A

HISTORY

BEGINNER'S
PHILOSOPHY

OF

BY

HERBERT

ERNEST
Sometime
Lecturer

LL.D.,

CUSHMAN,

Professor of Philosophy in Tufts College

College
of Philosophy in Harvard

Lecturer

of Philosophy

in Dartmouth

VOL.

MODERN

BOSTON

HOUGHTON

II

PHILOSOPHY

NEW

YORK

MIFFLIN

CHICAGO

COMPANY

Cambri"0e

College

PH.D.

COPYRIGHT,

1911,

ALL

BY

RIGHTS

ERNEST

HERBERT

RESERVED

CUSHMAN

PEEFACE

THE

pedagogical
is

sophy

this

in

This

book

in the

of

than

philo
It

volume.

first

that

what

restate

to

pur

and

political history.

for

sary

line

of

the

it

the

with

his

puts

the

this

reasons

the

of

when

in

as

text-books

Therefore

memory.

of

arranging

of

philosophy

length

and
for

student
of

mendously
modern

begins

the

in

the

out

an

hands

of

student
of

and

geo

political

pedagogical
the

of

student

philosophy.

helps

subjects, as
the

single

material

of

are

to

purpose

the

history

beginner.
be

impressed

modern

period

stretches

period

neces

the

which

has

the

for

generalizations

other

book

the

organizing

will

long

other

literary

use

for

history

the

of

the

making

with

information
he

into

employing

merely

philoso

student

inspiring

In

of

more

literature,

tables, and

summaries,

The

for

student

intended

the

the

and

philosophy

is

stock

furnished,

employed,

of

contemporary

book

all

hands

time

is

book

the

the

and

geography

interpretations.

maps,

history,

The

of

for

history

teacher

the

class-room

own

graphical

of

the

into

history

teacher

It is

Since

it makes

for sketch-courses

It is written

background

student,

text-book

teacher.

the

upon

the

philosophy.

for
the

as

phy

The

place

is intended

history

rather

the

the

to

of

history

is.

pose

is

Preface

the

in

desirable

be

may

stated

this

of

purpose

is

only

of

four

with

compared
the

periods

hundred

time-

short

the

with

of
and

the

tre

antiquity.
fifty years

PREFACE

iv

in

length, if

Compared
and

take

we

the

to

the

student

philosophy of antiquity must

philosophy arose
civilizations

in this

ancient

This

have

does

included

not

fewer

have

movements

civilization

is

people

had

quicker,and

subjective;

interpretthan
There

are

the
many

have

and

its

helpful books

philosophy,and

them

I call attention

hand.

with

the

decentral

but

transitions

briefer.

been

the
have

Modern

is

philosophy
to

that

thereby

understand

and

to

philosophy of antiquity.

tory of modern
at

modern

decentralizingof

sweep,

life,the

difficult

more

whole

that

also become

in their

epochs

often

philosophicalmovements

shorter

the

technical, and

more

that

mean

the

how

contrast

the

very

in which

find

in

With

times.

seems

observed

respect stands

ancient

followed

has

will

Europe, philosophy has

ized.

been

who

He

of

life

situations

involved.

beginning.

years

have

of ethnic

out

were

philosophy of
modern

its

as

hundred

twenty-two

Furthermore

philosophy

1453

date

life,the period of modern

mediaeval

short.

the

in
the

the

English on
student

should

his
have

especiallyto Rand,

Mod

Classical

Philosophers,for its judiciousselection

from
the originalsources
; toRoyce, Spiritof Modern
Philosophy, chapters iii to x ; to Eucken, The Prob
lem of Human
Life, pp. 303 to 518 ; and to the Sum
maries
in Windelband,
History of Philosophy, Parts
ern

IV
of

to

VII.

Besides

modern

are

valuable

histories

(2

(vol. ii),Calkins, Dewing,

Ueberweg

Rogers.
To

desire

friends
to

criticisms

A.

there

philosophy by Falckenberg, Hoffding

vols.),Weber,
and

these

who

acknowledge
and

read

have

parts of the manuscript, I

indebtedness

my

for

suggestions; especiallyto

Neilson, Professor

R.

B.

Perry, Dr.

wise

many

Professor

B. A. G.

W.

Fuller,

PREFACE

and

Dr.

J.

fessor

Mary

fessor

W.

to

Professor

TUFTS

H.

Woods
W.

P.

of

Calkins

Montague
S.

COLLEGE,

P.

Capen
December,

Harvard
of

of
of

University

Wellesley

College

Columbia

University

Clark

1910.

College.

to

Pro

to

Pro

and

CONTENTS

VOLUME

II.

(1453
CHAPTER

I.

OF

THE
THE

PERIODS

THE

CAUSES

(a)

TIME)

CHARACTERISTICS

DIVISIONS

AND

PERIOD
IN

STUDY

THE

MODERN

OF

OF

MODERN

OF

PHILOSOPHY

PHILOSOPHY
DECAY

THE

MIDDLE

PRESENT

THE

THE

DIFFICULTY

THE

TO

MODERN

THE

PHILOSOPHY

MODERN

OF

CIVILIZATION

THE

OF

AGES

The

Internal

Causes

(1)

The

Intellectual

(2)

The

Standard

4
Methods

Self-Destructive

were

of Truth

became

Double

Stand

ard

(3)

The

Development

(4)

The

Doctrine

(6)

The

II.

New

Man

(b)

The

New

Universe

THE

The

(1453-1690)

OF

The

(2)

RENAISSANCE

(a)

The

of

the

OF

of

8
8

the

the

Universe

Physical

World

9
.

Antiquity

of

RENAISSANCE

THE

Renaissance

of

Restoration

Renaissance

the

of

8
.

RENAISSANCE

THE

Transformation

SIGNIFICANCE

Nominalism

CHARACTER

(1)

Mysticism

Causes

THE

GENERAL

of

of

External

CHAPTER
THE

10
.

HISTORY

IN

11
.

MAP

SHOWING

DECENTRALIZATION

THE

EUROPE

OF

13
.

THE

Two

PERIODS

OF

(1453-1600)

ISTIC

RENAISSANCE

THE

NATURAL

THE

SCIENCE

(a)

The

Similarities

of

the

Two

Periods

(6)

The

Differences of

the

Two

Periods

(1)

The

Countries
naissance

which
differ

in the

THE

HUMAN

(1600-1690)

1.5
16
16

participate
Two

in

the

Periods

Re
16

viii

CONTENTS

The

(2)

Intellectual

differ

Standards

Two

the

in

Periods
The

(3)

17

Scientific

Methods

in the

Periods

Two

were

18

Different
The

(4)

differs

BRIEF

OF

OF

CHAPTER

III.

THE

LONG

PERIODS

"

SUMMARY
21

HUMANISTIC

PERIOD

OF

THE

(1453-1600)

LIST

NICOLAS

22

REPRESENTATIVES

OF

OF

HUMAN

THE

22

CUSA

OF

PARACELSUS

BRUNO

SHOWING

25

(1548-1600)
BIRTHPLACES

THE

OF

PHERS

IV.

THE

THE

PHILOSOPHERS

THE

MATHEMATICAL

PHILOSO
30

SCIENCE

NATURAL

THE

PERIOD

OF

31
SCIENCE

PERIOD

31

ASTRONOMERS

32
36

(1564-1641)

FRANCIS

OF

CHIEF

THE

(1600-1690)
OF

GALILEI

LIFE

OF

NATURAL

RENAISSANCE

GALILEO

27

RENAISSANCE

THE

CHAPTER
THE

24

(1401-1464)

(1493-1541)

GIORDANO

THE

19

PERIOD

ISTIC

MAP

Science

ABOVE

THE

RENAISSANCE

toward

Periods

Two

THE

DISCUSSION

Church

the

Two

in the

CONTRAST

THE

of

Attitude

BARON

BACON,

VERULAM

(156139

1626)
THE

POSITION

THE

AIM

THE

METHOD

THE

BACON

OF

PHILOSOPHY

IN

39

BACON

OF

OF

42

BACON

43

(a)

Bacon's

Criticism

(V)

Bacon's

Positive

ENGLISH

of

the Past

44

Construction

NATURAL

SCIENCE

45
MOVEMENT

46

....

HOBBES

THOMAS

AND

CONTEMPORARIES

HIS

47
....

THE

LIFE
1.

As

2. As

AND

WRITINGS

Classical

OF

Scholar

Mathematician

HOBBES

(1588-1679)

(1588-1628)

(1628-1638)

49
49
49

ix

CONTENTS
As

3.

4. As

50

Controversialist

50

INFLUENCES

THE

1. His

THOUGHT

50

HOBBES

OF

50

Birth

51

Father

PRINCIPLE

FUNDAMENTAL

52

Science

Mathematical

New

3. The
THE

50

(1668-1679)

THE

UPON

Premature

His

2.

(1651-1668)

Scholar

Classical

As

5.

Philosopher (1638-1651)

TEACHING

THE

IN

OF

52

HOBBES
THE

METHOD

THE

KINDS

56

APPLICATION

OF

58

RENAISSANCE

OF

OF

THE

NATURAL
62

RENAISSANCE

THE

62

RATIONALISM

THE

NATURE

OF

THE

MENTAL

CONFLICT

THE

LIFE

IN

DESCARTES

WRITINGS

PHILOSOPHICAL

AND

65
OF

DES
66

(1596-1650)

CARTES

THE

61

HOBBES

AFTER

RATIONALISM

THE

PERIOD

SCIENCE

ENGLAND

IN

V.

CHAPTER

OF

THEORY

MATHEMATICAL

THE

POLITICS

TO

THE

THEORY

MATHEMATICAL

THE

OF

PSYCHOLOGY

HOBBES'S

THE

55

BODIES

OF

APPLICATION

HOBBES'S
TO

54

HOBBES

OF

and

1.

As

Child

2.

As

Traveler

3.

As

Writer

4.

In

Stockholm

Two

Student

66

(1596-1613)

66

(1613-1628)
.67

(1629-1650)

67

(1649-1650)
INFLUENCES

CONFLICTING

UPON

THE

THOUGHT
67

DESCARTES
METHOD

OF

INDUCTION

PROVISIONAL

"

CERTAINTY

OF

DEDUCTION

"

DOUBT

"

THE

ULTIMATE
70

CONSCIOUSNESS
IMPLICATIONS

THE

OF

CONSCIOUSNESS

72
.

GOD

73

MATTER

75

THE

EXISTENCE

THE

REALITY

OF

GOD

AND

WORLD

THE

69

DESCARTES

OF

77
,

CONTENTS

RELATION

THE

or

GOD

THE

RELATION

OF

GOD

THE

RELATION

OF

MIND

THE

INFLUENCE

OF

THE

RELATION

OF

TO

MATTER

TO

MINDS

77
.

78
78

BODY

AND

80

DESCARTES
OCCASIONALISTS

THE

SPINOZA

AND

81

DESCARTES

TO

PORTRAIT

84

SPINOZA

OF

THE

HISTORICAL

PLACE

THE

INFLUENCES

UPON

1.

His

2.

His

SPINOZA

OF

84

86

SPINOZA

86

Training

Jewish

Impulse

Science

New

the

from

86

Influence
3. His
LIFE

THE

Descartes'

"

.....

Acquaintance

WRITINGS

PHILOSOPHICAL

AND

Collegiants

the

with

OF

87
....

SPINOZA
88

(1632-1677)
Israel

1. In
2.

In

Retirement

3.

In

the

METHOD

THE

FUNDAMENTAL

89

(1656-1663)

Public

THE

88

(1632-1656)

90

Eye (1663-1677)

90

SPINOZA

OF

PRINCIPLE

OF

SPINOZA'S

PHILOSO
91

PHY

PROBLEMS

CENTRAL

THREE

PANTHEISM

THE

OF

SPINOZA'S

IN

SPINOZA

TEACHING

93
.

THE

"

ALL-!NCLUSIVENESS
94

GOD

OF

MYSTICISM

THE

SPINOZA'S

DOCTRINE

SUMMARY

OF

LEIBNITZ

AS

SPINOZA

OF

OF

SPINOZA'S

LIFE

THE

1.
2.

4. Hanover

THREE

THE

OF

TEACHING

106

OF

and
and

THE

107
....

OF

Diplomacy
Science
and

AND

ENLIGHTENMENT

THE

LEIBNITZ

(1646-1716)

Ill

Ill

(1672-1676)

Ill
112

Philosophy (1676-1716)

INFLUENCES

UPON

THE

108
.

....

(1666-1672)

THOUGHT

OF

LEIB
112

NITZ

(1)

RENAISSANCE

University Life (1646-1666)

Leipsic and

3. Paris

102

WRITINGS

AND

Mainz

SALVATION

FINISHER

THE

FORERUNNER

THE

98

His

Early Classical

Studies

112

CONTENTS

(2)

The

New

(3)

Political

THE

METHOD

THE

IMMEDIATE

THE

RESULT

CIPLES

Science

and

Pressure

his

for

Discoveries

own

113
.

Religious Reconciliation

114
.

LEIBNITZ

OF

115

PROBLEM

SCIENCE

LEIBNITZ.

FOR

LEIBNITZ'S

OF

OF

xi

EXAMINATION

OF

PLURALITY

"

118
PRIN

THE

METAPHYSICAL

OF

SUBSTANCES

119
first scrutinized

1. Leibnitz

Scientific

the

Conception

of Motion
2. Leibnitz

119

examined

next

of the

Scientific

the

Conception

Atom

3. Leibnitz

120
Force

identified

then

with

the

Metaphys

ical Atom
THE

DOUBLE

THE

Two

NATURE
FORMS

UNITY
THE

121

LEIBNITZ'S

OF

CONCEPTION

OF

THE

125

UNITY

OF

MONADS

THE

THE

"

PHILO

UNITY

SOPHICAL

125

UNITY

SUPERIMPOSED

THEOLOGICAL

OF

MONADS

THE

THE

"

UNITY

VI.

CHAPTER

129

ENLIGHTENMENT

THE

EMERGENCE

THE

122

SUBSTANCES

OF

INTRINSIC

THE

MONADS

THE

OF

'OF

"NEW

THE

(1690-1781)
MAN"

INDIVIDUAL

"

132

ISM

THE

PRESUPPOSITION

PRACTICAL

MENT

THE

THE

"

INDEPENDENCE

OF
OF

INDIVIDUAL

THE

PRESUPPOSITION

METAPHYSICAL

ENLIGHTEN

THE

134
.

OF

135

PROBLEMS

(a)

OF

Utilitarian

THE

COMPARISON

FRANCE,
THE

MANY

OF

ENLIGHTENMENT

135

Problems

136

Criticism

(6) Questions of
A

THE

138

ENLIGHTENMENT

IN

ENGLAND,
140

GERMANY

AND

GROUPS

OF

PHILOSOPHERS

OF

ENLIGHT

THE

140

ENMENT

MAP

SHOWING

ENTIAL

ENLIGHT

THE

ENMENT

THE

132

THE

THINKERS

BIRTHPLACES
OF

THE

OF

SOME

ENLIGHTENMENT

OF

INFLU

THE

144
....

xii

CONTENTS

CHAPTER

VII.

THE

JOHN

LOCKE

ENLIGHTENMENT

JOHN

LOCKE,

GREAT

IN

LIFE

WRITINGS

AND

(1632-1704)

147

147

Politician

(1666-1683)

148

2.

As

3. As

PhilosophicalAuthor

4.

Controversialist

SOURCES

Puritan

His

(1683-1691)

3.

The

Scientific

4.

The

Political

149

THOUGHT

Ancestry

Training

150

150

..........

Tolerance

in

149

(1691-1704)

LOCKE'S

OF

1. His
2.

145

(1632-1666)

Student

THE

BRITAIN

Life

1.

As

145

150

"
.

Influence

151

Influence

152

SUMMARY

153

THE

PURPOSE

Two

SIDES

LOCKE

OF

LOCKE'S

OF

(a)

The

(6)

The

153
PHILOSOPHY

Side

Negative

155

Locke

"

Scholasticism

and

156
.

Positive

Side

The

"

New

Psychology

and

Epistemology
LOCKE'S

PSYCHOLOGY

LOCKE'S

THEORY

LOCKE'S

PRACTICAL

157
158

KNOWLEDGE

160

PHILOSOPHY

162

LOCKE

163

OF

THE

INFLUENCE

THE

ENGLISH

DEISTS

164

THE

ENGLISH

MORALISTS

166

OF

CHRONOLOGICAL

CHAPTER
THE

TABLE

VIII.
LIFE

OF

BERKELEY
WRITINGS

AND

ENGLISH

THE

168
.

HUME

AND

GEORGE

OF

MORALISTS

169

BERKBLEY

(1685-

1753)
1.

THE

169

Early Training (1685-1707)

His

2. As

Author

3. As

Priest

169

(1707-1721)
and

INFLUENCES

170

Missionary (1721-1753)

UPON

THE

THOUGHT

OF

171

....

BERKELEY

172
.

THE

PURPOSE

OF

BERKELEY

BERKELEY'S

GENERAL

BERKELEY'S

POINTS

RELATION
OF

AGREEMENT

173
TO

LOCKE
WITH

AND

HUME

174

LOCKE

175
.

CONTENTS
THE

NEGATIVE
1. As

SIDE

shown

BERKELEY'S

OF

PHILOSOPHY

176
.

General

iu

xiii

his

in

of

Analysis

Abstract

Ideas
As

2.

THE

177
in Particular

shown

SIDE

POSITIVE
1.

Esse

2.

The

his

BERKELEY'S

OF

Analysis

of

Matter

177

PHILOSOPHY

.179

Percipi

est

179

of Mind

Existence

Spiritual Substances

3.

in

is assumed

by Berkeley

Sufficient

are

180
.

explain

to

all

Ideas

THE

LIFE

181
WRITINGS

AND

DAVID

OF

HUME

(1711-1776)

183

1. Period

of

Training (1711-1734)

184

2. Period

of

Philosopher (1734-1752)

185

3. Period

of Politician

INFLUENCES

THOUGHT

THE

UPON

185

(1752-1776)
OF

HUME

186

SKEPTICISM

DOGMATISM,

PHENOMENALISM,

THE

ORIGIN

OF

THE

ASSOCIATION

OF

IDEAS

191

THE

ASSOCIATION

OF

CONTIGUITY

193

THE

ASSOCIATION

OF

RESEMBLANCE

194

AND

187
.

IDEAS

189

1. Mathematics
2. The

194

Conception

of

Substance:

Hume's

Attack

on

195

Theology
THE

ASSOCIATION

CAUSATION:

OF

HUME'S

ATTACK

ON

SCIENCE
THE

196

EXTENT

LIMITS

AND

HUMAN

OF

KNOWLEDGE

199
.

HUME'S
THE

THEORY
SCOTTISH

CHAPTER

ETHICS

AND

200

SCHOOL

THE

IX.

201

ENLIGHTENMENT

IN

FRANCE

GERMANY

AND

THE

RELIGION

OF

203

SITUATION

IN

FRANCE

IN

ENLIGHTENMENT

THE

203
.

THE

ENGLISH

THE

Two

THE

INFLUENCE
PERIODS

INTELLECTUAL

VOLTAIRE,
VOLTAIRE
THE

OF

IN
THE

FRANCE
FRENCH

206

ENLIGHTENMENT

207
.

ENLIGHTENMENT

MONTESQUIEU,

AND

(1729-1762)
THE

"

ENCYCLOPAEDISTS

208

(1694-1778)

209

ENCYCLOPAEDISTS

211
.

xiv

CONTENTS

THE

SOCIAL

ENLIGHTENMENT

ROUSSEAU
THE

ENLIGHTENMENT

INTRODUCTORY
1. The

.216

(1740-1781)

PERIOD

ABSOLUTISM

(1648-1740).

217

of Prussia

Rise

218

German

2.

The

Early

3.

The

Pietistic

4. The

Literature

219

Movement

219

Transformation

of Leibnitz's

Rationalism

220

SUMMARY

OF

LITERARY

THE

ENLIGHTENMENT

GER

OF

223

(1740-1781)

MANY

THE

POLITICAL

ERICK

THE

213

(1712-1778)

GERMAN

THE

213

(1762-1789)

ENLIGHTENMENT

OF

GERMANY

FRED

"

GREAT

THE

COURSE

224
ENLIGHTENMENT

GERMAN

THE

OF

226
.

LESSING

228

CHAPTER
THE

X.

KANT

CONVERGENCE

230

PHILOSOPHICAL

OF

INFLUENCES

IN

GERMANY

230
CHARACTERISTICS

THE

THREE

THE

Two

THE

INFLUENCES
1.

PERIODS

232
233
233

Wolffian

3.

The

Physics

of Newton

4.

The

Humanitarianism

LIFE

METHOD

WORLD

THE

PLACE

OF

JUDGMENTS
PROOF
1. IN

OF

235
KANT

WHAT

TION

.235

239
WORLD

KANT

OF

AND

"

SUBJECTIVE

PHENOMENA

243

SYNTHESIS

THE
DOES

IN

CONSIST

VALIDITY
THE

240
.

KNOWLEDGE

INDISPENSABLE
OF

(1724-1804)

238

THINGS-IN-THEMSELVES,
OF

234

KANT

THREEFOLD

THE

234

KANT

OF
OF

STATES,

233

of Rousseau

WRITINGS

AND

Philosophy

of Hume

Skepticism

THE

THE

PHILOSOPHY

KANT

UPON

Leibnitz-

PROBLEM

THE

231

....

2. The

THE

THE

PHILOSOPHY

Pietism

5. The
THE

GERMAN

OF

GERMAN

OF

KNOWLEDGE
.....

TO

OF

VALIDITY

HUMAN
HUMAN
OF

245

KNOWLEDGE

248

KNOWLEDGE

252

SENSE-PERSCEP253

CONTENTS
IN

2.

DOES

WHAT

STANDING

HAS

VALIDITY

THE

UNDER

THE

255

ITSELF

BY

OF

CONSIST

REASON

THE

xv

VALIDITY

ANY

260
.

THE

IDEA

OF

THE

SOUL

262

THE

IDEA

OF

THE

UNIVERSE

264

THE

IDEA

OF

GOD

265

CONCLUSION
THE

PROBLEM

THE
THE

OF

ETHICS
MORAL

REASON

269
Two

THE

Question

Second

MORAL

PRACTICAL

OF

KANT
AND

First

The

2.

CRITIQUE

THE

OF

LAW

The

1.

THE

268

QUESTIONS

concerning

CONCERNING

Moral

the

Law
.

Moral

the

Question concerning

271

IT

Law

273
.

POSTULATES

275

1.

The

Postulate

of Freedom

2.

The

Postulate

of the

3. The

Postulate

XI.

CHAPTER

272

of the

276

Existence

GERMAN

THE

of the

Immortality

Soul

276
.

of God

276

....

IDEALISTS

278
....

IDEALISM

SCHELLING,

FlCHTE,
MAP

KANT

AFTER

278

PLACES

IMPORTANT

279

UNIVERSITY

THE

SHOWING

HEGEL

AND

TOWNS

CONNECTED

AND
THE

WITH

OTHER

GERMAN

IDEALISTS
THE

LIFE
1. His

Education

Life

at Jena

His

Life

at

INFLUENCES

FICHTE

(1762-1814)

282
.

Kant

283

(1790-1794)

283
284

(1794-1799)

Berlin
UPON

(1799-1814)
FICHTE'S

284

"
.

TEACHING

285
....

PHILOSOPHIZE

WE

THE

MORAL

THE

CENTRAL

THE

MORAL

GOD

AND

WHAT

OF

(1762-1790)

3. His
4.

WHY

WRITINGS

AND

Discipleshipof

2.

THE

280

286

AWAKENING

PRINCIPLE

287

FICHTE'S

IN

PHILOSOPHY

288
.

WORLD

290

MAN
A

MORAL

292

REALITY

293

INVOLVES

1. It involves

the Consciousness

2. It involves

of

Something

Else

293
.

294

Contradiction
.

xvi

CONTENTS

ROMANTICISM
GOETHE

295
AS

ROMANTICIST

ROMANTICISM
THE

Earlier

2.

The

The

5.

6. The

(1775-1854)

300
.

(1775-1797)
Nature

of

Transcendental

The

4.

Period

SCHELLING

OF

Philosophy

The

299

WRITINGS

AND

1.

3.

PHILOSOPHY

IN

LIFE

297

302

(1797-1800)

302
....

Philosophy (1800-1801)

Philosophy

of

Philosophy

of Freedom

Identity (1801-1804)
and

Philosophy of Mythology

and

God

302
.

303

....

(1804-1809)

Revelation

303
.

(1809-

1854)
BRIEF

303

COMPARISON

FICHTE

OF

SCHELLING

AND

AS

PHILOSOPHERS

303

SCHELLING'S

PHILOSOPHY

SCHELLING'S

TRANSCENDENTAL

OF

NATURE

305

=..-...

PHILOSOPHY

307
....

THE

SYSTEM

IDENTITY

OF

310

RELIGIOUS

SCHELLING'S

PHILOSOPHY

311
.

HEGEL

AND

CULMINATION

THE

OF

IDEALISM

312
,

WHY

HEGEL

REMAINS

TO-DAY

THE

REPRESENTATIVE

OF

KANT
THE

314
LIFE

WRITINGS

AND

1.

Formative

2.

Formulation

3.

THE

Period

315
.

317

Philosophy (1806-1831)

.317
.

.317

IDEALISM

AND

FUNDAMENTAL

(1770-1831)

Philosophy (1796-1806)

of his

MYSTICISM,

HEGEL

(1770-1 79G)

of his

Development

REALISM,

OF

PRINCIPLES

OF

318
IDEALISM

HEGEL'S

321
.

THE

COSMIC

UNITY

322

THE

COSMIC

LAW

326

HEGEL'S

APPLICATION

XII.

CHAPTER

HIS

OF

THE

THEORY

PHILOSOPHY

328

OF

THE

THING-

IN-lTSELF
HERBART

AND

SCHOPENHAUER

FRIEDRICH

JOHANN
THE

330
330

HERBART

332
B

LIFE

AND

WRITINGS

THE

CONTRADICTIONS

THE

ARGUMENT

OF
OF

FOR

HERBART

(1776-1841)

333
.

EXPERIENCE

334

REALISM
....

334
.

ILLUSTRATIONS

IMMANUEL

MAP

Frontispiece

KANT

SHOWING

DECENTRALIZATION

THE

13

EUROPE

OF

MAP

SHOWING

SOPHERS

BARUCH

MAP

OF

DE

SHOWING

ENTIAL

BIRTHPLACES

THE

THE

OF

PHILO

CHIEF

THE

RENAISSANCE

30

SPINOZA

84

THE

THINKERS

BIRTHPLACES

OF

OF

THE

SOME

OF

INFLU

THE

ENLIGHTENMENT

144
....

MAP

SHOWING

PORTANT

THE

PLACES

UNIVERSITY

TOWNS

CONNECTED

AND

WITH

IM

OTHER

THE

GERMAN

IDEALISTS

280
...

HISTOEY

BEGIKtfEK'S

OF

PHILOSOPHY

II

VOLUME
PHILOSOPHY

MODERN

PRESENT

TIME)

CHAPTER

CHARACTERISTICS

THE

Beside

Difficulty

in

the

spans

great
450

zations, the
The
to

road
the

cult

to

Even

for

the

of

mind
more

inherently

ancient

and

mediaeval.

points

of

view,

comparatively

things

phy
In

is
the

because
neither
cal

is

gained

confronted
first

these,

of

mediaeval

times

of

diffi

first

time.

modern

phi

that

of

the

periods present

attained, lead

student

ancient

the

than

along

difficulty of
their
of

all

philosophy

objectivity of

consistency

for

chief

various

brief.

seem

mediaeval

study

difficulties

of

civili

yet it proves

it

when

the

with

conflict

from

once

The

overcome

; but

period

preceding

ways.
is

mediaeval

difficult

place, modern

it is
the

the

The

but

easy

preceding periods
of

modern

travels

modern

is

THE

Philosophy.

and

live, and

we

who

losophy

new

Modern

ancient

of the

which

student

the

of

Study

relativelyshort

in

OF

PERIOD

the

years

is indeed

century

DIVISIONS

AND

MODERN

The

THE

TO

(1453

peculiar

modern

along
is

very

thought.

It

nor

view

philoso
the

way.

complex

aspirations.
thought

the

It

the

arises

has

logi
from

HISTORY

subjectivemotives,
The

task

tions

OF

whose

is rendered

of the

phy

are

on

the

whole

and

yet

at

the

same

difficult to trace.

shadings are

harder

the

by

in the

problems

fact

historyof

intima

that

modern

philoso

present in the beginner'smind

time

mediaeval

these, many

PHILOSOPHY

his

notions

mind

besides

possesses,

For

well.

as

the student

successfully
through the entire length of modern
to Spencer means,
therefore, two
thought from Cusanus

to

pass

things for

him

significanceof

and

depth

he must

(2)

transcend

If

notions.

produces it,

the

marginal

and

modern

This

is

less

is

alive

more

than

of the

of

historyof

1. The
of the

mediaeval

movement

of

of

modern

the

changes
has

philosophyis

the

ancient

but

the

it is

modern

of modern

no

man

thoiight

antiquity.

Modem

philosophy are
(1453-1690)

Ages

the Human

The

Philosophy.

modern

Renaissance
Middle

under

an

he himself

Modern

than

of the his

comparatively many

feels that

life.

epoch,

reflections.

period

differentiations

the

to

into

man

temporary

social

Periods

The

to

the

"

as

divisions

follows

from

publicationof

the

"

end

Locke's

Understanding.
The
the pub
Enlightenment (1690-1781) "to
lication of Kant's
Critiqueof Pure Reason.
Essay

2.

short

to

periodsring out

in his inner

and

inner

own

the

the modern

is to those

he

his

subordinate

which

part of

the

ideas ;

that

understanding

an

divided
traditionally

local

more

and

explain why

blindly passed
no

of

philosophy only by coming

periods. These
through

entirelyhis

up

development

to

come

of himself

will

thought

half-formed

own

give

or

ulterior

can

tory of modern

standing

his

insight into

an

philosophy represents the epoch

either as the central
principleor as

"

the

gain

therefore

that

"

he- must

(1)

on

MODERN

THE

Philosophy (1781-1831)

3. German
of

PERIOD

to the death

"

Hegel.

Century Philosophy(1820

Nineteenth

4. The

the

"

present time.)
The
half

of

longer

springtime of
that

lines

ing

sition

all

than

noted

first

between

from

Renaissance

the

Locke's

signalizedby

together. It

seasons

books

first three

the

it is

history,although

epoch-making

two

than

more

It is sometimes

times.

modern

other

the

period,covers

modern

length of

the

called the

be

the

Renaissance,

to

periods.

the

great Essay

form

is to

the divid
The

tran

is

Enlightenment
the Human

on

Un

derstanding,which expressed for one hundred years the

and
opinions of western
Europe.
political
philosophical
The
transition
from
the
Enlightenment to German
in its turn
Philosophy was
signalizedby the appear
of Kant's
ance
Critiqueof Pure Reason, and this book
be said

may

since.

ing ever
in these
two

to

have

been

There

divisions, and

periods.

the death

German

is

fundamental
one

to

point further

that is the

human
to be

overlapping of

think

noticed
the last

philosophy ends practicallywith

Hegel in 1831, and the modern Evolution

movement
began at least ten years before,about 1820.
No great philosophical
treatise marks
the division here,
for the Evolution
had
its beginningsin Ger
movement
man
philosophyand in the discoveries and practical
inventions
came

1859.

upon

then

formed

formulated

appeared
This

of natural

reaction

sophy, and
that

of

was

the

several

years

Darwin's

Locke's

science.
the last
a

Evolution, however,

phases

of German

distinct movement.

Evolution
after the

The

be

philo
book

movement

most

fully

theory was

under

way.

Origin of Species,published in
Essay and Kant's Critiqueare therefore

HISTORY

the

influential

most

historyof
the

modern

PHILOSOPHY

of the
philosophical
interpretations
times
since
its early beginnings in

Renaissance.

The

Causes

Middle
time

of the
The

Ages.
weakened

and

of certain

cause

second

(1)
the

fall of the

The

sufficient

(1)

TJie

self-destructive

cism

as

Ages,

Middle
used

the

and

method

employ

life,and

alone

; in

the

of

We

methods.

weaknesses

Middle

the

take

in its

logic.

observation

have

been

end.

an

may

even

of

causes

Ages.

intellectual

the

of deductive

call these

may

would

societyto

methods

from

be

inherent

were

scholasticism

induction

place

discoveries,

Middle

of the

expressionof

the best

first

the external

(2)

the

mediaeval

organism

We

changes.

of

the

remarkable

Causes

intellectual

were

in its

some

mediaeval

bring

to

defects

civilization

intellectual

of

apart, in the

and

causes

Internal

in mediaeval

of

Civilization

structure

broke

historical

the internal

(a)

social

because

place

of the

Decay

inherent

inventions, and

not

OF

Ages

scholasti
life of the

ripestperiod

Scholasticism
and

did

experiment,

universal
proceeded on the principlethat the more
real it is. (See vol. i,
logicallya conceptionis,the more
this principlescholasticism
set as its only
On
p. 355.)
Its theism
task to penetrate and clarifydogma.
was
a
Aquinas, the great classic
logical theism. Even Thomas
the method
as
schoolman, used formal logic(dialectics)
but

of

obtaining

the

Middle

came

an

the

truth.

After

Ages, logic instead

end.

It

was

studied

him
of
for

in the

latter

being

its

own

part of

method
sake.

be

This

naturallydegenerated into word-splittingand quibbling,

of this master
and
the texts
into the commenting upon
The
religiousorders
that, into arid verbal discussions.
their time on verbal questions of trifling
frittered away

HISTORY

important
solution

OF

element

of

the

be

to

PHILOSOPHY

mentioned

civilization

easilysuppressed by

was

early mediaeval
doctrine
later

years,

with

the

the

the

however,

nominalism

man's

turned

fairs of the

spirit.It

in the

purely logical

In

basis.

the

gained great strength

of the

attention

incited

This

Ages.

scientific

acquisitionof knowledge

Nominalism

was

dis

the

to

authorities

it

empirical

no

Middle

church

centuries, when
had

and

of

led

that

him

from

away

to

world.

nature

the

realism

the

modify

af

of

dogma. It pointed out the importance of practical

experience. It emphasized individual
opinion,neglected
of sci
tradition, and placed its hope in the possibilities
actualities of religion.
rather
than
in the spiritual
ence
of certain
im
consisted
Causes
(6) The External
that brought the Middle
Ages to a close
portant events
and

introduced

great social

astronomical

had

become

to

the

These

to be

mentioned

Middle

Ages,

which

but

before

its effect had

of

paper

not

at

the

been

improved.

fifteenth

and

the

occurred

the

total

Moreover

beginning

Constantinople fell
migrated to Italy.
1453.

discovered

in

use

These

the

change

of

destroying

would

the

have

the

failed

the manufacture

at

of

common

magnetic needle,

the

time

same

following events

Columbus

which

belong

Renaissance.

the

in

1492.

into

came

beginning of the
played an important part in the
They were
societywhich followed.
influential
was
gunpowder, which
feudal
system, and printing,which
not

which

the inventions

are

time

tradition.

part of church

geographical

mediaeval

conceptions of

caused

events

the

changes by demolishing

and

First

Renaissance.

the

end

the

sixteenth

of

the

century

"

and

its

Greek

America,

an

scholars

achieve-

ment

which

netic

needle.
da

Vasco

1498.

to

made

was

India

and

Gama

thereby

the

by

possible

the

of

course

the

mag

all-sea

the

discovered

changed

of

use

the

route

world's

commerce.

Reformation

Protestant

The

1518.

begun

was

by

Luther.

Copernicus

1530.

bium,
around

which

in

the

sun.

wrote

he

maintained

his

De
that

revolutionibus
the

earth

or-

moved

CHAPTER

THE

The

that

Middle
the
and

Ages

the

of

characterization

This, however,
The

(a)
tinctly

New
with

Charlemagne
result

formed

the

grouping
into

which

was

nor

to

amine

the

Germans,
national
centralized
later

form

Read

of

Ages

The

finished

is

We

know

the

of

the

Dutch,

the

among

Windelband,

History

Introduction

to

Modern

the

when

of

distinctive

pp.
pp.

and

pp.

348-351;

then

Coun

Roman

new

52-54.

first

Low

the

Life,

Human

Philosophy,

of

ex

Italians,

Germans,

is

we

Renaissance

the

people

of Philosophy,

with

never

nations

find

we

and

Italian

it

sense

and

English
find

Italians

The

Problem

and

problem,

the

1000,

this

when

that

Renaissance

We

English,

French.

year

did

which

groups

difficult
real

before

fusion

time
a

Ger

the

The
in

but

Europe.

ended.

characteristics.

Eucken,

Dark

In

French,

the

the

inquire.

about

the

of

whole,

dis

was

fusion

not

history

among

tries, and

be

Universe.

The

completed.

now

was

will

will

began

in

peoples

practically
we

N~ew

The

expressed

Renaissance

country.

nations

was

be

may

in

longest,

times.

modern

in

the

homogenous

Man

ushered

first, the

period

this

of

(800)

in

of

the

explanation.

