictoireon23June,centringonthecity'smemorialsandthenearby
ossuary.[213]TheseusuallyinvolvedseniorFrenchmilitaryfiguresandpageantry.[213]Ceremoniesto
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honourthefallenofthebattleoftheSommewereheldbytheBritishattheSommememorialsonthe
Sundaynearest1Julythroughoutthe1920sand1930s.[214]Romaniainterwaryears,theFeastofthe
Ascensionusedtocommemoratethewardead.[215]TermedHeroes'Day,civicprocessionsundercentral
guidancefromtheSocietatatookplacetothelocalwarmemorials.[137]The6Augustwasalsousedto
commemoratethebattleofMretiatthesite.[137]ManyoftheseadoptedtheBritishuseofcollective
silenceduringthememorialceremonies.[216]
Insomelocations,theseceremoniescouldprovecontroversial.
CanadaceremoniesonArmisticeDayinthe1920snot
straightforwardinMontrealpredominantlyAnglicanand
English,withFrenchandCatholicelementslargelyexcluded
untiltheend.[217]TheopeningoftheVimyMemorialdrew
criticismforitssecularnaturenoclergywereinvitedtospeak
despitethereligioussymbolismofmuchofthebuilding.[218]
TheMeninGateatMidnightbyWill
Theemotionalcharacteroftheceremoniesaroundthe
Longstaff,showingthedeadpassing
memorialschangedasgrievingtookplaceandmany
throughtheMeninGate
individuals,inevitably,continuedwiththeirlives.[219]Some
earlyceremoniesaroundmemorialswerebelievedtobeclosely
associatedwithspiritualevents.[220][nb4]TheopeningoftheMeninGatememorial,forexample,inspired
WillLongstaff'sdreamthatledtothefamousMeninGateatMidnightpainting,portrayingthefallendead
risingandwalkingthroughthegateway,whiletheCenotaphceremonieswerephotographedin1922,and
believedbysometoshowtheghostsofthewardead.[222]Indeed,earlyceremoniesattheLondonCenotaph
afterthewarwerefelttobeparticularlyemotionalcommentatorsfeltthatbythelate1920s,theevents
weremoreformalandlessfraughtwithemotionalthanpreviously.[223]InitiallyforeigndiplomatsinBritain
wereexpectedtolaywreathsonArmisticeDaythisrequirementwasreviewedinthe1930s.[223]In
Australia,therewereinitiallymanylocalceremoniesatmemorialsonAnzacDayspecificallyforbereaved
mothersbythe1930s,thesehadbeendiscontinuedandincorporatedintothewiderceremonial
occasion.[224]
Pilgrimages
Organisedorstructuredvisitstowarmemorialsbecamepopular
duringtheinterwaryears.Thesewereoftentermedpilgrimages,in
keepingwiththespiritualandreligiousnatureofthejourneys.[105]
Thesewerefrequentlycombinedwithotherceremoniesatthesites.
Tensionsexistedbetweenthosewhotravelledtothesitesastourists
andthosewhoperceivedthemselvesaspilgrims.[225]
Theunveilingofthememorialat
NiagaraFalls,Ontarioin1927,
subsequentlypublishedasapostcard
AlongtheWesternfrontthesebeganquiteearlyafterthewarand
continuedforseveraldecades,droppinginnumberinthemid
1920s,wheninterestinthewartemporarilydiminished,andagainin
theDepressionyearsoftheearly1930s.[226]Flemishpilgrimagesto
Belgiumgraves,particularlytheheldenhuldezerkjes,andmemorials
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beganin1919,continuingthroughthesubsequentdecades.[227]TheOssuaryatVerdunwasthecentrefor
manyveteranspilgrimagesinthe1920s,oneofthebetterknowngroupsbeingtheFtesdelaBataille,
whichtravelledtothesitetoundertakeavigil,processionsandlaywreaths.[159]Thesepilgrimageswere
typicallylowkeyandavoidedmilitarysymbolismorparaphernalia.[159]Ypresbecameapilgrimage
destinationforBritonstoimagineandsharethesufferingsoftheirmenandgainaspiritualbenefitthe
YpresLeaguewasestablishedbyveterans,andsoughttotransformthehorrorsoftrenchwarfareintoa
purifyingspiritualquest.[228]TheMeninGatememorialbecameafocalpointforBritishpilgrimstothe
Westernfrontafteritwasopenedin1927.[229]Pilgrimscouldcomelongdistances:inthe1920sCanadians
begantojourneytoVimyandAustraliansbeganvisitingGallipolifrom1925onwards,bringingback
militarysouvenirsrelics.[230]
