Pompeii and Herculaneum

1. Geographical Context
Syllabus
Point
The
physical
environme
nt: the
geographic
al setting,
natural
features
and
resources
of Pompeii
and
Herculane
um
Plans and
streetscap
es of
Pompeii
and
Herculane
um

Content

Sources/
Evidence
Located in Campania in southern Italy. The area had
Pliny the Elder
very fertile soils due to Vesuvius and this was good
wrote of the
for growing crops and breeding animals. Both towns
physical
were near the sea which facilitated trade with other
attributes of
parts of the Mediterranean. Resources include olives Campania and
used to make oil, grapes used to make wine; volcanic resources.
material- pumice was used for the building of roads
and houses. Other resources include fish, wool and
crops.

The town of Pompeii is small by Roman standards,

covering an area of 66 hectares. It was heavily
influenced by Greek principles of urban planning and
was made up of insulae; blocks which contained
houses. Some only contained one house while others
contained a dozen or more houses. Romans
legislated that streets had to be a minimum of 5
metres wide. At Pompeii most streets conformed to
this law, however at Herculaneum some streets were
only 2.5m wide. Decumani were roads that ran from
east to west and Cardines were roads that ran from
north to south and met at right angles. Stepping
stones provided for pedestrian use while still giving
access to wheeled traffic. In this way Pompeiians
could cross the roads without stepping in the
sewerage that overflowed the gutters when it rained.

2. The nature of sources and evidence

Syllabus
Point

Content

Sources/ Evidence

The range
of
available
sources,
both
written
and
archaeolo
gical,
including
ancient
writers,
official
inscriptio
ns,
graffiti,
wall
paintings,
statues,
mosaics,
human
and
animal
remains

Human remains: Skeletal remains, bones and

casts are a valuable source of information about
victims. We can inquire into the victims sex,
age, appearance, height, health, diet, occupation
and cause of death. Skeletons are preserved in
good condition due to being covered under
pumice and ash. Archaeologist Sara Bisel
excavated and studied skeletons found on the
beach at Herculaneum. She assessed their
health and clothing and made calculated
assumptions on what their role may have been
in society. The average male from Herculaneum
was 165cm tall and the average female was
155cm tall. Most had good teeth with an average
of three cavities each, caused by the grit in the
bread. They had a well- balanced diet and were
on the whole well- nourished. They ate a lot of
seafood which is rich in fluoride and accounts for
the healthy teeth. Some had high levels of lead
in their bones but it was not caused by simply
drinking the water. Animals have been preserved
in casts indicating that the people ate or farmed
these.

Human Remains:
Some of the
skeletons Bisel
uncovered were:
- Portia: A
woman
estimated to
be approx. 40.
- The Ring Lady:
a woman also
in her 40s
wearing lots of
jewellery.
- The soldier: a
male with his
sword in his
belt,
carpenters
tools and a
money belt.
- The fisherman:
approx. 16
years old, with
muscular
shoulders from
Ancient writers: Dio Cassius writes about the
rowing and
eruption based on the account of people living
worn teeth
around Naples. Some of the things he says seem
from holding
far- fetched like people gathered in masses in
his fishing net
the theatre. Pliny the Younger wrote of his
in his teeth.
experience running away from the eruption
- A teenage girl:
years after it happened and he has taken on a
About 14 years
mythical context, dramatising the scene. Seneca
old, clutching a
described various aspects of the city.
tiny babys
skeleton. The
Official inscriptions: provide evidence for the
baby wore
structure of government, prominent families and
golden
financial contributions to construction of public
jewellery while
buildings. For example the inscription on Julia
the girl had
Felixs estate stating that she owned the building
poor health
and was a priestess (high status).

Graffiti: Propaganda messages to urge citizens

to vote for a particular candidate. Some also
promoted gladiators. Other topics include bars,
love, and recreation and advertising women in
brothels. Graffiti was an accepted practice in
Pompeii and Herculaneum. There is an issue with
figuring out the dates that the graffiti was
inscribed. The countless number of inscriptions
show that Pompeii was a literate society. Graffiti
shows that by advertising and promoting a
candidate for office a client- patron relationship
was established.

and showed
signs of being
over- worked.
Bisel
concluded that
she was a
slave girl trying
to protect her
masters baby.

Statues/ Sculptures: Were a useful indicator of

social status; due to their worth, religion and
prominent people.