Man

Roman

and

man

the

of

society
that

"

jfeio

needs

man

of

the

same

period

The

Renaissance.

of

the

course

hopeful

"

the

decline

Renaissance,

single phrase,

not

of

the

of

the

to

were

most

general
in

Character

led

period

(1453-1690)

RENAISSANCE*

General

causes

II

and

303-321';

Dewing,

RENAISSANCE

THE

German

the
of

Middle

the

also

Ages

becomes
A

(6)
"

Man

Universe

ment,

but

of the

Renaissance

world

is

that

and

refreshed

stores

worlds

more

; but

causes

Ages."

Think
to

be flat,as

had

Our

man.
as

discoveries

have

those

as

how

the

people

as

to

it to

the
be

solid

when

widened

the
new

celestial

new

whole

new

It

discovered

new

was

and

wonderful

wonderful

has

worlds

new

have

actuallycir
must

discovered
the

by
tele

found

by

led to

experiment,

transformed

was

Galileo

it to

hypotheti-

minds

were

were

have

it must

men's

Discovery
of

had

the

Middle

the
must

been

of

"

as

supposed

new

it had

physical world

physical science

had

continents

astronomers

world

how

"

have

order.

two

above

scientists who

horizon

new

man

revolutionized

so

societyof

who

! How

of the

ever

old

cumnavigated

the

the

century

enumerated

that

new

common

well

and

undergone

of the fall of the

when

the

that

period of extraordinarydis

that

and

these

nineteenth

they found

scope

world

by

examine

must

upon

no

callysupposed

sailors

physical world

discovered

newly

We

mind

external

seemed

the intellectual

for

looked

human

seemed

and

its

in detail.

transformation

the

body
were

in

new

past. The

physical universe

often been

relations

The

geographical

the

mind

New

man.

from

his

Renaissance.

the

in its

new

"

equip
European

mediaeval

the
"

the

mental

does
activity,

world

concern.

to

in

only

astronomical

of the

1. The

his

new

its

his

opened

Not

Philosophy

national

now

differ from

actuallya

supported

coveries

for

in scope

intellectual

is

Renaissance.

of the

clear-cut.

less of

or

nationalities

undefined

become

now

more

now

New

outlines

The

Teuton.

new

into

material

mechanical

world

scientifically
reorganized

at

by

that
the

was

begin-

HISTORY

10

of the

ning

mediaeval

Renaissance.

time

man

mon

looked

tion

of

of

naissance

came

trade

adventure.

and

had

Not

2.

of

The

world

discovered

world

of

sand

years

mediaeval

man

heaven, the

earth

new

and

of

and

the

For

Re

the

in

engaged

things

therein

interest.

geographical
also

turned

contempla

to

emotional

restored.

antiquitywas

had

man

cloister

the

com

magnificent

world

this time, but

at

living,the
as

objects of

was

in

in

man

common

world

this wicked

become

only

the

joy

the

from

forth

suddenly

little

the

blessedness

the

Whereas

upon

Whereas

disorders

the

PHILOSOPHY

found

had

now

opportunity.
from

OF

and

the

more

physical

intellectual
than

thou

in western

Europe the literature of the Greeks

and
and
Romans
had been a thing of shreds
patches,
and
then read only in Latin translations.
Now
the
even
into possessionof a largepart of it
European had come
and was
aroused
to
reading it in the original. He was
the wonderful
intellectual life of the Age of Pericles.
The

interest

in ancient

by Dante, Petrarch,
fourteenth

and

Boccaccio

The

at this time.

received

Italy from
1438,

and

centuries, became

ling force
stimulus

literature,which

the

by

East

the
:

afterward

real

first the
in 1453

been

started

in the thirteenth

absorbing and
interest began

an

coming

had

and

control
with

the

of the Greek

scholars

to

ecclesiastical

embassy

in

the

large number

of refu

from

Constantinopleat the time of its capture by

the Turks.
Upon these refugees the patronage of the
was
chieflyperhaps in Florence
great Italian nobles
The
Platonic
lavishlybestowed.
Academy was founded.
Learned
Pletho,
expounders of the new learningarose,
the two
Of all the philoso
Picos, Fincinus, Reuchlin.
was
favored, and it was
phies of antiquity Platonism
Aristotle and Chrisinterpretedin a mysticalmanner.
gees

"

"

"

RENAISSANCE

THE

looked

tianitywere
terested

in all the

new

of
interpretations

mere

Renaissance

scholars

material
literary

from

the

Nevertheless

Plato.

as

upon

11

in

were

the East.

They studied the Jewish Cabala and its mysticnumbers.

Stoicism,and Epi
Eclecticism,
They revived Skepticism,
cureanism.
Aristotle was
representedby two antago
nistic schools ; and Taurellus opposed both and appealed
world to return
to Christianity.
to the scholarly
Significanceof

The

above

have
which

"

characterized
"

new

man

But

universe."

ture, and

the Renaissance

himself

the old world

entirely
outgrown

and

discarded.

their

low- vaulted

may

throw

away

his coat.

by

past"

as

Mediaeval

"

in

new

science,cul

no

Periods

time

livingin

had

"leave

as

of medieval

manners

not

History. We

Renaissance

the

found

conventional

in

been

means

of

historydo
easilyas a man

science and

theo

logy stillremained, not only as a background but also as

an
aggressivesocial factor everywhere. Mediaeval scho
lasticism was
something with which the Renaissance had
always to reckon. Scholasticism modified,frequently
and even
directed the thought of the Renais
restricted,
sance.
Consequentlywhen we form our final estimate
in the modern
of the place of the Renaissance
move
ment,
the
The

must

we

mediaeval
"

not

institutions
"

new

problem

overlook

man

how

lived

in

the

conservative

existingduring
a

"

new

universe

force of

the
"

period.
and

his

explain the relation of that new

universe"
would
to himself so that his explanation
not
traditions of the church.
antagonizethe time-honored
This was
the constructive problem that
sance

The

was

to

"

its

placein history.
first impression,
however, of

the reader

is that it stands for

no

the
cons

HISTORY

12

The

whatever.

that

changes
of

speak

to

seem

PHILOSOPHY

OF

that

epoch

an

usher

is

Renaissance

in the

entirelynegative,de

from
one
revolutionary.The period seems
traditions.
declaration
against time-honored
had
risen
man
superior to dogma and to

structive,and
side

be

to

The

"

"

new

Aristotle.
had

so

The

love for

individualism
time

to be

the

in

to be

the

the

one

languages

became

church, but

the human

mind, and

toward

modern
that

language

for

educated

into

use.

Rome

came

and

of the

was

Scientific

Oxford,

for

at
ex

men,

ceased

Wittenberg, London,

There

universities

never

strenuously

so

decentralization

centres.
sects.

many

Many

merous.

been

movement

only religiouscentre,

Geneva

and

The

in, and

set

everywhere taking place. Latin,

was

modern

the

and

novelty filled

appeared

ceased

ample,

had

innovation

at

riot.

imagination ran

this

fermentation

attempts

many

sought.
the

Intellectual

longer

no

became

centres

had

arisen

one
nu

independ

Vienna,

Heidelberg, Prague,
universities
in Italy and
and
numerous
Germany af
forded opportunitiesfor study equal to those of Paris.
ently, and

To

the

now

lasticism

in the

faith,

to

"

the
he

its

as

of the

significance.No

social ideals.
held

the reluctance
themselves

The

of united

golden age
will appear

only as
that

shows

that

spectacularaspect

is not

with

the
which

the

Renaissance

the

and

strong, universal, and

a

in which

reverence

after

from

of Scho

revolution

doubt

government

long

Period

times.

deeper insight into

well-centralized

the

disintegrationand

revolutionary,negative,and

its whole

was

Ages

Classic

the Renaissance

man

in modern

sees

the

upon

Middle

that

beginning
But

looks

who

man

empire

had

unity
the
been

of

church, show

are

of Rome

name

destroyed,and

the first Protestants

Catholic

faith

separated

that

the

loss

14

HISTORY

of

such

the

unity is

Middle

Ages

past,

be

could
stand

destructive

contained
himself
take

in

world

than

not

The

constructive

he

should
in

He

its

The
He

modern

orient

himself

relation

their
the

"

its constructive

^Renaissance
was

medieval

it

on

Renaissance
ate

Of

time

born

rose

joy

this

had

now

? It

the

was

traditional

the

of

problem
These

of

the

aspiration for

was,

in nature,

revulsion

the

on

the

happiness

joy
the

lands
and

the

from
the

The

were

was

church

out

of

literature of the
the

the
had

earthly,and

intensified

beyond

and

supernatural.

contrary, born

which

new

church

nothing.

or

out

discovery of
the

"

universe

new

character.

medieval

the

little

expected possessionof
the

How

subjectivism.In the firstplace, the

the naturalism
is the period when
of the
is meant
the love
recovered.
By naturalism

earthly life.

been

Renais

and

naturalism

for

power.

one.

antagonize tradition

not

do

must

of the

man

problem, a real problem in which

factor was
always persistentlypresent.
There
two
were
motifs which give to

Greeks

He

larger

temporal

the

to

under

institutions,which

new

the Renaissance

in

exceedingly complex

an

found

antiquity

than

imagined.

before

it

past, but

obliged to

of mediaeval

problem

might

man

deeper problem

ever

times.

faced

new

was

of

inherent

own

"

"

the

treasure

traditional

the

spiritualnor

would

all the

Renaissance

must

presence

explain his
that

way

of

far

therefore

was

the

past had

lost their

had

sance

of

of

of

church

the

with

universe."

the

this in the very

church

elements.

attempted.

ever

carrier

much

"new

solution

the

had

the

which

new

many

But

loss.

representativeof

as

of

PHILOSOPHY

real

the

problem

new

not

was

nor

limitations
The

OF

seas.

The

passion

by

the

past and
Man

dignity of earthlylivingand

un

by
felt
the

RENAISSANCE

THE

worth

well

15

In

the soul.

the

place,
the Renaissance
is marked
by the rise of subjectivism.
book
have already given the
At the beginning of our
we
meaning of subjectivism (see vol. i,p. 2), and we have
characterized
modern
civilization as subjectivein distinc
tion from
the ancient
as
Ages
objectiveand the Middle
of the

body

We

traditional.

as

the

beginnings

and

Christians.

time

does

mental

times

have

of

subjectivismin

But

in

position. This

ancients

the

have

we

as

on,

the

for
self

rational

gone

Sophists,Stoics,

Renaissance

the

culmination.

the

cosmo-centric

was

love

vidual

of

feels his

the

restoration

the

love

of

first
the

gain

of

naturalism
the

mediaeval

life

stand

constrained

fact

the

by

indi
situa

Thus

in

construction
for

in

that

was

the

Renaissance.

Renaissance

the

ego-centric.

this is the

"

in the

the

of

world

is

man

and

of

world

the

life because

of the

man

upbuilding, in spite
was

the

capacity for

subjectivismdid

period

and

the

own

presented to

While

of the modern

life,and

tion

of

as

next

is

theo-centric,the world
The

found,

also

individual

the

Idealism

man

as

the individual
:
subjectivism
only the interpreterof the universe, but also its
Of
the
creator.
subjectivemotif in modern
and Ger
the Renaissance
marks
the inauguration,

central
is not

as

positive

all this

the

tradition

powerful

of

the church.
The

1690).
year

division
we

ties

The

Period.

The

line will

the

Humanistic,

period

Natural

is divided
for

reason

soon

after

Renaissance:

the
The

Renaissance

1600.

call the
;

of

(1453-1600);

manistic

the

Periods

Two

or

this

the

into

date

two

periods at

this

date

period

period
the

Hu

(1600-

Science

taking
The

appear.

The

of

before
the

Natural

as

1600

Humani
Science

16

The

(a)

Similarities

the
a

having

urgent need

same

standard

new

in

alike

periods are

ledge, (3) for a new

From
the beginning
"

"

new

orient

and

ledge,

method, and

to

set

ledge might

be

tested.

The

however,

give our
(1)

attention.

The

Italy
two

are

countries
ent, had
with

had

1520,

Greek

In

and
the

had

like

of

practicallybecome
reason

Council

commerce

and

more

for this is not

had

must

we

the Renais
Humanistic

first

place,these

with
less

the

Greek

Ori

the

acquainted

second

place,

scholars

Florence

had

when

died

luckily already

Greek

their

dead

of Trent

carrying out

the

or

In

had

the

Science

are,

out

Erasmus, Agricola, Reuchlin,

Budseus

carried

Natural

There

these

to

the

in

the

his know

chiefly concerned.

In

refugees in

masters

the

In

Orient.

the

refuge of

the

Stephani, and

ature,

the

of

northerners

themselves

The

engaged

prosperous

culture

which

Periods.

were

this.

for

correct

some

ivhicJt participatein

reasons

of know

stores

by

Periods.

He

universe."

by

in

the

trj'ingto

was

new

his rich

Two

Germany

and

become

the

the

"

period, and

the Two

been

Italyhad been
the colony of
in

in his

differences

Countries

differin

There

about,

standard

each

by

know

new

Renaissance

the

way

of the

marked

some

motives

Period

of

some

up

Differences

of these

sance

the

end

for

gaining knowledge.

systematize his knowledge

to

(6)

of

acquisitionsto

new

their

method

readjust himself

seeking

was

to

feel

knowledge, (2)

new
measure

feeling his

was

man

to

two

Both

motives.

same

for

(1)

which

by

the

These

Periods.

Two

of the

language

far

liter

learning into Germany.

Period
both

and

made

in
to

fixed

the

Renaissance

Germany
seek.
the

In

dogma

and

in

had

Italy.

Italy,in 1563,
of the church

THE

had

and

anything

in, and

set

persecutionsof
of

merce

find

we

life

intellectual

On

Countries

devastated

the

land

com

Germany,

to

Thirty

dis

the

turned

Years'

and

War

had

hand, England, France, and

War

the

By

Science

Natural

represent the

Renaissance.

had

the

made

wholly impossible.

other

the

under

look

we

The

situation.

had

(1618-1648)

dumb

East

the

to

Italy.When

similar

assimilate

to

so-called Counter-

Italy became

sea-route

from

away

the church

Furthermore,
Inquisition.

the

the

17

antiquity.The

from

more

Reformation

covery

impossiblefor

it

made

RENAISSANCE

the

Period

of Liberation

Low
in the

(1568-1648)

European country where the great

of thought was
est freedom
granted, and it proved itself
an
asylum for thinkers and scholars. France, through
of the University of Paris, was
the centre
the influence
research.
In England the
of mathematical
brilliant
had
Elizabethan
era
already begun.
differ in the Two
(2) The Intellectual Standards
Holland

the

became

Periods.
acterized

the

as

of

the

try

to

solve

the

they
the

new

did

should

character

struggle of

with the revival of Greek

say

"

in matters

of science

and

The

traditions

and

the

;
as

systems neo-Platonism
the

been

well

char

traditions."

learningthe

would
period of the Renaissance
new
problems by the standards which
did Aristotle, Plato,
antiquity.What

revived

be taken

dominated

the

they yield for solving the

universe

therefore

"

has

first

in

Epicureans

ards
"

found

of

time

Naturallyenough,
thinkers

Period

Humanistic

The

standard

became

Humanistic
its

of

Period

of the

antiquity were

Among
the

stand

problems

new

contention
?

What

most

because

was,

Which

all the

ancient

prominent.

It

its aesthetic

mystical explanationsappealed to

the

HISTORY

18

susceptiblemind

of

neo-Platonism

of

"

traditions
in the

that

continued
of

Nevertheless, the

time.

not

was

schisms

PHILOSOPHY

OF

throughout

the

The

absolute.

church

the

struggle of

"

period,as

in the

and

sway

appears

and
literary

philosophicalcontentions.
The
standard

and

to

new

standard

tradition

of

itself. No

the

standard

in its

to

and

give

within

Nothing
a

theoretic

within

the

itself.

could

The

"

"

Natural

of

findinga

new

universe,"

new

universe

proved

itself

be found

standard

Nature

inventions.

hope

of the

antiquityhad

situation.

Aristotle

discoveries

Period,

explain the problems

to

discovered

quate

Science

Natural

Science

be

ade

in Plato

for the

disclosed

"

its

new
own

Period

explained by nature
facts.
But
the question will naturally be asked, Why
did the
of this period,when
of antiquity
thinkers
the theories
found
be inadequate, turn
rather
to
to nature
were
for an
elsewhere
than
explanation of nature ? The an
in the great successes
of the physi
to this is found
swer
who
had
started their investigations
cal astronomers,
at
the beginningof the Humanistic
Period, and had reached
the zenith of their glory at the beginning of the Natural
Science Period.
The discoveries of Galileo were
especially
important.
Periods
Methods
in the Two
were
(3) The Scientific
usually employed in the Hu
Different.The method
manistic
Period
was
magic. This first period tried to
facts of the
universe
new
by refer
explain nature
to agencies in the
spiritualworld. In their
ring them
neo-Platonic
natureworship the scholars of this period
to be obtained
was
imagined that the control of nature
to the spirits
by a fanciful linking of the parts of nature
Bible is the product of
The
supposed to be in nature.
said

nature

facts

must

"

"

RENAISSANCE

THE

spiritualworld,

the

"

world

of all

cause

things ;

He

Him.

All

thing mirrors
trol

nature,

over

found

the

and

is to control

methods

things

thingshave

nature-

"new

source

is in all

reveal

nature

trol nature

same

the

God

is the first

and

each

To

souls.

to

be

control

of

Hence

period,magic,

con
as

arose,

trance-medium-

alchemy, conjurations,and

ship,necromancy,

must

spiritsthat

herself.

nature

of this first

the

master

the

of

secret

finite

gain con

formula
all-controlling

some

will

which

spiritsover
the

the

inspiredfrom

is not

why

so

19

astrology.

offer

is this true of Pla(and especially

for nature
facts, hence
causes
tonism) only spiritual
the
search
in this time
for the
philosopher'sstone.
blinder
There
was
a
never
groping after a method.

Antiquity could

"

The

scientific method

Period
was

the

was

found

to

coincide

mathematics

mine

form

tion
has

been

must

of

be

taken

deduced

from

with

magical

which

the

need

true.

these

not

in the

lead

the

the

All

time

nature

Natural

symbol

of

"

deduc

The

period
of

strife

in fact

the

about

knowledge

certainties.
the

for
Science

explanation

deter

"

the
new

distinct,like the axioms,

other

of

to

and

and

the

became

truth

axiomatic

methods

point beyond

ture, here

the

is clear and
as

system,

Induction

deduction

finding

Whatever

the

as

experience

combinations.

as

and

of

number

events.

different

Induction

methods

world."

in

world

the

used

was

characterized

methods."
new

with

of nature

used

were

The

Science

Natural

in the

mathematical.

therefore
the

used

an

In

Humanistic

be

must

contrast

Period,

explanation of
Period

farther

than

na

mathematics
nature

her

self.
toicard
(4) The Attitude of the Church
In the Humanistic
differsIn the Two Periods.

Science
Period

HISTORY

20

of the

the

attitude

not

yet defined.

new

learning

the

This

could

much

learning could

not

for

discoveries
know

to

were

so

the

outset

science

with

in

spite of

the

no

real

new

that

many,

\vith

church

of

The

In

Natural

the

Science

dispelledbecause

dogma

It

involved

metaphysics, and

the church

doctrines

authorities
all time.
the

at

Great

found

soon

the

at

that

that

Council

conflicts

of

secularizingspirit.The

tried
and

to

he

avoid

any

insisted

pendent

of

this

was

his

science

especiallytrue

tried

to

construct

dependence

of

thought

which

a
was

But
take

of the

not

by political
changes.

science

with

touched

the church
for

dogma
church

became

and

He

wary.

field of

theology,

quite inde

practicallyit

was

heretical

positions,

Rationalistic

School,
Safe

scholasticism.

period (the Enlightenment), and

pass

the

field existed

new

was

conflict

settled

the

upon

to

there

1563

between

own

not

Nevertheless,

science

In

Trent

theologicaldogma.

impossible for
and

that

the

treat

uncertainty was

new

scientist

intrusion

was

questions in physics

the

arose

to

violent

point.

every

what

undefined.

this

into

came

science.

was

Period

new

unable

position of
and

en

the

intoxication

merely precarious,uncertain,

was

The

and

dogma

toleration.

thought.

and

hand, the

was

inclined

intellectual

new

could

and

church

was

contemptuous

freedom

the

had

newly acquired

widespread,

so

consistent

was

the

was

what

of the

On

church

fullydetermined.

first be

at

the

the other

on

of the wealth

science

what

At

not.

But,

the

yet understood.

easilyseen

be believed.

of

bearing

which

upon

learning was

new

the

not

was

itself,it was

not

the

because

was

matters

of
significance

thusiasm

toward

dogma

on

clearlydeclared
what

church

upon

hand,

one

PHILOSOPHY

OF

gained
this

until

was

the

in
next

brought

to

CHAPTER

THE

HUMANISTIC

III

OF

PERIOD

THE

RENAISSANCE

(1453-1GOO)

The

List

Long

istic

There

Period.

Paulus

Barbus

Ferrariensis

John

Maurice

Pletho,

were

Mirandola

della
randola

(d.

(d.

1541),

Montaigne

(d. 1499),

Giovanni

(d. 1558).
dano

of

Schoppe

Reuchlin

(d.

(d. 1592),

Petrus

The

scientists

1543),

were

Tycho

Gaza

1522),

Charron

Ramus

Telesio

(d. 1588),

Campanella

Cusanus
Brahe

della

Fludd

(d.

Justus

Achillini

Patrizzi

(d. 1639).

(d. 1464),

1637),
Sanchez

1603),

(d. 1518),

Scaliger

philosophers

(d. 1601),

Mi-

Paracelsus

(d. 1572),

nature

Pico

(d. 1484),

(d.

(d. 1530),

Valla

(d. 1478), Agric-

(b. 1562),

Italian

(d. 1600),

Pico

Trebizond

1606),

(d. 1576),

Bruno

of

Theodore

George

(d. 1546),

Human

Ficino

(d. 1632), Pomponatius

Nifo

the

Lorenzo

(d. 1533),

Lipsius

(d. 1518),

Among

Francesco

(d.

Johannes

1483),

(d. 1472),

(d. 1494),

(d. 1485),

Suarez

Bessarion

Marsilio

(d. 1457),

(d. 1604),

Trombetta

(d. 1513).

Do-

(d. 1604),

Vasquez

(d.

Antonius

Irishman

the

Banez

(d. 1599),

Englishman

the

"

(d. 1534),

(d. 1560),

Dominions

Fonseca

Human

scholasticism,

Cano

Melchior

the

Cajetan

(d. 1644),

(d. 1482),

Magistri

ola

Thomas

John

1617),

of

(d. 1494),

(d. 1560),

(d. 1596),

Toletus

ists

Soto

revival

Socinas

St.

of

was

(d. 1528),

de

minicus

of

Representatives

of

Car-

were

(d. 1597),
The

notable

Copernicus

Kepler

(d.

(d. 1631).

PERIOD

HUMANISTIC

Tlic,

Protestant

THE

OF

Mystics

RENAISSANCE

Luther

were

23

(d. 1546),

Zwingli (d. 1531), Franck

(d. 1545), Weigel (d.
philosophers
(d. 1624). The political
1588), Boehme
More
Macchiavelli
were
(d.1535),
(d.1527), Thomas
Jean
Bodin
(d. 1597), Gentilis (d. 1611), Althusius
(d. 1638), Hugo Grotius (d. 1645).
*
As examples of the first epoch of the Renaissance
have
selected
Cusanus
we
(1401-1464), Paracelsus
(1548-1600). These three
(1493-1541), and Bruno
will represent fairlywell the wide interests of this
men
spiritand
epoch, and more
especiallyits neo-Platonic
its methods.

The

reader

the lives of

these

three

Humanistic

Period.

of the

century

Humanistic
of the

will

Period

Ages

lived
and

their

part of the period,and

life

; Bruno

his death

during

the

Paracelsus's

Period

Humanistic

from

dates

that
the

philosophers nearly cover

Cusanus

Middle

see

the

last half
of the

first decade
covers

lived

(1600)

the

during

middle
the

coincides

last
with

neo-Platoperiod. All three were

nists. They had
been
so
impressed with the natureworld that had opened before them that they were
mystic
neo-Platonism
nature-worshipers pantheists,to whom
became
the
All three
truest
philosophicalstandard.
scientists in different
were
degrees. Yet Cusanus, the
cardinal
of the church, and Bruno, the speculativephi
than
to science
Paracelsus,
more
losopher,contributed
science. This
who
aspired to medical
seeming incon
sistencyin their lives is not difficult to explain. Para
celsus
merely reflects the science of the time ; while
Bruno
Cusanus
Science
and
anticipate the Natural
Period
the
one
by his empirical discoveries, the
the

last year

of

the

"

"

Read

Eucken,

Problem

Windelband, Hist, of Phil.,

of

Human

pp. 352-354.

Life, pp. 321-331

HISTORY

24

other

his

by

OF

PHILOSOPHY

mystic speculations which

almost

were

prophecies.
German
(1401-1464). Modern
scholars
place Nicolas of Cusa (NicolasCusanus) with
Bacon
and Descartes, as the leaders of the modern
philo
Nicolas lived two hundred
be
sophicalmovement.
years
of

Nicolas

Cusa

fore Descartes

German

and

estimate
in

modern

his

hundred

one

of

him

shews

Bacon.

before

years
at

least

he

belongs in

thought, although

that

The

he

was

time

to

Middle

Ages for the most part. He lived when the

Middle
into the Renaissance.
Ages were
passing over
His principalwork, the Idiota, was
published in 1450,

the

when

Renaissance

the

certainlya
man,

forerunner

as

Cusanus
before

was

the

to

in

form

of

the

in

his

no

Cath

liberal

by

Ger

was

were

belief

small

merit.

made

; but

that

anticipated Bruno

boundless

be

He

times.

was

deepest thinkers.

great discoveries

its axis ; he

He

threshold.

reverenced

now

scientist

pated Copernicus
on

is

of their

one

the

on

of modern

cardinal, and

olics

was

time

and
calendar

in

unending

he

the

was

the

he

antici

earth

rotated

conceiving
he

died

He

proposed

first to have

space
a

re

map

the
prevalent
Germany engraved. He condemned
and
of magic in
the
use
superstitionsof the church
Thus
he anticipatedthe sci
events.
explaining nature

of

of

ence

the time

transcended

his

In

other

Bruno

and

method

Greek
He

respects Cusanus
Paracelsus.

but

he

in

turned

Pythagoreans

the

the

Descartes,

and

and

period.

own

systems for
found

Bacon, Hobbes,

of

an

He

belongs
did not

back

to

seek

the

explanation of

mystic

numbers

principleof

in this

period with

to discover

of

"

new

traditional

revived
the

new

Plato

all scientific

world."
and

the

investiga-

PERIOD

HUMANISTIC

tion.

The

counted

is the

of the

universe.

of

In

and

that

science

to

be

reveals

the

the

world

He

of the

tice of

esy, for the

by
justified
behind

is

epitome

an

the

Hu

the

conceived

the

its

unreality

real world

"

by

He

did

not

tran

merely expressed it.

its science

Bruno

as

the

was

poeticspeculation.Paracelsus
who

kind

of

his

makes

tried

reform

to

the

was

prac

magical chemistry. The

adventures

the

basis

of

arts

of Goethe

that

could
employ the
physician Paracelsus
without
much
danger of the charge of her
theoretically
practiceof the magic art was

As

magic

its

Swiss,

poet Browning
poem.

of

exponent

medicine

of

Cusanus.

did

as

much-traveled

in

Paracelsus

(1493-1541).

the

says

scientist,he

almost

uses

spirit.

representativeof
a

Although

ac

and
soul-possessing

interconnections

inner

his time

was

as

be

spiritof

which
only a conjecture,

Paracelsus
scend

man

neo-Platonic

the

manists, he regarded the world

Oneness.

he

when

25

must

Cusanus

Bruno,

of God

mirror

articulate

RENAISSANCE

phenomena

nature

language

world

THE

world.
spiritual

the

by

identical

the

of

world

for

OF

neo-Platonism

the

is at first

of

Paracelsus.

presents itself in

nature

the

The

time.

The

Faust

universal

spirit

infinite number

an

of

individuals.
Nature
facts are
to be understood
spiritual
and mastered
by understanding the activities of these

spiritualforces.
ing
It

of

was

this way

medicine

became

tinctures, magical drinks, and

an

science.
a

In

panacea

alchemy
The

which

alchemists

grew

of the time

against disease, which

highest power.
pher's stone,"

This
which

is the
was

everything into gold,and

the

to

to

brew

remedies.

proportions

would

give
of

the

of

them
"

the

philoso

all diseases, transmute

bring all spiritsinto

discover

expected to

meaning
heal

secret

the power

26

HISTORY

of its possessor.
for the

of

In

he

his

and

theory

truth

and

for

success,

in

physics

in

as

laws

how

those

same

divine.
have

must

man's

body,

realm

of nature

stars

laws,

laws

man's

the

which
;

force

in

as

they

they

lie open,
human

astral

of

mind, which
feeds

soul,that

Now

the

principle in
is

terrestrial

the

is nourished

faith

on

will reveal

activity.There

gets its strength from

man's

hidden.

are

itself in three

vital

or

realms

the

are

celestial,and

or

Archasus

same

principle

being.

manifests

nature

the

individualized

man

operate in

The

vital

operate in the world

terrestrial,the

spiritualor
man

cosmic

that

principlein
the

in

both

conceived

developing

except that

man,

of nature's

realms

Paracelsus

is this

study
vital

cure

personal

adherents

many

manner

The

the

had

the

of

degree

some

Greek

to

practice.*

(Vulcanus). Man
(Archseus). The
same

back

turned

physiology and

with

fundamentally

as

thus

about

met

the neo-Platonic

world

PHILOSOPHY

Paracelsus

hylozoism
disease

OF

by

in Christ.

the

Perfect

health, therefore,consists in the sympathetic interaction

of these

sists of
But

three

Paracelsus

was

of

may

prescribefor

man

astronomer

the

to

is the ArchaBus

body

! It is in continual

is the

nature

human

vital

of

imprisoned
warfare

that

intellect

Falckenberg,

Here

Hist,

the

with
is

gross

so

Paracelsus

of

Goethe,

Modern

duty
;

but

human

that

na

theologian

it is the

in the

which

body

principle?

Browning, Paracelsus;

The

soul, and

understand

must

terrestrial

the

for the human

care

cor

theology.

chemist, and

human

Here

Read

and

medicine

complete

peculiar interest.

his

was

practicalphysician

man.

physics,astronomy,

ture

the

in

realms

the

body.

terrestrial

body.
hostile

What
to

introduces

Phil,

of

pp.

Faitst, lines 1-165.

the
his

27-28

OF

PERIOD

HUMANISTIC

THE

RENAISSANCE

analysiswhich

strange chemical

27

characterizes

him

as

has
three
of
essences
physician. Nature
all bodies
which
that makes
are
composed (1) mercury,
bodies
them
combusti
liquid; (2) sulphur, that makes
ble ; (3) salt, that makes
them
rigid. These essences
are
compounded in such a way that from them the four
Renaissance

elements

Each

and

earth, air, water,

"

of

one

these

spirits.The

elements

by

undines, the air by sylphs,and

Thus

the chemical
of

sets

Gnomes,

deal.

warfare

the

there

the

is disease

is in

; when

has

man

in

hostile

helping
in the

Giordano

in

makes

control

of

control.

them

under
that

the

effective

their

against
for

field

in

by these,

its battle

medicine

the
the

spirits.
The

(1548-1600)

Bruno

by

to

are

for

checked
has

four

obliged

medicines

The

Archaeus

the

spirits. This

magician

way

determined

are

is

salamanders

Archasus

the

discovers

principle

any

health.

physician administers
ness

and

by

water

salamanders.

by

physician

vital

human

Archseus

control, the

the

sylphs,undines,

with

When

which

the

Paracelsus

analysisof

spiritswith

fire

elemental

by

gnomes,

the

derived.

are

"

is controlled

is controlled

earth

fire

neo-Platonic

spirit

of

the

Humanistic

development
Bruno.

and
has

The

and

The

the

Pie sang

its most

reached

aesthetic

philosophy

complete

of

Giordano

world-joyof the aesthetic Renais

Italy ordained him priest,exiled him as heretic,
him
then
burned
at the stake as recalcitrant.
Italy
produced very few great speculatorssince his day.

sance.

old

in

Period

Council
;

of

already the

Italywas
influence

in Leibnitz.

the

Trent

when

he

to become

of Bruno
one

an

appears

contribution

fifteen

was

had

counter-Reformation

soon

His

met

begun

in

arid
intellectually
in

Spinoza

to modern

and

years

Italy,
waste.

perhaps

science

was

HISTORY

28

in his

because

is infinite in space

time.

influenced

his

The

divine

the

regarded

by

as

chief

philosophers

by
He
"

him

of

Poet

love

for nature

revolted

"

the

been

never

so

in the

he
The

God.

of the

sympathetically
of Bruno

hands

of the

manifestation

as

in which

of

emblem

as

all asceti

from

world

new

well

as

neo-Platonists,Plotinus,

had

the

Period

imaginative conception

livingAll.

Renaissance

the

became

beauty

infinite,

Humanistic

the

his

The

to

was

of that

of

consumed

was

of the universe

beauty
this

of

scholasticism.

himself

thought

in

religiousobject.

and

found

Bruno

beauty

philosopher,he
beautiful

The

is

Pythagoras, Plato,

were

thought

expressed by

cism

thought

fundamental

of the

and

God

Lucretius.

Plotinus, and

was

PHILOSOPHY

inspired conception that

the world
who

OF

Idea.

divine

and religionwere
identical to him.
Philosophy,aesthetics,
To
his thought he
employed the usual neoexpress
Platonic
symbol of the all-forming and all-animating
was
no
phe
light. Bruno
patient student of natural
nomena

such, but

as

facts

nature

by

interested

in

Paracelsus

; but

great soul behind

the

he

loved

of

mony

is

one

them

of the
is

needs

perfect because

should

and

morality.

bow

Bruno

in

man

and

should

no

was

not

eternal

an

the enthusiasm

vanish

will

in

the

life of God.

Bruno
Before

mystic poet.

har

specialtheology,for

no

never

True

reverence.

conceived

it with

it is the

optimist

harmony

but

Since

Man

whole.

universalistic

this cosmic

defects

universe

the

upon

gazes

poet, its apparent

world

the

When

He

phenomena, as was
all as
a
religion. Not

only externallybut internallyis

harmony.

them.

of

of

single group

any

great illumination

of the

lover

utter

science

complaint,
is

religion

theodicy (proof

of

the

30

HISTORY

drawn.

The
the

rata,

natura

unity

PHILOSOPHY

OF

and

naturans

and

pluralityof

in his
aspects of the reality

own

the

world,

the
life

"

natu-

natura

the

are

and

that

THE

CHIEF

two

reality

is God.

MAP

TtfE

SHOWING

BIRTHPLACES
OFTIIK

PHILOSOPHERS
OP

THE

RENAISSANCE
Bo"le oKMilcs

MAP

SHOWING

THE

PHILOSOPHERS

(The

names

of the

philosophers

BIRTHPLACES
OF

are

given
were

THE

in brackets

born)

OF
RENAISSANCE

beneath

the

towns

in which

they

IV

CHAPTER

THE

PERIOD

SCIENCE

NATURAL

(1600-1690)*

RENAISSANCE

The

of

Philosophers

THE

OF

the

1.

Galileo, 1564-1641,

2.

Bacon,

3.

Hobbes,

4.

The

Period.

Science

Natural

of scientists.

the group

and

1561-1626.
1588-1679.

Rationalists.
1596-1650.

Descartes,

Spinoza,

1632-1677.

Leibnitz, 1646-1716.
Countries

other

the

philosophic stage

the

period

of

Bacon

and

period, Germany

the

from

coming

is

Rationalistic

to

nor

the

Spinoza
of the
*

for

itself,but

who

he

in

the

is

Hobbes,
of

forerunners
of

more

others,
Read

and

and

he

"

the

world's

joins in

Windelband,

Hist,

of

the

founder

only

Neither

as

pp.

re

in

of

mathema

influential

philosopher
doctrine

is

interested

Descartes,

of Phil.,

the

the

"

the

as

Eng

the

import

English empirical
his

the

of

nevertheless

were

re

astronomers

completely

application

as

of

Galileo, who

"

not

was

of

Italy yields

most

was

comprehensive

as

lishmen, Bacon
as

The

is

end

the

series

long

Descartes,

all,

them

metaphysical questions.

Galileo,

ant

of

school

mathematics

of

years

by Descartes,

at

Still

countries.

many

presentative

tics

thinker

prominent

most

Leibnitz.

upon

England

France

Hobbes,

come

eighty-nine

Spinoza, and,

by

influential

most

Germany

science.

natural

Jew,

the

by

the

during

teeming

presented by
Holland

Italy and

than

school.

than

any

scholasti-

378-379.

of

cism

OF

Middle

Ages

; while

Leibnitz

the

Kenaissance
the

tween

Humanists

would

explain and

terials

of

less
a

their

narrow

beginning

"

had

been

in

physics and

these

early days

had

when

especiallywhen

an

turned

explanation. This
of the

year
The

from

away

beginning

of

of the

1629-1695,

Newton,

1642-1722,

an

to

the

ileo. Modern

the four

next

methods

in

Italian.
Hollander.

Englishman.
Newton,

is

influential

most

science

predecessorsof

Italian.

scientists

period, the

"

Pole.

German.