GuidebooksforEnglishspeakingvisitorsbecamecommon,includinganumberofofficialpublications,
someextremelydetailed.[231]MajorDwightD.EisenhowerspentyearsworkingonaguidetoAmerican
battlefields.[232]A1920Britishguidebook,TheHolyGroundofBritishArmscapturedthemoodofthe
YpresLeague,stating:"thereisnotasinglehalfacreinYpresthatisnotsacred.Thereisnotasinglestone
whichhasnotshelteredscoresofloyalyounghearts,whoseoneimpulseanddesirewastofightand,ifneed
be,todieforEngland."[233]
IncentralandeasternEurope,thestateplayedagreaterroleinorganisingthesepilgrimages.TheNational
OrthodoxRomanianWomen'sSociety,supportedbythechurchandthestate,playedanimportantpartin
enablingregularpilgrimagestoimportantRomaniansitesupuntil1939.[234]InGermanyandItaly,the
Fascistgovernmentstookakeeninterestinorganisingsuchjourneys.InItaly,theseinvolvedlarge,state
influencedorganisations,andthegovernmentsteadilydiscouragedprivatevisitsorunofficialgroupsfrom
takingpartinalternativeceremoniesatthesesites.[235]InNaziGermany,pilgrimageswereorganisedtothe
newwarmemorialssponsoredbythegovernmentinthe1930s.[236]
Politics
ThememorialstoWorldWarIwerefrequentlypoliticised,eitherby
thedebatesovertheirconstructionanddesign,orbythesymbolism
incorporatedintothem.Evenwhereattemptsweremadetoensure
politicalneutrality,asinFrancewheretheinscriptionsonmemorials
wereusuallydeliberatelyneutral,avoidingpoliticalcontroversy,
nationalpoliticsinfluencedthesymbolismandmessages
incorporatedintothememorials.[237]
Pacifismslowlybegantoemergeafterthewar,butveryfewwar
TheTannenbergMemorial,
memorialscommunicatedapacifistmessage,largelybecauseinthe
Germany'sTomboftheUnknown
1920s,mostinthevictoriouscountriesfeltthatthewar,whilecostly
Soldier
inhumanlife,hadbeenworthfighting.[238]Antiwarprotestsinthe
interwaryearsdidusewarmemorials,however,aslocationsto
communicatetheirmessagestheCommunistpartyinFrance,forexample,heldralliesatthem.[239]In
Britain,politicalviewsaboutthewarinfluencedattitudestowardsmemorialdesignandtheceremoniesthat
surroundedthem.Thosewhosupportedthewarwerekeentoseetheidealsofjusticeandfreedom
embodiedinthedesignsthosewhoopposedtheconflictsoughtmemorialsthatwouldconvincepeopleto
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avoidfutureslaughter.[240]TheopeningofthetomboftheUnknownSoldierwascriticisedforwhatanti
warcampaignersfeltwasitsprowarpompandceremony,andtheburialoftheUnknownSoldierin
Westminsterraisedcontroversybetweenthosewholikedtheceremony,andthosewhothoughtthatthe
pageantrywasdesignedtodistractfromthepoorlivingconditionsfacedbythesurvivorsofthewar.[241]
Religiousdifferencesandtensionscouldmakeitdifficulttodesign
inclusivewarmemorials.InUS,theseparationofchurchandstatemeant
thatcrosseswerediscouraged.[242]Despitebeingbannedfromonwards
1905,manyFrenchmonumentswereexplicitlyCatholicincharacter,
includingaCatholiccross.[171]Australiaalsominimisedtheuseof
crosses,partiallyforsimilarreasons,butalsobecauseoverconcernsabout
excludingtheirJewishcommunity.[243]DecisionstoincorporateChristian
imageryintomemorialsinBritaincouldalsoexcludeminoritygroups,
suchasJews,fromparticipatinginamemorial.[244]InBritain,the
religiousdifferencesbetweenAnglicans,NonconformistsandRoman
Catholicswerefrequentlyplayedoutatalocallevelinargumentsoverthe
locationandsymbolismtobeusedinmemorials.[245]InCanada,where
thesedifferenceswereoverlaidacrosstheEnglishandFrenchspeaking
MemorialinCernobbio,Italy
nationaldivide,warmemorialsattemptedtoreunifythecountrytheCross
ofSacrificememorialinMontreal,forexample,wasdeliberatelysituated
inbetweentheCatholicandProtestantwarcemeteries.[246]Thiswasonlypartiallysuccessful
inaugurationceremonyandthemilitaryparaderesultedinshoutedargumentsbetweenFrenchandEnglish
speakingpartsofthecrowd.[217]
WorldWarImemorialswerealsoinvolvedinthecivilwarsandethnicdisputesoftheinterwarperiod.
