SOUTHWESTERN COLLEGE ARTS & HUMANITIES 751 B ANCIENT™ ~~ GREECE AND ROME Marjorie Wall Bingham Susan Hill Gross Teacher’s Guide and Unit Test ———_4 ( Ienhurst | Publications, Inc.WOMEN IN WORLD AREA STUDIES ESEA Title IVC WWAS. St. Louis Park and Robbinsdale Schools Project Co-Directors: Marjorie Wall Bingham and Susan Hill Gross ©1983 by Glenhurst Publications Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or stored by any means without prior permission from the copyright owner. Printed in the United States. i Central Community Center lenhurst 6300 Walker St. Publications, Inc. St. Louis Park, MN 55416 ———-— —+ (612) 925-3632 Publishers of Women's History CurriculumTeacher’s Guide: Women in Ancient Greece and Rome This unit is concerned with women in the ancient worlds of Greece and Rome. While there were various influences from previous cultures, particularly from the Near East, the unit begins with a consideration of Minoan culture. The unit is then arranged chronologically, ending with Byzantine times. Women in Ancient Greece and Rome is meant to be blended into existing materials in courses of Western history and cultures. The underlying assumption of the unit is that women's status is varied, depending on time period, geographic location and economic condition. The documentation of these variations in women’s roles in the classical world presents some particular problems and is dependent on several issues relating to women’s history. Despite the extensive amount of analysis of the existing sources of ancient Greece and Rome, the amount of work done on women’s history in those areas is surprisingly small. For example, though Plutarch’s Moralia has thirteen volumes of information, often mentioning women, no historian has tried to select women for consideration. Despite the fact that Athena was obviously a major god of the Greeks from the period beginning with the Mycenaeans through the Hellenistic rulers, there is no major study of this fernale god. Studies of Roman women, like those of Greek, are based on limited sources. However, even these sources have not been used for a chronological analysis of the status of women in differing eras. Some new studies, particularly that of Sarah Pomeroy, have suggested new interpretations, but there is much to be done in the field of women’s history in classical times. To blend Women in Ancient Greece and Rome into the rest of the curriculum, several suggestions might be made. The first is that generalizations about some groups that might hold true in various periods of ancient history do not hold true for women in these eras. Athens in 5th century B.C. may have been the Golden Age for some men, but it certainly was not for women. It was a golden age neither for slaves or other portions of the population. What may have been emphasized among Republican Romans as a virtue of home and family may actually have been criticism of women taking wider economic or political roles. Women's history, then, may not merely add to our knowledge of ancient Greece and Rome, but it may also reverse some of the ways in which ancient historical values are seen. Students may need to recognize these shifts from the more usual historical interpretations. To ease blending the unit into the curriculum, the time periods used are generally those that might have focus in a study of Greece and Rome. There are some eras that receive more emphasis than others. For example, the Hellenistic period is one of generally higher status for women and so more women are mentioned in remaining historical documents. The history of the later Roman Empire and the Byzantine period reflects the fact that there is more information about specific women than is mentioned in documents of the Roman Republic. Some geographical areas seem to have been more encouraging societies for women. lonia, for example, produced women like Sappho and Artemisia, whereas individual Athenian women are rarely mentioned. It is assumed, however, that students will receive a general knowledge of historical time periods and a geographical view of the Mediterranean area from the regular course outline. Students may also need a general background in the importance of various documents and individuals before studying this unit. While Plato, Aristotle, Cato the Elder and Augustus Caesar, for example, receive some identification in the text, teachers might want to deal more extensively with them in the regular curriculum. Events like the Trojan War, the Punic Wars, or the Visigothic invasions are mentioned in this unit on women’s history, but are only sketched briefly in this text. As with many questions arising about ancient Greece and Rome, there may be questions concerning women's history for which there is little or no documentationTeachers may wish to raise historiographical questions about which sources remain—and why. While the lack of sources affects the interpretation by historians of many areas of life. especially in the analysis of economic classes, the lack of sources on women may raise important issues for students. For example, we have many of Pliny the Younger's letters to his wife, but none of hers to him. Sappho's writings were burned by early founders of the Christian church. Students may need to recognize that our view of ancient history has been shaped by the documents left to us. It is not easy to teach this negative history, but students should probably be aware of where specific gaps occur in a usual study of ancient cultures. New archaeological studies are attempting to fill some of the gaps. For example, there are some new studies of female infanticide based on burial sites uncovered. But many of the questions raised by the students about women's roles may never be answered conclusively. The unit Women in Ancient Greece and Rome is arranged chronologically, beginning with the Minoan civilization on the island of Crete and ending with the Byzantine Empire. While there are a few women poets quoted, almost all the art work and observations about women in the ancient world are by men. In most of the units produced by Women in World Area Studies, we have tried to use women’s own views whenever