Huyghens,

the

period.
were

a
an

Ile-

herself

1600,

year

Dane.

1564-1641,

in

of Galileo

nature

Galileo,

belongs

own

world,"

new

Science

an

1571-1630,

greatest of these

the

proved

"

the

Kepler,

the

more

their

astronomers

1548-1600,

was

predecessors,the

Natural

Tycho Brahe, 1546-1601,

Of

the

about

prominent of these
1473-1543,
Copernicus,

While

it

theories

his

most

Bruno,

astronomy

upon

antiquityto

was

or

Beginning

empirical researches

the

speculationsof

the

naissance

influence

facts

the

more

speculations of

ancient

the

explain

to

confirmed

little

but

Humanists.

The

ma

already made

interest

However,

and

had

the

empirical.

in

working

of

in

which

accumulated

in the

midst

antiquity,
one

science

aroused, but

adequate

find

to

But

of

circles, natural

astronomers

time.

theories

unable

world."

new

enthusias

After

organize the newly

speculative than

for

been

Copernicus,an

with

Kenaissance.

the

traditional

had

positionbe

occupies the

and

of the

mathematics

the

Astronomers.

ticallycanvassing the
the

and

Enlightenment

Mathematical

The

PHILOSOPHY

HISTORY

32

began

Galileo

with

three

"

who

is Gal

Galileo.

Coperni-

Tyclio Bralie,

cus,

ists
of

for their

SCIENCE

NATURAL

THE

Bruno

and

final

Natural

in

are

"

explanation

spirits.Kepler belongs

PERIOD

of

33

spiritHuman
is the

world

Humanistic

and

nature

to both

the

Science

periods; for at first he

his natural
science by an
amalgamation of
of spiritsand the Copernican theory ; but
part of his life he adopted completely the
view

The

of nature.

convenience

into

two

Galileo

before

entists

above

scientists
:

groups

in the

latter

mechanical

speculativescj

the
and

the

following

Ptolemaic

ancient

for

astro

regarded by the learned as beyond ques

Although complex and unwieldy, it explained all
had

tion.

been

satisfactorily
enough

phenomena
senses

and

Ptolemaic

as

divided

the fixed

into

this hollow

The

they appeared
into

to

the

move

various
and

with

the

the

earth

terrestrial

spirits.God

held

it,as

(The

system.

periphery, while

and

to the

in vol.

world-all

epicycles.The

in

heavenly

sphere

historyof

sphere
in the

fully described

been

recapitulate it

stars

occupied by

were

has

hollow

supposed

were

as

brought phenomena

ff.) To

conceived
and

it

system

322

tre

the

centuries

fourteen

nomy

pp.

doctrine

the

be divided

may

Galileo

(2)
empiricalinvestigators.
For

(1)

constructed

as

was

the

the

i,

cen

planets

universe

was

realms, which
resided

it were,

outside

in his

lap.

the

changes leading up to our modern

vivid
astronomical
a
conception makes
chapter. How
Copernicus contributed the idea of placing the sun at
of things,Kepler the idea of the
orbits of
the centre
Bruno
the idea of the boundless
the planetsas ellipses,
of space
and time, and how
Galileo, corroborating
ness
these theories
was
by empirical investigations,
put un
der the ban
must

have

of the church

been

"

requiredto

all this shows

tear

down

what
a

heroism

time-honored

34

HISTORY

and

firmlyintrenched

the

speculative astronomers

they

ture, and
Ptolemaic

Ptolemaic

accepted the
instead

sun

of the

earth

plifiedit by making
and

Kepler simplifiedit

conception of

entirelynew

an

conception of

new

things. It

terial
methods

universe

chanism,

and

influence

of

now

and

above
forces

law

the

is

the

The

verified

it

scientific

new

greater

there

are

God

gods
has

that

the

in concrete

the

towns,

been

made

rivalryin
were

stand

revival

trade

three

causes

and

it

and

banished
out, and

aside.
the

universe
to

were

of

which

heaven

pushed

to

be

between

Christian

experiments, if

system, the

heavens

apple

an

conception of

new

becomes

in

distinction

been

the

universe

spiritsare

have

me

longer vital

The

fall of

Mediaeval

as

the

throughout,
the

upon

no

influences.

whole

as

guidance

planets, no

the

Greek

exactness.

looked

necessity.In

between

the

regarded

it

Ptolemaic

Italian

be

spheres. The

demand

Archimedes,
the

with

and

particularma

that

celestial

in

Christian

old

of

and

is nowhere

be

inevitably

was

among

way

causal

beneath

earth

revolution

The

of

difference

terrestrial

the

universe,

Providential

supernatural

no

it.

as

homogeneous

from

the

formerly

was

spiritsor

and

comes

the

result

to

comes

what

impersonal

there

sim

arose.

The

an

thereby

the

in this

was

put the

by supplanting the epi

relation

the

he

epicyclesunnecessary

further

ellipses.However,

cycleswith

of the

many

Copernicus

centre, and

the

at

For

except that

system,

struc

simplify the

to

was

destroy it.

to

that

astronomical

whole

sole motive

conception,not

conscious

not

were

the

their

probably

conception. Probably

traditional

undermining

were

PHILOSOPHY

OF

the

of

study

inventions
for the

replace

among

demand

experiment,and
Investigation,

for
inven-

tion

SCIENCE

NATURAL

THE

PERIOD

35

and
Magic, alchemy, astrology,
no
conjurationswere
longer accepted as serious methods.
In the Middle
Ages deduction had been purely the logical
employment of the syllogism in theologicaldiscussions,
into

came

while

vogue.

induction, so
of nature

reference

deduction

and
and

purposes,
both.

far

The

it

as

used

was

phenomena

induction

mathematics

all,had

been

be

to

come

used

the
Now

spiritualforces.

to

is

at

for

other

necessarilyconjoinedwith

Science

Natural

period is essentiallya
strife of methods
the true
period when
; it is the
It is
plan of scientific procedure is being determined.
here that the importance and influence
of Galileo is seen
modern
science and
philosophy.
upon
new

"

"

The

influence

from

up

these

Humanists

for

idols."

"

do with

vine purpose
to

be

distinction
The

the

of

final

causes

that

physics

Descartes

held

with

its

result.

immediate

reading the

the

of

the
in

as

of the

one

has

only

to

it is auda

that

in

of God

purposes

animals

as

Induction
method

general

and
of

complex
on

circulation

with

Deduction

of animal

particularcases
is the

the

life. Descartes
and

automata

methods

of

vigorous impulse

this line

on

law,

musical
dioptrics,

are

inanimate.

the

and

mechanical

study

deduction

beginning

conclusion.

animate

1626, became

mechanical

published essays
1

between

the

regarded

causes

by Harvey,

toward

he

the

period

the

Spinoza thought it absurd to attribute di

to nature.
By degrees everything in nature
no
regarded as a mechanism, and there was

discovery

blood

among

grew

; while

nature

came

maintained

to think

man

beginnings

was

example, regarded

efficient

cious in

methods

Hobbes

times

Science

Natural

the

to

as

in modern

mathematics

astronomical

; and

contention

Bacon,

of

and

the

reasoning-.Induction

of

and

opposite

inferring

method

of

from

them

reasoning.

is

36

HISTORY

foetus.
cal

Hobbes

applied
The

phenomena.
with

on

The

early time

study

of

Galileo

show

to

ecclesiastical

reaction

chronologicallyand
period.

Galileo

was

Bruno

was

is the

contem

younger
been

Bruno

while

the

Galileo

victim

first

period of

of the

to all

sec

while

nature,

gave

all

away

belonged

beginner

true

sweeping

philosopher of

been

of the life

dates

have

to

spiritto

scientist.

true

in

was

Italy. But

in

Renaissance, Galileo

ond

been

that

had

ex

universe.
The

Bruno, and, like Bruno,

of

scientific freedom

the

have

in this
the

God

just as

(1564-1641).*
him

from

soul

of the

France.

and

complete

the

man,

background

Galilei

of Galileo
porary

the

of

body

carried

was

Countries

of

psychologi

to

action

rendered

exclusion

the

into

pushed

the

law

of reflex

theory was

by

planation

both

mechanical

great vigor in the Low

mechanical

of the

PHILOSOPHY

OF

future

thought a wisely formulated method

of dealing with
of
His
materials
laws
the new
world.
of the nature
fallingbodies, and the pendiilum created a
projectiles,
He set the hypothesis of Coper
new
theory of motion.
nicus upon
the future
an
experimental basis and made
work
of Newton
professorat the Uni
possible.He was
versities

of

cian

philosopher at

and

perjured

Padua

himself

and
is

he

of

old

an

adherence

to

constructed

Jupiter ;
*

Hist,

Eead

age

the

no

and

Hoffding,
ff.

saved
;

pp.

instead

but

Hist,
249

discovered

there

followed

in

He

he

the

the

of

death

gave

open

1610,

when

he

satellites

of

discovery after

of Phil., vol. i,
ff. ;

That

life from

his

great bitterness.

this

mathemati

was

Tuscany.

Copernican system

after

of Math.,

he
of

court

doubt

telescopeand

Phil., pp. 59

the

thereby

Inquisition,there
had

Pisa, and

and

p.

175

Falcketiberg, Hist,

of

Ball,
Mod.

HISTORY

38

described

are

but
ellipses,

as

perfect ellipse.The

ences

for

orbit

matical

and

simplificationand

system

For

example, knowing

that

suffered

the

influences

rule

common

be

brought. However,

on

the

far

how

know

the

in

move

then

of

of

an

knowing
cal

can

and

experiment

such

deduction

those

can

founded

measurements

sup
calcu

and

things

we

can
are

everything measurable,

measurement

facts.

the

phenomena

nature

only by

claims

the

in

law, although ideal,is the

observation

Measure

ported.
late

of

tests

gives

would

planet

of

method

of it consists

it

that

all

which

under

the

by

particularplanet, we

any

Mathematical

its orbit.

culate

law

perturbations,and

no

upon

disturbinginflu

no

the value

the

ellipseif it

has

such

at

get

in

planet moves

hypothetical,mathe

an

planet which

variations

concomitant

actual

no

ellipseis

it. We

upon

PHILOSOPHY

OF

directly

not

measurable.

her

Since

phenomena.

own

be

them, the laws

must

found

else.

nowhere

referringthem
To

the

subject

that

he

the

or

does

not

He

nomena.

measurable

"

mechanics

that

The

Stuart

name,

Mill.

part of

explain

Here

belong

to the

He

searched

for

declared
motion.
is the
"concomitant

"

no

is the

"

is to

involve

the

author

mathematical

variations," was

Mystics
ele

nature

phe

to

of

be motion
the

theory
later

shows

constant

behind
element

by

explana

or

some

be

real

Galileo

Scholastics
for

can

phenomena

is where

this constant
He

and

planets

vital force

experience

nature

is

found

are

we

nature

the

moves

mystery.

Humanists.
and

ment,

not

To

God

that
in

as

explain

to

upon

of nature

the laws

spiritualinfluence

to

say

called

phenomena

by investigatingnature

tion.

be

therefore, must

Nature,

of

theory
motion.

given by

John

NATURAL

THE

Science

taken

therefore

was

ing grip of

the

Life

of

The

SCIENCE

PERIOD

him

by

39

of the

out

paralyz

theologian.
Francis

Baron

Bacon,

(1561-

Verulam

native
of London
and
re
a
162G). Francis Bacon was
ceived
his universityeducation
at Cambridge. He
was
in the English diplomatic service at an earlyage, but he
later returned
and took up the legalprofes
to London
sion. At the age of thirty-two he entered
Parliament
and became
immediately distinguishedas a debater. At
and
forty-threehe became
legal adviser of the crown,
made
Lord
Chancellor.
when
he was
he was
fifty-six
After
in public office he was
accused
brilliant career
a
and convicted
of bribery and
corruption,deposed from
notable
office,and heavily fined. His most
writings are
his Essays, two
parts of his uncompleted Instauratio
Magna, viz.,De Dignitate et Augmentls Scientiarum
and
Novum
Organum, and his New Atlantis, a Uto
pian fragment.
The

Position

of Bacon

frequentlyplaced Bacon
losophy. This estimate
which
was
repeated by
mate, however,
influence.
nical

he

rests

Bacon

as

philosopher, and
only

not

seems

them.

He

Bacon's

methods,
it read

in
have

also

to

unconscious

was

Galileo

to

and

Novum
had

their

in the

first felt in the

influence
seventeenth

of modern

his

have
of

which
upon

Humanist

no

the

tech

philosophy

influence

been

esti

Bacon's

than

constructive

had

phi

The

writers.

misapprehension of
a

has

by Diderot,

remark

French

mighty

Organum,
no

to

of

more

founder

the

many
a

Tradition

Philosophy.

is due

on

was

contemporaries,but
and

in

upon

uninfluenced

influence

of

his

by

Kepler

scientific constructions.
embodies
his

century.

eighteenthcentury.

own

Its

his scientific

time,

nor

was

influence

was

However,

all this

HISTORY

40

be

must

tis did

qualifiedin
have

PHILOSOPHY

OF

immediate

an

in his
is

after

Bacon's

the

death, and

student

of

Galileo

efforts
the

also

of

side

one

tion.

He

of

not

not

philosophy

then

philosopher?
Read

accepted
lived, the

the

works

side, and
with

the

the

be

to

gone

the

Aristotelian

of deduc

scientific

importance

successful

import

slightestidea
further

much

without

that

of the

in his contribution
his

far from

in the method
have

to

that

method

Bacon

than

in the
to

no

developed

the

unaware

and

inductive

science, Bacon

Bacon's

to

in

of his

Renais

the content

formulation

of

the

method.

Wherein

or

be

principlesof

deduction

has

consist

words

discovery." So

and

going

go.

confused

practicalapplicationto

seem

was

it would

scientific

the

of similar

never

found

of mathematics

use

did

does

Bacon

therefore

was

consequently science
dreamed

may

it,the inductive

he

mathematics

Brewster,

modern

identified

syllogism,and
of the

only

its

of

the

Had

invention

of

He

sance

what

Imt

be

may

Bacon,

have

not

founder

success.

ance

of Diderot

founding

reader

of

"

would

philosophy,but
being

truth:

the

to the

the

Sir David

nature

writings of

only

later

conflictingestimates

embodying

blest

his New

eighteenth century,

While

countryman,

as

in

of the work

cause

in the

abroad.

academies

own

presented

of

It led
time.
important, it had effect in his own
founding of the Royal Society,thirty-sixyears

the

by

only the

not

Encyclopedia

more

to

Bacon

Atlan

ideal

The

influence.

collegeof science, which

Atlantis^ was

New

respect. Bacon's

one

Bacon

Ball, Hist,

of Mod.

Phil.,

Bacon;

Bacon,

of

lies the value

vol.

the

was

of Math.,

i,'
pp.

Essays,

first in

pp.

184-186;
"

Bacon's

253

work

England

ff. ;

as

to

col-

Hoffding. Hist.

Macaulay, Estay on
Studies, Truth, Friendship,

lect the

fruits of the Renaissance

lar character.

logian,he,
the

them

Taking
lawyer,

"

It

PERIOD

give them

and

them

that

41

of the hands

out

gave

eloquent plea

most

them."

SCIENCE

NATURAL

THE

secu

of the theo

legal existence

has

been

ever

by
for

made

philosophyand science were

passing out of the hands of the theologian; and Bacon,
feelingthat science,includingphilosophy,should be secu
of science
the work
larized, drew
a
sharp line between
and
that of theology. Out
of his great contempt
for
antiquity,Bacon voiced for England the contemporary
reaction
He set up
against the old scholastic methods.
for followingit. He issued
the ideal and gave directions
the call to
abstractions
back
to things. A man
go from
his nature
of worldly wisdom
and pungency,
was
buoy
He had confidence
ant in its belief in the coming age.
amounting to an optimism that final principleswould
be found
to explain all the
new
particularsof the
world."
his prophecy.
He was
a
prophet who outlined
He felt that not only nature
but all the activities of man
be reduced
would
to some
simple principles.Pie shared
and expressed the confidence
of his time that wonderful
to be revealed
thingswere
nothing is impossible
; that
hits upon
the rightkey to nature's
to man,
provided man
was

time

when

"

Just

secrets.

threshold
the

New

age.

This

is

Simulation,
Modern
1

wrote

his

every

Dissimulation

and

Problem

wrote

his State

Utopia.

that

the

feels itself upon

Human

of

the

Atlantis

Sun,

and

the

Abbott, Francis

Life,

Philosophers,

his New

of

epoch, writes

new

Classical

Bacon

age,

Utopias,1 so Bacon
Atlantis, the Utopian fragment, for his
the literaryexpressionof his optimism

of

wrote

Eucken,

as

pp.

in 1023.

336-344

pp.

Bacon
;

Rand,

24-56.

The

preceding

same

year

year

Thomas

Campanella
More

wrote

42

HISTORY

about

the

world

of

the

of

to the

parts

known

in

ambitious

completed

were

to

the

The

new

ma

scientific

contribution

Magna.

Of

Dignitate

ct

the

this

only

Angmen-

Bacon

second

it with

contrast

of

Organum.

philosophy by

named

De

Novum

and

world

is the

is his Instauratio

tis Scientiarum

thus

Atlantis
most

end

same

science.

secular
distinctively

New

Bacon's

chines.

two

future

PHILOSOPHY

OF

is best

part, which

wras

"old"

Organum

gained

later

of

Aristotle.
The

high

influence

therefore

philosophers may
association

his bold

Even

tarianism.

literature,he
had

but

speare

his

of

age

have

"

Macaulay

in

says

feared

he

loved

his
of

power

of

The

his

loved

he

may

when

safely taken

of

in any

success

one

His

was

of

any

Shake

describes

mankind."
were

and

many

shows

that

unusual

love
for his

excuse

great versatility
pre

direction, but
his

he

had

the

impressive age

personal representative.

of Bacon.

Nature

at

there

virtue

his

expressing the feeling of

its

that

career

as

have

of

Pope

learning. His

lust for wealth.

becoming
Aim

be

that

plays

than

more

James

itself

him.

guilt. His

than

losophy by making
age

English
politician.

and

Bucon,

essay,

per

of

age

such

the

even

"

the

by

congenial utili

in

was

possibleto

more

unscrupulous
vented

genius

himself, wealth, and

learning

and

this

writer

as

for

wisest, brightest,meanest

things that

that

for

that

seemed

the

"

as

he

prominent

among

wonderful

rich Elizabethan

attention, for

products

many

expressionof

peculiar personalitywould

tracted

him

position and

in that

was

accounted

occupied high political

positionsunder

his

the

be

of his eminent

sonalitywith

He

Bacon

that

Bacon

it the

same

conceived

sought
as

to

secularize

science.

to be

It

was

identical with

phi
the
the

SCIENCE

NATURAL

THE

of the natural

world

the formulator

ameliorate

human

by bringing

mediaeval

of

provement
with

times

the

feelingof
The

provement.

Bacon,
while

which

tions

upon

human
"

their

ambitions.

Bacon

in

of

utilitarianism

opposition to

ledge
can

is the

and

and

the

world

when

and

belief

in

magic.

insight into

separated from
duced

to

form

to

Bacon

The
of

the
1

and

Method

Utilitarianism

condi

longer

that

satisfy
in

motive

theoretical

pure

in

worth

no

those

him

the

and
father

Know

England.*

and

power,

to

verbal

man

discus

must

of

doctrine

his utilitarianism

the

missed

twofold

"

truth,"

goal reached

the

Descartes.
Bacon

of Bacon.

scientist

im

gain a positive
be
and
philosophy must
be re
philosophy must
aiming to give a tangible

while

scholastic

through

Galileo

Thus

are

gives up

Man

theology,and

science.
the

he

Science

nature.

there

permanent

master

sions

by

of

inspired

for such

makes

positivism

kind

only

the im

was

utilitarian

dominant

contemplative knowledge,

Ancient

philosophy is
the weighing

sacrifice and

that

enrich

philosophy,according

That

do.

and

control.

Bacon

as

philosophy.

statesman

of

test

This

him

sets

of

occupied with

remove
effectively
society,so that

those

classes,

two

modern

it will

will

been

not

the

true

is what

under

society,but

human

in this age

social conditions

nature

had

43

stood

of the scientific usefulness

is to

and

Bacon

sciences.

Philosophy
life

PERIOD

should

not

be

regards adaptation

to

says
like

that

that

the

of

the

general happiness

as

method

spider
the

ideal

society. Positivism, broadly used, is that philosophy which limits the

of thought to the observation
of facts,although the observations
scope
the
methods
data
and
of positivism are
inferior to the facts. The
are
of

same

of

as

those

of

natural

science,and

opposed

to

the

priori methods

metaphysics.
*

In

this connection

read

Herbert

Spencer, Education.

HISTORY

44

that

web

spins a

which
which

of

out

collects

merely

himself,

this

With

is method.

ence,

Bacon

philosophy cut

loose

because

it had

mechanical

method

of

the

on

Bacon

the

other

the

future.

from

was

hand

one

his

the

see

Let

method,

us

over-valued

It included

comprehensive.
of

survey

turn

now

past, and

the

the

for

these

to

of

Nevertheless, the

accuracy.

very

sci

i. e.

beginning

personalityand

critical

we

anticipatoryprogramme

an

Bacon's

for

respect

bee

of the

pronounced. Philosophy,

more

grew

like that

transforms.

collects, assimilates, and

been

of the ant

like that

nor

material, but

originalinspirationhad
and

PHILOSOPHY

OF

on

science

of

aspects of his

two

method.

Bacon's

(a)
criticism
break

with

science
of

of

mediaeval

The

their

early thinkers

What

must

traditional
of
form

The

the

we

because

method

roots

of

the

to
errors

We

true

that

empty
We

from

the

ancient

of

men

the

equally

an

talent,

opportunity;

led

them

paths, and

wrong

have
our

not

procedure

astray.
their

re

vain.

are

attitude

our

did

intellectual

possess,

philosophy?
obstacles

of

followed

now

be

in

to

for

all the

swing

why

were

but
ancients.

past

presence

ourselves

Bacon
the

they

lacked

prejudices that
the

of

the

the
in

past. But

the

they

sults, which

was

does

acceptance

? Not

because

science

to

passed

what
In

embody

Thus

amounted

that

not

trenchant

pretence.

are

we

centuries.

because

but

early thinkers

rejectionof
err

felt

life traditional

blind

thinkers
nor

but

was

ancients, for

preceding
blind

past. Bacon

day

of

The

the

are

the

facts

words.

was

and
prevailing philosopln7,

in his

the

of the past

criticism

in the

must

misled

presence

dispossessourselves
the

past, for they

knowledge
have

of this

infected

of the

world.

philosophy

HISTORY

46

Idols, we
tion of

ready

are

scientific

eral, ought science

experience. Bacon
of the

future

There

must

science

(1)

PHILOSOPHY

OF

positiveconstruc
of work.
method
By what, in gen
be
to
and
guided ? By induction
suggests the following steps for the
proceed

to

to

"

be

exhaustive

an

collection

of

par

ticular instances.

(2)
these

There

instances, for
of

be

then

must

analysisand comparison

an

Bacon

to

induction

not

was

of

mere

Negative instances, and

of degree, must
of difference
be taken
into
instances
be avoided, and we
must
account.
Hasty generalizations
ascend
the particularto the gen
must
gradually from
enumeration

singleinstances.

eral.
The

(3)

discovered.

"

Of

four

phasizes the
nature

"

is

that

present, absent
creases

is the
The

English
the

the

of the

"

Bacon

be

must

Aristotle,Bacon

form

"

em

the

means

The

phenomenon.

is

"

in

form

"

phenomenon.

Science

Natural

impression

The

Movement.

in

England

of

the

thus

received

natu
at

Anglo-Saxon

sober

the

mind.

history English philosophydiffered

its entire
of

phenomenon

of

causes

By

with

movement

that

of the

always present when the phenomenon

is absent, and
when
the phenomenon

abiding essence

Through
from

formal."

decreases

or

ral science
start

the

"

form

simple

Continent.

the

Here

at

the

outset

the

Englishman is skeptical,not only of scholastic deduc

tions from
dogma, but also of deductions of all kinds.1
He prefersthe slow road of patientempiricaldiscovery.
Even

contemplativeknowledge

pure

of mathematics
induction
1

have

even

But

see

in the
the

for him.

little charm
hands

contradiction

of

the deductions

and

an

in the

To

Englishman
theory

of Hobbes.

be

sure,

demands

NATURAL

THE

by

Bacon

but

would

establish

to

his

truth

mathematical

the

far

indispensablesanction

of

certain

period

Bacon

of

to

whose
politics;

the

better
was

in

of

Renaissance.
Christian

of

in

the

pp.

Read

this
a

as

Watson,

Turner, Hist. Phil,

p.

389

Rand,
1

Eucken,

Modern

See

pp.

ideal

in

Augustine's
Human

of the

many

the

universal

of the

demands

Hobbes

writer

of

time.

the

is best

(Blackwood's
Hist.

Phil.

Phil,

Mod.

Hedonistic

of

Windelband,

Human

of

Campanella

Life,
pp.
and

71-72:
Ste

Leslie

73-94

Theories, pp.

Philosophers,

States

Classics),
pp.

"

"

443-446

known

this aspect of morals

on

article, Hobbes

Problem

Classical

also the

of

systems of political

the

group.

Falckenberg,

Hobbea

More, Bodin, Althusius, and Gro-

Robertson, Hobbes

Hobbes

had

"

succeeded

man

idea

theoretical

Encyclopaedia Britannica,
phen,

Galileo

nor

embodied

meet

of

contemporary

politicaltheorists

longer held,

would

to

of

in

interest

his mind.

in

was

was

as

no

times

204-206;

obscure

an

universallyaccepted

other

mediaeval

construct

belong

modern

that

group

Macchiavelli,Thomas
tius

was

No

time.

philosophy. No

that

government

so

Bacon, Descartes,

was

to

Here

nature,

that

state, such

ists tried

philosophy was

When

City of God,

him

to

large

under

attachment

of

expressing all

one

During
secretary by

Contemporaries.

his

theory of

systematic a

so

an

of

neither

"

Bacon,

to

experience.

his
had

used

philosophy because

scientists

Hobbes

Galileo

already received

it has

as

deduction

that

way

Hobbes.

point

the mechanical

ty

and

Thomas

turning

man

only

Hobbes

name

such

use

hypotheses. According

true

47

general principle,

to

the

so

Thomas

the

in

PERIOD

of

refused

have

new

hypothesis is

establishment

the

its nature

SCIENCE

Hist.
pp.

57-69,
Bacon,

Phil.,

359-360

80-84.
p. 41.

48

HISTORY

and

politics
;

eral

mechanical

of

theory

politicsis only

but

modern

society

the

of

system

of

forerunner

PHILOSOPHY

OF

part of

is

only

He

universe.

his

and

materialism,

his

gen-

is the

peculiar

exemplificationof

an

this

theory.
In

passing

different

Bacon

from

type of

relatives

Hobbes

was

outlook, but

row

fostered
shire

Bacon

voluminous

forms

but

with

sophical system,
studies
In

have
the

sophy

the

theory
reduced

it to be

reason

as

had

his

philosophy

general philo

theological

shall

by

of

the
the

existence.

of

The
all

point
was

relation

Hobbes

reason

The

subjective,and

and

he

of

of

mechanical,

conceived

Hobbes

conceived

held

was

and

between

con

starting-point

thought
view

theory.

rational, and

the

mechanics.

differed,

Galileo's

used

and

Galileo's

They

mathematical,

of

contem

employed

to the

philo

Descartes

that

both

they

relation

him.

was

authoritative.

as

to the

form

was

find

that

the

shall review

we

instrument

objective,and since
only incidentallythe
chanical

of Bacon

mathematics

the

standstill until
solved

Of

politicalwriter.

his classical and

in which

the rational

of Descartes

was

Hobbes

which

We

however, in the way

reduced

practicalpolitician
;

rationalist,Descartes, who

mathematical

ceived

Devon

; Hobbes

alike in this:

are

Descartes

were

connection.

of Hobbes.

Hobbes

nar

the

succeeding chapter

of

porary

of

patronage

theoretical

part

the

literaryremains
small

with

man,

his

powerful

talents, which

and

his

very

by

undoubted

was

doctrinaire

the

with

fame

to

hostilityof

hard-headed

to

come

we

risen

had

the

all his life under

family.

Was

the

Bacon

man.

genius, in spite of

own

Hobbes

to

mechanics

Hobbes
he

was

discussed

thought
the

at

world

and

me

in the

NATURAL

THE

terms

of

main

motive

only

world

with

of

sisted

in

was

going

all the

beyond

mechanical
The

life of

We

full

length

scientists

theory to

Writings

Hobbes

falls

last

of

His

period

the

was

was

forty years

old, and

he

went

thirteen
at

The

was

he

in

begun
begun

his

he

years

time

one

preparatory

was

the

Dur

classical scholar.

was

philosophicalperiod,which
about

con

by extending

another

at

mathematician

as

greatness

(1588-1679).
natural
periods. In

five

and

in mathematics

his

time

Rational

life.

period of about
ing his middle
the philosopher. Furthermore,
sorbed

dual-

or

called

of materialism

his

conse

of Hobbes

into

periods he

and,

double

group

the mental

Life and

first and

place Descartes,

materialist, and

the

of

therefore

Leibnitz, in

Descartes'

rational

consisted

him

terms.

Spinoza and

ists. Hobbes

to

49

mechanical.

the

to preserve

was

quently,the
istic series

series,the

one

PERIOD

SCIENCE

was

ab

was

controversy.
not

to

he

until

his creative

when

he

was

fifty.

(includinghis earlyyears)
of his life. At
the first forty years
(1588-1628)
Oxford
(1603-1608) ; first journey abroad
(16081612) ; beginning of his relations with the Devonshire
also
of his acquaintance with
the
"new
family and
science" ; time of leisurely
study (1612-1628) and ac
of Cherbury, and Ben
quaintance with Bacon, Herbert
of Thucydides (1628).
Jonson
; translation
Mathematician
2. As
(1628-1638). Second
jour
tutor
as
(1629-1631) for eighteenmonths
ney abroad
1. As

Classical

Scholar

"

to

the

tion

of

Sir Gervase

Clifton

reads

Euclid

while

(1634-1637), when
journey abroad
Galileo ; begins to develop the conception of
he is counted
and
sensation ; by 1638
among

abroad
meets

son

he

third

mo

the

50

HISTORY

notable

PHILOSOPHY

philosophers and

tists,Mersenne
As

3.

OF

scien

Parisian

the

meets

Gassendi.

and

Philosopher (1638-1651).

under

sophy

he

title of

Elements

Plans

his

philo
De

of Philosophy:

is inter
and
De
Give, which
Corpore, De Homine,
rupted by the English Revolution
of Law
; Elements
in 1640, read
(" little treatise ") written
by a few in
his consent
in 1650
in
manuscript, published without
De
two
and
Nature
Corpore Poli
parts: Human
tico ; flees to Paris (1640) and enters
again the scien

tific circle at Paris

De

Cive

Politico
II

in

Descartes'

criticises

enlarged ;

Paris;

for

acts

engages

theory (1642-1645)

time

his

upon

is

which

published (1642),

as

Meditations
De

Corpore

tutor

to

Charles

general philosophical
and

Liberty

Necessity,

writ

published
(1646), published (1654) ; Leviathan
(1651).
4. As Controversialist
(1651"1668). Flees back to
London
(1651); De Corpore, published (1655);
Behemoth, written
(1668), proscribed and not pub
ten

lished

until

his

after

hall,Ward,

Wallis,

death

and

controversies

Boyle

De

with

Homine,

Bram-

published

(1658).
(1668-1679). Translation
of Iliad and
Odyssey (1675).
Hobbes'
edition
In
Molesworth's
(1839-1845),
works
Latin
five volumes, the
English eleven.
occupy
5. As

The

Elements
and

Homine,
sequence
of

Classical

Scholar

De

Cive

in which

they

"

were

political
exigencies,in
The

Influences

premature

Corpore, De
not
were
published in the
planned, but, on account

of Philosophy

birth

upon

the

the

of Hobbes

the

"

above

Thought
had

no

De

order.
of Hobbes.

inconsiderable

1. The
influ-

THE

ence

had

of

suffered

the

of

consequence

only

"

this

was

great fright,at

the

of

Spanish

the

this

? He

either

natural

time

in

conservatism.

carryinghim,
announcement

life

Was
was

assassinated

been

Puritan

had

element
His

England.

not

he
which

he

When

he

and

study

shire family confirmed

All

signs of

lived

toward

"

fled

the first that

of

troubles
eleven

years

Leviathan

reinforced

looked

upon

to

France

at the

great panic
as

divine

over

The

father

of

Hobbes

position.
he

beginning of

fled

back

to

murder
the

one

him.

London
account

of

of
was

the

London

Catholics, whom

penalty, on

was

Devon

the

In fear

impurity of the English court. Hobbes

frightlest he might not have peace.
2.

in

decentralization

rebellion.

offended, should

it

with

and

he

the

disturbing factor

war

; in fear

the

of France

in his conservative

later, lest the Roman

in

and

before, and

years

pointed toward

Charles

had

again

was

"

conserva

translating

was

his alliance

him

the time

government,

many

become

of

changes without sym

had no
ideals
political

assassinated
Thucydides, Buckingham was
Petition of Rights was
presented. Henry IV
had

it in

series

extremely

was

new

party, and

The

fear.

the

saw

61

Armada.

Hobbes's

that

politics.He
with

PERIOD

his mother

controversies

and

tive in

pathy

approach

panics

SCIENCE

his life. When

upon

she

NATURAL

his

Hobbes
fire

and

of the

was

always in

the

unworthy

Church
in the
clergymen of the English Established
dissolute
and
after
a
reign of Elizabeth. He was
man,
his family. In conse
escapades he abandoned
many
of this Hobbes
always had an antipathytoward
quence
the offices of the church
and toward
theology.Although
he claimed
to be a communicant, his allegiance
was
only

nominal,

as

his

theory will

show.

62

HISTORY

3. Hobbes

was

mathematical

the

science.

midst

of

was

well

On

his

was

Galileo

and

and

it

ter's

fall,Bacon's

been

overestimated.

the

and

the

that

does

sued

to

was

Of

three

in

him

upon
mental

his

of

the

whole

is

The

mightily.
lathas

Bacon

knew

and

nothing

shows

to

some

and
nationality,
from

mission

of

experi

Bacon

that

The

the

little and

spring

of

pur

Hobbes

the world.

Hobbes,

his inherited

political
theory ;

in his

new

writings of

of

his

of

upon

"

"

his reflec

him

was

view

seen

first

journey,

began

Bacon

must

mechanical

He

the

third

Hobbes

in him.

influences

for

powers

in his conservative

seen

influence

seen

he

this, the method

appear

France.

secretary after

method.

of his father

influence
the

Bacon's

knowledge

construct

timidityis

the

influenced

different,and

than

not

the

Galileo

The

were

Further

ence.

that

empirical tendency

he believed

into

Mersenne
scientists,

sensation.

influence

mathematical

degree

him

he felt this influence.

when

then

was

Kepler,Descartes, and
Although he acted as

of

his

Italy and

French

the

concerning motion

his secretary

of

little

Yet

brought

circles

left

there.

journey, he read Euclid

then
forty-three.On his

Gassendi,

tions

taught

was

new

little interested

but

was

the

by

Oxford

at

Continent

scientific

second

met

and

he

along into maturity

He

time.
he

the

influenced

years

which

the

on

years

His

him, and

scholasticism

twenty

PHILOSOPHY

much

very

impression upon
in

OF

theory

of

mathematical

the

religion;

science

philosophy,especiallyin

his

is

psy

chology.
The

Fundamental

Principle

Hobbes.

The

his entire

philosophy was

the

assumption

physicalworld,

"

from
the

the

in

the

which

Teaching

Hobbes

mechanical

characteristic

of

deduced

conception of

philosophical

OF

HISTORY

54

supernatural,for

the

of bodies

between
but

spiritare
and

matter

between

supernatural does

Matter

in motion.

and

matter

the

PHILOSOPHY

and
The

not.

mind

and

homogeneous

are

in Hobbes

contrast

and

mind, the material

matter

material

the
spirit,

consist

not

is not

the

psychical,

and

the supra-

material.

Method

The

his

Galileo

of

rooted

He

own.

believed

treating all subjects:

them

as

them.

Scientific

the

in

itself

and

motions

related

systematizedand
science

He

ceed?
in

motion,

causes

of

elements

finds

and

which

non,

with

begins

the

proceeds from

effects.

These
and

world

for
down

"

of
the

the

report of
find

Hobbes

the

its causes,
scientist

the
their
to

is

reason

be

who, nevertheless,used

in

which

the

world

of

like

and

causes,

nominalist
the

the

of

most

that

body

less than

other
the

Then

the

originalphe
Thus
and

bringing

back

effects."

deductive

vol.

method

the

effects,

busily flyingup

(see

the

phenomenal

causes

and

pro

phenome

in motion.

is

man

is

question.
to

are

has

causally

scientist

the

nor

in

creatures,

order,

more

bodies

"

signs.

world

of

causes

causes

effects

new

natural

among

does

phenomenon

scientist

nomenon

the

with

experience

constructed

nothing

are

of

of bodies

phenomenon,

out

of

organized world,
how

using

reckoning

world

world

simply
But

devise.

can

in

of

rationallyorganized

the

an

most

consists
in

is
of

calculation

combination

as

from

is such

method

experiences. Science

our

organized. The

it has

the

stands

world, quite different

which

is

thought

method

knowledge

true

one

Knowledge

rationalizingof

truth

all

signs of experience and

words

It is the

is

the

mathematical

the

of bodies.

motions

as

made

that

There

mathematics.

in

Hobbes

of Hobbes.