Afterindependenceandthecivilwar,forexample,theRepublicofIrelanddidnotprioritise
commemoratingthedeadofWorldWarI,andindeedtheeventswerelargelyignored.[247]Attemptsto
constructmemorialsduringthe1930s,suchastheNationalWarMemorialGardensinDublin,were
discouragedbytheRepublicanmovementandfinallyblockedaltogetherin1939.[248]Bycontrast,
UnionistsinNorthernIrelandmadethewarakeypartoftheirpoliticalnarrative,emphasisingtheirrolein
eventssuchastheBattleoftheSomme.[249]Monumentswereerectedinprominentlocationsinthecentres
ofkeyNorthernIrelandcities.[247]
OthermultiethnicpartsofEuropefrequentlyfoundwarmemorialsequallycontentious.InFlanders,the
IJzertoren,acontroversialFlemishmemorialtower,wasopenedin1930,commemoratingthesacrifices
duringthewar,butalsocelebratingFlemishidentityandmarkingthehardtreatmentofFlemishactivistsby
theBelgianauthoritiesduringtheconflict.[250]Indisputedmultiethnicterritoriesintheeast,suchas
Transylvania,thewarhadcreatedbittermemoriesbetweenHungarianandRomanianinhabitants.[251]The
argumentswereplayedoutindifferencesastohowthedatesofthewarinwhichHungaryandRomania
hadenteredandleftatdifferenttimeswererecordedontombstonesandothermemorials.[251]InSerbia,the
KosovoMaidenwasextensivelyusedinwarmemorials,drawingalinkbetweenthewarandtheBattleof
Kosovo.[252]
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TheFascistmovementsinItalyandGermanyinthe1920sand1930smade
extensiveuseofWorldWarImemorialstocommunicateapolitical
message.[253]WarmemorialswereakeypartoftheItalianFascist
government'sprogramme,withmemorialssetupinthenameofthefallen
andtheFascistrevolution.[254]LocalFascistorganisationsmadeextensive
useofthewarmemorialsandassociatedceremoniestopromoteloyaltyboth
toItaly,andtotherevolution.[255]Thegovernmentpromotedthe"cultofthe
fallenhero",stressingthatthewardeadhadplayedavitalrolein
transformingItaly'spositioninEuropeandtransforminghistory.[76]The
FascistleaderMussoliniwaslessenthusiastic,however,abouttheTombof
theUnknownSoldier,whichhefeltwasassociatedwiththeformerregime
hediscourageditsuse,althoughremainedsensitivetoitssymbolic
importancetovariouspartsofItaliansociety.[256]Militaryflypastswere
addedtotheArmisticeceremoniesandtheTombitselfwasmovedin1935,
tomakeiteasiertousethememorialinmilitaryparades.[257]
TherebuiltFlemish
IJzertorentower
ThelaterGermanmonumentsconstructedbytheNazigovernmentweresubstantial,butcommunicateda
limitedrangeofsymbolicmessages,focusingonGermanheroism,conservativenationalismsentimentsand
masculinity.[258]UseofmassgravessymbolisedthesenseofGermancommunity.[259]WhenPaulvon
Hindenburgdiedin1935,theTannenbergMemorialwasthenusedashismausoleum,commemoratingelite
militaryleadershipduringthewar.[259]TheNazigovernmentattemptedtohavetheJewishnamesremoved
fromthewarmemorials,butthisprovedimpracticalandinsteadalawwaspassedforbiddingtheiraddition
toanyfuturememorials.[260]Thegovernmentalsoremovedmoreexperimentalearlierwarmemorials
whichwerefelttocommunicateaninappropriatemessageaboutthewar,suchastheworkofErnst
Barlach.[261]
Architecture
MostWorldWarIwardesignersattemptedtoproducememorials
thatwere,asculturalhistorianJayWinterdescribes,noble,
uplifting,tragicandendurablysad.[262]Therewerevarious
architecturalstylesusedonmemorials,butmostwereessentially
conservativeinnature,typicallyembracingwellestablishedstyles
suchasclassicismandembracingmainstreamChristian