possible. This unit, however, is exceptional because of the lack of primary source materials by women available to historians. Bibliography (p. 119-121) The bibliography at the end of the text, Women in Ancient Greece and Rome, is suggested for students. Some sources are difficult, but seem the best. The starred sources are highly recommended. Librarians could be made aware of these. Glossary (p. 122-123) A simple explanation is given for unusual words in the text. Students should be aware of the glossary, printed at the end of the text. Suggestions On Unit Exercises Women in Ancient Greece Objectives: The purpose of this unit is to focus on the varied roles of women in ancient Greece and to show how their status changed over the years. The readings tend to show a decline in women’s status in some areas of Greece until the low point in Sth century B.C. Athens. In other areas, for example, Sparta and lonia, women seem to have maintained a generally higher status remaining from the Bronze Age. With the Hellenistic queens, women had political power that was unmatched, perhaps, until the age of 18th century women monarchs. Besides the various roles and attitudes toward women that were present in the ancient world, the readings should make students aware of the particular problems presented by the scarcity of primary sources from women themselves. Book I: Women in Ancient Greece Chapter 1: The Minoan Age—The Great Goddess and Her Daughters (p. 3-7) Objectives: The main purpose of this exercise is to have students be able to recognize that the classical ideal of women remains very strong in Western tradition Points to Consider (p. 7) Question 1—The fact that two good historians come up with varying concepts toward women may depend on the differences in sources they use or also the different assumptions they themselves have about women. Also, simply because women are included in beautiful works of art does not mean that individual women are treated with respect. Question 2—Evidence like the American coins, the Statue of Liberty and other representations reflect an image of the eternal woman in classical dress. Generally, the attributes of the women seem to be of a stern, serious nature. The Statue of Liberty is strong, not particularly emotional. Qualities lacking are tenderness, sex appeal and coyness. Question 3—It is difficult to understand how Justice might be represented as a woman and yet not have allowed women the vote. It may go back to the ideal of abstract qualities in female gods, like Athena, or the 19th century attitude toward women that placed them on pedestals. For example, one reason given for women not voting in the 19th century was that they were too moral to be involved in the dirtiness of day-to-day politics.Chapter 2: Introduction (p.9-11) Objectives: The primary point of this excercise is to suggest that Minoan women may have had a farily high status in their culture. Also, there seems to have been a monotheism centered upon a female god. While this god later fragmented, the female principle remained a strong one in ancient Greece. Students should be able to recognize that these female figures have lasted in our own language and culture. Points to Consider (p. 11) Question 1—Some historians feel that the quarrels between the female and male gods represent the conflict between the matriarchal and patriarchal societies of the Minoan and Dorian Greeks. Women in tribal groups conquered by the Dorians may have resisted the curtailing of their rights, particularly those regarding property and marriage choice. Question 2—The list of rights does not necessarily prove a matriarchy because there is not clear evidence of women ruling politically. Furthermore, just because women had some rights, does not necessarily mean that men did not have as many or even more. That women controlled their own property and could keep their own names, however, does suggest that if their economic power were strong enough, they might also have political power. Question 3—The female gods seem to have remained important because most of the major cities of Greece had female patron saints, their images appear on the coinage of major cities, they are mentioned as special helps to Greek heroes and female gods appear in the Greek language. Question 4—Male gods represent various natural forces in the universe. For example, Zeus—heavens, lightning; Appollo—the sun; Poseidon—the sea. They also are associated with war, as Ares, and the armament maker, Hephaestus. However, Athena takes on the qualities of military strategy. A similiar list of male gods and their use in language is more difficult though Apollo has been used in U.S. Space programs and recent books and movie titles pick up some gods as the “The Poseidon Adventure.” Chapter 3: The Bronze Age: Women in the Iliad and the Odyssey (p. 13-18) Objectives: This reading should help students see that these two Homeric epics presented women in a relatively favorable way. Even Helen of Troy, who in later Greece is presented as a villain, received sympathetic treatment. The plot of the two epics is not analyzed in any depth and teachers may either use the brief summary footnoted here or they may wish to include much more about the epics in this lesson. There are several good essays on women in these epics for students who are interested in further study of women in Homer's epics. (See bibliographic references.) Points to Consider (p. 17-18) Question 1— a. Homer may have been looking back at a more heroic time fer Greeks before their conquest by invaders and the Greek Dark Ages. b. The questions are open ended—perhaps his account describes what he would see as ideals for women or what he imagined the past to be: Poetic license is when an artist feels free to interpret a situation for artistic effect Here Homer may have wanted to alter facts to make the Greek past more heroic and admirable in order to give a psychological boost to his contemporaries. Also, when limited facts are known about what people said or did in the past, historical novelists often fill in details to make history more interesting. c. Helen is presented as: * a victim of circumstance * an evil woman luring men * an innocent person, not even involved in the Trojan War The Minoan Age might have seen her as a victim of circumstances—or perhaps a woman making up her mind to leave her husband. Her story today might be viewed as one of liberation or as another story of rape and war, depending on the viewer and the way the story was written. Question 2—The absence of the Greeks may have meant that women grew accustomed to running things without men and enjoyed controlling events. In the liad, for example, Clytemnestra finds that she can rule without her husband. On the other hand, if status depended on how able a person was militarily, then women might lose power as their sons became older. For example, some critics have pointed out that Telemachus seems to question his mother Penelope's right to rule. The Greek soldiers seem to have picked up captive brides along the way. Agamemnon, for example, even brings his concubine home with him. Perhaps mothers and sons did become closer, though tensions might arise about who would continue to rule. Question 3—It is not clear why Greeks of the 5th century chose to write about women from the past 8th century. In Athens, there was an idea that women might have created tensions within families. Playwrights choosing characters from a distant past could write sympathetically or critically about women without causing problems within their own society. This did limit the range of women discussed to a few aristocratic women. Playwrights may have thought that women from the past—and stories from the past—made for more romantic and heroic tales. Question 4—The Amazon tradition lingered. It shows up in art, in Spartan military values, in some war-like gods such as Athena. The story of the defeat of the Amazons and its theme were prominent in Athenian art work. Chapter 4: Spartan and lonian Women of the Lyric and Classical Ages (p. 19-25) Objectives: Students should be able to recognize the fact that women held varied roles depending on geographic locations. This reading is to offset the usual emphasis on Athens as the center of Greek civilization and to point out the wider roles of Spartan and lonian women. This section also deals with the issue of the Amazons. Whilemost historians see the Amazons as legendary, the hold they had on the Greek imagination in art and literature suggests an uneasiness about the roles of women Some historians have seen this uneasiness as part of the clash between Dorian values and the more ancient matriarchal view. Points to Consider (p. 25) Question 1—Spartan women seem to have controlled their own property and to have had some part in ruling the state when the soldiers, often their husbands, were gone. They also engaged in physical exercise and were not as confined to their homes as were upper class Athenian women. On the other hand, they seem not to have been especially educated and they had families split apart by military traditions. Question 2—What a Spartan mother might say to her daughter is speculative, but probably: “Don't be too soft on your children.” ‘Marry a strong man.” “Keep physically fit.” ‘Don't mourn a husband or son.”’ “Tend to your own economic affairs.’’ Since the father would be separated from his daughter most of the time, it is difficult to imagine much affection between the two. The father might say: “Marry well, be strong and raise strong sons.” Question 3—Historians have speculated that since lonia produced most of the educated women we know about in classical Greece, there may have been schools for young women. Generally, this area was wealthier than mainland Greece and so families may have felt they could afford to educate daughters as well as sons. The lonians'’ attention to educating daughters might be seen to contradict the notion that views of the Eastern Empire on women were lower than Western Empire. Historical re-evaluation may indicate that Eastern empires may have even been better for women at various historical time periods than in that of the West. Group Task Questions 1, 2—These are open-ended questions for discussion by students. The extent of interpretation and discussion of the poetry may depend on you, the teacher's, interest. Each group might read their poem aloud to the class and give their ideas about it to open the discussion Question 3—Scholars consider Sappho great, partly because of the brilliance of her poetic imagery and her powerful honesty. Because she was frequently quoted by writers and grammarians of antiquity, her good reputation continues through the centuries, even though little of her poetry remains. Question 4—It could be that poets using reference to Sardis, Muses, etc., might be used by poets even today. Perhaps students can see that the issues are very relevant today: the need for recognition and love, the idea of separation and death. Chapter 5: Women in Athens—A Golden Age? (p.27-36) Objectives: Students should be able to judge from this reading that what may be a good era for some people may not be very good for others. Generally, Athens in this era represents a low point of women’s status in ancient Greece. Students should also be aware of contradictions. Women were not in the assemblies, but appeared in the art of the time and at religious gatherings Points to Consider (p. 35-36) Question 1—Here are specific examples of what made this a low point for women: Women could not own their own property, they could not choose marriage partners, they were isolated in harem-like quarters for upper class families. No women's writings are preserved and the leading historian says little about women. That women may have had some significant roles may be implied from their roles within the family and with religious observances that seemed to call for female organization. Question 2—The Hellenistic queens were fierce at times, but probably no more so than male rulers. There was real competition for power following Alexander's death that made each family or general rival one another. The victims and the survivors were divided with few standing aloof or safe from the conflict. Question 3—Given the fierce rivalries, family relatives might be the only people