Thus

and
true
we

i, p. 358)
"

rather

SCIENCE

NATURAL

THE

Like

strange combination.

he

cesses

has

The

to

have

the

been
written

not

were

the

in which

order

seems

On

55

English successors,

Moreover

but

the

two

pro

for induction

he

method.

no

they

fused.*

became

never

all his

deduction,

and

induction

employed

PERIOD

from

his return

writings of
sport of

according

his

third

Hobbes

outward
to

his

journey

to

appeared
events,

for

originalplan.
the

Continent

(1638), Hobbes, then fiftyyears old, had adopted the

mechanical
theory and had planned his philosophy. His
to be called the Elements
comprehensive work was
of
into three parts :
to be divided
Philosophy,and was
De
Corpore, treating physical bodies ; De Homine,
a
as
psychologicalindividual ; De Cive,
treatingman
the citizen of a State. Hobbes's
as
philo
treatingman
therefore
to be a universal
philosophy, and
sophy was
he intended
out in logical order
to bring his works
first,the science of physics,then of human
nature, and
in
the growing disturbances
last of society.However,
moved
him
world
the political
at that time
to publish
several
treatises on
politicsfirst,and his physics and
than
fifteen years later.
psychology more
"

Kinds

The
natural

and

of Bodies.
artificial.

There
Natural

are

kinds

two

bodies

are

of

those

bodies,

belong

physicalworld. The artificial bodies are the

institutions of society,of which
the most
important is
the State.
Man
belongs to both classes of bodies
and
of the
he has a physical nature
he is a member
and
State. Man
natural
is the connectinglink between
into
artificial bodies.
divided
Philosophy is therefore
ing to

the

"

Read

Falckenberg,

quotation from
tradiction

of the

Grimm's

Hist.

Mod.

criticism

empirical and

of

Phil., p. 72, for

the

the rational

irreconcilable
in Hobbes.

his
con

HISTORY

56

three

parts: physics, which

bodies
a

social

individual

from

posable into

the

men

of

dependent

bodies

on

and

and

they
the

first term

their

be

into

dependent

the

of

physicalbodies,
of

terms

Although

in the

Mathematical

of the
the

prime

of man,

life
political

bodies

last

are

term

State.

is the

Psychology.

e.

motion, if

the

to

man

bodies, natural

all

explained in

Application

of

psychical nature

leading up through

series, which

on

the

Thus

motions.

decom

decomposable
are

the nature

Hobbes's

lay

and

in

at the

are

explained scientifically.
Physical

are

in the

bodies

men,

on

must
artificial,

turn

as

man

Looking

fellows.

in

are

Political

psychical nature

of

treats

bodies
end, political

other

men,

physical bodies.
is

his

in his role

man

politics,which

congregations with

situation

of

treats

natural

purely

of

treats

which

psychology,

natural

men

PHILOSOPHY

OF

Theory
of

interest

he nevertheless

to

Hobbes
made

an

the
psychology.He snatched
science
of mental
hands
the
of the
phenomena from
scholastic
it for the first time an
theologian and made
independent science. Psychology had been based upon
the assumptions of the theologian; for these Hobbes
substituted
the assumptions of the mathematician.
Con

original contribution

sciousness

became

tion of bodies.

of

certain

to

in his

It is described

parts of the

consciousness, such
brain
the

movements

the

or

caying

sensations

sations

the

the

mo

the movement

"

as

The

organic body."
refined

of

states

thought

is the

the

is known

imagination are
sum

totalityof
of

of atoms

movements

and

rigid laws

of what

soul, but

him

by

Memory

experience is

together by
the father

"

not

sensations,perceptions,etc., are

as

system.

nervous

hands

association.
as

"

of several
sensations

Hobbes

the Associational

in

de
sen

bound
was

Psy-

ehology,or

the

theory

atoms

But

although
he

ence,

did

chology.

The

mental

ternal

motions.

ing body

in

the

organ,

sense

in the

about

heart

this is

brain, and

is that of which

we
"

apparition

makes

brain.

mental

state.

of

the

lightis, for example,

modification

an

ceive

to

causes
no

doubt

the

except

us,

of

these

real, but

knowledge

of

ourselves.

This

aught

of

save

is the

the

no

point of

view

cerebral

of

qualitiesof
is

nothing

which

external

of

de

sensations

knowledge

motions

external

the

bodies

The

is

perception

There

of

object,

itself. We

the

ourselves.

have

Our

trans

state

the

These

modifications.
we

in

body

us.

motions

ex

mov

brain

of

that

outside

are

modifications

things are
external

heat

think

we

mental

series.

the external

of

when

ourselves

light,sound,

the

not

of

is effected

The

The

causal

is

Mental

result

reaction

fact

actual

they

are

of the external

conscious.

are

the

of

impression on
transmitted
by the

is

the movement

sci

an

; it

substance, and

is

nor

bodies.

are

effect in

world
of

and

the

is still psy

in this
way.

this motion

and

of

physical motion
of

they

world

composed

mechanical

motions,

They

not

"

the

outer

it

physics. It

movements

formations, and

an

made

motions

come

is

of association.

external

not

57

psychology out

are

external

the

the

to

nerves

took

states

are

the

brain

are

laws

identifyit with

not

copies of

states

fixed

Hobbes

bodies, but they

the

consciousness

theologian and

of the

PERIOD

that

under

of mental

hands

SCIENCE

NATURAL

THE

world

of it

bodies

are

"

no

within

all

subsequent
of things is quite
of

English philosophy : the substance

different
from our knowledge of them. The substance
know
of things is real ; but is not the objectof our
ledge. The objectof our knowledge is a modification
of ourselves.

HISTORY

58

The

the

other, is well

know

consists

thing

in their

addition

"

as

and
only represent reality,

Truth

with

the

correct

bal counters

so

men

the

"

of

give

State.

and

universal

mechanical

he

is

of their
that

that

is mathe

use

concerned

are

rise to the

the

ver

bodies

in

states

as

consciousness,
of

source

artificial

the
the

man

impulse

is, in fact, his abso

and

Just

characteristic.
of

Theory

mental

human

individual

association

these

material

states, and

In every

fool

reality.Words

Mathematical

way

are

syl

things.

the

to mental

individuals

as

real

same

and

manipulation of

is innate,
self-preservation

lute
the

the

in motion

body,
to

In

give rise

bodies

with

not

them

of demonstrated

of

terms

incorrect

Application

Politics.

motion

falsityare

or

and

Hobbes's
to

and

law

the

men

combines

and

counters,

the

Science

judgments

for the coin

the counter

which

rock."

lan

only

by

body

only

the

of

are

Science

into

thereby constructs

mistakes

matics.

mark

seamen

are

which

markers

are

subtraction

principles.Words

discussion

words,

manipulation.

and

logisms,and
who

of

things. Words

of

counters

by

consists

to

physicalrealityon

to

in Hobbes's

illustrated

reference

with

knowledge

side,and

one

Speech

guage.

may

of

independence

theology on

PHILOSOPHY

OF

the

as

of

law

is the fundamental

ideas

law of
mind, so the mechanical
principleof the human
ethical and
is the principleof man's
self-preservation
life. All
our
politicalinstitutions are the re
political
sult of the strivingof men
In his
for self-preservation.

natural

state

without

social

ard

"

for conduct

ficial

when,

Hobbes

as

organization

politicalstate,

his

own

which

interest is still his motive.

had

man

"

than

conceived,

man

has

Egoism

other

no

self-interest

lived

man

in

stand

the

arti

constructed, selfis the

sole

working

NATURAL

THE

principleof

human

live in societies

which

man,

in

the

other

man

every

that

of

name

in the

problem

which

egoism

is the

they
in

most

for its

hit upon

the

originalstate

making

was

was

condition

against

war

of

"

of nature

Renaissance,

was

after

has

state

"

69

and

before

state
political

conceived

under

common

the
which

profit.Hobbes

own

; but

PERIOD

both

beings

contrivance

genious

SCIENCE

every

(Compare Locke and Rousseau.) But such

condition
of things was
a
obviously self-destructive.
and
formed
Consequently man
artificially
arbitrarily
the politicalState to avoid
this self-destructive,
inter
man.

necine

warfare.

Under

the

circumstances

most

effective

sonal

State
ends, for the political
In the

to peace.

means

of every

under

another

one

of his

rightsin

which

order

But

what

The

sovereign to

which

thus

been

them

secure.

soul of

State, the
in

single person
public. This
is absolute

for

the

original contract,
contract

in

"

was

made
of

state

its power

among

obedience

to

contract

makes

was

the

the

did

the

So

this

the

vested.

right.Whatever

"

not
not

then

individuals,

long

The

to

the

might
the

with

as

the

State

have

It is the

the

in

re

is vested,

party

to

exist.
at

State

that

the

The
time

preserves

render

sovereign in
of

compact

many

contract

people,the people must

State,

right

portion of

assembly

an

sovereign was

nature."

the

whom

among

the

represented by

"

he

right of

sovereign?

general will,

since

the

have

of

powers
is the

sovereign,in
:

might

monarchy, by

per

compact

gives securityto
the

his

relinquished a portion

each

delegated. What

the

"

made

the

was

only possible

equivalentof

men

each

that

the

was

the

So

gain

of nature

state

"

nothing.

to

man

could

man

everything was

to

man

every

in which

way

it

whom

their
the

politicalState

commands

is

right;

OF

HISTORY

60

whatever
wrong

and

the

in the

impossible.An

contract, and

cal

Even
legislation.

termined

state

Here

revolution.

Charles

of
"

I.

Ilobbes

Leviathan,

which

morality is politi
the

people

is de

is better

philosophicaljustification

was

to

contained

presented

hoping

gain favor

is

war

reversion

to

paragraphs

Catholics.

One

as

vellum-bound

with

and

The

second

cide

what

to

the

is infallible

"

Hobbes's

the

was,

that

commonwealth

when

that

one

while

religionof

the

its

is

un

that commonwealth

sovereign state

people

shall

is

is formed.
shall de

be, no

religion

Anglican, Catholic, nor Puritan.

the
sovereign makes
legal is only a
true religionwill come
not until the

; the

The

church

is subordinate

to the

like

everything else,and

it does

the

State

be, provided there

religion shall
is

the

neither

Judgment.

Religion

the Le

royalistsand

sovereign commonwealth

new

II,

contained

purpose,

antagonized

religion that

temporary

Charles

to

prince. However,

that

the

wrote

so
political

that

was,

the

of

copy

able to protect its citizens in peace,

dissolved

refugee he

this doctrine

viathan, unfortunately for

Last

it breaks

politicalState

Any

in France

was

ciety. He

The

no

of nature."

When

two

of

ground

reversion

right
possible

was

when

crime

religionof

the

State.

the

by

is

act

the

thus

There

nature," only the

of

state

"

the

than

is wrong.

is forbidden

and

PHILOSOPHY

only

not

matter

superstitionresting on

much
be
a

State,
what
peace.

defective

what
knowledge of nature, and it is of little consequence
particularreligionthe State makes binding.
be said that the Leviathan
It hardly need
pleased
II nor
the Catholics.
neither
The
Charles
sequel of its
fled back to England from
publicationwas that Hobbes

fear of assassination.

CHAPTER

RATIONALISM

THE

PERIOD

grew

it

apace,

tural

self

The

scientist

often

guardians.
might

delicate

in

creation, and

final

the

dilemmas
in

ology

pretending
and

in

in

with

the

Inquisition thought
astronomical

spent

his

testantism
a

country

nevertheless
words
the

and

he

later
and

their

Bacon
Hobbes
his

Bacon

conflict

personal safety
his

untroubled

sovereign.

such

from

the

of

his

nothing
that

found

with

to

the

that

with

Hobbes
was

it.

to

results

his

church

bishop.

and

its im

success

found

Copernicus

disguised
was

the

his

church

aloofness

deadly struggle

Catholicism.

not

was

sorrowfully

by

God,

In

discussions.

be, they had

into

church

antagonized

of

came

in

years

where

religion of

he

be

attitude

tormented

was

and

entirely

otherwise.

theories

and

dogma,

but

nature

himself

physics might

Bible

The

that, whatever

declare

might

an

him

universe

world.

scientist

isolate

to

assuming

investigations
do

natural

every

found

the

body, might

psychological

at

concerning

of the

the

Na

jealous

of

soul, too, its

to

the

the

dogma

outcome

and

these

as

Galileo

church

its relation

by physiological

with

explanation

the

concerning

mortality,

ful

the

questions

therefore,

time,

relations

scientific

antagonize

doctrine

this

science

new

vocation.

safe

metaphysical
at

the

Although

altogether

not

was

involves

science

point.

RENAISSANCE

of Rationalism.

Nature

The

THE

OF

SCIENCE

NATURAL

THE

OF

Kepler

both

Pro

lived

in

fairly secure,

position by using large

because

he

accepted

RATIONALISTS

THE

If the

positionof

those

strictlywithin

much

fraught with

more

tion of those

It would

that

mean

Scholasticism

of

the

by
who

men

Rationalists

in the

this

in

of

Why should it not also

physics and set it,too, upon
the

The

Rationalists

advanced

of God

al

the

be able
a

The

science.

The

Rationalists.

they

were

that

sci

successful

been

of mathemat

use

to reconstruct

meta

basis ? The

mathematical

Malebranche

"

but

nature,

had

Descartes, Spinoza,Leibnitz,

were

Occasionalists,

and

old

had

physicsby

ics.

leaders of this school

old

that

science, but

reason

posi

to the

metaphysical problems

human

reconstruction

issued

the

were

the

was

metaphysics ?

new

the

keep

to

science, how

reason

overthrown

the

The

aroused.

ence

human

same

interested
in

of

personal danger

did

were

interested

more

limits

challenge was

ready challenged and

group

the

openly constructed

who

tried

difficult who

was

themselves

63

only of

conception not

new

theories

new

Geulincx.

and

only of

not

the

human

body,but of the soul. Their task was the dangerous

of bravely invading the hitherto impregnable realms
the spirit.
The

difficult

completely
the

the

the Greek

inner

and

For

the

sundered.

clear-cut

and

had

his

scientists in this

period of

structed

"

the

irreconcilable
that

old
to

world

the

nature

"

The

must

Christian
and

the Renaissance

of
be

"

grace."
made

to

more

it had

These

Eu

had

been

we

meet

and

to

it

had

each

his fellow

had

that

of

history of

long one,

Galileo

of nature

world

the

However,

share.

do

first time

Sophist,the Stoic,and

contributed

worlds

outer

been

the

historyof

in the

positive dualism.

of this dualism

growth

believed

rendered

was

because, for the first time

thought,

ropean

with

the Rationalists

of

task

one

so

recon

become
scientists

explain itself;

HISTORY

64

must

be

having

the

its events
cesses

as

of

revolutions

the

blood, the
law

of

conceived

the

planets

that

of the

Renaissance

scientific

absolute

contrast

fundamental

which

ently the problem

and

the

world

"

Aquinas

"

had

brought

into

sistent, and

newly
with

the

up

without
The

new

cult

on

with

an

depriving
science
one

The

better

new

hand

to

than

by reading

Science

the

body

was

of

it

with

especiallydiffi
universe

the

other

the

free soul.

with

new

reconcile

to

the Middle

It is studied

two

Middle

the

meet.

here

philosophy; for, while

even

side. In

Ages

Rationalism

theology as

Ages

of the doc

periods side by
of

also

initiation ?

mechanical

on

giving

being, and

its power
made

the

can

harmonized

School.
the

be

to

old, per

? How

development

Renaissance
it

that

in the

Scholasticism

of the

scholastic

of

the Renaissance

Rationalist

with

question

nature"

of

rational

and

the

without
spirits,

reconcile

concentrated

world

nature

therefore

human

science,but

new

as

soul

of this

Rationalism
the

had

struggleof

is therefore
trine

the

"

St. Thomas

by

church

of

omnipotent God,

mechanical

the

of the

God

spiritual

of nature

that

relation

conscious

free

in

dogma. Appar

solved

"

new

mechanism
of

of

stood

of

world

"

reconstructed

dogma

these

world

the

been

of the

Now, however, the "world

is the

conception of

the

had

harmonious

settled

realm

so

How

conceived

the

"

times.

been

re-opened.

be

of grace

all this

rich world

facts, and

reconcilingthe

in mediaeval

of nature
was

of

The

researches

yieldeda

to

the

measured.

in the church

embodied

were

The

had

of

underlie

to

causation.

From

circulation
be

is conceived

its pro

machine.

the
can

brute, inevitable, and

facts

of

to

of nature

science, is mechanical
scientists

necessitated

as

inevitableness

movements

nature,

PHILOSOPHY

OF

well.

and

was

It

a
was

the Rationalists

RATIONALISTS

THE

giving the death blow to medithey were

instead
only replacing it
philosophy,they were
that

thought
SBval

with
of

mechanical

knowledge

upon

schoolman

spiritof

showed

ever

of the Rationalist

there

The

declaration

in the

the

it

but

dom,

was

that he

may

himself

from

obscurityand

science
The

and

any

one

life

and

the

was

ambitious

call of free

So

trim

his sails

by living

Leibnitz
of

construct

reconciling

in

Middle

thinker

of

and

Ages

this

of

He

shows,

authority;

placeshim
activity

the

Renaissance.

appear
tween

of

does
so

the

mechanical

the

conflict

unsettling;
scholastic
world

in

world
of

the

between
none

of

science

the
does

Old

the

In
and

so

on

among
no

the

other

New

antagonism

spiritualthings
appear

the

on

of medi

churchman

in his respect for institutional

leading scientists

the

of

that

than
strikingly

more

time.

strife be

The

Descartes.

the other hand, his intellectual

thinker

stood

shall find

we

trying to

and

always

purpose

hand, all the conservatism

aeval time

was

in Descartes

appears

other

the

".

clear.

made

the Christians

avowed

Conflict

spiritof

Renaissance
in

be

religion.

Mental
the

tween

eye

Inquisition; Spinoza saving

the

the

mathematical

could

publishingnothing ;

ing philosophy with

fact, no

dogmatic

more

of freedom.

the Jews

both

In

revelations

whole

offend

not

or

the

it

as

its assured

spending his

Descartes

rest, the Rationalists

Rationalists

realization

the

to

of

system

schoolmen.

earth

hazardous

as

with

church

opposed

of the

absolute

an

means

nothing mysteri-(
absolutely
realm.
in the spiritual
or

was

All

attempt, by

vigor

more

physical universe
and
things in heaven

in

the

philosophy. To

in his

confidence

their

theory, to get
which thought can

the

acting in

were

In

scholasticism.

another

the

ous

65

and

be
the

irreconcilable.

66

HISTORY

He

suffered

science

and

struggle. The

dramatic

between

compromise

his

and

genius ;

The

true.

of

father

Galileo.

proceeded

he

his

won

science

new

under

and

Life

The

harmonize

home

At

the Jesuit

As

(2)
the

with

singleprinciple.
of Descartes

at La

school

Fleche

until he

was

seven

of the

(1613-1628).

Descartes

studies

world."
and

study.

attached

to

the

of Maurice.

First

Journey (1619-1621), going through Bavaria,

Austria, north
The

Holland.

to

the

enrolled

this

journey

on

Read
;

Robertson,

Rand,

Eucken,
Persistent

shores

of

when

army

of

Problems,

Hobbes

Human
pp.

two

of

his mental

and

the

crisis

459-463.

to

spent

Emperor.

He

occurred,

Phil.

Philosophers,
Life, pp.

back

were

years

(Blackwood

Classical

Modern

Problem

in the

Baltic

the

greater part of these

Bohemia,

p. 40

scholasticism

(1613-1617), in retirement
Holland
(1617" 16 19), nominally

army

old

Paris

In

was

historyof philosophy

(1596-1613).
eight years old (1596-1604).

was

Traveler

book

At

in

has

(1604-1613).

teen

*"

he

the

out

Student

and

until

was

thought

Philosophical Writings

(1596-1650).*
(1) As Child
At

this

partly

method

modern

the

the

is

hand, pointed

which

place in

this

con

called

have

scientific

other

principlefrom

his

of Descartes

scientific

overcame

modern

the

on

was

his

thought, and

the

unending

an

and

never

admirers

of

by attempting to
the

traditions

in

himself

Descartes

philosophy of

modern

Descartes,

incontestable

engaged

were

his

The

father

the

for within
strife,

philosophy

motives.
flicting
him

PHILOSOPHY

mental
life-long

medisevalism

OF

pp.

351-362

"

Classics),
117-147
;

Calkins,

RATIONALISTS

THE
at

Neuberg,

discovered

in

principleof

in 1619.

Austria,

either

67

It

analyticalgeometry

then

was
or

that

he

the fundamental

his

philosophy.
In Paris
again, 1623.
Second
and
Journey (1623"1625), to Switzerland
Italy,making a pilgrimage to the shrine of Loretto.
(3) As Writer (1629-1650).
In Holland
(1629-1649). For the sake of absolute
from
seclusion
inquisitivevisitors,Descartes changed
his residence in Holland
twenty-fourtimes and lived in
thirteen places. All his correspondence passed through
Mersenne.
three
During these twenty years he made
journeys to France. Thus this period of absolute retire
his period of literaryproduction,chiefly
became
ment
between

the years

and

1635

1644.

He

his

wrote

Method

(1635-1637).
Meditations
(1629-1641).
Le Monde
(1630-1632), publishedposthumously.
Principles(1641-1644).
Passions
(1646-1649).
(1649-1650). The ro
(4) In Stockholm, Sweden
side of the life of Descartes

mantic
on

Passions,

the

beth,

and

Queen
her

He

Two

reside

there

of

from

one

with

constitution
the

her

the

On

the

the
made

one

spiritof
him

public eye.

He

Eliza

invitation

court

and

rigorsof

of the

become

the climate

year.

early education
the Middle

shrink
even

upon

the

Thought

hand, all the ties of inherit

family influence,and

cartes

at

of the

Conflicting Influences

of Descartes.
ance,

for the Princess

he wrote

acceptance

to

died

residence

The

and

in his

of Sweden

tutor.

after

also

which

in his book

appears

from

made

allied

Des

Ages. A delicate
public controversy
half apology for
a

HISTORY

68

his

pursuit of

reform

his

dividual
both

sides

life,and

reform

belonged

to

the

by

authority. He

this

fluences

restrained

clusions

of

his

him

physically timid
about

description of
and
a

which

treatise
of the

Rome,

and

The

rival

scientific
for

mathematics

Fle"che.

On

of

most

the

circle
the

of such

composed

and

he

long journeys

world."

His

discovery of
the

phicalprinciplewas
discoverer

the

of

form

principleof
; he
same

the

the

universe,

his

circle

in

at

new

genius

La

at

the

centre

France
Claude

"

Picot,

optician Ferrier, the

study

method

result.

was

teach

the

school

other

dissatisfied

to

the

had

Abbe

many

became

It

book.

became

scientists
and

"the

book

and

his

In mathematics

analyticalgeometry

represent powers

the

he

he

scientific

was

at

was

the

and

in order

the

He

the

as

Mersenne,

theologians.But

some

The

men

physician Villebressieux,

mathematician

to

he

scientific

notable

both

1632

with

in Descartes

Paris

to

in

trial of Galileo

publish

when

going

In

was

of

Renaissance.

the

even

his

which

of the

to

spiritspeaking

spiritof

of La

therefore

was

nature

learned

dared

never

school

Copernican theory.

the

He

was

of ecclesiastical

naturallyconflict

would

he

and

origin

church.

Jesuit

He

Monde,

part with

in

agrees

ing

the

he

support of institutional

intellectuallyaloof.

and

family on

following the logicalcon

from

publish Le

to

His

in

an

gentry, and

in the

thought.

own

for

absurd

conservative

most

seekingto

was

state.

the

educated

he

was

landed

to

caste

was

Fleiche,and

was

it

that

to

bound

that

by saying

attempt

to

therefore

science

own

PHILOSOPHY

OF

and

was

made
of

the

philoso
he
the

was

first

by exponents; in physics he stated

refraction
of lightin trigonometrical

explained
industrious

the

rainbow

he

application of

weighed
the

new

the

air.

scientific

HISTORY

70

principlecan
obtained

by

therefore

be

Galileo,

all

therefore this

of Bacon

of

basis

the

to

induction

induc

method

principle

both

of

contri

great

must

ideas, and

deductive

the

absolute

an

the

as

and

be

must

philosophy

true

synthesis. The

was

sifting

truths

analysis

or

or

added

inductive

an

further

Every

induction

an

he

taken

this

Descartes

of

PHILOSOPHY

only by

deduction.

method

tive

be

From

deduction

secondly,a
bution

obtained

be

ideas.

all

of

OF

which

of
must

deduc

and

tion.*
Induction

tainty
tion

of

demanded
the

the

return

same

for the

also

French

from

his

had

deliveringit of
received

of

dramatic

"a

dialogue

with

struggle of
pp. 86-88
Blackwood
Hist.

Phil.,

pp.

about

the

ff. ;

Hist.

through

Phil.,

induction

is

anything

Meditations,

himself,"

he

portrays

uncontaminated

in

his

truth.

Meditations, for the dramatic

and
pp.

Hoffding,

place of

was

opinions,taken

if there

Descartes's

Classics, Descartes,
389

is

negative

Falckenberg,

de

passionatelyfond

clearness

see

us

Descartes

Fischer,

ff. ; Weber,

opinion

life

for

clearness, which

so

this

struggle to gain

his inner
;

to be

By

Descartes, Method,

Read

later

years

of traditional

let

In

nature

purify the understanding by

others.

certain.

intellectual

own

219

of

for he

step of Descartes

such

to

us

knowledge,

positive and

him

way

Let

many

first

the rubbish

say-so

uncorrupted

an

for absolute

shown

The

provisionaldoubt.
the

The

Cer

philosophicalproclama

Rousseau

in its demand

of mathematics.

upon

to

that

heart.

youth

Ultimate

The

"

French,
characteristically

was

understanding

manded

The

Consciousness.

Descartes

of

Doubt

Provisional

"

pp.

Descartes.

Hist.

Modern

Phil.,

School, p. 199
144-149
; Windelband,
his

Hist.
306

Modern

ff.,for

Phil,
an

pp.

opposing

THE

He

makes

induction

an

challenges each

as

71

of all kinds

of

knowledge and
Nothing is to be accepted

it appears.

it has

until

true

as

RATIONALISTS

subjected to rigidscrutiny. Descartes

of the

mony

the

senses,

of God.

the existence

if it is radical.

even

truths

found

are

yet Descartes

has

Greek

them.
while

at

Descartes

While
him

other

had

of the

be

to

no

refused

to

is contrasted

in

further

end

both

and

with

that

absolute,

challenging

the

orthodox
method

of

Anselm

of

Skeptics,for he doubts in
Dubito
ut
intelligam.Doubt

doubt,

than

at all. The

doubt

provisional,

and

purpose

Anselm

extreme

world,

usuallyaccepted

undeniable

ulterior

an

is

are

the testi

material

of the

none

facts

doubts

this induction

skepticismhad

the

scholastics

by

existence
But

All

itself true.

proved

and

with

that of the

order

may

know.

is necessary,

but

only as

to

means

an

end

; and

that

end

that

he

is know

individual
proclaimed for the modern
ledge. Descartes
his own
the privilegeand
the duty of rationalizing
beliefs.
In such
there

any

inductive

an

that

can

be called

whose
a

siftingof

cannot
reliability
singleone, except the

certain

that

versal doubt
certain

am

universal

knowledge

thinking process
nothing

I am,

Is there

one

Not

successfullydoubted?

conscious.

I say that

that I doubt.

be

beliefs,are

traditional

Even
is

itself. I

when

certain,I

in
am

my
at

am
uni

least

therefore, contradictingmy

skepticism. To doubt is to think ; in doubt

is assertingits existence.
Skepticism
ing,consciousness
of our
is self-contradictory.
An
induction
ideas reveals
least this one
at
absolutelycertain principle: I, as
existence
is
thinking,am.
Cogito ergo sum.
My own
intuitive truth that accompanies every state of mind,
an
This is the best known
portion of Descartes's philosO'

and

phy,

it that
cised
a

OF

HISTORY

72

it

circle.

Yet

think

")

be

of

true

This

premise.

reasoning in

as

Descartes
I

therefore

("
syllogism of

of

It is criti

that

sum

which

")

am

Cogito ("
is not

formula

is revealed

intuition,which

an

and

remembered

ergo

is the minor

ference,but
the

if it be

the

conclusion

formula

Latin

the

to

part

widespread acceptance.

it must

intend

not

be

to

its

owes

even
trifling,

as

does

it is in

perhaps

PHILOSOPHY

by

in

an

induction

background of all knowledge.

Three
things are to be learned from this fundamental
principle,said Descartes : (1) The first is that man
has gained a criterion of truth.
of
The
characteristic
certain
is its
this principle that makes
it reliable and
as

certain

clearness

and

ideas

of

is the

therefore
that

idea

of the

existence

lesson

from

this

fundamental

of the

soul

is

the

body.

The

the

the

This

body.
times.

of modern

is

soul

The

representationor
The

(3)
nature

third

of the

think.

you

the

God

of his

this

long

alone

has

and

that

of

of

the

view

world

thinking

as

soul.

principleconcerns

the

exist ? As

long as

do

it.

that

independent

views

man

creation

from

than

subjectivepoint

modern

The

you

is rational

existence

Feelings and passions

ideas.

Deduction

"

Descartes

question

is the

certainty

(2)
principleis

certain

more

ideas will

true

self has.

the

cogitans.) True

(Sum

obscure

For

of

distinctness

intuitive

and

important

more

How

soul.

thinking,and
are

lesson

All

their truth.

mathematical

existence

and

Clearness

the

the

than

proof of

have

the

second

distinctness.

before

The

realitylies
him

of

Implications
is

within
how

Self

the

to

Knowledge that is confined to the

called,technically,
solipsism. Such

Consciousness.

get

out

Self and

and
of

the next
the

Self.

its states

knowledge

amounts

is

RATIONALISTS

THE

indeed, it is not

to little ;

self-existence

of

minimum

is the

escape

from

logic. His method

ductive, although

from

to

proposes

ideas

than

the

Descartes

ideas

depends
truth

The

the

Self

and

by

ideas

is the

idea

is evident
istence

that

of

and

As

deduction

God

the
the

that,

would

"

It is real

some

are

the

from
be

to

prove

How

do

I confined

Am
Is
"

very

? Are

the

can

all

it
ex

I know

within

all that

me

con

reality.For

had

states.

own

to

of

Descartes

testifyonly to

can

realityof anything else ?

circle of my
own
thinking?
or

product

solipsism,for they
have

the

this

contains

that

they

idea

its

from

axioms

of
qualities
and
distinctness.
Among
of God
as
a perfectbeing.

consciousness

itself

the

as

proposition

the

ideas

Descartes, provided it

to

true

as

be adventitious

his

God.*
of

other

proof complete.

be

to

innate

clearness

of

sciousness,the
one

the
of

Existence

useful

to

out

innate

these

seem

some

conscious

"

seem

get him

created

not

his

consciousness

my

them

It is upon

to

side door

the

by

of

use

ostensiblyde

idea will Ibe

any

Now
of

some

innate.

are

is

point on

accompanies it,justas
partakes of the truth of the

imagination ;

my

this

that

the

solipsismby

introduces

it is derived.

many

this

Descartes

knowledge.

that

geometry

which

of

Certainty
knowledge

of

amount

of Self to make

idea

maintains

consciousness
in

he

at all.

knowledge

startingpoint

the

merely

"

73

the

say

of

things only

brain, testifying
only to
phantasmagoria of my own
existence of myself ? Descartes
thought that the idea

Read

Falckenberg, Hist,

Blackwood's

Classics, Descartes,

of Phil.,

p.

phy,

25-30

pp.

of

310;
;

presents Descartes'

Modern
pp.

Calkins, Persistent

arguments

151-153

as

Weber,
in

Problems

of Phil.,

Turner, Hist,

92-94

Phil., pp.

reduced

pp.
to

451

two.

Hist,

Philoso

".,which

HISTORY

74

of God

relieved

demonstrate

problem
threw

of

him

God's

monstrate

existence,he

cations

with

passed

over

several
which

these

able

Descartes

to

to

The
he

that

The

arguments.

arguments
the

here, and

be

de

universe.

of the material

different

he could

then

would

highly important

so

it into

solipsism. If

this

the existence

was

PHILOSOPHY

OF

compli

filled must

are

in

stated

arguments

be
their

simplest forms.
Two

(a)

from

ments

ontologicalarguments, that is, argu

of the conception of God's
character

are

the

nature.

(1)
ness

Simple
idea

any

it must

as

have

justthat

clear and

existence

clearness

If I have

Deduction.

like

and

distinct

as

in my

of

idea

my

Myself,

idea of God

Myself. My

distinctness

conscious

; and

has

God

therefore

exists.

The

Argument, so called by Des

Some
ideas have
cartes.
that,
propertiesso immutable
when
think
the
we
ideas, we
necessarilythink their
properties.Such is the idea of a triangle; when I think
of a triangle,
I must
of it as
think
having its three
angles equal to two right angles. Such is also my idea
of God
think
of him
as
perfect and existing.
; I must
would
He
did
be God, i. e. a perfectBeing, if He
not
(2)

not

exist.

The

reader

will

by

argument
of

Geometrical

recognizethis

St. Anselm.

As

controversy in Descartes'

as

of the

re-statement

it raised

such

time, and

tempest

attacked

was

from

all sides.

(6) Two
assumption
of these
The

are

causal

of the

arguments
Cartesian

arguments,

equalityof

cause

will be cited

Argument.

is,based

that
and

here.

I have

effect.
This
an

on

Only

is known

idea

of

the
one
as

per-

RATIONALISTS

THE

feet

idea

This

Being.

God

Therefore

have

must

adequate

an

exist, for only He,

must

the

be

perfectbeing, can

75

adequate

and

im

no

idea

of my

cause

cause.

of

perfection.
The

arguments
ontological

dently deductions

the

from

given by Descartes are evi

certaintyof self-conscious
we
immediately raise con

question which
cerning them is,Are they true ? As to the causal argu
from
his original
is breaking away
ments, Descartes
assumption, viz.,that self-consciousness is the only cer
tainty,and is introducinganother assumption, viz.,the
The question,then, that
certaintyof the law of cause.
the thoughtful student
asks, is,Does Descartes
really
his solipsism?
escape from
The

ness.

The

Reality
is

cartes

idea
as

The

of

Matter.

to

deduce

trying

self-consciousness

of

Now

sciousness.
of

ence

God

of

is

important

for

the

is

is

in

him

to

prove

certainty of

certaintyof
in

other

the

in

out

exist

of

God.

science, and

realityof

con

the

existence

material
the

axioms.

human

that

the

ideas,

from

geometry

points

implied

interested

the

Des

that

seen

implicationof

an

Descartes

matter

Descartes

from

deduced

propositionsare
existence

It will be

it is

Here

matter.

into play. Since

training comes
God
has all the attributes of a perfectbeing, He
must
If there were
be veracious.
God, but only a deceiv
no
ing Devil, the external world might be only a fiction,

again

his

created

to

scholastic

deceive

that He

would

existence

of

but

to

But

us.

not

God

exists,and

continuallydeceive
An

nature.

atheist

could

Descartes,
"

God
All

'a in His
's

heaven

right with

the

"

world."

men

have

can

we

about
no

trust

the

science,

HISTORY

76

Of

course,

constantlyin

is

man

of
misinterpretation

fore

of

essence

whatever

This

the

obvious
the

with
and

Even

of

spiritof

the existence
of all

axiom

of matter

Self

has

scholastic

concepts and

extended
to

the

is the

rived.

In

of

Renaissance

and

the

Bacon.

For

deductive

to

even

as

any
or

the

how

the

the

he

reason

he

case

two

is the

matter,

he

other
is

Galileo

which

conscious

two

de

are

voicing the spirit

Galileo

did
back

gone

became

the
a

realities

"

were

of

founder

of the

objective.In
the

subjective

in

identifyingthe

Self

founder

of rationalism.

In

thought, and

established

was
persistent

the

singlesubjectiveprinciple
; whereas

background

for

epistemology,

But

his

derivation

theory of knowledge.

other

the

in this has

principlesof

of modern

and

clearlythan

more

this respect Descartes

method

which

Descartes

Thus

between

realityof

The

assertingits primacy,

objectivefacts
the

from

ground

is further

certain,have
intuitively

as

obviously a differingcogency.
ness

the

the Renaissance.

of

science

of

from

matter

bridge

Self, God,

speaks

in turn

measurable.

the

or

of God

existence

while

construct

realities,the
often

The

"

quite consistent

deduced

are

thought, the

Descartes

Descartes

it is

and

it shows

of grace

world

the

"

constructs

of

examination

the Renaissance.

as

three

Descartes

explain

to

described

The

exist.

(see below), and

it,something extended

which

upon

mathematics,

tried

lies be

does not

truthfulness

this cursory

the

form

some

his

interpreted.

attempt

method

the

be

arise from

errors

in

char

is extension

matter

skeleton

is the

theory.

by

to

me

his

in His

interpretationof

my

lies before

these

the

about

error

Nature

them.

else God

or

man,

The

PHILOSOPHY

physicalthings,but

of

acter

OF

God

and

in

matter

the scholastic current

"

he

in his

of

shows

thought.