symbolism.[263]Thisconservatisminpartresultedfromtheageand
backgroundofthecommitteesthatwerecommissioningthe
memorials,andalsofromasensethatestablishedarchitectural
styles,ratherapotentiallymoretransitorybutfashionablestyle,
wouldbemoreenduringandappropriate.[264]
TheTomboftheUnknownSoldier,
Italy
Professionalconcernwasraisedinseveralcountriesaboutthe
qualityofmemorials.Australiansexpressedcriticalconcernfrom1919onwardsaboutthepoorqualityof
thesculpturesofsoldiersonmemorials,theblamebeingplacedonthecheapreproductionsbystone
masons.[161]Theirgovernmentrespondedbyestablishingadvisoryboardstodiscouragethistrend.[265]
Britainalsosawconcernsoverthe"stereotypeddesigns"beingsuppliedbyfirmsofstonemasons,andhere
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againnumerousbodiesissuedguidanceonbetterpractices,includingtheRoyalAcademyofArt,the
ChurchofEnglandtheCivicArtsAssociationwasformedspecificallytohelp.[266]Theopinionof
professionalartistsandcriticsremainedquiteimportantforcommitteeswhenchoosingdesigns,however,
andtherewasvigorousdiscussionbetweensupportersofdifferentstylesandarchitecturaltraditions.[267]
Manydesignerswereinvolvedintheconstructionofmemorials,butsomebecameparticularlywellknown
fortheirworkinthisarea.Manyofthesculptorsactiveonthememorialswereestablished,Victorianera
individualsthewarhaddisruptedthetrainingofanewgeneration,andmanyyoungsculptorshadbeen
killed.[268]Someattemptsweremadetogivepreferencetodesignerswhohadfoughtinthewar,butthis
wasfarfromuniversal.[269]InBritishcircles,EdwinLutyens,HerbertBaker,ReginaldBlomfieldand
CharlesHoldenformedthecoreoftheestablishedartiststhesewerejoinedbyCharlesSargeantJagger,
GilbertLedwardandEricGillfromtheyoungergeneration.[270]PietroPorcelliwasaparticularlyprolific
Australiandesigner.[271]InGermany,KtheKollwitzmemorialofagrievingmotherattheRoggevelde
cemeteryparticularlyfamous,andbasedonherownlossofasonduringthefightinginthewar.[272]
Symbolism
WorldWarImemorialsmadeextensiveuseofsymbolismandallegory.[273]
Someofthesesymbolswerenationalincharacter,carryingasimple
messageaboutnationalvictoryaGallicroostertriumphingovera
German,thecroixdeguerre,ortheRomanians'symbolfortheirheroes'cult
forexamplebutothers,suchasimagesofinfantrymen,couldbeusedin
differentways,dependingonhowtheywereportrayed.[274]Somesculpture
ofFrenchinfantrymen,forexample,aimstocapturethespiritofFrench
republicanism,whileothersaredesignedwithmorerightwing,nationalist
attributes.[275]
Majormemorialthemes,suchasvictoryanddeathallhadtheirsymbols.
ManyCanadianandBritishsoldiersareshownraisingahatorarifle,asign
ofvictoryfirstintroducedintoBoerWarmemorials.[276]TheGreekgoddess
SirReginaldBlomfield's
Nikeherselffrequentlyappearsoncivicmemorials,particularlyinBritain
widelyusedCrossof
andCanada,personifyingvictory,oftenpointingthewaytosoldiers:the
Sacrifice
imageisfarless,common,however,onmoresombrememorialsin
battlefieldsandgraveyards.[277]PersonificationsofDeathrarelyfeatureon
thesememorials,however,probablybecausetheemphasisistypicallyontheselfsacrificeofthesoldiers
involved,ratherthantheirbeingtakenorclaimedbyDeath.[278]Deathismoretypicallypresentedthrough
imagesofwidows,orphansandelderlyparentsonmemorials,allpopularinterwarallegoricalformsfor
deathandgrieving.[279]Figuresofwomenoftenrepresentedpeace,civilisationorwiderhumanity.[280]
Byfarthemostimportantsourceofsymbolismonmemorials,however,isChristianimageryandicons.