The
eruption

Wall Paintings and mosaics: Give evidence

about culture, influences and values. For
example the wall painting The Sacrifice of
Iphigenia from the House of the Tragic Poet
depicts the Greek myth. Mosaics also depict
mythological scenes such as the mosaic in the
House of the Faun of Alexander vs. Darius.
The eruption of Vesuvius is unique because there
were six pyroclastic surges. Herculaneum is only
7km from Vesuviuss peak and suffered a worse
fate than Pompeii. The first pyroclastic surge
reached temperatures of over 400 degrees and
killed the inhabitants of Herculaneum.
Subsequent surges carbonised organic matter. In
its final phase, Herculaneum was buried 20m
compared with the 6m of Pompeii. In Pompeii,
the initial reaction of the people to the eruption
determined their fate. Those who fled the city
when the volcano first erupted survived as long
as they reached a safe distance. At least 600
people perished when the roofs collapsed under
the weight of the pumice and rock. Those who

Professor Sigurdsson
analysed Pliny the
Youngers account
along with scientific
evidence to come to
a conclusion about
the eruption. Pliny
described the
umbrella pine
shaped cloud that
could be seen at
Miseneum 30 miles
away. Sigurdsson
estimated that the
height of this cloud

The
economy:
trade,
commerc
e,
industries
,
occupatio
ns

stayed outdoors died of asphyxiation as they

breathed in very fine ash which formed a sticky
paste in their lungs. In Herculaneum, people died
of the following causes. They were engulfed by a
pyroclastic flow which travelled at 300km an
hour. The high temperatures caused their brains
to boil and their bodies vaporised, becoming
skeletons immediately. The lack of oxygen
caused items and human and animal remains to
be carbonised and preserved.
Trade: Pompeii and Herculaneum were small
places and therefore had small local economies.
As they were near a port, trade was abundant.
The harbor was busy with ships, sailors and
foreign merchants. Merchants came from all
across Campania on market days to sell their
manufactured merchandise. The most wellknown exports were wine, olive oil, garum sauce
and wool. Pompeii imported products from
places such as Spain, other parts of Italy, Gaul
and Greece. Occupations include agricultural
workers, bakers, bankers, doctors, fishermen,
gladiators and actors, prostitutes, skilled artisans
and tavern/bar (caupona/themopolium)
operators. Herculaneum was a quiet town of
upper class citizens who were served by lower
class citizens.

was about 30 km
above the earth.

The fullery of
Stephanus and
Eumachias wool
store house in the
Forum are evidence
of the wool as a
main trading
product.
There was an
industry of wine
production evident
by a large
commercial vineyard
found by Wilhelmina
Jashemski in front of
the amphitheatre as
well as the Villa of
the Mysteries where
wine was produced.
The Macellum and
the Mensa
Ponderaria highlight
that trade and
commerce was an
integral part of life
and was managed
by the government.

Social
structure:
men,
women,
freedmen,
slaves

The highest class in Roman society were the

nobility. They held office in positions such as
senators, magistrates, duumviri and aediles. The
next class were the equestrians or business
people who were tax collectors, bankers, miners
and exporters and also built roads and
aqueducts. The mass of the people were the
Plebeians who had a range of occupations.
Below them were the freedmen. Their status was
low and they could not hold office although some
were wealthy. The lowest class were slaves. The
pater familias was the head of the house and
had every authority over his children and wife
including life and death. Women could not hold
office or vote and were not considered citizens.
Women in Pompeii had to be dependent and
linked to a close male relative or husband. They
could not vote or take part in politics and were
restricted from making independent decisions,
for example business decisions, but evidence
suggests that they actively took part in public
life. Many women worked in conjunction with
their husbands or found ways to gain influence
or independence without a male. They could own
and operate taverns, inns and bars. Wealthy
women could fund building projects or donate to
the council in order to gain recognition and
status; however they had no say in how the
money was used. They could buy, sell and lease
property but were not allowed to become

Commerce: 600
privately owned
shops, workshops,
bars, taverns and
inns have been
excavated. Private
houses often had a
front room used as a
taberna i.e. a
tavern.
The womens seats
in the amphitheatre
highlight their low
status as they were
only permitted to sit
right at the back;
even behind the
slaves!
Graffiti in front of
houses and shops
about upcoming
elections was often
done by women,
highlighting their
interest in public life.
Julia Felix was a
prominent priestess
and business woman
of the cult of Isis
who became very
wealthy and built
her own luxurious
estate which she
rented out.
Eumachia was an
influential priestess
who married into an

bankers. Priestesses were the most influential

women. A woman could only operate
independently, for example in business or trade,
if she was widowed.
Local
political
life