HISTORY

78

that

matter

is not

extended.

body has, however,

cannot

move

cause,

and

whose

the

whole

of motion

unmoved

thing extended,
the

stands

of

relation

The

Relation

of minds

is

they

are

God

the

their

but

the

will

the

mind

of

Mind

each

to

losophy
two

its

own

theory should,

The

intention

But

there
he

was

had

own

to

rela"

except that

minds,

minds

to
to

matter.

He

but

is the

finite minds

our

turn

perfectlywhat

is not

the

mechanical

perfectis-

ens

In

Body.

mind

and

proportion as

body,

and

referred

Descartes

con

intended

everything else,clear phi

So
"

we

aspiration.

above

he

divided

mind

and

is to

be

point where,
qualify for

the

one

into
each

"

of the

consistent

with

ethical

world

matter,

exclusive

realm, each

of Descartes
one

from

two

relation

apparent.

substances,
its

The

minds, their

and

of all obscurities.

operating in

nature

different

of God

wills

God

the impossibility
of
principle,

became

two

relative

church,

and

all mental

clearlydefined

his

which

to

of

Descartes

that

of

mover

thinks

goal of

necting the

His

animals,

essential

common

relation

imperfectly. He

Relation

back

in

every

matter

free.

and

cause

his machine.

to

The

from

cause
teleological

simum,
The

God

ideal.

and

different

infinite

of

is therefore

The

unmoved

lower

world

Minds.

nothing

God.

to

very

perfect and
think

have

related

is not

to

is included

inventor

an

it is unextended

substances

is,however,

this

Matter

its first

as

the
objects,

Mind

thought.

tive

as

of God

because

matter

of

God

matter

To

mechanism

in God.

cause

has

rest

under

men.

be

must

first

inanimate

"

bodies
in the

and

; and

mover

be

their

material

or

It
principle of motion.
moved
by an external

no

universe

have

movements

and

in itself

extended

An

itself. It must

in its modes
or

PHILOSOPHY

OF

eye

other.
dualist.
on

considerations

the
his

THE

principleof matter.
the
body acts upon
body.

scientific
the

human
the

upon

There
the

of inanimate

animals

their

first

purely

as

he

felt

as

automatic

compelled

terests

But

the rest of creation.

of

control
be

the

over

body.

Here

tion

body

philosophy of

Descartes.

scientific

theory had
the

mind

personality?

Descartes'
mind
of

and

Paracelsus.

body, but
gland, and

unlike

explanation

body
its

reminds

The

point of

this contact

have
must

man

and

to be

theory of
church
of

the
the

reconciled

it became

of

worlds

ques

matter

oper

doctrine

of

the

human

body,

is made

with

and

matter

of

human

mythical explanations

is united

contact

of

relation

the

of the

us

soul

soul

yield.How does Descartes

theologicalrequirements and

two

human

The

to

yield gracefullyto
bring together the
in the

and

through

come

When

matter

sense

man

the soul of

the

therefore

refuse

scientific

spiritualwill operating the

in

been

Renaissance

Ages

above

exalted

body.

must

the

of

functions

between

soul in his

all the

in
theological
as

line

ating itself mechanically and

the

and

impressions that

Descartes'

conceiving

human

man

nevertheless

of the Middle

between

of

free, and

science

the

scholasticism
in the

drawn

and

of the

conscious

ethical

acts

investigations

own

of the

many

alone has

is immortal

man

soul

automatic, with

Theology has always

things. Man

other

the

in

and
his

to think

has

aristocratic,and

and

point where

bodies, plants,and

his

him

is the

soul

From

obliged to regard
also.

That

mechanical

God.

in

cause

79

for Descartes

little trouble

was

movements

lower

RATIONALISTS

to

the

all parts of

body

is the

possiblethrough

the

pineal
the ani

in the
spirits(spiritusanimates*)or the fire atoms
Greek
blood, a revived
conception. The pineal gland

mal

HISTORY

80

is

ganglion

in

gists tell

us

is

ceived

be

the

that

to

heart, ascend

the

of the

seat

descend

the

the

The

soul.

spirits.In
be

to

are

explained. The

animal

the

by

of

the

action.

But

energy.

It

The

the

forbidden

was

the

and

placed

were

created

in

evolution

the

in

theory

everything

modern

standard

men

Descartes

before

which

he

development, the
back

to

source

Descartes,

Critiquein

1781.

of nationalism

iu

had

went

This

the

philosophy
his

and

theology, science,
to

times.

Its

rallied

to

the

Darwinian

success

was

its

way

along

until

be

can

Kant

later been

Germany, France,

the
A

anti
inter

an

lines of the

philosophical
traced

directly

published

called
aud

be

to

had

doctrine

im

support, and

considered

was

of which

has

from

Catholics, it

the

by

left unsolved.

on

of free

Holland,

in

way

in

problems

move

century. It spread over

nal

natural

the

University of Oxford,

the

philosophershis
a

subtract

Index

quated. Among
development

the

the

Calvinists
the

soul

Although

similar

somewhat

in the

of energy.

in the

upon

pinealgland

exhibition

or

on

sensations

changes

an

in

come

direction

of the seventeenth

many

mense,

to

profound impression on

literature

Europe

add

not

is

of Descartes.

proscribed by

works

soul

the

merely changes

Influence

and

sensations

the

divertingthe

of the

and
spirits,

this does

and

emotions

movement

gland by

animal

of Descartes
was

the

spiritscauses

of

movement
ment

this way

to

influence

exercises

gland

the

muscles.

pineal gland,they
the

by

heart
and

nerves

soul

body by slightly
moving

animal

the

to

the

from

con

maintained

distilled

been

laws

biolo

Descartes

which

Descartes

spirits,
having

then

with

but

soul.

mechanical

brain, which

the

of

eye,

they pass through

contact

PHILOSOPHY

centre

defunct

by

brain, and
When

the

animal

the

OF

the

Holland.

his

School
The

RATIONALISTS

THE

important

most

of this school

members

"Wolff

alists,Spinoza,Leibnitz, and
in their

place.

alists

his most

but

called his

be

Descartes

employed
regarded deduction
self-evident

tionalists used

This
and

The

The

Descartes.

Occasionalists
make

to

substance

was

to

see

minds

and

created

"

hoped

in

But

to

very
in

see

the

some

seen

in

following Ra
tried

entirelyand
of Euclid.

manner

from

He

from

proceeding
the

method

They
principle.
Royal logic,

assumed
the

Port

bodies

as

and

his

distinct

apply

to

way

to

and

the

Spinoza
of

doctrines

the

term

God

as

finite. He

speaks

yet of consciousness
Such

ambiguity

prided itself
"

was

to stand.

his attempt
justifying

pletelyupon

of

used

had

philosophy which

short of

Occasionalists

development

substances.

clear and

been

obtained

to

the

at
an
Spinoza from Descartes was
Since
clear the conception of substance.
the most
important scholastic category, it
why Spinoza'steaching became thoroughly

only substance,

followers

and

loose

very

the

Descartes

scholastic.
in

of

Relation

is easy

had

only

use

after

first

His

metaphysical problems.

deductive

was

hardly

can

completed by Spinoza.

was

tempt

himself

of

systems

tendency

who

it,and

fact to another.
the

their

of Occasion-

name

peculiar fate.

most

as

systematizeethics

deduced

if

had

in

immediate

Spinoza.

Descartes

duction

to

the

by

it,exactlyreversed

fruitful results.

shall consider

we

"

important successor,

method

misunderstood

the Occasion-

"

important

an

go

was
disciple,

Descartes'

one

had

who

the group,

followingin

81

and
infinite,

God

of

to

the

as

and

bodies

be

overcome,

as

making everything
Descartes

had

fallen

put metaphysics

com

basis, although this had

mathematical

problem.
original

to

on

must

"

substance

"

The

obscurityof

the

spiritual

82

HISTORY

world

still remained,

cept of the
of the

substance

and

there

had

been

still remained

the

mind

and

of the relation

left the

country.

made

world

The

spirit

and

clear

distinct,
of

ontologicalproblem
and

matter,

the

the

psychological

the individual

between

con

The

undefined.

unknown

an

had

Descartes

not

between

problem

soul

and

body.

Descartes
of the
the

had, however,

substance

be

of matter

tween

material

stance

in which

was

the
essentially
extension

Now

this

of mind

same

the

as

the

interested

rationalism

the

in any

lump

reduce

in natural

etc.,

the

substance

The

As

far

by making
Both

he

science

and
to

the

Descartes

went,

Occasionalists

stage in the

define

as

and

development
clear

the

meaning

relationshipof

tried to state

the

not

he

of

problem

both

were

; and

do

states

it. He

developed
Bodies

matter.

his
are

mathematically
not

was

further

clear

Rationalism.

God

sub

of the

Spinoza represent
of

sub

piece of

clear

very

he did

are
parts of space or corpuscles,which
divisible,but perceptuallyare
infinitely

ible.

be

secondary.

were

bodies

reference

with

Material

of

nature

g.

of salt in that

clearness, but

same

only

a
essentially

etc.

saltness, sweetness,

proposed to
to

is

distinctions

extension.
essentially
particularfinite thing
A lump of sugar was

were

of extension.

makes

Descartes

was

extension

modification

all

which

accomplished this,

essential

sweetness,

concept

with

qualitiesinhere, e.

many

else besides

All

had

"thing"

alike in that

were

the

clearlythe
substance

He

things. A

having whiteness,

stances

the

"

by destroying

sure,

sugar

defined

scientist works.

natural

to

because

still

spiritwas

relation

PHILOSOPHY

spiritualsubstance

ual

its

OF

divis

enough.
the

second

Both

tried

spiritualsubstance
to

in

the
other

material

words,

to

world.
to

over-

RATIONALISTS

THE

between

the dualism

come

old

the

construct

the

with

consistent

considerable

world

dismiss

shall

attention

Descartes

what

had
is

knowledge

no

that the modes

done

alike

tions of the universal

of

ideas

our

tions

just as
then

bodies

and

tory
"

occasional

God.

of

"

cause

God

is

ment

of the human

of

the

true

all matter,

The
of

cause

body

move

of
is

continuous

movement

the

modifica

far the

so

voli

our

of the

Divine,
What

extension.
between

it ?
in

therefore,like the

does

Why

media

mind

of my

caused

bodily

the

By
my

All

bodies.

movement.

miracle

claimed

all

and

of

thought

the

is

place of

Geulincx,

to

world

Since

he

God

of consciousness

states

I wish

when

move

power

the

mental

being

the will

modifications

are

in

reason,

of

relation, asked

is the

arm

God's

teaching of

the

ideas, judgments,

our

is the

words, while

God,

of God.

space

modifications

the

movement

my

as

and

of matter.

in

essence

reason

participatein

are

in

"

minds

to

for the world

"

Occa-

The

few

for the

possible except

are

"

place

do

of finite minds

imaginations
"

given

re

be

Malebranche

were

to

to

it would

science.

only a

be

tried

that

so

of

with

must

Spinoza. Malebranche

"

of grace

new

matter, and

and

chief exponents

whose
sionalists,

Geulincx, we

mind

world

"

83

is the

while

arm,

The

move

movement

by

an

ever

watchful

Deity,who keeps body and mind in harmony.

Spinoza completed his pantheism before Malebranche
had prepared the way.
He
formulated
a
complete doc
trine of substance, conceiving material
bodies
to be
the same
in being modes
of extension, and
essentially
mental
alike in being modes
phenomena to be essentially
of thought. But more
teach
his further
important was
rela
the two
series have
no
ing that on that account
tion to each

other.

That

is to say,

Spinoza reduced

the

84

whole

ing

three

the

substances

Spinoza was

Descartes

mathematical

self

the

that

; and

had

he

assisted

by

deductive

of

his

ties.

he

and

this
than

held

he

its effort

of
him
free

was

Spinoza

is

the

make

to

contradicted
in

little influence

For

one.

Rationalist

facts

two

in

not

reduc

by

in this construction

method,

time

is

this

to

complete

ecclesiastical

utterance

things clear

distinctness

Descartes

more

was

and

social

truest

and

Rationalism

to
strictly

from

of

he

; and

PHILOSOPHY

clearness

to
difficulty

reason

OF

HISTORY

by

the

all
fact

shaping contemporary

thought.
The

Historical

Place

get full standing

hundred

one

Goethe

nor

yet

grasp,

"

it. He

the

Spinoza.* Spinoza did not

widely read, until Lessing,
his

later, resurrected

striving for, but

was

he

was

years

adopted

of

produced
what

what

teaching and

the

Renaissance

Renaissance

the

could

complete logical formulation

not

of

its

deepest thought. Spinoza produced the only great con

ception of the world during this period,and it excited
the
Catholics, Protestants,
hostilityof contemporary
alike.
The
and
free-thinkers
product of his thinking
was
a
new
systematic scholasticism,which, if the time
had been
have
ready for it,would
entirelysuperseded
in placing metaphysics
He
succeeded
the medieval.
scientific and
mathematical
basis, for his phi
a
upon
but mathe
not
losophy was
only logicalin its content
in its form.
matical
Spinoza's philosophy is the Re
naissance
scholasticism, the
expression of mediaeval
"

expressionof
*

Read

Human

rationalism

Royce, Spirit of

win, Fragments
Classical

that

in

Life,

pp.

Modern

Philosophy,

Philosophers,

pp.

362-380.

that

pp.

148-166

underlies

both

the

Phil., chap, iii ; Bald

24-42
;

Rand,

Eucken,

Modern

Problem

of

THE

thought
is

of

RATIONALISTS

Middle

the

85

and

Ages

the

Renaissance.

It

if Thomas

Aquinas had been transported into the

not
Renaissance, and finding that science would
sup
dogma sys
port and
explain dogma, had conformed
science.
tematicallyto the new
Mathematically science
the new
was
dogma. Spinoza is the last word of medisevalism, although his language is the science of the
Renaissance.
The
of Spinoza sounds
utterance
strange
because, while his thought is mediaeval, his expression
as

and

form

scientific.

are

had

Spinozism

revival

in

the

eighteenth cen
the background
of the
philosophy
tury.* It formed
of Herder
and
that of the author
of the Wolffenbuttel
of Lessing and
Fragments. The connection
Spinoza
of active
matter
was
a
Spi
controversy at that time.
noza

the

was

teenth

great influence
in

century

Spinoza's Ethics
and

Goethe.

upon

In the

nine

England Coleridgereproduced from

the doctrine of an
all-pervadinglove

reason.

Spinoza
system, and
been

before

strove

everything

to
yet it is interesting

from

honored

see

different quarters.

else for
how

found

only

because

because

oughly

each

his
His

acter.

in him

Artists,religious

radical.

Bad

that

See

nection.

page

system

radical
279.

are

actuallya many-sided

the

advantage
of

of

being

philosophy

are

contradictory.While
corresponds

system may

Read

is not

something different,but

systems

they
any

had

scientists

expression. This

truest

found

teaching had

possiblethat
*

has

philosophy

sible, because
knows

their

he has

much

devotees, poets, idealists,materialists,and

have

unitary

have

to

char
thor

impos
no

one

fact, still it is

such

Goethe, Geheimnisse,

correspondin this

con

86

HISTORY

OF

PHILOSOPHY

Spinoza'ssystem is comprehensive, and therefore

struck
sympathetic chords in differingthinkers.

ence.

has

Influences

The

ing. Spinoza
of

the
of

age

Spinoza,

upon
born

was

and

Jew

Synagogue until he was

twenty-four.Although

ius who

transcends

moulded

his

religious training
academy

of

connection

with

mediaeval

Jewish

member

excommunicated
he

the

was

type. He

at

where

boy
he

his studies.

He

the

originalgen
mind

received

Jewish

the

Amsterdam,

at

remained

limitations, his young

the Jewish

after

Train

Jewish

His

i.

the

in

strictly
Jewish

the

learned

in

trade

studied

was

Talmud,

the

philosophy,especiallythe writings of
Maimonides
(twelfthcentury), and the Cabalistic litera
In a Jewish
curriculum
the classical
ture.
languages
had
no
place; and mathematics, except arithmetic, was
His early instruction
generallyoverlooked.
emphasized
above
the
supremely
everything else the unity and
of God.

transcendent, theistic character

However,

early age
him
of

could

not

Jew.

He

free

Jewish

belief

in God

differed

as

Christian.

2.

His

Influence.

the

Impulse
The

excommunicated

"

of

influence

for its final

account

may

that

resembles

Perhaps

Hebrew

from
free

by

the

conception

"

to

have

of

God

mediaeval

of

Bruno

and

Cabalistic

seems

mystic

upon

his

shape.
Science

New

thinking

the

He

the

his

prophets ;

Jewish

Hebrew

restraints

belief in the

his

up

God.

from

the

abandoned

never

gave

of the

orthodox

the

he

contemporary

emanations

it rather

thought

While

the

his

longer under

no

God

Synagogue at this
theology. It made

the

modify

unity, he

from

modified

that

was

theistic

teaching of
so

but

traditions.

transcendent
he

separation from

his

for which

Synagogue

was

"

Descartes'

Spinoza was
obtained

first

THE

from

his

RATIONALISTS

instruction

in

physician of daring
he

when

Italian
Hebrew
him

French

of the

whose

and
time.

nitz, but

he

was

was

his

thought through

by

tendencies.

nature

had

Ende,

This

Van

him

introduced
that

he

genius

Ende

der

read

was

the

who

was

sci

Descartes,

Spinoza
Leib

and

rigidly systematicthan
thinker

and

taught

to

own.

like Descartes

learned

already

the basis of his

made

more

He

and
then

was

inventive

an

tongues

Latin,
It

der

Spanish, Portuguese,Dutch,

philosophyhe
not

was

naturalistic

his native

were

German

ence

of Van

school

eighteen. Spinoza

was

and

the

8?

obliged

either.
to

carry

He
had
logicalconclusions.
already,at this early age of eighteen,begun to make
independent theologicalexcursions.
Consequently the
mathematical

method,
for

ment

to

of

Descartes

der

Ende

gave

out

his

methods

Van

and

carrying

its

furnished
him

the

him

encourage

independent thinking

unre

lentinglyto its logicalend. To state his modified Jewish

became
his
terms
conception of God in mathematical
in thus
task, and his success
statingit,with Descartes
him
the most
as
a
startingpoint,made
complete repre
sentative

of Rationalism.

His

Acquaintance with
his kindred,
expulsion from
3.

the
he

Collegiants. After
lived

for

seven

his

years

BaptistQuakers called Collegiants.This

was
a
dissentingreligiousbody without priests or set
of worship. The
members
forms
were
simple, pious
people,who regarded moral livingas superiorto creed ;
and
Spinoza'slife in their midst must have determined
of
to some
degree the lines of his thought. To a man
the
Spinoza'ssimplicityof mind and kindly disposition,
to be not
Collegiantswould
only congenial com
prove
panions in his hours of distress,but they would confirm
with

sect

of

HISTORY

88

his

love for the

own

that

the

that

he

is

seeking

joy

continuous

He

is

the

unrest

who

his

called

ings, and
at

the

least

to

time

philosophy
which

The

would

is

ethical

he

is the

metaphysics

their

ideal

that

life with

this

accept the chair

informed

sect

of

en

allaying

The

humane

of

his writ

life

his whole
their

perhaps

philosophy

ori

this criti

him

influenced

remain

to

only philosopher

Collegiantsduring

the

to

me

aid in

Ethics.

reinforcement, and
with

says

practicalone

enable

"

life that would

and

Spinoza

unending happiness."

and

versityof Heidelberg, and

obscure

ideal.

an

doctrine, the practicalpurpose

period. His

refusal

as

supreme

his

gin, in his contact

cal

that

and

of

of his

had

his

seeking a theory of

has

ness

ethical

of

motive

PHILOSOPHY

OF

in his

the

at

Uni

to be

content

the

grinder of opticallenses.
Life

and

Philosophical Writings

of

Spinoza

(1632-1677). The historyof philosophy presents in the

of Spinoza a lovable, interesting,
and
striking
person
character, as well as the author of one of the profoundest
of philosophicalsystems. His life was
of social iso
one
lation

and

to whom

he

exiled

retirement

belonged

lived

their

than
kind

of solitude.
of double

The

exile

Jews

they

"

Spain, and they lived by

themselves
When
apart from the people of Amsterdam.
excommunicated
Spinoza was
by his brethren, he suf
exile.
fered, therefore, a threefold
Moreover,
Spinoza
not
was
only excommunicated
by his people,but he was
hated
Catholics, Protestants, and
by the contemporary
the prevailingCartesian
the free-thinker,
school.
Even
the infamous
Hume, spoke of him as
Spinoza,"and
another
his philosophy as
the
philosopher described
hideous
hypothesisof Spinoza." But his isolation was
were

from

rather

home

in

"

"

Read

Auerbach,

Spinoza,

an

historical

romance.

THE

far from

solitude,and

ful friends
life of

than

ing

RATIONALISTS

and

he

notable

the

member

next

seven

eminent

many

correspondence.
he

forty-fiveyears,

half, as

had

89

and

Of

faith

his short

spent twenty-four,or

of the
he

years

Jewish

more

Dur

synagogue.

found

refuge

the

among

of his life he
Collegiants.In the last fourteen
years
became
widely known, mainly through the TheologicalPolitical
Tract, published in 1670, the only one of his
writingswhich he himself published. This brought him
the call to the University of Heidelberg,which
he de
be convenientlydivided into three
clined. His life may
periods,as follows
1. In Israel (1632-1656). Spinoza was
educated
at
the Jewish
he studied
academy at Amsterdam, where
theology and learned a trade, according to the Jewish
This
trade was
the grinding of opticallenses ;
custom.
that is, he became
an
optician,and this required some
and
knowledge of mathematics
physics. During these
:

he

years

He
He

languages.
mar,

of which

read

wrote

by

him

Testament

also

the date

communicated

against

from

got instruction

Latin.

and

"

were

taught

affirmed

that

in men's

minds

the

and

compendium

of

is doubtful.

In

(1)

doctrine

Ende

der

Descartes

he

in science

learned

Hebrew

1656

The

synagogue.

that
the

Van

he

many

Gram
was

ex

charges brought

denied

that

the

Old

of

immortality; (2) he
only phantoms or ideas

be
angels may
; (3) he affirmed

that

God

may

have

body.
2.
time

In
with

the

intellectual
and
politics,

mulated

(1656-1663). Spinoza spent this

fruitful
and
this was
his most
Collegiants,

Retirement

his

period.

He

physics into

theoryof

brought
a

unified

determinism

his

ontology, ethics,

system
and

and

he

for

his mathematical

HISTORY

90

method.

This
he

first draft

Short

well-being."

In

his Ethics.

of

he wrote

his

and

man

1656-1662

of the Understanding.

writing his Improvement

1662-1663

so-called

writinghis

was

concerning God,

"

the

was

was

In

he

In 1658-1G61

Treatise,

PHILOSOPHY

OF

of the

summary

principlesof

Descartes.
In

3.

Public

the

period Spinoza
had

friend

an

intimate

so

large a part

In

In

work.

politicalhistoryof

the

he

DeWitte,

brothers

of the

of

1662-1665

mental

lived

visitors and

many

1663-1670

he

the

lished

during

his

it

widely

read.

was

history. In
of
the

Method

employed

in

the reader

as

It had

for

of

It aimed

to

declined

the

Spinoza

dress

ginning

with

deduced,

are

scholia

and

the

Read

To

corollaries.

natural

an

mode

in the first place,if the

*

the

must

Bohn's

new

horror,
is

University

that

the

which
be

not

he

wrote

capriciouslychose.

book,

treated

external

an

finds

one

his

Spinoza

Spinoza

regarded by

merely

not

artificial and
of

pub

Bible

the

and

this

philoso

geometry.

axioms,

step by step, propositionswith

ing philosophy into

only

method

of definitions

number

work

with

that

call to

monu

death, in 1677, he

and

On
taking up
significance.
phy treated exactlyas Euclid

country.

Treatise.

Ethics

real

show

The

Spinoza.

fantastic

his

Political

writing his

received

Although

Just before

of the

fragment
The

he

1673

Heidelberg.

life.

was

published

and

wrote

he

made

Ethics, his

his

writing

was

who

Theological-PoliticalTreatise,the only

the

this

(1663-1677). During
the Hague, where
at or
near
a large correspondence.* He

Eye

was

Be
there

appended
not

rigidform,

press

but

was

philosophicalexpression, i/br,
method

of science

Libraries, Spinoza,

Spinoza'sinterestingcorrespondence

vol.

with

ii. pp.
notable

had
275
men.

proved
ff.,for

92

OF

.HISTORY

added

these

to

conceived

substance, God, is

the

that

transforming principle:

and

new

PHILOSOPHY

merely one
only objectof know

object of knowledge, but He is the

ledge. He is the only substance, and
of
only modifications
bottom, and to know
This

in

theism

into

mean

that

have
in

alone
the

There

parts

that

God

are,

existence
first

class.
and

Spinoza
and

in

class ; all

modes

it

"

By

whose

Spinoza
is only

through

kinds

of

God

else.

is divided

God

is

for
I
it

things :

the

things

of God.

The

substance

itself and

other

Spinoza's world

the

two

is

argument

conceived

something

self-existent, while

tory and

says,

therefore,

in

of

philosophy

of

God

ground

St. Anselm's

existence

has

head

deduced

Spinoza

substance, for

of

is in itself

which

the

second

God.

of

self alone."

that

the

of

statement

existence

thing

of

his definition

the

benevolent

it is conceived.

real, because

be

condensed

it turns

"

scholasticism
in

appears

; and

is the ultimate

theo

Descartes'

the
principle becomes
and
oneness
universalityof

must

intrinsic

Cartesian

the

into

which

ele

Descartes'

new

The

at

God.

and

Descartes

philosophy. God

existence

the

of

are

alike

Cartesian

all the

determinism

things

are

know

naturalism

single proposition from

his whole

This

corner."

the

to

supplants

with

aloofness

cultured

; it

with

of freedom

mysticism.
the

finite

things

truly is

them

pantheism

logical orthodoxy
the

Finite

not

Spinoza'steaching. It changes

ments

doctrine

Him.

principletransforms

new

he

things
stands

make
into

up
two

self-explana

everything

else

is

ex

The
only object of knowledge
plained through Him.
is God.
In
and
the single presupposition of existence
a

phrase

Spinoza

as

that
a

"

has

become

God-intoxicated

classic, Novalis
man."

described

THE

Three

have

Problems

Central

already noted
of

nent

all

clearness

"

and

the world

like

of

is

the

and

the

first blush

novel

of

culties

arise from

life is

man

will

hardly

za's

thought

in vain

has

strives

to

yet

it is

the

one

the

difficult

most

its

to

having

that

one

diffi

for, after all,hu

simplicity,
varied

that

the

to

for which
The

cause.

God

formula

end

the

cause

Spino
beginner

lies in the

is all that
of

consists

world

simple

beginning

vagueness

the

phi

is God

fact

of

contrary it is

seemingly simple principlethat

exists,and

con

sake

popular imagination.Its

and

find

into

of

world

arise from

not

it. From
a

defi

world

world

the

"

of

the

its very

express

His

irony of historythat

one

on

the

rich

so

of

plan

simple such

matter

the

is

view, for

appeals strongly to

the

out

articu

to

all this for the

How

difficulties do

of

point

when

sought

the

"

appears

As

philosophyof Spinoza
interpret.Its

epoch

material

of

that

clearness.

examples

many

expo

geometry.

the

thought

modifications.

his

of

and

of

one

and
simplification

losophy at

He

in

analysis of

into

in this

chief

perfectlyintelligible
; he accepted

extension,

scious states

"

spread

demonstration

mathematical

world

of

would

the

was

be revealed.

to

nition of substance
the

Spinoza

distinctness

metaphysics that

93

Spinoza's Teaching. We

in

that

mysteries were

late

RATIONALISTS

God

really

and

other

things.
From
three

Spinoza'seffort
central

inclusiveness
The

problem

mysticism
an

ethical

lems

of

(3)

the

The

problem.

in order.

"

simplifymatters

emerged

(1) The problem of the allthe problem of pantheism ; (2)

the problem of
unity of God

problems
of God

to

"

problem
We

of the

shall

now

salvation

consider

of

man

these

"

prob

The

That
the

at

pears

ceived

of

mind

and

since

each

others.

If

think

life

would

But

exist.

He

does

the

not

If

collapse,like

not

finite

be

of

sub
the

substance

preliminary

could

other

exist

they

into

about

say

things do

not

nothings.
negations of

mere
as

finite

the

It still

balloon.

substance

through

things are

prick

you

sub

misinterpretationof Spinoza.

unrealities

as

relative

that this

substance

con

two

would

Spinoza

that

be

that

mean

substance.

does

all

that would

exist

They

be

had

sub

think

suppose

; for

absolute

one

must

ap

the

conceived

all,we

might

substance

only one

no

be

reallyis,is

all that

at

of

the
be

can

pantheism

as

as

more,

or

would

One

all-inclusive.

statement

matter

two

were

we

God

"

Spinoza there

to

stance,

as

is

Descartes

reallyis.

substances,

three

for if there

All-Inclusiveness

conception

is all that

But

stances.

in his

outset

and

stance,

The

"

Spinoza's philosophy

substance

the

Spinoza

of

Pantheism

of God.

PHILOSOPHY

OF

HISTORY

94

world, it

exists

as

an

unreality.
No
did

as

of the
a

Spinoza.

and

finityof

of

time

whole
sides

time

and

event

state

finite world

which

space,

indeed

and

affords

the

world

in
of

of

for

of
Biit

of mental

this

of

one

extension
is

these

since

the

in

possible

corresponding

series

Every

reason.

thought.

infinite

is

Spinoza

than

more

space,

series

has

To

infinite.

is much

time

space

story about
the

of

so
infinity
profoundly
infinityis not merely that

of

each

are

of

and

events

some

idea

the substance

time

Every

the idea

variety of possible constructions,

combinations
the

His

infinityof

tremendous

space

had

ever

person

states.

the

infinity
paralleled by

is

by

to

no

the

means

Spinoza's conception of infinity.Be

world

of

time

and

space

corresponding thought, the

and

the

substance

in
to

THE

RATIONALISTS

Spinoza possesses
of which

in

infinityof

an

is infinite.

finities,and

thus

modes

infinityof
the mode

of

limited

our

of

the

substance
An

has

two

is

the
constituting
in

its

the modes

"

infinite

the

discernment

extension, and
tell

to

once

the

infinityof

the

Substance

in

forms

First, the

us.

extension.

intellect

perceivesas

that

which

the

of the

modes

of intellect

and

attri

Each

substance."
modes

itself in

thought
in

will,extension

and

motion.
God.

Attributes

to

appears

manifests

of rest

the

about

us

attributes, thought and

essence

turn

in the

appears

infinity

an

of

two

human

all-inclusive God

attribute

bute

as

in

thought.

Spinoza begins at
which

Only

sense.

mode

the

infinities upon

the substance

conceives

to

appear

attributes,each

other

Spinoza pilesup

overwhelming

an

95

Extension.

Thought

Modes

Intellect

Motion

Will

Rest.

"

This
pears

bare

very

skeleton

much

the

beneath

Descartes'

ception

of

of

very

same

different

inclusive

ism

instead

of

as

rich

and

that

which

world

varied

might

one

kind

dualism.

philosophy

it into

transforms

realityof
a

our

ap
find

philosophy. However, Spinoza'scon

substance

the

cartes'

of

was

of

philosophy.

it all,we

have

The

antithesis

between

extension

framework

Since

here
which
and

God

is

panthe
in Des

thought,

God
and other
Spinoza'steaching is between
things.
in the
What
and modes
is the place of the attributes
all-embracingand real substance ? As to the attributes,
finite beings, do not
that
as
Spinoza maintained
we,
now

in

OF

HISTORY

96

God

know

always
and

to

mind

human

being

must

butes.

In

know,

world

human

all

is infinite

God

of

is

white

and

The

other.

concrete.

The

modes

attributes

and

more

of the

Since

ably

Each

exists
from

see

attributes

in

in

His

point

modes

and

of

butes

of

view
these

would

and

thought

world

are

only

is

God
of

nothing

other

problem

The
of

pantheism,

his

own

butes

the

substance.

to

Spinoza speaks
of

the

the
the

mind

we

of

the

that

the
and

of

relation
the

that

God

saw

attri

bare

that

attributes

infinite,other

the

this

God.

of

nerve

relation

to

as

now

maintain

unknown,

modes

ways

attributes

of the

sum

the

in

out

human

probably Spinoza

about

suppos-

seeing the substance,

definitelyupon

more

relation

and

and

its kind.

laid

the

the

them

agree

; others

difficultylays

clear in

lem

than

extension, thought, and

attributes.

if

extension

as

now

more

of

not

the

of
as

"

both

be

after

maintain

ways

modes

the

analogously to

Some

human

merely

are

other.

made

is infinite

reality,He

; for

God.

to

the

expressions of

the critics
While
interpretingHim.
human
modes
are
interpretationsof the
therefore
unreal, they disagree about
attributes

aspect

modifications

of

the

an

may

substance

turn

mode

only

thought-

attributes

two

table

the

are

are

either

value

attri

such

qualityinfringingupon

concrete

substance.

God

as

either

attributes

of

that

infinite

an

fullyexpresses

fully adequate, just

without

as

of these

depreciating the

hard

God

things are

Each

its kind.

without

Each

the

after

thought

attributes

two

number

things or extension-things.Each

He

that

of

attributes

although

infinite

an

possess
our

His

only these

are

can

substance, but

as

through

us

There

extension.

the

character

in His

appears

PHILOSOPHY

the

was

not

of the

attri

same

Is God

prob
the

THE

sum-total
behind
the

of

it. God

used

is not

the unmoved
of

of

is the

rational

reason

for the

be

regarded

the

sum-total

rata), and

the

He

is

the

both

cause

of existent
the

that

sense

the

Descartes
cause

or

cause
teleological

in the

cause

the

may

He

that

(natura

is the

He

logical

God

sense

modes

sense

sides.

three

in the

He

is

that

first

the

own

thingsor

God

way

ground (ratio essendi)or

being of things. In this sense

as

in

the

principle

that

sense

or

of its

cause

the

things

matter,

Descartes.

in

triangleis

in the

nor

the

is both.

in

cause

to existent

mover

thought, as

that

used

is He

God

that

says

the world, not

commonly

97

things,or

Spinoza

of

is

term

all existent

them?

cause

RATIONALISTS

is

natu-

and

immanent

energizingprincipleof existent things (natura natuconceptions as well as their phrases Spi

rans). These
noza
probably got from Bruno.
The
lows
to

directlyfrom

the

world.

like

in

world
Is God

the

ourselves,

aspect of God

in that

God

is the

logicalground

creator

of the

world

Is He

person

No, He

of the

is the

self-conscious

individual

it fol

is related

He

an

"

God

of

nature

that

the

Is God

world.

to God

is,therefore,related

world

No.

The

being

thought-

different

infinite

thought,but it is the
the extension-aspectof

includes

our

is the very

God

includes

our

thought ;
body, but it

very

God

infinite

different

body and an infinite number

of other aspects. God
is
an
unchanging,self-depend
modifications
ent
are
necessarilydeter
being, whose
body.

has

soul

and

"

mined

in

Spinoza
the

nature

elusions
determined

their

relation

conceived
of
follow

and

the

to

and
of

character

geometry.
from

Him

the

Just

as

God

all

to

one

one

another.

exactly from

geometricalcon-

of space

nature

fixed relations

to

and

another,

exist
so

in

every-

98

OF

HISTORY

each
its

finite
kind

own

necessityof
series

of

The

has

thing
a

"

the

is in
chain

emanations

rigid chain

nature

from

of

mysticism

in

of finite

beginning or
in

appears

God,

is determined

Mysticism

man,

Infinite,and

of the

the nature

without

divine

of which

member

of

from

finite follows

thing

PHILOSOPHY

but

in

speculativeor

end.

all,not

The
as

series,each

equally by

Spinoza. From

things of

Him.

the

point of view
religiousthought

apprehension of God.
Mysticism frequentlyaccompanies pantheism, and from
the point of view of God
refers to the oneness
of His
all-inclusive
nature.
Spinoza's pantheism is also a
the immediate
mysticism which involves
apprehension
of the divine
the oneness
by the human
; it involves
of God
often
than
and
More
otherwise
man.
mysti
cism
is animated
motive, and Spinoza's
by a religious
have
philosophy is profoundly religious.We
already
similar mysticism in the Orphic-Pythagorean sect
seen
which
formed
in
culture
so
great a peril to Greek
the sixth century B. c., in the
neo-Pythagoreans and
neo-Platonists
at the
beginning of this era, in many
of the churchmen
of the Middle
Ages, especiallyScotus
Bruno
and
of the
Erigena and Meister Eckhart.
many
should
Humanists
wish
to go
were
mystics,and if we
find mysticism to be the
outside
should
field,we
our
of the great Oriental
prevailingattitude of mind
peo
ples. Mysticism frequently is accompanied by belief in
occult spiritual
but that is not necessarily
appearances,
it the case
the case;
with Spinoza. Spinoza's
nor
was
mysticism was purely intellectual. Although a religious
ethical bearing
con
philosophy with an immediate
upon
reference

to

the

duct, it

was

tolerate

the miraculous

immediate

scientific relationalism
and

the

abnormal

that

could

not

psychological

versal, which
modern
of

sistent
is the
of

has

In

doubtedly the
abstract

The

world
the

which

lead

that

way
been

No

be

qualitycan
limit

is to

any

of

nor

finite

and

extension

this.

not

general and

God

by

things fall

outside

for to define
the

of

manner

be

ascribed

can

say

abstract

is

all that

call

so

far above

every

"

such

an

"

is

If the

if all content

empty

form

most

sense

we

this

the most
barren

emptiness
impossible.

logicalnecessity
of

an

real

to?