Religiousimagerypermeatedmanywarmemorials,eventhesecular.[281]Themostimportantofthese
symbolswastheChristiancross,awidelyusedsymbolofhopeandsuffering.[282][nb5]Thecrosscouldtake
multipleforms,fromCatholicdesignsinFrance,toOrthodoxcrossesineasternEurope.[284]Celticcrosses
werepopularinBritainandIreland,partiallybecausetheyavoidedCatholicconnotations,althoughthey
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wereconsideredvulgarbymoreclassicalarchitectssuchasBlomfield.[285]InFrance,lescroixdesbois,
woodencrosses,becamepopularsymbolsatmemorialsafterRolandDorgels'snovelofthesame
name.[286]GermanmemorialsmadeextensiveuseoftheimageoftheVirginMarytendinghersonChrist,
followinginthetraditionofthepiet.[287]Thecrucifixionwasalsoawidelyusedsymbol,asseenin
DerwentWood'sCanada'sGolgotha,althoughChristhimselfwasrelativelyrarelytypicallyseenonBritish
memorials.[288]
ThewidespreaduseofChristiansymbolismledtoquestionsabouthowtoproducememorialssuitablefor
nonChristians.LutyensattemptedtosolvethisproblemfortheIWGCthroughthedesignoftheGreat
StoneofRemembrance,orWarStone.Thiswasalarge,simplestone,intendedtoresembleanaltarand
evokethethemeofsacrifice.[114]Inpractice,manycommentatorsfeltitresembledasarcophagus.[114]
LutyenswantedittoavoidconventionalChristiansymbolismandbaseditondesignsinChineseMing
tombs.[289]OneofLutyens'argumentsinfavourofhisdesignwasthatexplicitChristiansymbolism
excludedtheIndianandJewishcommunitiesandatheists.[290]TheIWGCdesignsfortheIndianand
ChinesewarcemeteriesinEuropedeliberatelydidnotuseChristianimageryalthough,ashistorianXu
Guoqinotes,theChineseroleintheAlliedarmiesremainslargelyuncommemoratedthrough
memorials.[291]
Classicism
Manymemorialsdrewonaclassicalstyleofarchitecturetoproducetheireffect.Thishadbeenapopular
styleformanyprewarmemorials,suchasthoseforthedeadoftheBoerWar,andusedGreekorRoman
structures,stylesandsymbolism.[292]Akeyfeatureoftheclassicalstylewastheconceptofthe"beautiful
death"classicalmemorialsmightincludefiguresofsoldiers,sometimesdyinginconflict,butalways
heroicallyand,ultimately,peacefully.[292]Soldiersinthesememorialswerestillfrequentlydepictedas
Homericwarriors,ratherthanmorerealistfigures.[293]Theclassicalsymbolismwasoftenusedtodistance
theeventofdeathfromtheobserver,appealingtoallegoriesforsacrifice,justiceandvictory,inanattempt
tomakemourningeasiertobear.[292]
Someinterwararchitectsdevelopedthisapproachfurther.Sometraditionalclassicalmemorialshadbeen
criticisedinbothEnglandandGermanyasbeingfussyandoverlyornate.[294]MensuchasLutyenstookthe
classicalprinciples,butsimplifiedthemuntilthedesignbecamealmostabstract.[295]Thesememorialsused
abstract,beautifuldesignsintendedtoremovetheviewerfromtherealworld,andfocusthemonan
idealisedsenseofselfsacrifice,acontinuationoftheprincipleofa"beautifuldeath".[296]Inmanywaysthe
simplified,butstillclassical,formsofmemorialsliketheCenotaphmeantthatmournerscouldreadtheir
ownthoughtsandconcernsontothememorial.[297]Wheredeadsoldierswereshown,theyweredepictedin
animageofserenityandpeace,oftenphysicallydistancedfromthevieweronahighplatform,theentire
effectreflectedbythesilencethattraditionallysurroundsceremoniesattheCenotaph.[298]
Manyclassicalthemeswereusedinthisway.ThiepvalMemorial,forexampleusestheclassicalthemesof
avictoryarchandanabstractpatternofdiminishingarchestoproducewhathistorianJayWinterhas
termed"anembodimentofnothing".[182]ThevariousCenotaphsadopttheprincipleofentasisGreek
methodwithapparentlystraightlines,thatareinfactslightlycurved.[299]Manymemorialsandwar
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cemeteriesusedprecinctwallstomarkoutthememorialasspecialandsacred,originallyaRomanfeature
madepopularagaininthe19thcentury.[300]Somefeaturesweremoreliterallyinterpreted:theVictoria