to be trusted. However, father and sons might certainly disagree and polygynous marriages caused troubles between wife and husband, and brothers fought over the same throne. Brothers and sisters, however, sometimes supported each other since the sister was likely to be married into another area or might control her own property through dowry. It might be to the sister's benefit to have a strong brother to protect her rights militarily and a brother might need the monetary support of a wealthy sister, or one who could create alliances. Also, in some cases, brother and sister married to keep the kingdom intact. Question 4—Probably the most outstanding fact about Alexander's family is the violent deaths of nearly everyone. Those who died peacefully generally died young. Women and small children were killed as well as men. One of the reasons for the Hellenistic rivalry for leadership among Alexander's generals was that Alexander had No grown children to follow his line. Thus, polygynous marriages on the part of kings seemed to create rivalrous and hence dangerous problems with succession. Question 5—That Alexander's mother and sister are some of the first women who can be traced historically year by year may suggest that male historians were more interested in them because they were related to Alexander than through their importance as women themselves. Olympias, particularly, was a stong-minded and interesting woman—one wonders how many other women like her are unknown to history because they were unrelated to important men. Chapter 6: The Hellenistic Age—Evidence on the Status of Women (p. 37-42) Objectives: The Hellenistic Age has not been adequately studied by historians interested in women's issues. The general thesis seems to be that women’s status was higher in this era, especially regarding property rights and women's rule. This exercise may suggest some reasons to students for the increase in female status. Points to Consider (p.41) Question 1—The answer is open-ended but women seemed to act in the public world, to own property, to be free to go out to entertainments, etc Question 2—Upper class women were secluded in Athens in the 5th century, but not in Hellenistic times. Other comparisons could include education of women, it.property rights, participation in sports and government. Women, as seen in art and literature, varied greatly. Question 3—Minoan and Hellenistic times may have been the best for women, Athens in the Sth century, the worst. Students might think about and discuss elements that make a particular time either favorable or unfavorable for women. Question 4—Great art, literature, architecture and philosophies were developed at that time. Were these accomplishments done at the expense of women and slaves? Chapter 7: The Macedonian Queens: Olympias and Cleopatra (p. 43-48) Objectives: This reading presents information about some of the best known and most influential women in Greek history. The lives of these women may suggest, to students, roles of women in ruling families and how dangerous their lives sometimes were. Students may be rather confused by the name Cleopatra in this reading. This Cleopatra is Alexander's sister and not to be confused with the later Cleopatra VII. The name Cleopatra linked later female rulers to Alexander's line and was a part of the Macedonian tradition even as it appeared in Egypt. Points to Consider (p. 48) Question 1—The Hellenistic queens were fierce at times, but probably no more so than male rulers. There was real competition for power following Alexander's death that made each family or military general rival one another. The victims and the survivors were divided with few standing aloof or safe from the conflict. Question 2—Given the fierce rivalries, family relatives might be the only people to be trusted. However, father and sons might certainly disagree and polygynous marriages caused troubles between wife and husband, and brothers fought over the same throne. Brothers and sisters, however, sometimes supported each other since the sister was likely to be married into another area or might control her own property through dowry. It might be to the sister’s benefit to have a strong brother to protect her rights through military means and a brother might need the monetary support of a wealthy sister, or one who could create alliances. Also, in sorne cases, brotHer and sister married to keep the kingdom intact. Question 3—Probably the most outstanding fact about Alexander's family is the violent deaths of nearly everyone. Those who died peacefully generally died young. Women and small children were killed as well as men. One of the reasons for the Hellenistic rivalry for leadership among Alexander's generals was that Alexander had no grown children to follow in his line. Thus, polygynous marriages on the part of kings seemed to create rivalrous and hence dangerous problems with succession. Question 4—That Alexander's mother and sister are some of the first women who can be traced historically year by year may suggest that male historians were more interested in them because they were related to Alexander than through their importance as women themselves. Olympias, particularly, was a strong-minded and interesting woman—one wonders how many other women like her are unknown to history because they were unrelated to important men 8 Book : Women in Ancient Rome Chapter 1: Early Neighbors of the Romans: The Women of Etruria (p.51-55) Objectives: Students should induce from evidence presented that Etruscan women apparently had near equality with Etruscan men and high status. Points to Consider (p. 54-55) Question 1—Women are prominent in the arts, are shown in a variety of roles and as equals with men. Husbands and wives are seen affectionately equal. Question 2—Yes, Etruscan women's names indicate one’s identity. The lack of individuality and emphasis on the father might have important implications upon the self-image of a young girl. Question 3—Theopompos was shocked because Etruscan women lived more ‘open, public lives than he, as a Greek, would approve for women. Was he so shocked at their nudity alone? Did he want to show