Him

falls

character, is He
of

process

falls away
amount

the

The

it

Outside

to

as

is reached

absolute

absolute

Him

will

is not

God

gained.

this is God's

the

He

descriptionof

limitation
to

of

Him.

to ascribe

in

that

it is

"negative

until
qualities,

universal.

life. If

generalissimum,
entity,

all

nothing?

everything or
rises

only

term

entity,an

abstract

we

Him

to

logicalconception,its

bloodless

string

entity which

Spinoza's conception

most

the most

and

does

finite

the

abstractness, makes

and

eral

abstract

off all determinate

of this

ness

We

spaces.

by dropping

et

included

"

can

than

by Spinoza'sGod

predicated of Him,
After

un

Schoolmen.

the

(see vol. i,p. 283), Spinoza refused

qualityto God. He does not feel,think, or

theology
do,

Him.

was

them.

most

All

conceive.

possibleto

it

concrete

more

and

are

outside

Spinoza sought,

that

included

blocks

is the

universal

unity, but

Plato

of

tied around

Spinoza's God

is

self-con

concrete

falls. While

things is

of finite

has

the

so

is

time

nothing

to

universals

same

is all-inclusive

universal

concrete

could

the

universal
same

existence

of

of

with

contrast

finite

all

his method

the

at

much

attention

universal, which

abstract

which

in

concrete

existence, but

unity.

the

engaged

philosophy. A

finite

PHILOSOPHY

OF

HISTORY

100

ens

and
from

The

abstraction
rcalissimum
most

God,

gen
what

paradox

in

THE

RATIONALISTS

101

of all
Spinoza'sphilosophyappears here as in the case
in paradoxes. This
for the mystic revels
mysticism
is every
generalityis all that really is. God
empty
thing, and Spinoza points out empiricalproof of this
has its only
that the transitorylife of man
by insisting
is not this particular
God
meaning in such a substance.
thing nor again that finite determination, but He is all
these. He is the timeless
realityof the temporal world,
the infinity
of finite things,the necessityof contingent
When
therefore Spinoza speaks of God
hav
nature.
as
ing an intellectual love for Himself, and when he says
that the attributes
of thought and
extension
constitute
the essence
of the substance, he is not
giving finite
He
characteristics to God.
is struggling with language
the inherent
to express
paradox of his philosophy.
with
Moreover, the delineation of the finite world
God
the point of
from
as
a
background, as it appears
view
of a human
being, is an inadequate presentation
of Spinoza'sprofound conception of God.
For the sub
is not
the central
stance
merely a neutral point nor
is all. All things
point of the universe. The substance
in
have
neither their explanation nor
their existence
God
existence
that explains
themselves.
alone has an
and
of all finite
He
is the realityand
itself,
essence
in the world.
Just as the sides
things.God is immanent
of a triangle
get their meaning from the triangleitself,
of the
the significanceof the attributes
and modes
so
"

substance
The

lies in the

unity

the relation
however
causal

of

substance.

of the

dependence.
one

of

attributes

separate they

stance, in "he

is further

Spinoza'sGod
must

Both
case

appear
are

in

thought

the

suggestedby
and

in their

aspects of the
form

of

extension,

qualityand
same

sub

extension, and

in the
sive

other
of

nature

infinite

the

human

correlative

correspondence of

God.

of

lie in

but

physicaland

the

has

in

an

corresponding to

worlds

appear,

all-inclu

the

moment

moments

of these

beings only two

In

thought.

of the attributes

number

corresponding modes

two

of

God, presumably each

of

finite number

form

the

in

PHILOSOPHY

OF

HISTORY

102

always

Since

to

sight,only
This

two.

psychicalthroughout

paitysychism; in the rela

of a human
tion of the body and mind
being it is called
psycho-physical
parallelism.This correspondence helped
Spinoza to solve the apparent dualism of the two worlds.
ideas are
While
determined
only by ideas, and motions
by motions, both series point below to the divine sub
of both.
which
is the significance
stance
They are like
neither
the top and
sides of a piece of paper,
bottom
side
constituting the piece of paper, but both being
substance
is immanent
in thought
to it. The
necessary
Both
in extension.
well as
as
thought and extension
relation
The
of thought and
ex
are
aspects of God.
tension
through the Deity discloses the monistic char
that
of Spinoza's philosophy and
to prove
acter
seems
critics have
be a materialist, although some
he cannot
said that he is. The
con
as
same
realityis seen, now
is called

nature

and

sciousness

in later times

now

as

Spinoza's Doctrine
Ethics

into

nature

of God

mind

the

; the

his

of

the

first is

second, of the

third, of the

Spinoza divided
a

treatment

nature

; the

emotions

fifth, of

and

which

philosophy of
they

appear

has

life and

been

Ethics, is

called

redemption.

above, show

that

the

origin of
fourth, of
This

freedom.

human

important writing of Spinoza,the only

metaphysics

as

the

bondage

human
most

; the

of Salvation.

parts. The

five
;

extension.

The

treatise
a

on

practical

divisions

of

philosophy of

it,
life

RATIONALISTS

THE

is looked
the

We

noza's
and
the

have

above

human
of

human

freedom.

been

view

that

from

reduced

such

to

involves

the

"

the

of

of

nature

is the

other

life from

the

primarily the question of

and

human

bondage

the human

upon

God,

of

nature
to

well

as

the

hu

himself

man

as

has

detail
insignificant

an

Yet

universe.

of

Spi

point,

God

freedom

depend

to

regards as pantheistic

problem

by Spinoza

machine-like

first

By Spinoza's eliminating

nature.

element

man

divine

he

reference
the nature

to

the

whom

Human

conditions

the

discussed

subject. The

point of

with

reference

in relation

being
this

view

Spinoza'sconception of

But

human

are

with

and

conceptionof God,

mystic.

pole

points of

two

God,

of

nature

man.

from

at

103

for

in

in his littleness

man

Spinoza hews out a way to God in His greatness by

of the universe.
his mystic reconstruction
Existence
in
Spinoza'spantheisticmysticism is,after all,a sphere of
wonderful
and of
wonderful
more
grandeur for man,
than
which
is ordinarily
wider utility
the existence
man
supposed to possess. Since God is the realityof every
is deified ; even
the loss of man's
essential
thing, man
humanity is the apotheosisof man.
salvation
Human
and
freedom
consist in being like.
God ; bondage consists in being unlike Him, in mistaking
the unrealityof life for His
endowed
are
reality.We
with the abilityof forming an adequate idea of God
by
"

means

of

faculties

our

of

reason,

him
our
a

and

we

are

also

sensation, emotion, and

latter faculties

bring him

but

into

into

activities

passion seems

make

man

upon

bondage

them.

are

limited
to

be

by
the

such
most

the

with

imagination.

passive creature,

dependence
to

endowed

things that

We

are

limited

active

for
act

the

The

they
upon

passivewhen
objects.While
and

turbulent

HISTORY

104

of

if
faculties,

our

that

instead

of

are

we

are

are

we

active.
and

Him,

and

become

external

an

It is then
do

the

insignificance

in God

beings,for

necessary

"

God,

like

of free

false ideas

our

as

reason,

are

we

from

rise

we

passion,

object.Only

that

transcend

we

during

only through

then

greatness. Then

dom

by

upon

find

closely,we

more

active ourselves

being

"

purely

it

at

purely rational,

free like
to

look

we

acted

being

we

PHILOSOPHY

OF

is

freedom

necessity.
To
the

free from

be

world

is not

dwell

when

for to

it. An

from

un

illusion
To

be such.

it to

know

we

nature

see

passions,sensations, imaginations,and

all the
other

their

is to be delivered

illusion

an

that
the

thing

things of

the finite

passions and

understand

must

we

derstand

the

modes

of

thought

limitations, is

human

are

all

is not,
Spinoza's freedom
will be seen,
in the ordinary psychological
freedom
as
meaning of the term, but is the metaphysical freedom
of being identical
with
determined
the deity and
by
finite thing. Freedom
is rational knowledge. Never
no
to

within

the

is ethical

theless, freedom
the

coming
has

passions by

sides

two

from

escape

the life of

world

as

crete
a

finite

objects;
of
and

God

and
or

be

falsely,for

no

thing

thing
thing
at

may

as

the

seen

thing

both

the

eternal.

all relation

be

regarded

truly when

its

see

the
sees

Any con
being as

human

seen

an

cases

reason

of

has

and

is to

by itself,a thing is

finite

itself. It is,however,

out

as

over

therefore,

in

freedom

same

regarded by

same

infinity.Looked

is the

in

emotions

goal

attain

finite

isolated
the

the
the

"

To

each

may

from

ideas

it consists

Freedom,

reason.

it,which

see

also,for

escape

reason.

sees

is to

thing

an

obscure

being

it. This

reason.

as

to

other

detail

partially

explanation in

it is

regarded, to

THE

Spinoza'sown

use

form

of

RATIONALISTS

celebrated

of

eternityis one
Spinoza'steaching.When
consciousness

the

to

thing,the thing itself

self has

gained

moral

activities

is

"

under

certain

the

aspect of eternity.Side

the truth

of

if

all the

is

him

man

I may

forest trees

wanting,

and

rea

the

circle that

Any

is

draw

defective,
their

in

regarded

imperfectionsof the
perfectness.There

mathematical

abortive

so

and

in

the

through

eternityof

transformed,

below

is its absolute

nothing

is

con

admirable

most

rises

of the

are

But

the

man

leaf upon

time-limitations.
universe

of

salvation.

imperfect,every
all

phrase,

This
eternity" (sub specieaeternitatis~).

ception

son

105

evil that

it does

have

not

its

side with

Spinoza'sconcep
tion of infinity
is
is his conception of eternity.Infinity
everlastingness,
eternity is quality of being. Eternity
has

reference

no

The

substance

the

reason

and

by

Him.

of

act

Our

increases

whatever

eternal.

aspect; the eternityof

eternitygained through
do

God

is reason,

become

we

knowledge is,therefore, the

and

be

may

immortality.

reason

morality. Knowledge
whatever

is one

and

the

minute

That

is another.

is salvation
the

One

time.

to

the substance

of
infinity

the

by

morality are

measure

the

with

one

same

of

our

and

understanding is morally good ;

our
understanding is morally

our

diminishes

wrong.

Nevertheless,
is

pher, there
or

bad,

"

contempt,
The

from

the

nothing

"

finite

lifts him
to

this

love

of

things

intellectual

above

the

his

of the

of
is

the

or

God.

philoso

morally good

hatred, love, fear,

occurs

is necessary.
of the

determinism

usually conceived

mystic world,
nature

that

all that

philosopher'sknowledge

world

view

world

merits

since

pity,

or

in the

which

nothing

point of

world

by

reconstructed
Love

for

God

of
his

will

106

give

to

form

of human

everything

activity.Love
feeling,and

disinterested

is the

love, which
Love

God

for

for

it is

for

God

God

his

is peace,
with
love

is the

God.

Thus

absorption

in

the

It is

world.

the

talityis

duration

looking

at

finite

and

things

contentment,
love

of

is the

without

death;
the

immortality

is

of

substance

necessary

misconception that

under

of

love

God

love

man

rejoices.Immortality

and

common

after

; it

man

greater.

intellectuallyrecognizes

eternal

to

fact, the

cannot

man

perishes,but

man

for

man

God,

with

oneness

like human

less state

highest

absolutely

an

therefore

In

God

of

is

resignation,and

God.

Himself, since

becoming

is not

It is the

God

for

passing from

oneness

for

value.

its proper

immor

consists

in

aspect of eternity. The

man's

real

self,which

is

God,

survives.

Spinoza

clear

by

problems.

That

inspiring and

his

philosophy

of deduction

all

is not

will

one

clear, is also

true.

the

end,

is that

become

is

world
nistic

becomes

pure
an

the

hands

abstraction

for all his losses

eternity.

arises

by

his

in

to

Spinoza

God

which

has

content,

superseded by
Yet

way

amid
man

na

spirit.The

activitygives

pantheisticdeterminism.
world

to

without

is

parallelism,individual
a

of

and

illusion, dualism

reconstructed

pensed

under

is to

Spinoza
gainsay. That
In the begin

; at

is subordinated

of

discussion, spirit is subordinated

nature

is

metaphysical

philosophicalteaching

ennobling, no

It

attempt

his

result

and

realism.
the

of

rationalism

of

ning

the

scholastic
in which

the method

is

ture

of

scholasticism

mathematical
make

final word

is the

The

Spinoza's Teaching.

of

Summary

the
mo

and

all this
is

recom

in infinity
participation

108

future, just as Spinoza for the past. Leibnitz

the

and

Renaissance

the
noza

joins the

noza

is the

Enlightenment, just as Spi

and
the Middle
Ages. Spi

the

Renaissance

Rationalist

who

is science

traditionalism; Leibnitz's

and

substance
particulars,
ward

to

there

particular.The

the

to

part

of

conception
ception of
the

To

times.

fore,

not

Life

life that

died

to be

70. In

vice.

Spinoza

from

the

He

held

in

the

life of

the

cessors

the
in that

same,

his

his

had

con

redeem
modern

more

Rationalist

is, there

some

at

study

of

45, while

he

of

Leibnitz

after
not

was

in

the

differed

lived

gradua

public

naturallygo

them
of

his

there

Spinoza'scareer,

woidd

interests

Leibnitz

(1646-1716).

Spinoza,Leibnitz had
rich in experience. Des

Leibnitz

offices that
"

were

into

Leibnitz

with

universitythat

hanger-on of princes
While
the
theoretically
ists

and

strikingcontrast

time

no

and

infinitesimal

of
and

in time

and

Spinoza

fully.

Descartes

54

at

him

as

Writings

long

was

cartes

tion

and

with

Compared

was

describe

the

Leibnitz

bring

classifyLeibnitz

to

The

and

of

dynamic

as

of

importance

individual

theology,and

reality.Leibnitz's

of its

out

individual

the

the

He

pantheism

individual

systematized the

From

universal, but he shifts it in

the

emphasis entirelyupon

for

Spinoza had failed,

no
longer lays the

and

motive.

new

in

and

points

dynamics.

rationalize

to

Descartes

where

emerges

and

energy,

buried

universals

to

Leibnitz

coming

breaking through

back

forms

originalpurpose

succeed

to

rings,

vortex

Leibnitz's

harks

Spinoza

traditionalism.

science

of

word

the

presages

Spinoza's philosophy is

individualism.

final

the

utters

Leibnitz

realism, while

scholastic

unites

ser

to the

grandiose ones.
three
from

Rational
his

prede

philosophicalproblems

al-

THE

book,

cent

friend,

to

not

was

meet

forth

the

outline

to

academic

an

called

writingswere

"

109

practicalproblem

some

Leibnitz

occasion.
his

of

out

grew

ways

RATIONALISTS

to

system

thinker, and

estimate

some

the

for

or
special difficulty,

some

political

or

re

of

use

to

answer

of
only one
Philosophy was
He
the interests of Leibnitz.
was
jurist,historian, dip
lomat, mathematician, physicalscientist,theologian,and
much
with
the
Leibnitz
at home
was
as
philologist.
of

theories

Plato

the science

with

precocious,had
In

mind.

the

and

of

Descartes

of

of

Scotus

Duns

prodigious

wealth

of

Aristotle

and

of St. Thomas

those
as

criticism."

definite

some

to

inner

the

was

also in

intimate
ers.

He

circle of scholars

acquaintance with
was

in the

service

I of

and

memory

his

personal touch

Galileo.

information

his

of the

with

time, with

of mediaeval

and

genius,he stands
unequaled. Descartes, Spinoza, and
ductiveness

ancient

and

with

time,

He

was

reactive
the

pro

Aristotle

as

Leibnitz

belonged

time, but

Leibnitz

politicalaffairs

many

of the

of the

Elector

and

in

important rul
of Mainz

and

George was
only
England when
He was
Elector of Hanover.
distinguishedby Peter the
of Russia
and Ernst
Great
August, Emperor of Ger
He corresponded with Eugene of Savoy and he
many.
of France.
XIV
ambassador
to Louis
was
Sophie Char
the King of Prussia,
lotte of Hanover, who
married
for her
was
especiallyinterested in him, and he wrote
from
his Theodicy. The
three great Rationalists
came
nobleman's
different strata of society.Descartes
was
a
and he voluntarily
relinquishedthe life that Leib
son,
the
nitz was
from
ambitious
to enjoy. Spinoza came
lower
class. Leibnitz
of a collegeprofessor
the son
was
and belonged to the upper
middle class. The ambitions

later

of

George

110

OF

HISTORY

Leibnitz

of

among

educated

Among

other

and

for

reached

things,he

time

the

ing

is his

only

his

nearest

nation

and

life went

almost

his

seventy

the

time

of
satility

bad

he

and

of

No

one
coin

considerable

work

in

form

the

he
to

other

or

book

Individ-

on

life of Leibnitz
causes

left without

was

and

worse,

he

his

noble

patron.

his death

occurred

powers

he

good

was

nauld, Monadology

during

his

forty,he

had

of Leibnitz's
on

New

four

periods

voracity and

ver

their formative

the

unusual

and

length

of

seven

productiveperiod be
completed his philoworks

Metaphysics

(1714),

of these

his thirtieth to his

from
after

selection

is: Discourse

the

It also reveals

years

life fall into

three

thirtyshows

was

Ten

year.

Leibnitz's

passed through

his mental

when

corre

Monadology

most

successes,

of

"

gan,

read

until

productive period,

tieth

of

societies.

published

death

years

acquisitivestate.

From

from

periods. That

his

enormous,

unnoticed.

The

by

was

universitydissertation

many

changed,

patrons

languages.

Theodicy.*

happy.

not

His

the

himself

his

spite of

was

He

His

so.

language

persons)

the

"

life.

the Catholics

mainly

journals and

doing

to

works

but

thousand

philosophy

Theodicy.

two

In

learned

to

contains

with

all

Leibnitz

lengthy works,

some

spondence (at one

dissertations

for

of

of

universalize

to

characters

happens

walks

reconcile

to

tried

often

as

middle

the

tried

literaryproduction

consistingof

book

in

he

by getting universal
The

large ends,

people

Protestants, and

PHILOSOPHY

for the

student

(1690), Letters

System of

Nature

to

to

Ar-

(1G95),

and
Grace
to
Principles of Nature
(1714), Introduction
New
Essays (1704), and the Theodicy (1710). See Calkins,
Persistent

Problems

in

Phil., p. 74,

note.

RATIONALISTS

THE

that

sophicaltheory, so
free

were

part for his departure from

life

are

as

follows

last

elaboration

its

for

the

111

thirtyyears

and

of

his life

elucidation, and

in

details of Leibnitz's

it. The

"

Leipsic and

1.

UniversityLife (1646-1666).
of a professorof the University
the son
Leibnitz
was
the Universityat the age of fif
of Leipsic. He entered
his bachelor's
teen ; received
degree at seventeen, and
of twenty.
his doctor's
at the age
degree at Altdorf
He
of his thesis,
offered a professorshipon
account
was
but he declined.
He published as his bachelor's
thesis,
The
Principle of Individuation
(1663).
2. Mainz
and Diplomacy (1666-1672).
his
Meeting Baron John of Boineburg, who became
patron, Leibnitz
service

the

nitz

wrote

the

on

3.

the

pamphlets

no

He

At

at

Elector's

the

the

Leib

request,

day.

He

1671.

Science
this

Louis

of

remained

(1672"1676).
period with a diplomaticmission
in 1672
XIV
during the
; but

Paris

in

spent the

ence."

In

hausen

the German

Paris

entered

this time

political
questions of

Boineburg and
longer his home nor

longer,and

Mainz, and

Physical Hypothesis in

began

court

to

of Mainz.

both

year
was

many

and

Leibnitz
to

Elector

New

Paris

him

of the

religiousand
A

wrote

with

went

he met

time

the

Elector

diplomacy

died, and

his interest.

(and London) three

in acquiringthe "new

Arnauld

the

of

years
sci

Cartesian, Tschirn-

mathematician, logician,and

discriminating critic

Mainz

Spinoza,and

he

studied

most

with

he
In London
mathematician.
Huyghens the Dutch
met
Boyle, the chemist, Oldenburg, secretary of the
and
of Science, Collins, the mathematician,
Academy
he corresponded with Newton.
On
to Hanhis return

HISTORY

112

called

he

over

scriptof
4.

Philosophy (1676-1716).

and

Leibnitz

volved

became

carried

he

other

reigning family, which

Rome

and

In

on

differential

calculus, over

brated

controversy

as

his

his

in 1697

portant

works

was

founded

the

to

system
he

he

coming

the

going

to

cele

the

arose

Newton

or

made

year, he
he

However,

con

showed

by introducing into

age

"monad."

term

history

his

in his fortieth

philosophicalsystem.

affiliation

the

wrote

which

whether

priordiscovery. In 1686,

corre

published his discovery

he

of the

structed

he

necessitated

1684

to

enormous

an

things

of the

Vienna.

in

was

administrative, historical,and

of

politicaltasks, and
spondence. Among

the

He

(Brunswick-Liineburg).

multitude

librarian to the

and

councilor

court

Hanover

in

manu

Ethics.

the

of

the

him

showed

Spinoza, who

on

Hanover

Duke

PHILOSOPHY

OF

Nearly

his

all his im

produced in this period. In 1700

in Berlin.
of Sciences
He
Academy
in the founding of an
academy at St.
he planned academies
and
at Dresden

were

the

instrumental

Petersburg,and
Vienna.
The

Three

Influences

His

(1)

Leibnitz,

Classical

Early

who

was

Leipsic,died

the

upon

his

when

son

was

had

eight

years

he

had

Latin

studies

them,

in

philosophy
Left

much

father's

his

Latin

acquired

father

; at

fathers.

that
"

fied with

not

He

became

his friends

knowing

only

one

Roman

the

feared

that
kind

my
of

absorbed

that
mind

he

thing."

There

he

XenoGreek

in scholastic

would

could

at
to

twelve

historians, the
so

of

library.

Seneca, Pliny, Quintilian, Herodotus,

read

phon, Cicero, Plato,

and

moral
young.

himself, the boy spent his time

At

The

Studies.

professor of

of Leibnitz.

Thought

not

leave

be

satis

not
can

be

no

THE

this scholastic

question that
hand

and

sophy.
which

RATIONALISTS

The

he

Aristotelian

got

at this

Aristotle.

He

integralpart
in

Science

Period

Aristotle's

made

of his doctrine.

Descartes,

to

theory he borrowed
(2) The New
Leibnitz

was

porariesin

its curriculum
fifteen he
and

he

cartes

ory

fortunate

the

him

made

he

of Forms

had

for the

world.

He

became

Hobbes

and

Gassendi

In

1672,

he made

at

the age

himself

of Parisian

scientists

had

he

than

dualist

totelian

; he

returned

to

of

from

of

his

Discoveries.
of his contem

many

already included
At

the

mathematics

to

in

age

of

Jena,

at

of

to

life he

of

said
the

give up

1670, when

the

he
he

theories

was
was

He

teach.

had

his native

land

gone
with

the

of

Mainz.

at

in

of all that the celebrated

to

the

explanationof
with

himself, that

scholastic

best

turned

Own

His

twenty-six,when

possessor

an

Aristotle.

acquainted
of

this

construction

mathematical

in

returned

"

in

decided

the

Kepler,Galileo,and Des
though
transported into

as

Later

in

mathematics.

study

feel

world."

final

universityhad

study of

the

Among

finallybecame,

motto

time

and

devoting himself

was

fifteen

at

Science

his

said that

different

from

more

more

that

in his

purpose,

he alone

is best

Theodicy, "Everything
While
for a
possible worlds."

philo

cause
teleological

His

his

Aristotle

cosmic

left him.

never

first

scholastic

conception of

time,

him

traininggave

sympathetic appreciationof

writers of the Natural

to

113

Paris,
circle

to Paris

the

Aris

the
with
teleologyside by side in his mind
the SpiSpinozistic
conception of identityand necessity,
nozistic method, and
the
mathematical
theory of the
of infinitely
small
significance
particles.The next ten
(1676-1686) were
spent in overcoming his own
years
dualism
theories acquired
by systematizingthese new

from

so

concept of force
In

1684

he

calculus,in
In

ton.

In 1680

sources.

many

to

as

so

1685

he

he

of Swammerdam

both

and

the

the

account

microscopes

1686

In

until

not

was

New

with

on

material

collected

bodies.

of force have

centres

organisms by

the

differential

the

this conclusion

to

and

honors

Leeuwenhook.

his

it

although

share

to

that

led

souls

discovery of

had

small

cessfullyorganized
system,

apply it to

has

was

discovery of

of the

had

asserted

individuality.He

universalized

he

his

published
which

PHILOSOPHY

OF

HISTORY

114

he

into

eleven

suc

his final
later

years

monads."
Prob
(1697) that he called these centres
monad
from
not
Bruno, but
ably he got the term
from
the mystic chemist, Van
Helmont.
Not only the content, but the form
of his philosophy
determined
studies.
His philo
was
by his mathematical
re
sophical diction is remarkably lucid. Mathematics
his earlyresolve
in words
inforced
to attain clearness
"

"

"

"

in

and
tain

usefulness."

matter

that

terms

many

His
had

he

later

discussions

con

directlyfrom

borrowed

mathematics.
Political

(3)

When

tion.
refused
into

the

Frederick

the

of

crown

internal

years

Pressure

strife

destroyed all
This

country.

and

born

years

the

two

first German

Catholics

and

there

was

ciliation.

in

scientist

Protestants

wealth
in the

Peace

before

of

hundred

one

its material

the

Reconcilia

Saxony
Emperor, Germany was

that

general

Thus

Wise

the

terminated

(1618-1648)
was

for Religious

of

peace
in

two

were

movement

religiousamity
public question.

and

Years'

declared.

hundred

toward
was

thirty

depopulated

Westphalia.

of

War

Leibnitz
He

years.

weary

1519

thrown

and

Thirty

was

in

was

Both

strife, and

religiousrecon
the

most

urgent

HISTORY

116

who

tried

entire
of

When

it

this

by

sitions

Latin

Wolff

century

used

this

text-books.

gaining

was

into sympathy
came
Germany, Leibnitz
through his teacher, Weigel, and at first was
ardent

In

supporters.

method
geometrical,syllogistic

of

King

all

Count

the

that

elected
that

next

in

its most

of

the

aspect of Spinoza'steaching

this

foothold

with

In

writing his

in

the
geometrical method
right from a singleprinciple

the

by

natural

need.

human

one

of

system

method

deduce

to

PHILOSOPHY

OF

Palatine

Poles.

the

of

In seriousness

should

stated

be

like

believed

he

would

philosophical controversies

philosophy

jesthe showed
in sixty propo
be
Neuberg must
when

cease

cal

mathematical

culation.

Hobbes's

theory

of words

universal

conceptual reckoning, the

of Lull

and

the

would

these
him

the

to

that

influences

were

method

widespread

What,
in
the

the

time

of

their

form

their combination

committed

yield

themselves

thereby form
ledge? They

the
are

pursue

part of

form

the

Lingua

should

discover

the

logical

brief, Leibnitz

In

upon

all

ground
of

two

the

highest truths

the

knowledge

truths, so immediately and

they force

all

philosophicalcalculus.
Leibnitz, are

asked

its

"

him

was

language, which

combinations.

for

invention

made

to

in

geometrical

philosophicalconceptions and

operations
to

universal

"

of

taken

Leibnitz, that

of

used

of the Art

the

of

art

an

upon

movement

fundamental

hoped

that

Spinoza and
energetically.Leibnitz

method

Adamica

had

belief

be

to

prove

be

to

formulas

Bruno

which

Cartesian

the

improvement,
method

pains

counters

as

which

What

intuitivelycertain,
mind

for the

as

self-evident

deduction

classes

(1)

are

that
and

of all know

The

universal

RATIONALISTS

THE

truths

The

of

the

truths

of the

both

are

from

anything

is true
as

if it

rational

The

or

priori,and

difference

tionalism

that

mind

and

of Leibnitz
Locke

here.

appears

does

not

tested

of truth

from

the

the

are

posteriori.

of the

senses."

Ra

Locke

Enlightenment of
There
is nothing

"

thing

or

startingpoint

said,

its

kinds

But

deduction

reason

empiricalor

the

come

itself and

mind

the

between

facts of

truths," for
the

two

the

from

not

from

The

; the

true

"first

are

experience.

singleinstance.

and

deduced

be

experienced fact.

an

the

They

else.

can

for that

themselves

in

true

forever

are

truth

facts of

The

(2)

reason

have

experience

and

reason,

117

in

the

Except

"

Leibnitz

operations,"added

in

comment.

there

But

the

tween

its

conceive
and

its

are

is

opposite;

is

emerge

founded

two

now

the
his

clear

and

clear

but

not

ideas."

it is

He

It is

be

that

is

only clear,

impossible to

possibleto
be

think
four

rational

truths

think

its

that

Thus

inches.
which

did

not

joice in

apply
the

to

few

that

God,

this distinction

Leibnitz

depend

but

rational

only
truths

to

in

man.

his

between

Man

but

side,

upon

Principle of Contradiction
; empirical truths
At
Reason.
pend upon the Principle of Sufficient
conceived

ra

impossible to

the

Leibnitz

distinct.

triangle equal anything

inches, may

philosophy:

distinct

means

it is

that

logical principles
upon

two

of

kinds

distinction

empirical truth

thinkable.

rightangles,but

which

that

angles of

three

are

making

transparent

so

two

pet phrase of the Rational

the

distinct

opposite is

that the
two

and

truth

of

terms

these

reason

experience

two

"clear

"

tional

of the

is,.be it observed,

Leibnitz

ists

of

truths

between

difference

truths

The

truth.
the

is

de
first

truths
must

re

possessionand

118

OF

HISTORY

be content

of
the actuality
merely establishing

with

experiences. The

divine

impossibilityof

the

empirical truth.

Later

tinction

between

the

is, in the

nature

That
The

rational

truth

reason

both

kinds

two

truth

of

things

no

opposite,but

empirical truth

has

the

the

truths

dis

is

differ.

necessary

opposite,and

an

in

be absolute.

to

two

the

and

conceived

of

his

see

rational

in

Leibnitz

on

however,

can,

opposite

has

truth

the

PHILOSOPHY

is

contingent truth.
Leibnitz
which
the

shows

thus

is

knowledge
would

remains

according
phlets
how

far

the

method

of

short

He

ding

task.

which

He

developing
Bacon, Leibnitz
than

hope
The

these

so

slow

of method

called

ciling science
become

far away

reconcile
that

plod

rest, with
Like

logicalway.
that

method

was

of

more

this

from

away

theoretical

the

For

since

the

from

religion,and

of the

purely

practical problem of recon

problem in his day
religion,which
by

and

science

Perhaps

Leibnitz.

for

particularlyacute.

strides

and

principles upon

the

principlesin

Problem

problem

than

stated

interests

accomplishment.

an

was

very

through

carry

conceived

Immediate

rapid

subjectsshow
universal
philo

versatile,his

too

merely

Leibnitz

had

of

pam

many

systematicsymbolic philosophy might

out

his ideal
was

diversified,to

too

scattered

many

he fell of

sophical calculus.
were

on

The

Spinoza,

about

Nothing. No
philosophical
of philosophy

system

he say

does

Leibnitz's

planned

Leibnitz

of

principlesupon

what

had

he

to

based, but

suspect from

ever

that

fundamental

of their combination

logicalmethod

one

the

and

days

of

religionwas

preceding

science

had

Descartes, had
Leibnitz's
much

Rationalists.

more

made
drawn

attempt

to

difficult

Leibnitz

had

THE

accepted the

had

119

results of

yieldedonly a

Politics

world.

radical

most

science

that

RATIONALISTS

mechanical

in

demanded

science,but he
view

saw

of the

exigenciesof that
hour
some
principleof unity. He sought to find some
philosophicalprinciple for the living,religious char
of the universe, and
acter
a
principlethat at the same
time

would

fore

sought

preserve

leave

to

intact and

the

the

results of science.

the

conception of

behind

it for

He

there

mechanical

na

principle.
teleological
He
examined
the mechanical
principlesof the science
of his day and found
in a deeper meta
them embedded
physicalprinciple.
ture

The

ples

of Science

that

Princi

developed

? And

what

scientific

the

was

Sub

principle

result

of

his

The

prin
principlewas the mathematical
in more
complex form, for there had been
to it since Galileo's day the concept of the atom.
is to say, the fundamental
scientific principlewas
consists

nature

atoms.

From

follows

his

which

of the

Plurality of Metaphysical
the

was

time

analysisof it ?
cipleof Galileo
That

"

What

Leibnitz's

added

Examination

of Leibnitz's

Result

stances.

of

go

he

of

the

measurable

of

movements

analysisof this, Leibnitz obtained as

of substances,
conception of a pluralnumber
his

called monads.

1. Leibnitz

first scrutinized

the scientific

conception
of motion.
into infinitely
His analysisof motion
small
employed by Galileo, Huyimpulses by the method
im
had
already led him to one
ghens, and Newton
Now
he
the differential calculus.
portant discovery
"

scrutinizes
mental
*

it further

ground

Read

band, Hist,

and

of motion

is

discovers

force.

that

While

the

Leibnitz

Hibben, Phil, of Enlightenment, ch. vii

of Phil,

pp.

420-425.

funda

was

Windel-

HISTORY

120

in entire

motion

He

all

chamber

other.

tion

of

motion

is

Force

force

that

"

the

as

and
alone

and

be

to

to

the

are

is constant

itself to meta
is what

is fun

in

the

pre

in the

change

mo

conserva

rest

of

substance

immaterial,

physics ought

is

which

about

ante

relative

are

there

Force

is

things brings

super-spatialand
new

that

Motion

of force.

points to

Therefore

the

theory

rest

Force

in nature.

of

and

the

absolute

no

force.

damental

ture."

is

that

thing.

motion

beneath

motion

of

of

Physics points

physics;
state

Motion

incorrect.

changes

conserved.

sent

fundamental

the

philosophy. There
rest.

insisted

motion, he

to

conception

Descartes'

phenomenal

scientists in their effort

other

means

any

Cartesian

absolute

each

and

by

of true

nor

PHILOSOPHY

phenomena

not

was

calls the

tion

with

agreement

reduce

to

OF

fu
is

nature

therefore

basis

the

dynamic metaphysical

substance.
Leibnitz

2.
of the

examined

next

Gassendi,

atom.

scientists,had

Parisian

Greek

of

one

been

tion

of

been

generallyaccepted by

the

mathematical

in

of Gassendi

atoms

atomist

insisted that

parts

to

be

of
the

small

again,and
atom

is the

the

celebrated

the

into

author

under

Galileo.

he took

simple parts
atomist

erred

in

to

be, they

bit of matter

dividingprocess

extended,

and

He

But

thinking
the

may

be, it may

may

go

the extended

on

had

that

material

Leibnitz

such

simple

parts might

reallysimple.

not

were

with

agreed

saying that

simple

had

hard, inelastic

atoms.

or

It

Leibnitz

the

examination.
in

introduc

combined

and

of

group

thought.

scientists

Paris, and

conception

of the

modern

physical. However

physically appear
However

that

perfectlycorrect

was

consist

bodies

scientific

hypothesis of

Gassendi

known

the

atomism

the

be

divided

The
infinity.
be simple
cannot
to

THE

real. Substance

or

RATIONALISTS

be

must

121

unextended,

and

the

ma

in

to the ex
attributingsubstance
tended.
Is there anything simple that has a qualitative
Is there
character?
anything real below the physical
? Yes, the metaphysical atoms.
The indivisible,
atoms
the physicalatom, and in
unit lies beneath
immaterial

terialists

order
the

were

wrong

reach

to

it

must

we

metaphysical. This

is called

by

Leibnitz

beneath

pass

immaterial

the

or

monad;

physicalinto
metaphysical atom
the

and

thus

is Leibnitz's

called

monadology.
There
three kinds of points,
or
units,or
are
simples."
There is the mathematical
point,which is simple enough,
but it is only imaginary. There
is the physicalpoint,or
is real but not simple. There
the
is,lastly,
atom, which
metaphysical point,or monad, which is both real and
simple. The metaphysical point is the only true point.
To call the material atoms
the feeble
real,only shows
is glad to rest, and
of
the
ness
imagination, which
theory

"

"

is,therefore, in

haste

make

to

end

an

of

division

and

analysis."
with

motion,

the

material

of the

conceived

identified

then

Leibnitz

3.

metaphysical atom,
monads

working. They are

principlesin which
universe
dead

their

have

; it is not

The

atom.