StateMemorialinAustralia,forexample,wascloselybasedonaPersiansteppyramid.[301]
Classicalthemes,likeChristiansymbolism,emphasisedthesacrednatureofthememorialsites.[302]
Nonetheless,therewassomecriticismofclassicismbythosewhowantedaclearerseparationofpaganand
ChristiansymbolismthiswasplayedoutinargumentsinGermanyoverwhetherIronCrossesortraditional
Christiancrossesshouldbeusedonmemorials.[303]Similarly,Lutyens'WarStoneswerecriticisedfortheir
blendingofChristianandnonChristiandesign,whiletheLondonCenotaphwascritiquedbytheCatholic
Heraldasbeing"insultingtoChristianity".[304]SomeChristiansymbolswereredesignedinthesimplified
classicalstyle,however,includingtheCrossofSacrifice.Thiscross,inaclassicalstyleandfeaturinga
whitecrossandaninvertedbronzesword,wasdesignedbySirReginaldBlomfieldfortheWarGraves
Commission,widelyusedinCommonwealthcountries.[305]Thedesignwascriticisedbysomewhofeltthat
itexcludedotherfaithsfromthememorialsite,butnonetheless,overa1,000ofthesecrosseswere
ultimatelybuilt.[306]
Medievalism
Insomecountries,particularlyGermanyandEngland,memorials
usedamedievalstyle,reachingbacktoamoredistantpast.Someof
thesemedievalstyledmemorialsweresetinexistingmedieval
buildings,fusingolderandnewerthemes.Memorialchurch
windows,forexample,couldcombinemedievalandmodern
features,includingarmouredknightsonhorseback,modern
weaponsincludingtanksandaircraftandmodernnationalflags.[307]
Othermemorialsdeliberatelychosemedievalthemesandsymbols,
suchastheTomboftheUnknownWarriorinWestminster,where
thelanguageoftheinscriptionswasdeliberatelyarchaic,andthe
tombitselfmadefromamedievalchest,decoratedwithacrusader's
sword.[308]England'spatronsaint,SaintGeorge,wasaparticular
popularsymbolinBritishdesigns,typicallyshownmountedand
wearingarmour.[309]TheArthurianRoundTableandthemedieval
crusadesprovedpopularthemesinCanadianmemorials.[310]
Medievalstyledmemorialwindowin
Derry,featuringtheRedHandof
Ulsteraspartofthearmsofthe36th
(Ulster)Division(l)
Newmemorialbuildingscouldalsoadoptamedievalstyle.TheScottishNationalWarMemorial,for
example,aScotsbaronialstyledmemorialhallcompletewithstainedglassinEdinburghCastle,attemptsto
blendinwiththesurroundingmedievalfortress.[311]InGermany,thetotenburgenusuallylookedtothepast
fortheirstyleTannenberg,forexample,washeavilymedievalinappearance,resemblingacastle,albeit
combinedwithahugecrossandmassgraves.[312]Thedolmenbouldersusedaroundtheoutsideofmany
Germanmemorialsreinforcedthearchaicfeelofthemonuments.[313]InothercasesGermanschoseto
preserveorrebuildrealmedievalbuildingsandarchitecturetoformwarmemorials,suchaspartsof
DorstenandDlken.[314]
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Medievalismwaspopularwithmournersbecauseitreachedbacktothepast,attemptingtohealsomeofthe
discontinuitiesandrupturesofthewar.[315]Inaperiodofgreatuncertainty,thestylewasreaffirmingand
apparentlyimmutable,lostinadistantpast.[315]Byplacingtherecentdeadalongsidethosewhohadfallen
before,thestylegavereassurancethattheWorldWarIdeadwouldnotbeforgotteninWestminster,the
DeanofWestminster,emphasisedwhenhenotedthattheUnknownWarriorwouldberestingalongsidehis
"SaxonandNorman,PlantagenetandTudor"predecessors.[308]Thestylewasactivelypromotedbya
numberofextantartisticandarchitecturalinstitutionsandgroups,suchastheVictoriaandAlbertMuseum,
theArtsandCraftsMovementandGothicrevivalists.[316]
Alternativestyles
Onlyaminorityofwarmemorialsusedsomeofthenewerstyles
emergingintheinterwarperiod,suchasmodernism,realistandArt
Nouveauapproaches.Asnotedabove,typicallyexisting,traditional
themeswerepreferredformemorialsasawayofgrounding
mourninginamorefamiliarperspective.Nonetheless,someofthe
memorialstousethenewerstylesbecameparticularlyfamous.