Everyday
life:
leisure
activities,
food and
dining,
clothing,
health,
baths,
water
supply
and

The Aediles (2) were responsible for the

maintenance of streets, roads and public
buildings and the supervision of the market.
They were also responsible for the judicial
system and games and public entertainment.
The office above them was the duumviri (2).
They carried out the decrees of the Decurion
council, administered local finance and handled
local law cases. Both magistrates held their
position for one year and then there would be
another election. They were normally wealthy
and funded projects with their own money to
make themselves or their families known.
Decision making was assisted by a council of
100 mainly ex magistrates. Young men began
their political career path cursus honorum by
becoming priests and participating in political
life to become known. The Comitium was the
peoples assembly where adult men and
freedmen elected magistrates and voted
honours. The ordo decurionum met in the Curia
and made laws which were carried out by
magistrates.
Pompeii and Herculaneum had a technologically
advanced method of water supply consisting of
aqueducts. Water was derived from the Arquaro
Springs and brought in by the Serinium
aqueduct. It was then distributed by the
Castellum Aquae which divided the water into
the three lead pipes to provide for different
areas of the city. The Castellum Plumbeum was a
lead pillar that acted as a pressure top and
ensured equal water pressure so that it could
reach water fountains, latrines, baths and
houses. The water also flowed to secondary

upper class family.

She donated money
to the council and
was recognised in
inscriptions.

sanitation

tanks of which 14 have been found. Pompeians

did not have to go more than 80 metres to
collect water from a fountain. Excess water ran
down the street and cleared rubbish. The
wealthy could have water connected to their
houses for a fee.
Clothing- We only know about clothing from
artistic depictions however this not what was
worn in everyday life. The toga was a ceremonial
outfit worn by men and stola was the ceremonial
outfit of women. These restricted movement so
in everyday life a short tunic was worn by men.
Equestrians had purple stripes on their tunic and
their width showed their rank. Plebeians and
slaves wore a similar tunic made of courser wool.
Baths were a popular place to socialize, bathe,
exercise, get massages, conduct business and
engage prostitutes. Apodyterium: changing
room. Palaestra: exercise area. Trepidarium:
warm room. Calidarium: hot room, Frigidarium:
cold room.
Baths include the Stabian baths and Forum
baths. In the baths there was a system whereby
furnaces located beneath the bath houses,
heated boilers that sent hot water in pipes to
baths. Floors and rooms were heated by hot air
circulated through pipes. Vents allowed smoke
and soot to escape. Customers were relaxed by
the changing in temperatures for example from
the frigidarium to the calidarium.

Public
buildingsbasilicas,

Leisure- The palaestra was used for gymnastics

and exercising. There was also a pool. Patrons
could do weights or run. Gladiatorial contests
were held in the amphitheatre and winning
gladiators were worshipped as celebrities.
The forum of Pompeii was the cultural and
economic centre of the city. This is where most
administrative, legal, commercial and religious

Eumachia is
depicted wearing
the stola as she was
a woman of rank
and Marcus Nonius
Balbus is depicted
wearing the toga for
the same reason.
The Suburban baths
appear to be for the
rich and wealthy and
have a room that
was most likely used
as a brothel.

Weapons have been

found in the
gladiator barracks.

temples,
forum,
theatres,
palaestra,
amphithe
atres

Private
buildingsvillas,

activities took place. Impressive public buildings

served to reinforce the progressive nature of the
Romans. The temple of Jupiter or Capitolium
was dedicated to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. The
Macellum or market place was where fish
produce was sold as well as other agricultural
goods. The Mensa Ponderaria was a public
measuring table where the weights and
measures used in shops and markets were
checked. The Temple of the Laires housed
statues of the royal family and the Temple of
Vespasian was built by the priestess Mamia as
a tribute to the city. The Building of
Eumachia, which was constructed by the
priestess Eumachia could have been used as a
market for woollen cloth or a more civic purpose
as a meeting place. The Basilica housed the law
courts of Pompeii. The interior was decorated
with imitation marble and had graffiti on it.
Public toilets or Latrines were also included in
the Forum and were flushed with running water.
The Office of Duumviri was a government
building for senior magistrates. The Aediles
office was a government building for the
aediles; the maintainers of the city. The Curia
was where laws were decided by the orno
decurionum.
Theatres: Pompeii had two theatres. The Large
theatre and the small Odeion. The large theatre
had a capacity of up to 5000 people. Seating
was arranged according to social status and the
elite such as the Pontifus Maximus and the
Vestal Virgins sat at the front while women and
slaves were right at the back. The Odeion was
roofed and the acoustics were good for concerts
and plays.
800 houses have been excavated in Pompeii.
They range in size from 50 room mansions to
more modest family houses. Often the front