them in a bad light? He probably would have been offended at their presence at banquets, giving toasts and by their going to sporting events. Question 4—Etruscan princesses were found dining at a banquet, talking, eating and drinking with friends. Lucretia was working, spinning with her maidservants. Obviously, the latter, hard work and modesty, were important Roman values, especially for women Question 5—The story of Lucretia’s rape may be an opportunity for teachers to deal with the topic of rape in the context of an ancient example. Lucretia seems to have been acting more as the ideal woman than the Etruscan women or perhaps one Etruscan prince was angry with the Romans who were at fault; why she feels that way might be a good class discussion. Does a woman as a sad urchin seem to have appeal as a dramatic subject? Question 6—Etruscans look more open, casual, equal than Roman women— perhaps their activities were less sex stereotyped? Chapter 2: Women of Rome (p. 57-63) Objectives: As a group exercise, students will use laws and other evidence to make tentative generalizations about women in various periods of Roman history. Points to Consider (p. 62-63) Women and Roman Law Question 1—Students might notice that all children were under the power of their father, but a woman continued to be under a man’s control all her life. The notion of manus might be discussed. Some laws were harder on men, some on women 9Question 2— a. Laws harder on women than men are the lack of legal rights. the prohibition of wine drinking. and Lex Voconia which placed a limit on the property a woman could inherit Since daughters could only be sold once into slavery, but a son three times— did this make a daughter, in this case, the favored one? A wife might be protected since the husband could not sell her to anyone. Male relatives could rise to defend a female relative accused by her husband of wine drinking because they could kiss her in order to verify her claim. d. Originally, Roman women seem to be treated equally regarding inheritance, life as free persons and citizenship. Also, all children and even adults were equal under the power of the father as long as he lived. c ° Roman Marriage Forms Question 1— a. The first two forms are much simpler for lower class people and less rigid, the last much more formal with no divorce. b. They might have died out because families wanted to keep control of their daughters. Perhaps women gained enough power to object to the complete control. Women, married under usus, found they could just stay away three days to be free of manus. Question 2—Confarreatio marriages began to die out because of the extreme difficulty of getting a divorce. Question 3—Usus meant that wives could avoid manus of the husband by staying away three days a year. Question 4— a. Would a father/daughter relationship develop? Was it like a man marrying a little girl? b. It might be rather common for a wife to outlive her much older husband. Since she could inherit property, some women might then be quite well-off or even rich. Since wives might also inherit from their own families, they might have some means of asserting independence from their husband. Question 5—A dowry system was important as the dowry was usually large but all or part of it went back to a woman upon divorce and divorce became increasingly easy to get for both men and women. Divorce, Marriage and Remarriage Question 1—The size of the dowry may have influenced divorce customs. The fact that the husband always got custody of the children may also have influenced divorce. For example, if a family got their daughter's dowry back after divorce, they might encourage her to divorce an unprosperous partner to marry another. Society in general might have reasons to encourage or discourage divorce, depending on population needs or population imbalance because of war. New ethical ideals or standards such as more equal treatment of women or the stricter rules during the time of Constantine possibly changed atitudes toward divorce. 10 Question 2—The Augustan laws seem harder on women—and are not equal— see, for example, adultery laws. Widows were often young and the Roman government wanted to encourage a remarriage in order to increase the birth rate: Question 3—Many societies, being patriarchal, want to make sure of the father's identity. Women have sometimes been made to carry the burden of upholding higher standards than men. Augustus did't want destitute Roman women nor conflict over family property. Question 4—Open answers are accepted here, but the status of women probably depends on the time and the specific comparisons made. Chapter 3: Women in the Roman Republic.(p. 65-76) Objectives: Students learn what may have been the first large public demonstration by women to achieve changes in the law. Students could speculate that there might be important reasons for women wishing to change laws that appear to merely restrict their luxuries. Points to Consider (p. 69) Question 1— The Oppian Law was sumptuary legislation aimed both at restricting the display of riches by women in wartime and confiscating gold to pay for the war effort. It seemed unpatriotic to display wealth and luxury during war, money was needed for war material and some women became very rich if either their fathers, husbands or brothers died in war. Men did not have these restrictions and women wanted both to keep their gold and to show off their wealth. Question 2— Women were getting too uppity in Cato’s mind. Valerius felt that women were so inferior they needed an outlet for conspicuous consumption as they had no other. Neither were very complimentary. In a way, Cato’s is a strange compliment. He seems to have been saying that men have to keep women down because otherwise they will dominate. Question 3—Livy says it's a “trivial incident’ but his elaborate description makes it sound quite important and even widespread. Women carried on street demonstrations, harassed senators and followed them to the Senate. They came in from the country to demonstrate in Rome. Women might have been angry, but they must have required organization or a network to get the demonstrations