ThereareahandfulofmemorialsconductedinanArtDecostyle,
includingtheANZACWarMemorialinSydneywhichusesthe
delicateaspectsoftheArtDecostyletoinvokesadnessinthe
viewer,andistheonlywarmemorialintheworldtodepictanaked
soldier.[317]TheDouaumontOssuaryalsodrawsonArtDeco
principlesinitsstructuralarchitecture,avoidingstraightlinesin
favourofgentle,soft,intersectingcurves.[318]Modernistprinciples
weretakenfurtherinasmallnumberofBritishmemorialsdesigned
byEricGill,characterisedbytheirhighlyabstract,simplified
forms.[319]
TheRoyalArtilleryMemorialin
London,featuringanoversizedstone
replicaofaBL9.2inchMkI
howitzer
RealismandearlymodernistprincipleswereappliedinBritaintoproduceacritiqueoftheconventional
classicalapproachandtheconceptofa"beautifuldeath",mostnotablybyCharlesJagger.[320]Jagger'slater
workduringtheinterwarperiod,mostnotablyhisRoyalArtilleryMemorial,usesrealismtechniquesto
portrayanoversizedBL9.2inchMkIhowitzerindetail,mountedonahuge,architecturallysimpleplinth
withdetailedcarvingsofmilitaryeventsinvolvingordinaryartillerymen.Thesheersizeofthepiececreates
adehumanizingimpact,despitetheportrayalofateamofartillerymen,includingacoveredcorpse.[321]
CritiquedbymuchoftheBritishpresswhenunveiledin1925,manyveteranshoweverfeltthatthestyle
connectedtotheminawaythatmoreclassicalthemescouldnot.[322]WhiletheRoyalArtilleryMemorialis
unique,elementsofthestylecanbeseeninsomeothermemorials,suchastheCameroniansMemorial
whichincludesarealist,almosttactiledepictionofamachinegunposition.[323]
HistoricalaccuracywasimportanttomanyBritishdesigners,resultingintheuseofgenuinemilitary
equipmentasmodelsformemorials,andlongdiscussionswithcommitteesoverthedetailstobe
incorporatedintodesigns.[324]Incontrast,theBritishinterestinaccuratelydepictingrealweaponryfrom
thewarwasfarlesscommononGermanmonuments,whereusuallystylisedmedievalweaponsandarmour
wereused.[313]
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SecondWorldWarandPostWar
TheSecondWorldWarthatbrokeoutin1939consumedthe
attentionofanewgeneration.Acrossmostofthetheatresof
conflict,theparticipantsattemptedtorespectthememorialsto
WorldWarI.AftertheSecondWorldWartherewasnoequivalent
massconstructionofmemorialstothewardeadinstead,oftenlocal
WorldWarImemorialswereadaptedforuseinstead:additional
namesmightbeinscribedtotheexistinglists.[325]Insomecases,
thisresultedinmemorialslosingtheirexclusivefocusonWorld
WarI.TheTomboftheUnknownSoldierinWashington,for
example,wasexpandedin1950stoincludecorpsesfromtheSecond
WorldWarandKoreaWar,broadeningthememorial'sremitto
commemoratemostmodernwars.[326]Inothercases,suchasthe
AustralianWarMemorial,begunintheinterwaryearsbutonly
openedin1941,anessentiallynewmemorialwasformedtohonour
themultipleconflicts.[327]
InItalyandGermany,1945sawthecollapseofFascismmany
memorialsinItaliantownsandcitieswereusedtoexecuteand
TheWarMemorialinFloriana,
displaythebodiesoftheoverthrownregime,andtheinterwar
Maltawasbuiltin1938
Fascistpilgrimagesandceremoniesaroundthememorialswere
commemoratingthedeadofWorld
abandonedandquicklyforgotten.[328]TheWorldWarImemorial
WarI.In1949itwasrededicatedto
sitescontinuedtobeused,butacombinationofantiwarfeelings
commemoratethefallenofboth
andtheirresidualFascistlinkslimitedtheattendanceattheirpublic
worldwars.
ceremonies.[329]Duetothechangesinnationalborders,inthepost
warerasomesitesfavouredbytheNazigovernment,suchasthe
TannenbergMemorial,foundthemselvesinPolandthedemolitionofTannenbergbeganin1949andits
stoneworkwasreusedforSovietpartybuildings.[330]
Elsewhere,changesinpostwarpoliticsimpactedconsiderablyonthememorials.inBelgium,theFlemish
IJzertorentowerhadbecomeassociatedwithFascismduringtheSecondWorldWarandwasblownupin
1946byantiFlemishactivists,leadingtooutrage.[332]Proposalswereputforwardtobuildanational
monumentonthesite,butultimatelyasecondFlemishmemorialwasconstructedinstead.[333]InRomania,
theCommunistpostwargovernmentmovedawayfromcommemorationsaroundAscensionDay,which
wasseenascarryingtoomanyreligiousmeanings.[334]TheRomanianSocietataitselfwasabolishedin
1948,pilgrimagestothememorialsceasedandthefocusoftheCommunistgovernmentwasalmostentirely
placedoncommemoratingthesacrificesoftheSovietarmyduringWorldWarII.[335]Unusually,political
changesinCanadaledtotheconstructionofnewWorldWarImemorialssomeoftheinterwartensions
eased,and35newmemorialswereaddedinQuebectotheexisting68inthepostwaryears,oftenbuiltas
combinedmemorialstolaterconflicts.[336]
Asawhole,interestinthewarmemorialsdiminishedconsiderablyinthe1950sand1960s,reflectedina
reducedlevelofceremoniesandasimplificationofthecommemorativeeventsaroundmemorials.[337]In
thepostwaryears,forexample,theseparateofficialandveteransceremoniesattheVerdunmemorials
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blendedintoonein1956,GermanandFrenchceremonieswerealso
unitedintoasingleevent.[213]AttendanceateventslikeAnzacDay
diminished.[338]Manymemorialsslowlydeteriorated:insomecases
theoriginalinterwarfundinghadneverincludedmaintenance,in
othercasesthematerialsusedtoconstructthememorialswerenot
durable.Insometownsandcities,thememorialsweremovedtoless
prominentlocationsaspartofurbanrenewalprojects,orhiddenby
newbuildings.WorldWarImemorialswerecommonplaceinmany
countriesandwerepaidlittleattention.[80]
Since1990
Inthe1990s,however,there
wasaresurgenceofinterest
inWorldWarImemorials.