Villas: The Villa of

the Mysteries near
Pompeii is famous

houses,
shops

rooms of the house which opened up onto the

street were used as shops. Houses were
designed to provide maximum security and
privacy from the noise of the city and so had
thick walls and heavy doors. They looked inward
to a courtyard rather than outward to the street.

for its beautiful

murals depicting the
cult of Dionysus. It
has 60 rooms. The
Villa of Papyri had
elaborate fountains
and statues and the
Houses of the wealthy had a door from the street greatest collection of
which opened into a narrow hallway. An entrance ancient bronzes ever
hall called the atrium contained the household
to be found. The
shrine (lalarium). In the floor of the atrium
most precious find in
directly below the compluvium, an opening in
this villa was the
the ceiling that let in light and air was a
library of papyri.
rectangular pool called the impluvium. This
collected rain water from the roof. The water
then piped off to the houses water storage tank
(cistern). The reception room (tablinum) was
where the head of the house received clients
and other visitors. The house included an inner
courtyard called the peristyle and one or two
dining rooms. Bedrooms (cubicula) were small
and usually windowless. There was a family
room (oecus) and a small kitchen with just
enough room for an oven, a bench and a sink.
Villas were built in the countryside outside the
towns and along the coast outside of
Herculaneum. They had terraces, verandas,
pergolas and windows looking out to the sea.
They were summer holiday retreats for the
wealthy.
Not all people lived in spacious homes. There
were many small family houses which consisted
of cramped living quarters above shops and
workshops. After the AD62 earthquake some of
the larger houses had been divided into small
flats. There are examples of cheap and rushed
repairs and renovations. There were many large
apartment blocks providing low cost housing in

Rome in the first century AD, some with up to 5

storeys. There is evidence for an apartment
building in Herculaneum that is more than 13
metres tall.
Influence Greek and Egyptian influence was an integral
of Greek
part of art, architecture and religion in Pompeii
and
and Herculaneum. The Greek language was a
Egyptian
sign of education for the Romans. Greek culture
culture:
predated Latin culture in southern Italy. This
art,
meant that there was preference for Greek
architectu artistic styles and religion and art often depicted
re,
Greek and Egyptian subject matter. The Romans
religion
adopted Greek stoa (long columned buildings)
and the different styles of columns (Ionic,
Corinthian and Doric). Other features of Greek
architecture include the peristyle (courtyard) in
temples. Religion that was adopted from Greece
includes the cult of Dionysus and the Roman
adaptation of the Greek Pantheon (family of
gods). The name Herculaneum possibly derived
from the Greek god Hercules and it was believed
that he had once spent time in the city.

Religion:
temples,

Greek influence: A
floor mosaic
featuring Alexander
the Great fighting
Darius III is evidence
of a celebration of
Greek history. Other
floor mosaics have
been found featuring
Hellenistic images.

Egyptian influence:
During the period of
Augustus his clan
(gens) was
worshipped and
associated with
peace and good
fortune. After his
death the worship of
each emperor was
offered as part of
the state cult.

Egyptian influence was due to its introduction to

the Roman Empire in 31BC, although trade and
cultural links between Pompeii and Alexandria
has existed since the 2nd century BC. The cult of
Isis was a major cult in Pompeii and
Herculaneum. The House of Julia Felix, a
priestess of Isis, features many Egyptian
influences such as depictions of Isis and Nile
scenes. Worshippers of Isis met at the temple
twice a day; to celebrate the rising of the sun
symbolising the rebirth of Osiris, and in the
afternoon for the ceremony of the water, where
Nile water was blessed as the source of life. The
development of Emperor worship also came from
Egypt.
The Romans worshipped their own version of
Temple sacrifices
the Greek Pantheon as well as other imported
and votive offerings