going. Maybe a few important women started it or perhaps it was begun through women’s religious organizations. ah]Cornelia: A Noble Roman Matron Objectives: Students learn what was considered an ideal type of noble Roman matron and Cornelia serves as a model of Roman values. Discussion might involve how this has continued to be an ideal. Points to Consider (p. 72) Question 1—Plutarch admired Cornelia’s devotion to her sons. The fact that she remained a widow and did not remarry, her intellectual abilities and courage in facing grief, all serve to define Plutarch's admiration and those of later historians’. Question 2—Cornelia's devotion to her sons and Rome caused her to turn him down. Perhaps she feared life in Egypt. A high class Roman might feel equal or even superior to a foreign king. (Remember that Cornelia was a daughter of Scipio Africanus.) Question 3—The stories define a close, doting mother. Cornelia felt her high reputation depended on her son's actions (note that her husband did not enter in here—just her fathers and her sons). What would a modern psychiatrist say about these relationships? Laudatio Turia—Description of an Ideal Wife Objectives: Students may recognize from this detailed grave inscription that a society's ideal woman may not always have the most admired qualities. Times of disruption may require more assertive qualities on the part of women than a society might normally admire. Points to Consider (p. 76) Question 1—Specific characteristics were weaving, staying at home and being religious. Turia appears to have been very assertive, courageous, innovative and intelligent. She also fits the ideal of a good wife, loyal, even offering to divorce her husband when she had no children. She did not, however, stay quietly at home. Question 2—Lucretius seems not to have filled the male stereotype of the macho man and is quite willing to give his wife public credit for her bravery. He loved and was devoted to Turia and was unwilling to divorce her. The long and detailed inscription is unusual for a Roman of the time. Chapter 4: Imperial Women of the First Century A.D. (p. 77-86) Livia: The First Augusta to the Romans Objectives: Students will learn that an imperial Augusta might play several purposeful political roles such as upholder of Roman Republican virtues at home and queen-empress to 12 client-queens. Students should also learn something of the close political partnership between Livia/Augustus and be able to question various historical interpretations of Livia The Tiberius/Livia relationship could also be discussed Points to Consider (p. 81) Question 1—Specific evidence indicates that client-queens asked her advice. After Augustus’ death, she held her own court, received visitors and was the head priest of a cult dedicated to him. She seemed to have influenced Augustus to leave her money, to have Julia marry Tiberius and, most importantly, to name Tiberius successor to the purple. Question 2—She probably wanted to appear the ideal Roman matron by staying at home. This aided Augustus in establishing himself as emperor, since she appeared to be an exemplary Roman family woman. Hellenistic queens and foreigners with a view of women that included public roles of leadership might expect the Roman empress to lead a political life. Question 3—Livia had a network of support, especially among women both at home and overseas. She knew how to wield power. She was able to use her good name and that of Augustus to keep her power. Tiberius had to keep her respect as she had made him Caesar in that he was not a direct relative of Augustus. Question 4—Tiberius disliked his mother and did not go out of his way to give her honors after she died. This was probably caused by the old quarrel over his divorce. He resented her power when she was alive. Question 5—Tacitus, it seems, was hard on all the Imperial family and tended to glorify the good old days of the Republic. Question 6—Various answers possible here. Livia was fond of Augustus, lived with him 52 years and did not need the money or power she might gain by his death, as she already had them. It does look as though Tiberius was quite secure as the successor by the end of Augustus’ life. Two Wives of Emperor Claudius: Infamous Women of the Early Imperial Rome. (p. 82-86) Objectives: Students will know something of this infamous woman of Rome. A Messalina may be totally self-indulgent in her use of power where an Agrippina may want to wield absolute personal power. For both, there may be extenuating circumstances that partly explain their actions which students can discuss as a value exercise. Points to Consider (p. 86) Question 1—Messalina’s behavior may have been a result of her very young age at both her marriage and at the birth of her children. Claudius was much older, had been married twice before and had a questionable past himself with mistresses and intrigues. Question 2—She probably deserved her fate as an evil woman who hurt others. Discussion.Question 3—Agrippina may have desired to make way for Nero and the rumor may have begun because people disliked her and her son Nero at the time. Question 4—At first she was determined to push him forward, but only while she could control him. Her's was not a genuine affection. Question 5—Both wanted power, were wives of Claudius and were self-centered. Messalina seems a self-indulgent, foolish but wicked child. Agrippina seems comparatively admirable: gutsy, brave and, though a power seeker, rather clever. All three were interested in power, but in different ways. Neither were sentimentalists or would even strike one as loving mothers. Chapter 5: Three Views of Roman Women, Class Differences, Religious Roles and the Educated Woman. (p. 87-100) Objectives: Students will compare the various conditions of groups of Roman women so as to learn of the wide range of their life styles at any time period depending on factors such as class, position of power or individual abilities. Classes of Women in Ancient Rome Imperial Women Exercise on p. (88-89) Question 1—Time, labor and expense would be great for the elaborate hair styles which require slaves, or servants, much leisure