The

it.

the substance

force,as

the
the
roots

result

the

principlesof active
super-spatialand immaterial
mechanical
principlesof the
and
meaning. Nature is not
It

is

alive,resistant,

reproductive. If, as Spinoza taught,there

one

substance, nature
But

acting
bodies.

as

for

matter

would

They

are

be

non-resistant

of fact there

themselves,

he

as

the

are

and

sive.

substance

the monad,

was

extended.

merely

as

of

bodies

many

the centres

are

of

many

were

and

only
pas

substances

resisting other

and
separate activity,

OF

HISTORY

122

there

are

as

without

body

no

forces

many

there

as

movement,

Thus

does

Leibnitz

form

than

is

principleof

PHILOSOPHY

in

vitalism
Life

neo-Platonism.

Purpose

nature.

without

movement

no

reintroduce
in

seen

things. There

are

is

placed

is

force.

maturer

becomes
the

at

the
of

centre

things.
find

the

pluralism,but
is after all

how

of

ceived

have

This

"

logy.

the

at

in

unity.

him

deal

con

and

"

of

us

force,"

physics and

Here, in

start.

spirituallie

and

word

toward

Leibnitz

centre

reminds

The

(2) as an
equivalenceof psychical

an

which

into

parts.

character.

force

world

good

organic

an

the
as

psycho
corner
recon

miniature, the physical

The

Stoics'

Leibnitz

toward

such

in

ciliation

as

of the

as

with

ambiguity about the monads, the

Leibnitz's philosophy,assists Leibnitz's

But

stones

the

the world

depend

will

Leibnitz

question then

nature

makes

of God.

it,squints both

uses

that

prove

would

double

(1)

soul.

fiery reason

the

physical attributes

and

the

of

spoken

find that

analyzed

parts, and

monad

the

immaterial

"

Leibnitz

accomplishment

monads

The

also

strength to

conception of

his

upon

will

is

student

put these parts togetheragain in

to

This

unity.

his

unity.

plural number
was,

student

nearly all

devoted

Leibnitz

philosophy of

the

that

The

of the Monads.

Nature

Double

The

is conceived

monad

as

soul-atom.
Leibnitz
with

came

to

philosophy with

the mathematical

itesimal,and

the

ideas

of the

possible.He

as

a
essentially
developing world.

seem

force.

to

us

of the monads

looked
Behind

the actual

can

be

as

the world

upon

inflexible,lies the great world

Explanation of

saturated

continuous, the infin

thought

He
or
possibilities.
potentialities

mind

the facts that

of

generating

made

only

in

OF

HISTORY

124

individual
its

by

which

state

one

descriptionof

is

none

monad

the

in

Leibnitz's

of

representation.Representation is

tion

of

monad

the
This

monad.

from

"

that

means

form,
particular
peculiar aspect. Every
yet in

represents the world

activity.But

it is evident

In

conscious.
scious

souls

thoughts

scious.

the

to
give significance

form
see

important

so

Plotinus.)As

of water,

so

conscious

states.

of

the

mind
The

whole.

is made
conscious

representationsof

some

clear.

of

the monad

the

external

ourselves.

is

of

not

are

than

that

con

uncon

are

is the

first to
that

states

in

world,

What

we

itself

at

all

obscure,

some

representation
call

knowledge

representationof

our

un

general effect

is the

universal

of

of

myriad

contains

microcosm.

world

This

state

the whole

power
a

own

the universe

unconscious

up

soul-monad

This

Each

of its

more

Leibnitz

so-called

times

makes

thoughts

some

psychology. (But
place in modern
is composed of small particles
wave

a
a

the

force,

all soul-monads

Rationalists

the

Among

highest

microcosm.

therefore,

are

the

to

things in

all

are,

func

general

it is conscious

as

therefore

there

"

is

that

there

the

its power

substance, but in

monad
far

than

is the world

monad

world

important

more

lowest

the

each

"

so

conscious, and

not

are

another, moved

to

appetition."

psychicalpowers

the

Among

from

passes

constitutional

"

PHILOSOPHY

representationis possibleto

it within
because

us

Since the monad

directly
reproduce it in miniature.
states, it follows that
perceivesonly itself and its own
of its own
it is conscious
the more
clearlyand distinctly
activities,the more
adequately does it represent the cos
we

mos.

The

converse

represents the
itself.

is also true
cosmos,

the

more

"

that the

more

truly does

it

monad

represent

RATIONALISTS

THE

125

development of his descriptionof the monad,

Leibnitz
hits upon
two
catch-phrases,one of which pre
his doctrine
of the physicalisolation of the monad,
sents
of its ideal psychical
the other
presents the doctrine
windowless
are
unity. These phrases are : the monads
and
mirror
the universe."
the monads
windowBy
In his

"

"

"

"

less

"

Leibnitz

each

that

means

is

monad

"

like

world, self-sufficient,
independent of every

rate

sepa
other

by which anything can

Having no windows
enter
can
or
perceiveonly its own
depart," the monad
from
itself alone
Whatever
states.
happens to it comes
as
a
develop
purely internal principle. The monad's
is self-developmentand not the result of external
ment
the monad
is a
mirror
of the
changes. Nevertheless
In this psychicalqualification
universe."
of the nature
its physical isolation vanishes
of the monad,
and
the
is open
for a unity of monads,
which
would
have
way
seemed
otherwise
to be physically
hopelesslysundered.
of the numberless
is it possiblefor each
How
monads,
creature."

"

"

all

different,to

so

in their

is found
The

Two

"

mirror

of

the

among

the monads
He

two

In

ways.

he

In

logicalreasons.
Intrinsic

sophical Unity.
monads.

obscure

and

representation.
of

principle of

the

unity

is called

conceived

The

it to be.

it upon

artificially
superimposed

the

answer

by Leibnitz a preestablished
presented this principleof harmony in
of their
out
part the harmony comes

constitution, as

The

? The

Conception

The

Substances.

Unity

of

Leibnitz's

of

"

universe

psychical power

Forms

harmony.

the

either

Unity

of

There

is

lowest

it is

case

the
a

the

In

part Leibnitz
for theo

monads

preestablished.

Monads

"

family resemblance
reproduces

the

Philo

The

among

universe

elementary representations. Minerals

in

and

HISTORY

126

plants

sleeping monads

are

ideas.

Animals

monad.

The

universe

clearness

entirely unconscious
Man

dreaming monads.
is God,
highest monad
and

in clear

of

with

are

is

there

matter

PHILOSOPHY

OF

their

series

ideas.

of

Between

graded

monads,

All

waking
reproduces ths

who

distinct ideas.

is

contain

the

God
as

to

universe

and
the

by

All are
bound
togetheraccordingto the
representation.
and
principleof continuity; plants are lower animals
Man
is a monad
less perfect men.
whose
animals
are
conscious
activityhas risen to the height of self-con

sciousness, with
no

The

inert matter
smallest

malculae.

the cognate
;

no

soul-less

portion of

Nothing

is

power

of

bodies

dust

dead, and

is the
nature

nor

There

reason.

is

body-lesssouls.

habiliment
is

of

ani-

gradation of

differingdegrees of activity.
are
isolated,yet in na
Metaphysically the monads
and
ture
them, they live in groups,
as
we
see
compose
the things which
An
call plants,animals, and men.
we
with a central
of monads
organic thing is a combination
This
central
monad
is the soul of the
ruling monad.
form
the body of the organ
ones
; the subordinate
group
ism.
of the soul or
The influence
ruling monad
upon
the body-monads is purely ideal. They all strive for the
the soul represents more
same
end, which
clearly.The
acts
spontaneously and together, not from
group
any
inanimate
outside influence. An
objectdiffers from such
it is a group
of monads
a
as
livingorganism, inasmuch
soul or
without
there
a
a
ruling,central monad
; and
monad
is both
soul and
fore such
is
a
body. There
therefore
dualism
between
soul and
no
body in any
unconscious
or
creatures, for body is only obscure
ac
tivity.The body consists of monads
having a confused
of their activity.
sense
monads

in

THE

RATIONALISTS

127

This

continuityand unity within the world, as Leib

sees
it,is only the logicaldevelopment of the unity
which
he originally
his monads.
endowed
Although

nitz
with
he
that

monads

the

starts

windowless,"

"

as

he

also

says

they mirror the universe." They are so conceived

to be originally
as
physicallyseparated,but psycholog
Their natural
icallyand ideallyunited.
harmony re
sides in an
ideal of perfect activity,
while in actual ex
istence they are
independent." The ideal which unites
is God, the last term
them
in the graded series of the
"

"

He

monads.

is the

world

of these

unitaryand
monad.

God

ruled

are

at

is

groups

The

world

the

apex.

other

The

is their

established
A

likened

be

world

the

intrinsic

in that

this

to

is like

parts

the

from

to

dominating

unity and

the

its

dominating

pyramid

its parts

seem

the

so

derives

with

which

machine

is

groups

soul-monad,

hierarchy,which

machines,

Although
rately,they are under

the various

as

character

He

because

monads,

central

a
an

may

machines.

God

by

harmonious

differs from

of

activity.Just

perfect,conscious
of monads

monad

little

are

operate

sepa

of

God.

control

universe

is

pre-

harmony.

Spinoza'sconceptionof the world

of nature
brings out Leibnitz's meaning effectively.
Both
nature
philosophers conceive
phenomena to be
To
under
the law
of mechanical
causation.
Spinoza,
alike ; there
however, all phenomena are
qualitatively
them.
of value
between
are
no
grades or distinctions
All are
of substance
modes
and all illusions in the sight
of God.
To Spinoza phenomena are homogeneous. Leib
nitz's estimate
of nature
of the world
is quite different,
and

with

comparison

for him

phenomena

nature

of

has

nature

a
are

far

richer

not

endowment.

homogeneous.

The

Their

difference

does

degree

in which

of nature

is

the

members

of

other

hand, the individual

form

the

is

higher

Leibnitz

of

law
than

points out,

ceding, and

in turn

that

Thus,

and

follow.

depends
its
the
its
its

each

upon

that

formula,

to

necessitated

series

and

to

are

them

noza

the

its

events

are

its

has,

event

series

existence

place,but
place,and

place
so

constitute

speak,

to

has

necessitated
the

homo

member

each

of

is
the

its

unique part to play.

Spinoza void of meaning, be
under

The

Leibnitz's

law

hands

teleologicalprinciple.Even

mathematical
world

term

Life

mode.

characterless

necessitybecame

conceived

the

to be undifferentiated.

principleof harmony,

in

the pre

fill that

event

finite

of events

of life

he conceives

of mechanical

can

Leibnitz, because

meaningful

cause

event

by

whose

only

that

series,

gives individualityto each

appeared to Spinoza only as a

mathematical,

changes

not

the

trans

this

and

series,which

geneous,

give

series

having

other

individuality.Every

of the

The

event

unique place. No
conditions

phenomena

series, it is

the

on

necessitated

determines

nature

implied

part,

is determined

term

while

indi

principleof unity

term

each

necessitated

each

is

their

terms, for

necessity.In

bare

law

The

law.

the

necessity,and

of

the

gives unitary in

nature-series

necessityinto

in

The

universe.

the

the
law

the

but

content,

under

of

terms

nature

very

in their

they represent
the

dividualityto
in the

consist

not

unifying principlethat

vidualityof

PHILOSOPHY

OF

HISTORY

128

to

series, such

be, Leibnitz

and
necessityimplies individuality

Spi

as

believed

that

individuality
implies

purpose.

How

vital,therefore, does

mechanical

members

Universal

strivingor

life

transformed
force

now

appear,
into

with

living

fills nature, and

the

its

units

surging

RATIONALISTS

THE

of individual

forces

of the whole.

The

of

changes

Leibnitz

ciples that

are

"

ber

in

differences

motion, good

the

second

things
would

in

and

cernibles.

is

the law

"

is

Member

order.

in

breaks

no

continuous

follows

Their

mem

qualitative

quality of activity.Rest
differences

If

they
the

of

Although there is no
between
things,there

contrast

has

of

degree.

nothing superfluous;

alike.

are

identical

of

evil,are

place,there
nature

be

series

of continuity.

are

prin

pregnant

preestablished but

the

graded

in nature

de
teleological

place,nature

; and

and

inner

unity

physiological

causes

several

this

In the first

continuous

differences

the

the

to

the

"

the efficient

points out

vacuum

the law

one,

and

series

aspects of

harmony.

abhors

and

and

meaning

new

expression of

the

velopment.
trinsic

mechanical

bodies

our

only

are

"

gives

129

indis-

identityof

antithesis

or

likeness.

absolute

no

two

no

alike, they

were

absolute

is

In

from
other
be differentiated
must
Every monad
every
i. e. according to its perfected activity.
intrinsically,
has an
ex
Therefore, in the third place,every member
for being
the law
cuse
reason.
of sufficient
Every
has its part to perform and no
member
other can
act as
an
understudy for it. However
insignificant
any member
to be, it is as
unique as its bigger neighbor.
may
appear
"

Superimposed

The

Unity

Theological Unity. The

is derived
it is

Leibnitz

turns

fication

of the

takes

on

his

The

actual

but

ideal

the

of

form

unity is

no

only ideal

Monads

the

unity

monads

for which

philosophy into

nature

different

portance.
no

intrinsic

naturally from

unattained

an

of

of

the

strive.

assumes

longer an
existence

When

theodicy,or

God, this unity of

and

monads

themselves, but

they
a

The

"

the

justi
world

theologicalim

intrinsic

unity,with

depending

upon

the

OF

HISTORY

130

highestmonad

series,but

in the

who

exists apart from

nal

purpose.

the

of

deduced

God

conceives

actual

be

is

about

The

acts

deserts.

If

evil, we

must

of the

whole.

world

this world

The
is no

and

free

is only due

absence
Thus

Leibnitz

of
a

it

is

world

to

fact

that

all

as

incident

an

would

of

does

be

less

there
be

to

lightsand

Evil

after

indistinct

sophicalpremises. Leibnitz

out

excel

exists.

agents,

is not

free

used

to

without
be.

The

possible
"

Evil

comes

responsible

agency

all is not

his

their

harmony

good

best

ideas of

of

the

shades.

God

evil and

come

no

inexplicable

ought

the

have

not

was

free

in

good, as cold is the absence

preestablishedharmony was

that

pos

possibleworlds

be

to

and

the

the

world

is the

of

world

seems

agency.

the

There

The

of man,
to

that

punished according to

conceived

live is

we

possibleworld

evil than

more

for it. It is better

no

construct

this

fact.

what

world

God
is

to

so

or

discover

regard

"

Him

in which

in

now

perfect and

construct

best

; is it not

the free agency

evil and

this

rewarded

we

which

to

Spinoza said

possible world

are

evil. There

world

logic,but

said

you

best

whose

The

choose

in

Leibnitz

Look

as

impelled

reason

God

world.

lence of the

goal,but

its construction.

necessity for
exist.

ideal

an

Leibnitz

philosophy.

It is

reason

no

in

always

was

perfectlyconceivable
different.
all
Why, among

worlds, did

There

from

as

chose.

could

is his eter

world

conception

his

upon

whose

He

the world

The

personality

be
thought, but it cannot
philosophy. It is a conception after

possibleworld.

best

sible

not

person,

world

this

actual

an

Leibnitz's

superimposed

wards

the

his

from

is

the world.

Probably

background

PHILOSOPHY

man.

than

no

positive,
It is the

of heat.

constructed

by

originalphilo

his celebrated

figureof

VI

CHAPTER

ENLIGHTENMENT"

THE

The

Emergence
In

ism.

passing

objects of
diaeval
and

"

the

interested

so

of

thought

in

wealth

of

great

systems

of

second

lightenment
from

away

the

more

and

this

of

the

turn

of

and

had

tragic.
been

Read

500-502;

Windelband,
Hibben,

Phil,

his

had

Enlightenment

mental

activity

that

of Phil,

of

pp.

last

the

the

Thus

emerges

constitutes

and

environ

nature.

Renaissance

sleep
Hist,

with
own

of

century
been

the

Renais
like

Enlightenment

437-440,

of Enlightenment,

sub
sub

was

unconscious,
the

En
turns

man

new

objects

vital, spontaneous,
from

the
"

"

"

his

two

The

The

the

constructed

had

struggles

"

not

systematized

thought

the

self-reflection

spectacular

was

been

had

he

that

and

modern

the

of

the

metaphysics.

when

Enlightenment.

awakening
*

and

understand

to

"

had

acquisitions

had

man

new

out

objects
"

"

He

of

thought,
these

already

years

of

universe

intellectual

to

the

new

begins

"

fact

science

more

second

himself.

his

attempts

jective and

the

"

important

jective

sance

the

period

his

and

ment

In

studying

great

This

the

exploiting

me

Europe

have

modern

of

period

first

two

from

We

and

the

geographical

materials.

hundred

recall

modern

in its

new

Individual

modern

of

man

"

should

we

"

new

"-

universe."

Man,"

distinguish

"

two

the

in

new

period

its intellectual

that

"

the

New

"

Renaissance,

the

this

universe

in

absorbed

"

the

that

new

and

found

to

interest

thought

the

lines

of

(icoo-iTSi)

pp.

447-449,

3-13,18-20.

THE

ENLIGHTENMENT

self-conscious

was

Renaissance

and

had

Greek

attitudinizing.The

been

Enlightenment

the

133

in love with
in love

was

nature

history,the

cosmological and

the

himself.

with

Sophistic Illumination, which

ancient

of the

man

is its

Enlightenment

Like

the

parallelin

turned

from

other

*v

away

On

metaphysical problems.

of

man

the

hand, the philosophy of the Enlightenment penetrated

all

departments

cal

questions.

ing

of these

of life and

Erdmann

effort to raise man,

into

during
that

Herder

word

"

uttered

period, which

this

Know

"

proper

become

the

The

novelty of

the

the

Renaissance

vidual

"

verse

had

plishment?
the

creations

tions

"

universe
to

lost

the

new

upon

reorganizeth"

"

new

the

to

was

"

scan;

is man."

of

concerns

indi

the

For

powers.

of

inventions

The

"

uni

new

his

powers

basis
world

had

to
; the

his

not

the

own

won

accom

been

constructions

The

to feel the

begun

been

"

tradi

struggle of

incorporatethe
"

upon

"

strife of methods

"

new

**

consideration.

and

had

man

of

rise

familiar,but through

all its notable

old

enter,

Man:

God

its lustre.

antiquity and
an

was

Germany

on

not

the

and

It

to

therefore, the

Renaissance

his

"

Essay

"

"

not

of

revive

to

and

old

of the

Had

in his

an

sentiment

same

great discoveries

his liberated

world

the

important object of

become

strength of
derful

had

accomplishments

in

"

as

individual,

about

now

currency

marks,

individualism

mean-

everything."

thyself,presume
study of mankind

Enlightenment

modern

rational

are

England

1732

then

The

The

In

humanity."
by Pope in

we

into

brought

is

over

supremacy

'

expressed the

Enlightenment

he

as

practi-j

expression in

well

of the

far

so

positionof

has

decades

nine

found

basis

"

new
"

re-

HISTORY

134

vealed
Man

great fact

that

in his supremacy

and
"

this

interest

"

universe

new

be

time

mysticism
of

ship

and

the

No

Bahrdt.

lightenment

as

age

from

emerged

pendence.
of this

The

to

the

was

to

that

the

remained

be

the

we

are

It

individual

The

individual

"

"

"

new

about

man

important
his

inde

original datum

the many

he

was

problems

of the individual

period of
problems were

rejoicingin

the En

Enlightenment

the

never

Christ,"

all social relation

about

himself, for concerning the individual

arise.

the

is self -intelligible
;

which

was

wor

for

entering ;

now

existence

equality,and fraternity."The
of the

the

explained. Among

independent

The

most

the

only thing that

unquestioned.

relations

the

as

became

from
starting-point

ships were
arose,

be

The

slightestquestion
which

vagaries of

Enlightenment

of the

during

individual

period into

considered
he

the

never

was

the

Individual.

and

bright in

described

of self-conceit

Renaissance

the

to

speak, were

Goethe

that

object of consideration,
there

would

of the

Independence

The

dur

contempt

per

reference

dogmatism.
it

with

one's

there

"

to

The

away.

his word

"

Presupposition

Practical

The

and

wonder

an

to

in contrast

Thus

"

and

of

foreground,

light of

reason

obscurities

wisdom."

fades

is constant

lightof

"

arises

genius

unenlightened.
said

There

illumination

rational

ner,

is supreme,

the

to

"

in the

seen

world

"

entire

universe

new

now

exception.

no

ing this

"

Man

interests.

sonal
can

is

has

man

occupies the

the

in

PHILOSOPHY

OF

no

the

the

"

liberty,

about

the

individual

problem
exuberance

could
of

enjoying himself," domi

nated
everything. The monadology of the Renaissance
atomism
in the Enlightenment. The
became
in
an
the practical assumption of the period.
dividual
was
his

own

powers,

the

"

monad

THE

The
ment.

ENLIGHTENMENT

135

Metaphysical Presupposition of the Enlighten

There
was
a
metaphysical background to this
the

practicalassumption

of

Cartesian

mind

dualism

of

This

individual.
and

was

the

Although the
eighteenth century despaired of a successful metaphysi
cal construction
of the
new
universe," and although
its attention
riveted on
rela
was
an
analysisof human
it must
the period was
not be supposed that
tionships,
its metaphysical bias. Such
is not
without
the nature
of human
history; and if an epoch refuses to discuss
some
metaphysical questions,it is because it assumes
metaphysicsas true. The assumptionof the independent
individual
impliesthe independent existence of matter.
The Enlightenment assumed
the Cartesian
theory as corWhile
the polemics againstmetaphysi
rect.
were
many
cal speculation,
the Cartesian
nevertheless
dualism
was
in control. Here
within
is the independent existence
of
mind
naturallyfollow that there without is
; and it would
the equallyindependent existence of matter.
The concep
tion might fade into a ghost-like
dualism, as in Berkeley
and
Hume, but the dualism
never
entirelyvanished.
This has since been known
the philosophy of "com
as
is to-day the
attitude of those
mon
sense," and
easy
in metaphysical discussions.
Common
not interested
sense"
the opinion of the majority as to truth.
means
Most
people to-day,as then, accept without
question
and
of mind
sort of dualism, usually the dualism
some
body.
matter.

"

"

The

Problems

inquirywas
riod.

of

thus

Nature

the

much

very

lies

beyond

incomprehensible.From
let

us

turn

to

Enlightenment.

study

restricted
our

the

of the

ken.

study

The

during

God

problems

this pe

is still

of nature

of

area

and

of the inner

more

God,
life.

Yet

the field of

while

lems

within

it

breadth

everything,

stand

by

The

in

bold

and

"

of this

include

the

of

of the

validityof

of the

rational

at

this

time,

is

the

ity over

existence.

in

ideas

his

having

two

refer
These

relations.

There

the basis of

as

the

always

could

of such

alert

very

of

with

move

world,

knowledge,

was

in times

case

example,

external

the

of

for

was,

religion.Thought

range

into

divided

psychology, epistemology, soci

thought

wide

irre

the

self-opinionated,

both

"

innate

dividualism, and

be

may

man

basis of

as

is

im-

its world.

of

facts

that

knowledge

our

its

standpoint

reconcile

Critical,

of

problems

problem

the

transform

to

age

etc.
ology, economics, politics,

the

of

tenacity

systematizeand

to

from

brute

age

individual

the

to

an

subjective.

utilitarian and

classes,
ence

an

was

opposition.The

to

tried

the

from

and
self-tormenting,

problems

all

life,tried

ballast,it

arise

there

nothing. Within

of

spiteof

to overlook

problems

The

and

universality,a

flightsand,

individual
with

concilable

and

idea

any

inner

Overloaded

restricted, the prob

was

Enlightenment sought

agination took
of the

study

disdainfulness

field the

(to

PHILOSOPHY

multitudinous,

were

astonishing

\ own

'

OF

HISTORY

136

great in

great rapid

subjects.
The

Enlightenment was
curious
about
the interests,the happiness,and the many
of the individual.
Empirical psychologistsand
powers
brilliant ethical scholars
much
can
man
appeared. How
(")

"

know,

Utilitarian

and

what

are

Problems.

the

limits

and

of

extent

his know-

i ledge ?

cepted
,

group

IThe

The

Rationalists

without
of

ideas

our

Middle

ledge. But

question

Ages
to

the

of
the

is innate
had

been

thinkers

Renaissance

the

mediaeval

built
of

teaching

therefore

and

up

the

had

on

ac

that

God-given.

revealed

know

Enlightenment

the

ENLIGHTENMENT

THE

to

ideas

important

most
us

be

derived

those

are

"

happier

if

from

confined

we

every-day life,and

the

yea,

"

137

only

of service

experience. We

ourselves

did not

ideas

the

deal with

to

try

to

should
facts

of

things be

yond experience. Let us give metaphysical theories to

the
Churchman.
Empirical psychology
known
as
place of metaphysics, and became
]
philosophy.
It

ethics and

to

epistemology. Philosophy thus

school, and

the

be

put

ment

of

toe

basis

*ot

out

of

came

based,
public utility.It was
theologicalpreconceptions,but it was

became

upon

sure,

to be

of the time, and

science

thefavorite

was

service

to the

discovery as

of

It

man.

well

as

was

to

of

means

be

instru-

an

With

grace.

psychologicalincentive
great schools of moralists
especially in England : studying morality as
arose,
the
based
intellect,on the feelings,
on
on
authority,
this

on

of ideas.

association

the

and
this
Empirical psychology led to self -inspection,
universal.
It is the
is the age when
was
self-inspection
societies for the observation
age of the founding of
of sentimental
It is the age
of man."
diary writing.
his autobiographyin France, and it was
Rousseau
wrote
followed
by a flood of autobiographies in Germany.
"

written

individual

took

in the

and

Individual
tions

as

the

scoundrels

form
;

of
and

experiences of
The

over

the

friendships than
historical

church
saved

was

than

Reli

lost

in the

dogma
in Eng

to

America.

than

conven

; societies
to

view

inter

more

arose

important

marriage
was

were

interest.

and

continent

more

Laukhardt

public

movement

the

opinions were

as

personal experiences and

the

Methodist

spread

porations.The

of

matters

conversions

of salvation.

land

such

read

and

gion, too,
ested

of

memoirs

Even

than

because

cor

the

OF

138

HISTORY

personal and

particularoccupied

bon

said,

All

"

ideas

in the

equally useful

(5) Questions
the
in

with

contrast

ideas

Hume's

to

Voltaire's
to

examination

of the

ists,deists,

and

ceremonious

the

The

intellect

and

spread

that

the

beginnings

harmless

theoretical

in

of

of

and

come

was

which

authority and

patient.Man

under

indifferent

with

the

were

little

read, proper

Renaissance,

writings,authorities

substitute

politanismtakes

in

learn
stands

He
the
the

but

the

out

the

state, and

man

im

was

when

con

books

infrequentlyappeared
little cited.

about

for

Let

historyand
the

the

of

ir

study

man

understand

scholar, the

independent

useful

of

grounds

criticism,in

time

the

natural

learning."In

"

fc

was

apparently

the

Chris

tradition, and

historical.

place of patriotism. The

the

of

was

the

spiritof

was

above
is

and

realm

historical

to

this

names

were

would

tian, the German.

sovpolitical

the

of

The

censure.

trast

Man

in

all I

"

Renaissance

the

made

of

sweep

one

was

dogmatism

science,the church,

became

if he

absolute

examination

general

from

religion

age

principlesof morality ;

the

came

be

the

innate

revolutionists

began

should

of

cause,

political
society.It

to

stands

psychologists,moral

which

revolution

knowledge

should

and

foundations

theoretical

morality

place,

against

law

the

indirectlyat

complacent.

world.

of

sociologistswere

ereignty,against

the

second

Rationalism

authority. The

of

strikingdirectlyor

himself

the

criticism

of

the

of

eyes

philosophers,

polemic against society,the

criticism

education

of

the

magistrates."

invective

skepticism

Rousseau's

in

of the

constructive

Locke's

Gib

foreground.

In

period

the

From

Renaissance.

of the

Criticism.

is

Enlightenment

in the eyes

eyes

of

the

equally true

were

people,equally false

the

PHILOSOPHY

Cosmo

Enlight-

OF

HISTORY

140

of view

of

l?ssay and

the

point of

view

tion

of 1688

in

of

and

France,

of

the

deism

The

Germany.

and

all its

phases

tries.

The

tries

be

may

is,however,

Scottish

into

England,

of

of

one

in

Ger

these

in the
In

En

coun

three

England

coun

in

in

France,

Germany,
and

literarymovement

En

the

philosophicalreaction

School

as

Nevertheless

England.

movement

the

France, and

in

in each

in

rationalism

deism
in

in

revolution

colonies.

different.

politicalrevolution

great

as

and

found

very

lightenment passed
so-called

itself

of the

outcome

with

Revolu

the

individualism

empiricism

an

with

Enlightenment

sensationalism

as

ends

American

in the

lightenment expressed
many,

and

England,

Comparison

politicsit begins

another

and

psychologi
Critique; and from

Kant's

with

ends

Locke's

with

philosophy begins

cal

France

PHILOSOPHY

in the

it resulted

it

with

merged
in

resulted

in
a

creative

idealism.
The

Many

ment.

with

those

number

of

of

is about

other

as

twice

long.

as

for
philosophers,
the

reflective

spirit.The

men,

whose

reader.

Nevertheless

\ losophers was
'

and

Hume

of

Bacon,

Leibnitz.
age

the

be

Hobbes,

found

life

seem

was

familiar

are

number

whose

of

shows

although

with

teems

with

permeated
also

are

to

the

it

often

modern

constructive

phi- v
Only Locke, Berkeley,I
importance equals

that

Galileo, Descartes, Spinoza, and

personal talents

others

example,

philosophers

names

the

for

Enlightenment

exceedingly few.

can

In

The

this

extraordinary

an

consequence,

its secular

notable

reveals

of

Enlighten

of the

philosophersof

Renaissance,

names

many

lists of

periods

The

names.

Philosophers

of the

comparison

half

about

of

Groups

to

go

and
in

importance

groups

or

to

be

to

their

part of

^1

p"

THE

ENLIGHTENMENT

141

spirit.On the whole the historyof the

and
the
Enlightenment is that of social movements,
of such move
to be the exponents
philosophers seem
the

secular

ments.

Some

of these

important groups

In

England.

1.

Associationalist

In

France.

are

as

follows

"

Psychologists: Peter Brown (d.

1735), Hartley (1704-1757), Search
(1705-1774),
Priestley(1733-1804), Tooke (1736-1812), Erasmus
Brown
Darwin
(1731-1802), Thomas
(1778-1820).
2. Moral
Philosophers: Shaftesbury(1671-1713) ;
Clarke
intellect, Samuel
on
morality based
(16751729) ; Wollaston
(1659-1724) ; morality based on
(1696feeling, Hutcheson
(1694-1747) ; Home
1782); Burke (1730-1797) ; Ferguson (1724-1816);
Adam
Smith
(1723-1790) ; morality based on author
ity,Butler (1692-1752) ; Paley (1743-1805) ; ethics
associational
based
on
psychology, Bentham
(1748isolated
ethical
position,Mandeville
1832) ; in an
(1670-1733) ; the Platonist, Price (1723-1791).
Toland
The
Deists:
3.
(1670-1722), Collins
(1656-1733), Chubb
(1679(1676-1729), Tindal
1747), Morgan (d. 1743), Bolingbroke (1678-1751).
4. The
/Scottish
School
of Philosophy : Thomas
Reid
(1710-1796), Oswald
(d. 1793), Beattie (d.
1805), Dugald Stewart (1753-1828).
Skeptics: Bayle (1647-1706), Voltaire (1694(17171778), Maupertuis (1698-1759), d'Alembert
(1735-1820).
1783), Buffon (1707-1788), Robinet
2. The Sensualists
La Mettrie
:
(1709-1751), Bonnet
(1715-1780), Cabanis
(1720-1793), CondiUac
(1757-1808).
1.

HISTORY

142

OF

PHILOSOPHY

Encyclopaedists:Diderot (1713-1784), Vol

taire,d'Alembert, Rousseau
(1712-1778), Turgot,Jau(1723-1807), Holbach
court, Duclos, Grimm
(1723(1715-1771).
1789), Helvetius
3.

The

4.

The

ists:

Political

Montesquieu

Economists

and

(1689-1755),

Constitutional

Quesnay, Turgot,

Morelly, Mably.
5.
most

The

Sentimentalist:

notable

figure of

Rousseau
France

(1712"1778), the
during the Enlighten

ment.

St.
Lambert
:
Philosophical Revolutionists
(1716-1803), Volney (1757-1820), Condorcet
(17431794), Garat (1749-1833).
In Germany.
1. Thomasius
(1655-1728), the first of the Enlightenment.
2. The
(1679-1754), Bilfinger,
Wolffians: Wolff
Knutzen
(1700-1766), Baum(d. 1751), Gottsched
garten (1714-1762).
Method
3. The
and
its Opponents:
Geometrical
Hansch, Ploucquet, Crousaz, Riidiger (1671-1731),
Crusius
(1712-1775), Budde, Brucker, Tiedemann,
6.

Lossius, Platner.
4.

The

8.

The

Philosophers :
Psychologists and Related
Kruger, Hentsch, Weiss, Irwing, Moritz (1757-1793),
Basedow
(1723-1790), Pestalozzi, and SuLzer.
5. The Independent Philosophers: Lambert
(17281777), Tetens (1736-1805).
6. The Deists : Schmidt, Semler
(1725-1791), Reimarus
(1699-1768), Edelmann.
Pietists:
7. TJ"e
Spener (1635-1705), Francke
(1663-1727), Arnold, Dippel.
Popular Philosophers:

Mendelssohn

(1729-

ENLIGHTENMENT

THE

The

Abbt,

Engel,

Garve.

Feeler, Meiners,
9.

Basedow,

(1733-1811),

Nicolai

1786),

143

Writer

Philosophical Religion:

on

Lessing

(1729-1781).
10.

The

Writer

on

F(*ith

of

greatest

Herder

Philosophy:

(1744-1803).
The
riod

philosophers

with

help

the

reader

philosophical influences

contemporary

given

To

below.

given

are

importance

them

in

keep

other

this pe

in

in mind

names

are

paralleltable.

Bacon
1561
Hobbes
1588

Descartes
1596
1626

Spinoza

Locke

1632

1632
Newton
1642
Leibnitz

1650

1646
1677

Wolff

1679

Berkeley

1679
Voltaire

1685

1694
1704

Hume
1711
1716

Rousseau
1712

Lessing
1729

1727
1753

1754
1776

1778

1778
1781

CHAPTER

VII

JOHN

The
the
of

With

the

Scottish

We
of

in

appear

shall

then

(2)

as

of

half

of

the

father

see

how

his

doctrine

in the

knowledge

School.

reactionary
teach

We

Enlightenment.

in

philosophies

differ

in three

Christianity,

rational

"

teachings

philosophical position

psychology

associational

the

developed

Deism,

as

of

of

eighteenth century.

of the

was

the

philosophical

the

first,the

who

an

theory

teachings

history

Scottish

the

important

first

(1)

includes

and

the

the

all

the

directions:

ent

Britain

understand,

to

Locke,

of

exception
School,

need

Great

of

The

Britain.

Great

Berkeley, Hume,

Locke,

ings

in

Enlightenment

philosophy

LOCKE

ethics, (3)
of

as

and

Berkeley

Hume.

Our
has

been

followed

however,

be

about

take

of

of the

discussion

to

the

up

intervened

time

that

by

for

mistake

contemporaries

through

the

and

Restoration.

the

Locke

the

of Locke,

between

Hobbes

of

too, that

of

the

for

I, during
died

It

would,

as

we

Locke.

shows

that

they
lived

Both

years.
the

Commonwealth

eleven

years

only philosophical

are

long period

and

forty-seven

before

We

essay.

must

English empirical philosophers

the

were

Continent.

livelyinterchange

that

lives

their

infer,

to

Hobbes

and

Rationalism.
reader

Hobbes

Enlightenment

tionalists

the

of Charles

his

published

remember,
of

reign

of

study

chronological comparison
were

of Bacon

philosophy

of ideas.

not

On

insulated

the

Descartes

from

contrary,

there

influenced

Ra

the
was

Hobbes

HISTORY

146

and

Hobbes

cartes

rived
of
his

influenced
Locke

upon

felt the

of

Locke.

alone

Bacon

The

of Des

influence

inconsiderable, and

not

Leibnitz

Berkeley and Leibnitz ar

from
independent points

conclusions

idealistic

view.

PHILOSOPHY

Spinoza.

was

influence

at

OF

stand

to

seems

apart both

from

followers.
contemporaries and from his immediate
the natural
The English Enlightenment was
develop
of

ment

of

cessor

Renaissance.