househol
d gods,
foreign
cults,
tombs

cults. Hercules was also worshipped and a

number of statues of Hercules have been found
in Herculaneum but a temple has not been found
yet.
Foreign cults: Dionysus was the Greek god of
fertility and divine intoxication. He offered
devotees a state of ecstasy that came from
intoxication by the God and was associated with
a lack of restraint. One message of the cult was
that the natural passions had to be
acknowledged for a human society to be stable
and balanced.
The cult of Isis was one of the most popular
cults. Worshippers were mostly women, slaves,
freedmen, traders, soldiers and later as the cult
became more popular, officials. Isis was known
for her healing powers, displayed when she
brought her husband Osiris back to life after he
had been killed and cut up into pieces by his
brother. She found parts of his body all over
Egypt and pieced these parts to resurrect him.
Since she didnt find his penis she fashioned a
new one from dirt and by this means became
pregnant with his child Horus. The finding of
Osiris became a symbol of resurrection and was
linked to the rising of the sun and to the renewal
of the world through the seasons. In November
at the Festival of the finding of Osiris, followers
commemorated Isiss search for Osiris. The other
great festival of Isis was the ship launching
festival in March. A procession led by women
made its way to the sea where an Egyptian style
boat with a symbolic sarcophagus of Osiris was
launched into the sea. The procession included
musicians and singers as well as priests and
priestesses carrying cult objects. The temple of
Isis operated every day. There were daily
opening and closing ceremonies and a ritual

were made to
Apollo. Gifts include
bronze statues of
Apollo. Festivals in
honour of Apollo
were a memorable
event in the city. In
Pompeii there is a
temple found in the
Triangular Forum,
believed to have
been dedicated to
Hercules and
Minerva.
Foreign cults: Over
20 lalaria (shrines)
with images of Isis
and small statues of
the goddess have
been found in
houses. A statue of
Isis from
Herculaneum shows
the goddess, The
Glory of Women,
seated and suckling
her infant. A number
of paintings at
Herculaneum depict
rituals performed
within the temple
and show Egyptian
priests with their
shaved heads.
However the
architecture is not
the same as that of
the Temple of Isis in
Pompeii and is

washing of the statue of the goddess. In the

afternoon there was a special blessing and
purification with Nile water kept in a tank. There
is no direct evidence of a temple of Isis at
Herculaneum but the number of Isis- Fortuna
statues and other Egyptian gods speak for a
strong Egyptian religious influence in
Herculaneum.
The cult of Sabazius came from the Thrace,
Greece and Phrygia in Asia Minor. The initiation
ceremony of Sabazius included dancing
processions of men and women while priests hit
them with a snake. The initiated wore the skin of
a faun and in a ritual symbolising death; they
were covered in mud and rose to resurrection.
They then celebrated a religious banquet.
The Roman state cult centred on the worship of
the Capitoline Triad: Jupiter, the protector of the
state, Juno, whose special care was for women
and Minerva, the patroness of craft workers.
Priesthoods in the state cults were filled by
members of the curia and by magistrates.
Priesthoods would be held by politicians as part
of their career in an effort to gain respect and
become popular.
Household religion: The Lares were guardian
spirits who were believed to have been
associated with places of crossing or entry. The
shrine of the Lares was often placed in the entry
area to a house but also in gardens. Snakes were
associated with the Lares and have been
interpreted as a phallic symbol associated with
fertility. Many houses had images of an erect
penis near the doorway for this reason. The role
of snakes in keeping down vermin that might eat
the households food is also a reason for the
worship of snakes. The sacrificial imagery on

probably a more
imaginary depiction.
From a 2nd century
Greek inscription
from Asia Minor, we
learn that the
goddess was
credited with the
power to help
women in labour.
Her importance is
highlighted by
evidence that the
temple of Isis was
hastily rebuilt after
the AD62
earthquake. Ashes
and burnt bones of
sacrificial animals
were found on the
altar in front of the
temple. Nile water
was stored in an
underground room.
There is a store
room for cult objects
and a group of
rooms may have
comprised the
apartment of the
priestesses.
Sabaziuss worship
was detected in a
peristyle garden
with a sacred room
behind it. It was
decorated with an
image of a high
priest performing a

household shrines suggests that sacrifices were

performed on a domestic scale. The
neighbourhood sacrificed at cross roads or
altars.

ritualistic dance. It is
suggested that cult
objects and their
placement indicate
the worship of
Sabazius. Two right
hands made from
bronze are
interpreted as ritual
hands that were
used in a rite of
divination. In the
palm of the hand is
a seated figure of
Sabazius. He wears
clothes associated
with Phrygia. He is
standing on a rams
head and is near a
snake, both of which
are his symbols.
Household
religion: One
wooden example of
a shrine of the Lares
has survived in a
carbonized state in
the House of the
Black Salon at
Herculaneum. A
cavity in the ground
has been excavated
and appears to store
the bone remains
left over from
sacrifice. Bones of
lambs and cockerels
indicate sacrificial
animals.