time and might indicate that these women reflected their father’s or husband's importance and wealth. Question 2—Early hair styles as those seen on Livia were much simpler. Probably Livia was viewed as the ideal Republican woman since Augustus was still keeping up the fiction of a republic. Somewhat later she was pictured as a queen or deity. Later hair styles were much more elaborate and intended for imperial display. Question 3—Student answers. Noble Women, Freeborn and Freedwomen, and Slavewomen Points to Consider (p. 92) Question 1—Public monuments, public buildings and monetary gifts were given by women, often as memorials to dead husbands. One such building, used for clothing manufacture, was donated by the female priestess, Eumacha, from Pompei. These women might have inherited money from a father or husband, have control of their dowry or received gifts of land, as had Livia with Augustus. Question 2—Friends might be her servants or personal slaves. On occasion, such women might have household dealings with lower class women. Slaves might be daily companions of imperial and noble women. Question 3—Answers are open ended. A slave might have some comforts, but one's fate depended totally on the character of the owner and family. A freedwoman might live in slums, lead a very hard life, but did have the luxury of not having her fate decided by an owner as did a slave. 14 Question 4—An owner might free a young slave or one married to a freedperson to keep a family together or as a reward. Sometimes old slaves were freed so the owner would no longer be responisible. There is evidence that debtors would adopt a slave and free them so that they would inherit the owner's debts. Women and Roman Religion Points to Consider (p. 96-97) Question 1—This is an open-ended question. There was a long tradition of female gods. Even though the imagery of Rome seems masculine in some ways, women were not thought to be powerless or weak. Question 2—Clodius was probably severely punished because these ceremonies were important to Roman society. By breaking the prohibition he committed a sacrilege. Question 3—This is open-ended but one might consider how few vestal virgins there were at any one time, the long period of initiation required and the important religious duties they performed. Perhaps, like Athena for Athens, they were the guardians of Rome and, of necessity, had to live exemplary lives. Question 4—Vestal virgins were expected to lead exemplary lives. They represented Rome and were looked up to as an ideal. Question 5—The notion of a forgiving mother who promised life after death for those who lived good lives, appealed to poor or suffering people, such as slaves. Educated and Literary Roman Women Points to Consider (p. 99) Question 1—Because daughters could inherit family property, families might be anxious that they be educated so that they could handle their own affairs. Some philosophers encouraged the education of women. Question 2—These women were sponsors or patrons but women, such as Cornelia, often organized salons (gatherings of artists and intellectuals). Question 3—Masonius Rufus was an Etruscan. Students may remember that Etruscan women seemed to have had more equality with men and led more open lives than Roman women. Question 4—Yes. He stated that men’s and women's roles do not necessarily need to be different. Question 5—Open answer. There is some evidence suggesting their works were destroyed, perhaps by early Christians who disapproved of them. It is odd that the sender's letters were kept and published. Men were more famous than women. Poetry might be an art form a woman could do on her own while theater productions require public recognition and cooperation to put on successfully. Agrippina might have been considered an evil woman or perhaps what she said too controversial. It would be fun to find one but it is very unlikely that they survived. 15Chapter 6: The Third Century A.D. Imperial Women and Imperial Rome at the Edge of Decline (p. 101-107) Objectives: Students learn that conventional history emphasizes the oddity of the emperors of this period, which leaves many questions unanswered. Yet, women's history can explain the comparative stability of the era through its capable women who were actual rulers. Points to Consider (p. 106-107) Question 1—Julia Domna was married to Emperor Septimius Severus. She was the mother of Caracalla and Geta. Caracalla preferred spending his time with his troops at the Roman frontiers. Julia Domna was captured by soldiers that revolted against and assassinated Caracalla. She then starved herself to death Julia Maesa was the mother of Julia Sohaemias and Julia Mamaea, grandmother of Emperor Heliogabalus and Emperor Alexander. Heliogabalus was murdered by a mob of soldiers along with his mother, Sohaemias. Julia Maesa ruled for Alexander. When Julia Maesa died, Alexander Severus’ mother, Julia Mamaea, ruled. The rule of the four Syrian princesses ended with their deaths. Question 2—Maybe they accepted Julia Domna because of the shaky condition of the empire, her abilities as a leader and the fact that Caracalla was frequently away. Perhaps because Alexander Severus seemed so weak, the grandmother and mother ruled. It could have been that her rule was not obvious. For both, additional factors might be the confidence and strength of character of the two women. They often lived (and ruled) away from Rome where female rulers were more accepted. Since Heliogabalus and Alexander Severus were both quite young, it was accepted when their mothers became regents. Other possibilities could be explored. Chapter 7: Royal Women—Rebels Against Rome, Client Queens and the Byzantine Empresses (p. 109-117) Objectives: Students should recognize that despite the Roman view that women should not rule Officially, women did rule during the Roman era. Sometimes women led rebellions from Rome, sometimes they acted as queens for Rome and sometimes (as in the Byzantine Empresses), they ruled the Roman Empire. These women are among the best known in history and join other exceptional women mentioned in general histories of ancient times. They may not reflect