Thiswasdrivenpartiallyby
WarmemorialinEastIlsley,restored
asequenceofacademic
in2008,andfeaturingcombined
worksonthesocialand
originallistofWorldWarIandlater
culturalcharacterofthe
WorldWarIInames[331]
conflict,aidedbyasequence
ofartisticexhibitsofsomeof
morefamousdesignersinthe1980s,andpartiallybygenerational
TheIrishNationalWarMemorial
changeinmanycountries.[339]Asthegenerationwhohadlivedand
Gardens,officiallyopenedin1995
foughtduringthewardiedoff,explainingthecontextofthe
memorialsbecamemoreimportant.[340]InFrance,veterangroups
hadbeguntobuildmemorialmuseumsalongsidethemajormonumentsandbattlefieldsfromthelate1930s
onwards.[341]
Similareffortsmadeattheendofthe20thcenturytocreateadditionalmuseumstoexplaintheeventsofthe
warandthememorialstheseinitiativeshavethesupportoftheCommonwealthWarGravesCommission
thesuccessortotheIWGCbutcausedconcernsamongstBritishgovernmentofficials,duetoconcerns
thattheymightcheapenthesymbolismofthememorials.[342]Asoldimperiallinksdeclined,in1993,
AustraliadecidedtorepatriateoneofitsunidentifiedwardeadfromtheWesternfronttoformitsown
TomboftheUnknownSoldierinCanberra.[343]
Meanwhile,someofthepoliticaltensionsofearliergenerationsfaded,allowingnewmemorialstobebuilt.
IntheRepublicofIreland,newwarmemorialswerebuilt,tripsorganisedtowarmemorialsinEurope,and
theNationalWarMemorialGardenswererestoredandfinallyofficiallyopenedin1995.[344]
InRussia,theMemorialParkComplexoftheHeroesoftheFirstWorldWarwasbuiltonthesiteofthe
formerMoscowCityFraternityCemeteryafterthefallofCommunism,openingin2005atacostof95
millionroubles.[345]Theparkincludes12monuments,amongstwhichwastheonlysurvivingheadstone
fromthecemeteryandanewmemorialchapel.[345]Incontrast,bytheearly21stcentury,thenumbers
visitingtheIJzertorentowerduringtheannualpilgrimagesdeclinedsignificantlyasmemoriesofthe
conflictfaded.[346]
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Inthelate1990sandstartofthe21stcenturyvisitornumberstotheWestern
Frontmemorialshaverisenconsiderably,andAustralianvisitorstothe
memorialsatGallipolihaveincreasedhugelyinrecentyearsthePrime
MinistersofAustraliaandNewZealandopenedanewmemorialatthesite
in2000.[347]WorldWarImemorialsremaininceremonialuseon
RemembranceDaythepostWorldWarIIsuccessortoArmisticeDay
AnzacDayandothernationaloccasions,whilemanyutilitarianmemorials
Temporarymemorialfor
arestillinusebylocalcommunitiesinthe21stcentury.[348]Systematic
RemembranceDayin
effortsarebeingmadetocatalogueandrecordthememorials,witha
France,2011
numberofindividualrestorationprojectsundertakenwithpublicandprivate
funding.[349]InthecentennialofWorldWarI,thememoryofthewarhas
becomeamajorthemeforscholarsandmuseums.[350]Manymuseumsandhistoricalsocietieshavesetup
specialexhibits,websites,andmultimediaexhibits.[351][352]Proposalswereputforwardtoconstructanew
nationalU.S.memorialtotheconflictinWashington.[353]
TheMoscowCityFraternityCemeteryinRussia,1915
Notes
1.Britishmemorialsparticularlylikedtocommemoratethehorseswhodiedduringthewar375,000werekilled
duringtheconflict.[68]
2.Calculatingthenumberofwarmemorials,includingWorldWarImemorials,ischallenging.[81]
3.BritaininitiallytermedArmisticeDay"Armisticetide"intheyearsfollowingthewar.[202]
4.Spiritualismhadbegunmarkedlymorepopularinthe1920sasaresultofWorldWarI.[221]
5.IncountriessuchasEngland,thecrosshadonlyrecentlybeenconsideredunsuitablefordisplaysbecauseofits
RomanCatholicconnotations.[283]
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