3. Investigating, reconstructing and preserving the past

Syllabus
Point
Changing
methods
and
contribution
s of
nineteenth
and
twentieth
century
archaeologis
ts to our
understandi
ng of
Pompeii and
Herculaneu
m

Content
Early archaeologists laid out the platform for further
research on Pompeii and Herculaneum. Their
innovations allowed for the discovery of more
advanced preservation and reconstruction methods.
Fiorelli introduced a more systematic approach to
excavation with the aim of gaining more information
about Pompeii and Herculaneum and preserving the
site. He introduced a numbering and naming system
by dividing the topography of the site (including
areas not yet excavated) into 9 regions. He
attempted to focus on Pompeiis overall history
instead of just individual objects and pointed out
that archaeological evidence rather than textual
sources could be used to reconstruct history. He
made the significant discovery of injecting plaster
into cavities of body contours in the solidified ash,
enabling him to recover the shapes of humans and
animals.
Spinazzola was involved in the excavation of 600m
of Pompeii. His meticulous excavation technique
showed how buildings had been buried. Criticisms on
his work include the damage he caused to the site
by focusing only on unearthing the frontages of
buildings which resulted in a high risk of collapses
due to the weight of the earth behind them.
Maiuri is often described as the most productive and
controversial director in the history of excavations of
Pompeii and Herculaneum. He examined
archaeological evidence to formulate a thesis about
economic and social change in the towns. He
discovered major social and economic
transformation of the early empire, which developed

Sources/
Evidence

into a crisis after the earthquake of AD62, resulting

in the patricians leaving the city and leaving lower
classes to dabble in politics. He uncovered many
significant buildings such as The House of Menander
and many more. He deepened excavations at
significant locations to investigate pre- Roman levels
and restored the tribunal of the basilica and roofs of
houses. He also studied the structure of walls and
towers.
Ruggerio is also a prominent figure and was
responsible for the consolidation and restoration of
over 600 paintings from the House of the Silver
Wedding and the House of the Balcony.
Changing
New technologies and techniques give
interpretatio archaeologists new perspectives that challenge
ns: impact
previous interpretations. In the last 40 years there
of new
has been little new excavation in Pompeii and efforts
research
have been concentrated of preservation. Much of
and
archaeology is now carried out in the laboratory,
technologies instead of on the site, and tiny fragments of pollen,
charcoal and substances found in containers reveal
things about Pompeii. Some of the recent research
done in an Applied Research Laboratory includes a
study of contents in jars and a geomorphologic
reconstruction of the Vesuvian area before the AD79
eruption.
Australian archaeologist, Penelope Allison,
investigated the remains of houses in order to reveal
the domestic lives of the people in Pompeii.
Archaeologist Wilhelmina Jashemski made an
extensive study on gardens, orchards and vineyards
in Pompeii. She is credited with creating a new field
in archaeology: the investigation of ancient gardens.
Her research is credited with revealing information
about diet and trade.
Estelle Lazer used techniques of forensic medicine

Aspects of
everyday life
such as the
function of
homes, food
and gardens
reveal
information
about health,
culture, trade.
Etc.
Allison studied
the location of
everyday
artefacts and
furniture within
ordinary
households in
order to
interpret the
rooms
function. The
changed
interpretation
gained from

and physical anthropology to determine gender, age,

height, signs of disease and population
characteristics. She worked on a sample of
disarticulated bones stored in the Sarno and Forum
baths which had been dumped there by
archaeologists of the 18th early 20th century who
saw no value in them. She dispelled assumptions
about people who stayed during the eruption.
Previously it was believed that those who stayed
back for the eruption were the old, young, women
and the infirm. The results of Lazers studies indicate
that almost equal numbers of males and females
from all age groups died in the eruption. Most
skeletons were well nourished and in good health
which disproves the myth of only the infirm staying.
A Japanese team led by Sumiyo Tsujimara was able
to determine the movement of traffic in Pompeii by
analysing the wear patterns on individual roads. The
study concluded that there were definitely rules in
place regulating the traffic flow.
Penelope Allison and Andrew Wallace Hadrill
disproved the assumption that you could calculate
the population of Pompeii by estimating the number
of people that occupied a house. Houses ranged
from single person dwellings to villas with dozens of
people, according to Hadrill. Penelope Allison proved
the rich and wealthy had long departed after the
AD62 earthquake, suggested by evidence of long
term neglect. This proved that the population that
was victim to the earthquake was smaller than
previously thought.