the life of an ordinary woman, but their influence upon history is marked. Points to Consider (p. 117) Question 1—The system of family rule (aristocratic or royal families determining power) meant that women had better access to positions of power than in republican states where they were excluded by law. Women gained power specifically as regents or with weak husbands 16 Question 2—It seems doubtful the love affairs of male rulers would have been rendered as sensationally. Historians writing of their love lives, generally passed over specific analysis of Cleopatra VII's and Theodora’s years as rulers. Theodora, especially, has thousands of pages written about her early years, but there is little serious attention given her policies. In one sense this emphasis on their love lives has increased their reputations and made them memorable as femmes fatales, making it difficult to view them objectively as political leaders. Question 3—This is a personal question, but largely the advantages in making peace with Rome would be protection from other enemies, a system of orderly government and armies which would support a client ruler from family rivals, and it would certainly depend on the realtive strength of the country and its proximity to Rome. One disadvantage would be taking orders from Rome, some loss of one’s own customs and the payment of taxes. Being a woman might or might not make a difference—Rome accepted these female client queens, but uneasily. Question 4—Royal women receive attention because historians usally kept records of rulers of the upper classes but not lower classes. The lower classes could not write and were therefor unable to keep records. There were only a very limited number of literate women in all classes. Whether these royal women are too significant is largely tied into the question of how important elite goups are in history. Certainly, many of them helped to shape historical events. Cleopatra’s victory, rather than her defeat, might have meant real changes in the course of Western history. These women have also been used as models—both favorable and unfavorable—to judge women’s ability to make political decisions and to rule. The question of each woman’s significance finally relies on the individual sense of what causes historical events and what history means. 17Women in Ancient Greece and Rome Cognitive Test 14. Women of the classical era have been shown in statues and coins of the United States government to represent the virtues of: a. freedom and justice. b. motherhood and concern for children. c. women’s liberation d. humility and generosity 2. Crete, in the Minoan Age, had as its main religious concern a belief in: a. the female snake god. b. the three Graces of female gods. c. the twelve Olympic gods. d. Zeus 3. Minoan women may be documented as engaging in all of the following acti s EXCEPT: a. being able to divorce. b. being able to be an acrobat. c. being able to be a soldier. d. being able to own property. 4. One of the following sets of a female god and the activity associated with her is wrong. Which set is NOT accurate? a. Athena—Wisdom and the Crafts b. Aphrodite—Love c. Artemis—Hunting d. Demeter—Sea 5. Homer seems to have had what attitude toward women in the Iliad and Odyssey? a. Women are fierce. warriors who help the Greeks defeat the Trojans. b. Women are barely mentioned except for a few brief scenes. c. Women are terribly evil; the cause of all Greek and Trojan problems. d. Women represent a variety of qualities from good queens to tempters to quiet wives. 6. The Amazons became known in Greek history as: a. protectors of the city of Athens. b. major opponents of the Greeks, especially the Athenians. c. myths or legends only, so they never appear in Greek art d. a tribe of Dorians known for their sea-faring skills. 7. Spartan mothers were especially known for their: a. kindness and insistence upon good food for their sons. b. devotion to the male gods of Olympus. c. sternness to their sons. d. fighting alongside their husbands and sons 8. Which of the following qualities did ancient writers agree was more typical of Spartan women than of Athenian women? a. Physically beautiful. b. Terrible tempered c. Religious and pious. d Scholarly in attitude. 12. 15. 16. Probably the most famous queen of the lonian region was Artemisia who: a. Supported a court of writers famous for their poetry and plays. b. led Athenian troops into war against the Spartans. c. sailed her ships with the Persians against the Greeks. d. organized religious festival at Euphesis which became a major Greek custom . Sappho's poetry: a became a treasured part of the Greek heritage to later Christian leaders. b. was almost totally destroyed c. was ignored in Greece because she was a woman. d. is so intellectual that only philosophers can deal with it. . The low point for women in the history of ancient Greece seems to have been: a. the Bronze Age, Sparta. b. the Classical Age, Athens. c. the Minoan Age, Crete. d. the Hellenistic Age, lonia. The main protector of male heroes in Greek stories and Alexander the Great's patron god was: a. Aphrodite. b. Zeus. c. Apollo. d. Athena. . Women in Classical Athens (5th century) had which of the following rights? They could: a. own property. b. vote in some elections. Cc. appear in religious processions. d. engage in commerce on an equal basis with men. . The hetaerae which included women such as Aspasia, were: a. the educated courtesans supported by wealthy men of Athens. b. the aristocratic women of Athens representing the powerful families. c. the spinners known for their craft and the robes they gave to the gods. d. the religious virgins who helped to organize the mystery festivals. In the writings of ancient Greece, the animal that a good or ideal woman is most often compared to is the: a. butterfly. b. bee. c. lion. d. cow. Two Athenian male writers who supported ideas of women’s rights are: a. Aristotle and Asechylus. b. Demosthenes and Aristotle. c. Plato and Euripides. d. Solon and Xenophon. - A review of Hellenistic coins shows: a. the decline in the use of female gods as patrons of cities. b. almost no female gods. 19