this was that

we were
introduced to
the nature of
the average
Roman house
rather than
basing our
interpretations
on written
sources which
only talked
about the
ideal Roman
house. Many
rooms were
revealed to
have multiple
functions.
Allisons
research
challenged
generalisations
made about
the function of
rooms in the
past. Evidence
of human
disturbance
was found,
before and
after, the
eruption which
challenges the
notion that
Pompeii is a
site frozen in
time.
Jashemski

poured plaster
over
carbonised tree
roots, vines
and pollen
found in the
ash to reveal
the fruit and
vegetables
grown in
Campania. She
discovered a
large
commercial
vineyard, near
the
amphitheatre
which provides
evidence
regarding
trade, leisure
(as it was near
a commercial
place) and diet.
However this
has not been
investigated
yet.
Issues of
conservatio
n and
reconstructi
on: Italian
and
international
contribution
s and
responsibiliti
es; impact
of tourism

Environmental factors cause issues of

conservation. Weeds hasten the decay of the site by
pushing cracks open and penetrating plaster
surfaces. Poor drainage results in fungi that erode
the floors of the buildings. Frescoes that are not
covered with roofs are damaged by sunlight and the
weather. Earth tremors and volcanic eruptions cause
many collapses on the site. Pigeons peck at the
beams, doors and window frames of carbonised
wood and their droppings contain a level of acidity
that damages the buildings. Three falcons have been
employed on the site to scare away the pigeons.

Poor quality restoration work is caused by a lack

of organisation and a lack of consulting
archaeologists. Conservation is an experimental
science says Andrew Wallace Hadrill. Urban and
infrastructural planning nearby causes the
movement of the earth which affects the ancient
structures. Restoration work is done by firms with
little specialised knowledge, often chosen with the
aim of doing the cheapest job possible and up
keeping the site temporarily for tourists.
Conservators do last minute repairs instead of
systematic maintenance to prevent sudden
collapses. Often structures built to protect sites
actually damage them. The timber roof erected on
the House of Meleager in Pompeii could not support
the weight of the tiles. It collapsed, taking with it
parts of the building. Many frescoes have been left in
the sun and have faded completely. The poor
drainage system means that water erodes buildings
and floor mosaics. The wrong choice of modern
materials which are unsuitable to sustain the site
cause more damage than protection. Steel and
concrete have been used together. Where the
concrete has flaked away, the exposed steel has
rusted and expanded, making cracks in the building.
The poor quality mortar over the ancient stonework
has caused it to decay and the salts that modern
concrete, plaster or mortar contain also do damage.
Whole paintings have been destroyed due to
attempts to stick them back on the walls using a new
mortar. The old and new mortars resulted in a
chemical reaction causing the paintings to crack.
Resin varnish and wax coatings have been used in
an attempt to protect frescoes but instead they have
sealed the painting against the damp and salt
building up behind the plaster.
The management of tourists and protection
from the Neapolitan Mafia are issues regarding

the conservation of the site. The Mafia often corrupt

workers in order to steal from the site and sell on the
black market. Tourists offer bribes to custodians to
be allowed into closed areas and cause further
erosion of the site. Pompeii and Herculaneum have
been subject to looting since the earliest excavations
and many artefacts are in private collections. In
1990 a store room was robbed at Herculaneum and
more than 250 artefacts were taken including the
gold jewellery worn by the Ring Lady. It is thought
that there was blackmailing between the Neapolitan
Mafia and the workers and directors of the site for
this to happen. There is no requirement for tourists
to check in large bags before entering, therefore
providing ideal conditions for theft. There arent
enough guards to stop tourists from entering closed
areas or climbing ruins, leaving the site subject to
negligent behaviour. The lack of educational
information in the area means tourists do not
respect or appreciate what they are looking at. They
often lean or sit on structures or throw water on
frescoes to see them clearer. They also may sample
pieces of the site which is detrimental due to the
large number of tourists that do this. Dogs cause
damage to the site but have now been removed.
Nowadays maps and audio guides have been
included in a feat to help visitors appreciate the
artefacts. Closer monitoring of conservation resulted
in the head of a construction company being
arrested for violating the terms of an earlier
preservation project with the aim of maximising
costs. Nowadays there are random inspections to
make sure local Mafia has not strong- armed its way
into restoration work. The custodians have been
reprimanded for asking tourists for money to show
them areas closed to the public.
The fight between those who want to modify
the ancient city for tourism purposes and
those who want to preserve it in its authentic

state is a conservation issue. In 2010 a

commissioner with powers to subvert bureaucracy
was placed under investigation on suspicion of using
state money for projects that went beyond
maintenance, like renovating an old theatre for
performances. This was done quickly without
consulting archaeologists and this theatre is used for
performances to this day. Money is being invested to
glamorize the city for tourism purposes and this
reconstruction alters it from its original state, posing
threats to the integrity of the site. An example of this
is the hologram of tour where Julius Polybius, a
nobleman of Ancient Pompeii, guides visitors around
a 3D virtual version of his villa. There are constant
collapses due to buildings that receive no or little
maintenance because they are not main tourist
attractions. Tourists are important because of the
revenue they bring but that may be at the cost of
the integrity and condition of the site. The daily
traffic of people causes streets to erode and too
much human contact with the structures causes
damage.
Throughout the years there have been many projects
initiated by international partners which have helped
with the preservation of the site. International
contributions include a $137 million effort by the
European Union which aims to balance preserving
the authenticity of the site with accessibility to
tourists. The Houses in Pompeii Project
investigated buildings which had been excavated but
had not been recorded. The Insula of Menander
project was a three stage analysis and
documentation of a whole insula which aimed to
address deficiencies in earlier records conducted by
Maiuri. There were three stages put in place to
determine architecture, interior decoration and the
examination of loose finds. Architects and drafts
people analysed surviving structures, archaeologists
dated walls and floors and experts in wall- painting,

Ethical
issues:

mosaics and pottery studied loose finds and

decorations. The Pompeian Forum project,
otherwise known as the Porta Stabia project is
dependent on advanced technology, particularly
computer science and is ongoing to this day. The
project was initiated because the existing
architectural plans for the Forum were inaccurate
and incomplete while architectural and decorative
remains were deteriorating rapidly. This meant that
the site was at risk of being lost forever. The more
accurate plans of surviving remains, supplemented
by large format black and white photographs and
computer models, assist with the preservation and
restoration of the site as we have the original plans
of the Forum accurately recorded. The traditional
view that the Forum was a builders yard in the
years after the AD62 earthquake was disproved.
Evidence was found of comprehensive and ambitious
post-earthquake plans. The Anglo- American
project is ongoing and began in 1994. Its aim is to
carry out scientific archaeological research of one
insula through the analysis of standing architecture,
artefacts and ecofacts. The project has identified the
insulas timeline of activity up to its destruction. The
first recognisable human intervention has been
identified on the site as well as the earliest houses
and the first commercial structures. Evidence has
been discovered about the provision of water at the
time of the Augustan aqueduct as well as
adjustments to water supply as a result of damage.
There is also evidence for the modification of
commercial properties such as the expansion of the
House of Vestals and its first lavish displays of
decoration. Artefacts and ecofacts from various
strata have provided information on aspects such as
diet and economy. A thorough documentation and
analysis of the northern part of the insula has been
completed.
The Venice Charter is an internationally agreed set of
principles to guide the preservation and restoration

study and
display of
human
remains

of monuments and sites. Unacceptable conduct

includes the practice of posing skeletons for
dramatic affect. In Maiuris time, a pile of skeletons
were glued together and portrayed to the world as if
they had been found like that. This was done for
tourism purposes and was eventually revealed by
Estelle Lazer in the 1990s. Some bones were also
found to be fakes and Lazer discovered that
skeletons had been put together in inaccurate ways,
for example with two left thigh bones. These kinds of
practices demean the historical value of the site and
promote false information.
The International Council of Museums does not ban
human remains but rather encourages sensitivity to
community reactions. There are some religions
which are against the display of human remains. In
Italy the display of human remains is a long tradition
as the bodies of saints and martyrs have been
displayed this way for hundreds of years, so this is
not an issue.
There is the ethical argument about human remains
being displayed where they were found or in a
museum. Bodies are displayed in Pompeiis Garden
of the Fugitives. This is not the place where they
were found but they are protected from the
elements. This is a more respectful and authentic
way of displaying the bodies as they are in their
original environment, allowing for a more authentic
dissemination of information.
The dissemination of information is also an issue
regarding the display of human remains. If bodies
are not displayed, either in a museum or in their
original environment, there will be a limited number
of people who know of or can study/ gain information
about the body and what it tells us about the ancient
world. This would allow individuals or groups to own
and withhold information and artefacts. It is

important to keep information authentic and

available to avoid corruption and misinformation.