English

the

Bacon

Hobbes.

and

Locke

On

the

the

was

other

suc

hand, the

in
on
English Enlightenment is similar to what went
and
France
Germany. The first half of the English
from
1690
absorbed
to 1750
was
Enlightenment
in philosophicaldiscussions ; during the second
half, the
period abandoned
philosophy,and was
engaged entirely
in politics.The
classes
that won
in the Revolution
of
in maintaining their place of
had
1688
little trouble
and
The peacefulcoming of William
Mary gave
power.
for intellectual development and
well-ordered
conditions
for a powerful literarymovement.
The
Jacobites
were
there ensued
crushed, and
a
period of politicalpeace.
"

In
of

the

latter

"

half

topicscame

to

of

the

the

front.

seded

philosophy ;

minds

had

been

of mankind"

employed

in

the

Wilkite

sucked
all

of

into

Europe.

the

The

the
the

upon
and

politicssuper
keenest

English

theoretical

"

philosophy,they

Court

was

study
be

now

arrayed against the

Revolution, the American

agitationswere
the

1750

set

practicalpoliticalquestions. Political

partiesdeveloped.
families

After

whereas

in literature

engaged

came

and

another

however,

century,

looming large. England

politicalmaelstrom

Instead

of

trouble, and

deistic

that

was

controversies

was

involving
with

the

orthodoxy,dangerous political
theological
questionswere

appearing. Instead

of Hume's

Essay

and

Butler's

Ana-

HISTORY

148

teen

then
in

of this

years

1660,

of

year

the British

which

His

the

period were

in Oxford.

lecturer

as

dislike for the

School,

minster

PHILOSOPHY

OF

the

first

spent,
He

student

as

his Oxford

took

Restoration

and

degrees

the

founded

at

classics,which

begun

at the

confirmed

was

Oxford.

Oxford

his

by

in

year

Royal Societywas
was

and

West
studies.

Consequently,during the years of his perfunctory lec

interest was
(1660-1666), his main
turing at Oxford
in physics. He
was
engaged in chemical, meteorological,
also en
He
and
observations.
was
especiallymedical
medical
practice,in partnership
gaged in an amateur
with an old physician.
in 1666, when
The first turning point in his life came
called to attend
the first Lord
he was
Shaftesbury,who
fallen ill at Oxford.
This
accidental
had
meeting was
the beginning of a lastingfriendshipwith the Shaftes
love for polit
bury family, sustained
by their common
intellectual

and
ical, religious,

Shaftesburywas
of

Charles

the

in the

statesman

the

greatest of

was

the

trusted

Shaftes

third

Shaftesbury

Locke
English ethical scholars.
friend and
beneficiaryof the first Lord

bury, the

tutor

of the

influenced,

second, and

than

more

Locke

else,the ethical productions of the third.

one

wrote

Lord

reign

was

any

II ; the

notable

most

first Lord

liberty. The

notes

some

wealth,

an

essay

in this
on

period on

the Roman

toleration,and

made

Common
of

records

physical observations.
2.

As

seventeen

Politician
years

mately connected
He

held

Locke's
with

public office.

Royal Society in
important for his

1668.

During

(1666-1683).
outward

fortunes
of

career
political

the

He
The

was

made

winter

intellectual fortunes

inti

were

Shaftesbury.

member

of 1670-1671

and

these

marks

of

the
was

another

JOHN

turning point

in

his life.

It

149

then

was

led to his famous

inquiry that

the

LOCKE

that

Essay.1

he

started

The

Essay

development during the next nine

and in
He passed four years in retirement
teen
years.
(1675"1679). He also at this time
study in France
Shaf tesbury
his Essays on Government.
first conceived
was

in the process

fled

to

Holland
later

months
3.

1689
The
of

of

in

followed

November,

1682,

and

Locke

few

him.

PhilosophicalAuthor (1683-1691). The year

divides
this period into two
important parts.
is not
first part (1683-1689)
only the period
As

his exile

Holland,

in

but

it is the

time

in which

he

important
composing and completing his three most
literaryworks,
Understanding,
Essay on the Human
Treatises
the two
the three
Government,
on
Epistles
Tolerance.
on
During the second part (1689-1691) he
the time immediately follow
published these, which was
to
ing his return
England. Newton's
Principia was
the one
publishedin 1687, and Locke's Essay in 1690
the foundation
of modern
physical science, the other the
of
beginning of modern
psychology. The appearance
works
in 1688
these two
together with the Revolution
in the history
makes
this point of time an important one
is

"

"

of the

world.

4.

As

began
"

the

Controversialist

to write

upon

coining of

of money,

the

almost

silver money,

culture

of

Locke

(1691-1704).
every

conceivable

the

raisingof

olives,etc.

He

was

then

subject,
the
also

value
very

For
defending his philosophy against attacks.
At
of controversy.
him, until 1700 the period was
one
that time he retired from all activity,
and after four years
of failing
health
died in 1704.
His
period of produc-

busy

in

See

Essay, introductory epistleto

the reader.

HISTORY

150

tion

confined

was

OF

PHILOSOPHY

the eleven

to

1689

between

years

and

1700.
The

Sources
The

Ancestry.
much

not

tans, and

Both

he

his

His

Puritan

known,

and

mother

inherited

ex

Puri

were

the

and

be

personalitycan

father

have

to

seems

his

1.

is little

Locke

in

appears

it.

Thought.
of

ancestry

that

plained by

Locke's

of

piety,

severe

self-reliant

prudent,

industry,and love of liberty,that

English Puritan families of the middle

in

were

common

class

in the

teen

years

seventeenth
he

century. During the first four

schooled

was

by

his

parents.

If Locke
inherited
Training in Tolerance.
his
least degree any
temper of intolerance from
ancestry it entirelydisappeared with his expe
before
and
during his life at the University of

2. His
in the

Puritan
riences

Oxford.

In

1646,

revolted

at

the

at the

scholastic

stern

negative
centives

influences

to freedom

John

life.

Oxford

at that
to

toleration

the

his whole

Puritanism

been

ameliorated.

came

now

the

in

also

the

rebelled

he received.

Locke

These

the

the

The

felt Owen's
fact

and

that

Locke's

of

freedom
influ

Locke's

Pococke,

university,shows
in

was

Tolerance

key-note in

university

Vice-Chancellor

Professor

was

there

his

universitygranted
life.

Oxford

during

liberal

the

outspoken Royalist in

whatever

He

sides

supplemented by positivein

were

was

at

both

on

Civil War.

all Protestants.

friend

School, his mind

trainingwhich

time, and

throughout

intimate
most

intolerance

and

Owen

thought

ence

cruel

just succeeding the

events

of

Westminster

the

at

nature

the

that
had

libertyof opinion

life of John

Locke.

"

be
A

great love for his friends,an honest

gentledisposition,
seeking after truth, and a firm faith in the importance
the traits most
of personal and
are
politicalfreedom

JOHN

in

remarkable
and

letters."

that

of

his

reconcile

Locke

His

LOCKE

as

know

we

toleration

151

him

of the

not

was

Leibnitz.

contemporary

from

his

books
sort

same

Leibnitz

as

sought

to

into
by combining them
a new
dogmatic theory ; Locke neglected disagreements,
sought no perfectharmony, but pointed out a via media
that
Leibnitz
set forth
a
might take.
any individual
metaphysical system ; Locke gave a practicalmethod.
He
had
of honesty of
a
man
great directness, and was
thought. Not being a partisanhe had no side to defend ;
and
he was
not
not
a
partisan because
philosophy was
his trade. Philosophy was
the accomplishment
to Locke
of a gentleman who was
interested in the puzzles of life.
His diction is for ordinary people; it is simple and ex
He
shows no logic
pressed in short Anglo-Saxon words.
is admirable, the par
of thought ; and while any sentence
agraph and the page are dull. His Essay is a chaos of
plain truths, only here and there illuminated by imagin
ation. He shows
no
poetic power, and the world in which
the
studied
fired his imagination. He
he lived never
human

mind

fathers

his

as

no

like

an

he would

Essay

Essay stands,
but

elements

discordant

was

not

read

us

the

completely planned building,

enlarged cottage,very

The

habitable,but making

ScientificInfluence. As

of Ockam

man

and

the

anti-mysticaland

same

Bacons,

two

thorough Englishman in
When
the
new
philosophy

taste

the Oxford

of the

"

"

came

circle,he

to the

still true

was

one

was

Universitythrough
to

fellow-country

Locke

shows

positivisttendencies.

were

To

our

singleimpression.
3.

It

To

thermometer.

philosophicalBible.

like

the

Aristotle.

and

He

was

temperament.

finding its

way

first to welcome

books

the

; the

into

it.

lecturers

Descartes, Hobbes,

and

HISTORY

152

Bacon
tion

widely read,

were

Epicurus. Locke

of

less famous

no

empirical

method

Descartes

and

He

gave

and

his

chemist, and

famous

it to

they applied

owed

the
all

up

personal

for

Syden-

him

in the

chemistry

and

philosophicalawakening to
Royal logic.The lucidityof

his

Port

the

him.

exposi

concerning

physician,interested

as

therapeutics.He

writes

clergyman

friendshipfor Bayle, a
ham,

also Gassendi's

was

upon

becoming

of

thought

as

himself

Descartes

of

influence

PHILOSOPHY

OF

of intellectual
inspiration
liberty; although he afterwards used the principlesthat
his teacher's
Descartes
had
taught him to controvert

Descartes

him

to

came

as

an

doctrine.

During the first period of Locke's life (1632-1666)

and
he was
than
student of medicine
a
a
nothing more
He
retired
scholar
the
was
meteorological observer.
who
led so placid a life that it portended nothing note
scholar
and
creditable
teacher, but
a
worthy. He was
had
his
He
life was
passed
negative in character.
through stirringtimes, and they did not stir him.
4. The
Political
Influence.Locke's interest in poli
when
tics began when
he was
thirty-fouryears old
he met
For
fifteen years
Lord
he
Ashley at Oxford.
"

shared
man

the
of

home

affairs in

Ashley (Earl
and

died

there

patron Locke
1689, when
In

Mary.
from

of

the

the

Holland.

Holland

next

this

he

to

found

; and

of

he

the

the

II.

for

the

exile

in

brilliant

formed

he

an

of

1682,
of his

Holland

until

William

company,
intimate

liberal

lived

in

Lord

death

with

England

This

Holland

After

leader

time

to

remarkpble

most

of Charles

year.

England

Limborch,
Some

reign

returned

all countries

ship with

of

Shaftesbury)fled

left
he

fortune

and

with

and

exiled
friend

theology in
a
Quaker.

LOCKE

JOHN

friendshipwith Shaftesburyand

Locke's

confirmed

in Holland

erty. So

him

Locke's
the

sentative
had

Treatises

two

on

in

that

and

residence

lib
political

England

and

needed

got it in

Locke

Government.

Revolution

of the

his

Revolution, he

the

philosophicaldefender

reached

thus

intellectual

now

after

be

repre

fiftyyears

its culmination.

Summary.
of Locke

in his belief

entered

William

when

for
literaryjustification

came

153

was

On

the

whole,

easilymodified

the
not

inherited

only by

Puritanism
his

own

mod

but also by his scientific interests and

disposition,
by his large politicalexperiences.He naturally grew
between
traditional
to be the apostle of the via media
ism and empiricism. He
published practicallynothing
his return
before
he was
from
sixty years old. After
works
exile his principal
appeared in swift succession.
formed
Two
accidents
turning-pointsin his life. His
turned
accidental
meeting with Shaftesbury in 1666
him
to politics
secondly,at an informal meeting
; and
in the winter
of 1670-1671
of friends
the question
of sensations
about
the nature
was
accidentallyraised,
his great Essay. His life was
out of which
pri
grew
marily one of affairs and of largeacquaintance with men
and things.To him
life was
the first thing,his interest
in politics
second, and his philosophythird. That
came
his ideas
should
have
been
the basis of extreme
phi
the Continent
is na
and political
beliefs on
losophical
the perils of misin
tural enough when
remembers
one
who
terpretationto the man
preaches the doctrine of
erate

the via
The

media.
of Locke.

Purpose

of

two

on

the Human

centuries

we

In

to-day

the
see

historical

Locke

in

perspective
his

Essay

Understanding deliveringthe inaugural

154

address

of

the

individual

in

Of

importance
of

the

his

of

He

the

work.

own

have

spokesman

of the

He

been

churchman

the

on

atheists

of the
man

intellect.

into

the

In

the

on

He

of

stated

be

clearly;

It was,

however,

in its

human

freedom.

Locke

intellect

man

has, what

"

know

Kant,

For
and

Locke
not

the
the

he

must

keep

within

he

must

state

only

shows

what

what

practical.

declaration

limitations

what
and

be

hu

inquire

human

Kant.

(3) he must
larger meaning a
can

claims

foreshadows

and

it

high

of the

is to

eighteenth

(1)
(2)

facts ;

of concrete

of

extent

the

English

of the

power

design

insight of

the

century, and

nineteenth

can

his

Ency

arrogant

the

to

Locke

spiritof

the

the

find

to

of Voltaire.

and

restrictions

as

that

states

short

for

speaks

range

other,

declaration

this

falls

he

astonished

hand, and

one

need

the

revolutionists,of
the

answer

of

out

century of French

originalcertaintyand

ledge."
but

to

historical

the

Illuminati,of Hume,

in mind

had

knew

It grew

materialists, and
clopaedists,
deists, of German

making the
rights of the
psychological

erudite

never

would

hour.

himself

he

course

is

intellectual

of the

lengthy, dry, and

dissertation.

He

eighteenth century.

declaration

first formal

PHILOSOPHY

OF

HISTORY

the

it cannot

of
hu

know.

it forgotthe
Enlightenment got momentum,
Locke
limitations
had
to knowledge that the sober
set
down, and read in his words only a declaration of license.
The Essay differs from
previous modern
philoso
any
the universe
is the sub
and
not
phicalwriting. Man
When

the

ject.For

first time

of mind,

laws
But
not

the

the

human

it is the

and
via

not

we

of the

media

lawless

excesses

reason

is

not

find

an

laws

examination
of the

for which
of the

of

universe.

Locke

stands, and

eighteenthcentury.

all-knowing

"

the

cannot

solve

The

all

156

OF

HISTORY

discrimination

what

to

as

PHILOSOPHY

should

accepted

be

and

what

rejectedof the past. It gives his philosophy a positive

and
a
negative aspect. In brief,on its negative side he
of rejectingthe entire past by rejecting
makes
show
a
all innate
ideas, but really he inconsistently
accepted
and
of indi
from the past its conception of substance
viduality.On its positiveside he builds up from expe
he divides
into
rience
a
theory of knowledge which
intuitive,demonstrative, and
probable. That is to say,
Locke
all our
affirms
that
be
while
knowledge must
derived
from
to him
to
occurs
experience, it never
doubt
of

God,

and

man,

(")

issued

and

the

as

If

ence.

right

of

in

modern

is

mind

Locke.

tradition

"

only part
eighteenth century
in
justification

its

it had

Innate

ideas

and

of

inherited

by
the

upon

monarchy

and

his entire

stance

Descartes

They

the

divine
nature.

found

To

Essay.

political

defiance

the

masses,

of

tyranny

at least three

of

beliefs,
church

the

abso

kings, the

Spinoza

the innate

of

ideas,"

for

stand

right

enough, but

innate

no

him

unthinking

philosophy from
had

the

been

have

unsubstantiated

fact.

superstitionsabout

duced

would

exist
to

mean

unexamined

lutism

There

"

conceptions unverified

written, the

ever

practicalmoral

his

last

independ

and
deep sociological

medisevalism.

imposed

of

harmless

looks

into

books

composed

was

the

this first book

dogma

four

the

first

in

scholasticism

to

Of

divided, the

It expresses

traditional

existence

Scholasticism.

and

defiance

Essay.

been

the

time

meaning.

Locke

"

introductory declaration

an

finding

in Locke's

says

of his

it had

anarchism

Side

avowed

Essay

added

of the

theory

matter.

an

introduction

which

Cartesian

Negative

The

Locke
the

traditional

the

had

de

idea

of sub

innate

ideas

JOHN

Leibnitz

believed

personal right
claimed

have

existence

of

attacked
vulnerable

tacking
a

ditional

(")

examine

all

ideas

the

thing

Positive

The

we

stock

Side

rely. The

can

of ideas

in trade

of Locke's

outcome

obliged him
of

to

white

; how

for

two

ways

free

to

the

innate

who

takes
tra

of

judge for
experiences.
his denial

use

of the

has

not

formula

been

intend

to

the

that

state

"

the

"

of

truth

of

nothing
sense,"

white

or

that

; that

it

upon

it.

all ideas

and

positive

They

are

his

than

is

of

its

ideas, in

his

intellect that

employment

piece of paper,"

anything further

posi

is like

falseness

innate

in

En

the individual

is in the

or

the

mind

the

negative

mind

the

of

individualism.

existence

first in the

figureof

of

no

? The

states

affirm

to

the

the

itself of

of the

Locke

and

are

saying that

life with

originalmarkings
impressions made

the

upon

logical
of scholastic
psychology
psychology and theory
a
psychology as a con

by saying that

ideas

ideas

individualism

any

for

weight

upon

they arise

book

doctrine

same

of

new

his second

without

deny

kind

enters

the

aroused,
empirically

sides of

not

at

was

Psychology and

New

the

offer

must

programme

paper

to

of the

more

weight of

no

do

gets its markings from

In

has the

have

mind

tive side of his doctrine

are

he

"

ideas

disclaimer

He

lightenment.In

Thus

Locke

something

at

individual

The

"

construct

knowledge.

structive

the

authority.

If inherited
Epistemology.
bound
to show
Locke, he was

which

critics

in which

themselves

of the

the

maintained

sense

habit

because

pleads for
Locke's

ever

aiming

ideas

innate

true

ideas.

in the

was

medieval

the

Locke

philosopher

no

Locke

than

thing as

innate.

innate

them.

157

all ideas

to

that

LOCKE

Locke

does

that the mind

HISTORY

158

is free.

He

without

trammels

that

mind

the

OF

merely

is

believe

ideas, but

its

mind

has

The

end

and

ond

books

mind

develops an
is active

Locke's
the

Essay

our

ideas.

and

either

bodily

senses,

rnind
or

itself.

the

the

structed.

him, which

the

it. The
reflect.

make

them

Essay

In

the

sec

the

con

fourth

the

the

book

that

the

has

but
not

reflections
mind.

We

dualism

All

books

of

of

ideas

and

outer

"

what

are,

taken

"

is

up

the

inner

is to

are

con

Locke

word

pecu

by philosophy.

consciousness
that

the

simple ideas,"

"

easily enough

their

sensations

either

are

ideas

"

mind

have

complex

been

of

impressions upon
the operationsof

reflections

"

third

empirical sources

them

the

understand

"

not

passive,in

and

them,

calls

of which

liar to

chineryof

the

calls

also

by sensations,
by

the

of ideas

Locke

as

out

We

does

assumption

Cartesian

sources

means

means

the

internallyin

Locke

units

itself

can

view.

were

background.

or

The

mind

Locke's

read

second
of

the

notes

reflections,or,

being

The

externally in

perceptions."

and

mind

discussion

in

source

its ideas

are

free.

and

One

matter

it

psychologists.In

Psychology.
are

states

mind

which

epistemology on

belong

not

frequently discusses

if the

as

modern

of

mind

he

mercy

presented to

point of

mean

interpreted

the

the

are

must

one

the

does

that

upon

get his double

to

the

manner

he

Thus

third

of

tents

they

at

mental

our

that

operate with

can

compounds.

the

to

that

original powers

mind

into

that

believes

not

and

he

starts

does

followers

sensations, and

merely passive. He

create

He

his French

sensationalist, but

translated

merely

prejudices.He

as

who

class

that

to

is

Locke

individual

the

completely passive

of its environment,
him.

that

means

and

is

PHILOSOPHY

of the
say,

ma

conscious

JOHN

of

of

their

the

of

process

is

and

The

to

that

note

These
and

form

ideas

which

the

of

"

"

"

ideas

cient

in

not
are

psy

passive,even

as

The

reflections,
the

on

reflections

make

at

shows

into the

come

sensa

impres

crucible

of various

ideas

these

complex

relations.

The

construction

"

ideas

simple
ideas

refer

Locke's

"

and

need

not

detain

hard

common

logicalclassification

us.

and

he

sub

of "com

objectsto
great variety

the

details

of his

He

is very

pains

; but

sense

ideas

the

receive

hands, but

of the

There

sorts.

of

complex

lengthy discussion
he

mind

dependent

and

complex"

of

out

illustration

taking ;

the

are

Locke's

throughout

are

sensations

stances, modes, and

plex

for

of the sensations.

of reflection.

mind,

general classes

three

are

the

simple

"

occasion

passive mind.

upon

mind

of

both

tions,and
sions

the ideas

to

faculties

as

sensations

reflections

transmutation

he regards the
chologicalanalysis,

respect

the

are

the

to

transmittingthe sensations,but they

important

with

As

etc.

mind, the

the

reflections.

mechanical

the later and

It

reflections
the

of

appearance

in

appearance

the

prior to

are

159

willing,loving,remembering,

our

order

LOCKE

he

is defi

often

betraysmuch
indecision.
His Essay is of encyclopaediccharacter
in
its derivation
of all common
notions
from
simple
ideas."
laws
of association
form
the chemistry by
The
the
which he welds
simple ideas
together.
far Locke
is empirical and
consistent.
Thus
How
the dualistic background of the thought of his age
ever,
makes
him
his avowed
deviate
from
empiricism. Be
sides the clear and
simple ideas of sensation and reflec
"

"

"

tion

Locke

idea

of Self ?

is not

introduces

It is not

complex idea,

the
a

idea of the Self.

sensation

derived

from

nor

What

is the

reflection.

sensations

and

It
re-

160

flections.
are."

we

It is

"

thought.

internal, infallible perception that

an

It

is

It

stands

PHILOSOPHY

OF

HISTORY

of

accompaniment

an

beside

the

the

of

processes

ideas, which

empiri

are

The result
callyderived, as an unexplained remainder.
of Locke's
psychologicalanalysisis therefore that the

the

of the

world

inner

ideas

simple

of

that the

Theory

of human

til the

last book.

is made

to the

man's
All

in the

the
he

the

Locke

that

things. That

what

in

Here

; and

here

attempt
with

answer

can

un

long

the

historyof thought

in

out

defines
or

beyond

are

treatment

knowledge

as

disagreement
is real

of

What

is the

Locke

hesitates, and

unknown

nature

of
the

something

But
?

What

perceptionof

ideas," and

he

the

of the inner

to

Locke,

information

world.

is,

union

the

ex

substance?

answer

of the

II

substance

assumed

material

does

with

(in Book

material

can

yet

ideas agree

as

assumed

Substance,

unknown.

substance

cause

he

"

our

outer

best

support and

distinct, simple ideas."

thing about

the

En

the

of his main

the

only
had

say, Locke

of

assumptions

in Locke's

knowledge
is to

the

Essay} the existence of the

of things of the outer
world, just as
istence of the spiritual
Self-substance

for

this
a

active

as

of the

the

form

and
probability,

difficulties

agreement
says

mind

and

knowledge.

lightenmentcome
theme.

reach

his real theme.

and

the

says

limits

the

books

questions man

with

certainty,what

book

what

the

plus

Locke

Although

first three

he treats

show

of

Self.

fourth

first time
to

reflection

and

Knowledge.

The

for the first time

the

of

combination

Essay is to show
knowledge, he does not

extent

for

sensation

of the

of his

purpose

troduction

consists

of the

unexplained idea
Locke's

mind

mind

do

"

It is

of several
is

word

know
our

no

LOCKE

JOHN

to

convey

of substance

us

we

know

the

of

substances, and

primary
The

of substances.
same

as

their

or

the

161

We

have

secondary

us,

such

it would

ment

of his

variable

The

qualities

bodies

the

as

and

the

are

extension

rest, duration

of
and

nothing in the
to produce various
sen
powers
Secondary
primary qualities."
secondary

objectsthemselves but
sations in us
by their
qualitiesare sounds, colors,etc.
ment

or

of
primary qualities

effects in

time.

knowledge:

constant, unchangeable qualities

movement
bodies, their solidity,

position in

this

"

are

In this confused

that substance

stands

state

merely the
nominal
and the pri
support of the primary qualities,
the cause
of the secondary qualities.
are
qualities
mary
Thus the individual
stands
forth free in the develop
seem

he is

ideas, but

an

as

individual

circumscribed

of an
by his dualistic world. He belongs to the world
the one
on
hand, and
unexplained spiritualsubstance
he is surrounded
material
by a world of an unknown

substance

on

the

other.

There

are

kinds

three

of know

ledge : intuitive, demonstrative, and probable. Locke

certain of his own
says that the individual is intuitively
ideas. The individual has also demonstrative
knowledge
he can
reason
logicallyand mathematically.But
Locke's
real problem does not lie with intuitive and de
monstrative
knowledge. The question that concerned
is the character
him was
of our
rather, What
knowledge
of the external world ? The individual in the Enlighten
lived in a spiritual
ment
independence of matter, yet
his hold
he had a feelingof uncertainty about
upon
"

world

of matter

world

foreignto

ening

of the

mind

so

his

different

from

spiritualessence.

within

itself and

himself.

It

With

the

with

independence, the equallyindependent

its

material

was

deep

growing
world

162

HISTORY

difficult and

more

grew

culty. How

there

knowledge,
We

of

certain

are

is

freedom,

bring

tain of what

kind

sensations

our

diffi

How
the

ex

?
and

demonstrative

according
of

the

sensations, but

our

this

world?

intuitive

third

feels

external

probable knowledge

is the

This

all his

certaintyof

the

Besides

Locke

this

his control

under

world

ternal

know

man

can

PHILOSOPHY

distant.

individual, with

the

can

OF

Locke.

to

world.

nature

we

report. The

not

are

cer

highestdegree

knowledge of the external world can attain

inference
from
Such
is probability,
or
an
sources.
many
opinion, which supplements certain
knowledge is mere
knowledge and operates in the large field of our
daily
stands
in a kind
of
The
existence.
spiritualindividual
twilightregion with the dull wall of the material world
of probable existence
looming up before him, the out
he can
lines of which
barely discern. On either side of
lies the broad
this twilightexistence
daylight of intui
tive and demonstrative
it all the
knowledge, and around
of ignorance. Our
absolute darkness
knowledge is much
less than our
our
ignorance because
knowledge is lim
which

ited

our

to

Locke's

were

in his
that

at

who

is circumscribed

the

gion, and
ideas

by

in the

perience. The
at

his

in which

moral

the

same

he

cannot

mind.

the

All

in

Eng
mind
the spiritual
man
limitations.
Morally,

in

own

individual
lives.

the

are

law

has to conform

But

get their

it is

the

practicalproblems

morality,reli
authorityfrom

outgrowths

law, for example, is

time

pursued

burning importance

the
politically

government

inborn

although

of

of

always kept

conditions

Locke

Philosophy.

time

society. He

and
religiously,

combinations.

discussion

lish

to

their

Practical

via media
that

and

ideas

our

of

ex

law

of nature,

of God.

It arises

164

of

of

thought

the

PHILOSOPHY

OF

HISTORY

His

Enlightenment.

did

Essay

not

anything fundamentally new, and its present

the thought of
it voiced
has little originality
; but

contain
ation
the

eighteenth century

widely

(1)

and

read

Four

time.

that
pitfalls,

of

avoidance

his

sis is laid

the

Berkeley

logicalanalysisin
in which

Essay,
of

the

came

the
the

empirical
psycho

books

third

empha

his

from

his

of

the

is

regarded as passive,came
his theory
French
; (3) from
his association al(4) from

of the

Deism

most

in him

in which

(2)

and

second

the mind

religion came

istic ethics

Hume

the

source

active, came

as

and

the

sensationalism

the

mind

skillful

philosopher of
their

had

movements

such

Locke

made

theory of knowledge,

upon

of

it

influential

most

separate

From

idealism

the

with

easily,and

so

utilitarian

ethical theories

of the
of

constructive
English moralists. The most
Locke
The
were
Berkeley and Hume.

others

called

although they

the

have

may

exercised

time, they

own

preters of
and

Lockian

lesser

Ethics

shall

be

may

their

upon

only partial inter

nevertheless

We

for

greater influence

much

were

Locke.

schools

followers

deal

Deism

brieflywith

at length the
England, next consider
philosophiesof Berkeley and Hume, and then present
in a summary
but
articulate
the development of
way
the Enlightenment in France
and Germany.

The

English

especiallyin
ning

in

to

tablished
revealed

the

reconstruct

of

case

have

how

seen

Descartes, tried

theology

without

Rationalism,
at

the

breaking

begin
with

Gradually, however, rationalism

Some
religionshowed
signs of divorce.

understand

came

the
or

to take
nature

the
of

stand

God,

superfluous.The

that

if

revelation

revealed

es

and

dogma.

rationalists

credible

We

Deists.

of the

reason

is either

can

in

differ.
religions

LOCKE

JOHN

The

god

god

of

There

of the

the
are

mediaeval

heathen
many

gion.

There

is the

true

people is

nor

be

them

to

religion.This

many

all

the

was

not

the

Jehovah

the

as

and
religions

must

165

same

of

sects

in

as

the

the

Jews.

each

reli

basis,which

common

creed

of

Deism

or

Natural

Religion. Positive religionsare only the cor

ruptions of natural religion,or the religionof reason.
Deism
special revela
sought to separate religionfrom
tions,which
of

were

looked

religion. Bacon

science

from

upon

as

the irrational

Descartes

and

elements

freed

had

natural

had freed psycho

dogma ; Hobbes
logy from the same
dogma ; Grotius had freed the con
free
ception of law from
dogma. The Deists would
religionfrom dogma.
Deism
three principles
founded
was
on
; (1) the origin
and
truth of religionmay
be scientifically
investigated
;
is the conscience
(2) the originof religion
; (3) positive
The
are
religions
degenerate forms of natural religion.
and
the
deistical,
tendency of the Enlightenment was
movement
was
powerful in England, France, and Ger
with
Deism
the central
was
quite consistent
many.
the self-sufficiency
of the in
principleof this period
church

"

dividual.
In

Herbert
of Cherbury
England the first deist was
of
(1581-1648), with his "five fundamental
propositions
religion."The body of English deists,however, got their
cue

the

The
the

from
law

Locke's
of

nature

identification
;

but

literature of deism

Locke
coincides

of

the moral

himself

was

for the most

law

not

with

deist.

part with

English moral philosophy of the period,but usually

the group
of English deists is supposed to include
only
Toland, Chubb, Tindal, Collins, Morgan, and Bolingbroke.
These men
lived in the first half of the Enlight-

166

HISTORY

OF

PHILOSOPHY

much
despised by the scholars of
They were
the time as being mere
dabblers
in letters.
They were
but a ragged regiment whose
whole
of learn
ammunition
trifle when
a
ing was
compared with the abundant
of a singlelightof orthodoxy ; whilst in specula
stores
children
tive abilitythey were
by the side of their an
tagonists."*
The
English deists passed from view at the end of
the first half of the eighteenth century, crushed
by the
them.
The
more
powerful
weight of the attack upon
orthodoxy, with its greater talent,was itself rationalistic,
could
beat them
their own
and
on
ground. The church
that
the objections against the God
of
showed
men
be equally effective against the deistic
revelation would
classic argument
The
of nature.
God
along this line
against the deists is Bishop Butler's Analogy of Re
of
unequal, and the character
ligion. The battle was
the books
published during the controversy reveals the
The deistic publicationswere
inequalityof the contest.
small
and
shabby octavos, and were
published anony
solid octavos
mously. The orthodox
publicationswere
and
bindings,with the credentials
quartos in handsome
of powerful signatures. Even
if the orthodoxy had not
of the law
employed the arm
against the deists, the
deists would
broken
have been
by the intellectual force
againstthem.
enment.

"

English Moralists.

The
deists

to

was

logy, so
moralists

free

the motive
of

the

morality outside
*

Read

Leslie

i, pp. 86-88.

Just

as

religionfrom
of

the

celebrated

Enlightenment
of church

the

was

dogma.

the

motive

of

authority of
group
to

Many

find

of
a

of the

the

theo

English
basis

for

English

Stephen, History of English Thought,

vol.

JOHN

moralists

legion,

them

among

The

All

the

with
his

and

have
For

ars

any
a

each

selfish

his

either

case,

long

as

his

time.

others

in

of

these

in

an

is

greatest

evil

influence

ideas.

either

spirit
was

or

felt

to

as

an

in

Hobbes

be

scholars
to

ethical

by
inspired

ethical

Locke

starting-

ethical

or

ulti

an

with
the

attack

to

regarded

was

it
Yet

all

Locke.

find

seems

nearly

for

mo

of

to

seeking

some

moralists

mind,

received

and

sought

innate

Hobbes

years

The

psychology

group

"

ethics,

ethics

many

this

morality

for

number

show.

will

Hobbes

with

of

experience,

point

below

associational

the

members

basis

mate

in

began

from

mentum

Their

Shaftesbury.

was

school

167

belief.

in

given

list

the

as

deists

also

were

LOCKE

defend.
schol

genius.

discussion

In
for

168

HISTORY

Chronological

OF

Table

PHILOSOPHY

of

the

Moralists.

English

Mandeville

70

Shaftesbury

71

13

Clarke

75

..29

Berkeley

85

..33

53
....

Pope

88

44
.

Butler

52

92
....

Hutcheson

94

47
.

Edwards

03

58
.

Hartley

05

57
.

Tucker

74

05

..

....

Reid
Hume
Smith

11
23

90

23

..

..

..

..

91
....

Paley

76

....

Price

..

96

10

05

43

..

....

Bentham

47

32
.

Stewart
Whewell
Mill..

53

28

95

..66
06

73

VIII

CHAPTER

BERKELEY

The

In

1753).
Irish

In

he

of

us

John

Ages,

acutely critical, and

gious

faith.

ledge

with

born

He

lectual

publish

to

the

at

shall

of

age

eight, Descartes
We

they

divide

the

zeal.

of

descendant
He

are

whose

of those

one

their

intel

Berkeley
Hume

was

race

forth

young.

of

was

bring

to

reli

Berkeley

"

was

for know

longing

twenty-four,

life

scholar

childlike

of

idealistic

Erigena. Berkeley

forty-one, Locke

at

and
Irish

insatiable

begin

offspring when

type

finest

powers

is divine."

that

the

possessed

lineal

(1685-

wonderful

that

an

off and

minds

exceptional

mental

missionary

of Plato,

is afar

have

we

he

combined

Berkeley

George

Scotus

yet

ardent

an

child

origin

of

his brilliant

reminds

Middle

the

Writings

Bishop Berkeley

mind.

theory
of

and

Life

HUME

AND

at

began
twenty-

fifty-eight.

at

into

Berkeley

three

pe

riods.
1.

His

known

Early

of

born

in

Eton

of

been

Berkeley's early

Ireland,

schoolmates

the

and

it

ity College, Dublin,

sciences,

new

Read

Modern

is

such

known

that

of

one

botany, chemistry,
Modern

Philosophers,

Philosophy,
pp.

263-277.

had

Berkeley's

graduated
at

the

at

Trin

entered

Berkeley

was

Swift

where

still influential

Royce, Spirit of
Classical

school,

fifteen, and

was

as

educated

was

Prior.

at

Scholasticism

teen.

Kilkenny

Thomas

was

He

he

that

except

years,

is

Nothing

(1685-1707).

Ireland.

Kilkenny,

pupil

Training

at

nine

Trinity,

and

p.

but

anatomy,
86

Rand,

HISTORY

170

had

been

added

discussed, and

that

date

Berkeley began

keep

to

from

it and

sophicalinfluences
2.

Author

As

in the

deacon
matical

philo

own

Book.
that

appear

powerful philo

most

(1707-1721).
at

Dublin

graduation.

English church.
in

tracts

early

him.

upon

after his

five years

his

would

Des

this

Commonplace

the

were

remained

Berkeley

his

philosophy it

Malebranche

and

Locke

his

of

the

much

was

From

read.

book

sophical reflections,calling it
From

Essay

Boyle, Malebranche,

widely

were

There, too,

Locke's

Newton,

that

Leibnitz

cartes, and

curriculum.

the

to

Berkeley found

young

PHILOSOPHY

OF

his

1707,

and

tutor

as

In

1709

He

published two

he

ordained

was

mathe
in

Vision

Theory of

fellow

1709,

Knowledge in 1710. The

Principles of Human
and
the
Principles of Human
TJieory of Vision
of his philo
practicallya statement
Knowledge were
sophy. They have been compared thus : the Theory of

his

Vision
the

teaches

that

exists

London,
Anne

is

and

Addison,

he

also
and

admitted

was

circle

the

to

whom

one

better
of

at

the

court

he

met.

understood,

dialogue

and
to

Continent

spent much

of

that

so
a

called

"

the

on

he

T/)ree
He

1713-1714
time

and

realist

in

an

Dialogues
then
and

made

he

it in

idealism
the

form

idealist.

between
two

he

was

every

his

1716-1720

Italy,where

to

humble,

his side charmed

published

all

Queen

although
make

"

Steele, Swift,

himself

to

went

of

court

showed

"

sensation

our

included

wanted

(1713).

Philonous
the

He
and

the

unselfish, and
life,he

between

publicationwas

is

see

to

that

Pope. Berkeley

wise, considerate, and

shocked

we

Knowledge teaches
knowledge." Berkeley then

our

where

all that

Human

Principlesof

that

"

This

Hylas
journeys
"

and

absorbed

HISTORY

172

of

influenza,he

remedy

"

lished

/Sins,

tar- water,

and

he

treated
had

an

in 1753

with
effectively

learned
on

In

from
the

1752

contains

Indians.

He

pub
of

philosophicalvirtues
he

the

upon

Berkeley's philosophy shows

his first publications. With
which

the

tar-water

to

went

Oxford

live,

to

died.

he

Influences

The

them

essay

in 1744.

PHILOSOPHY

OF

little
the

Platonic

much

Thought

Berkeley.

of

after

development

/Sin's,

of

exception

later works

idealism, the

of

elaboration
of
than
an
Berkeley are scarcelymore
his early thought in the
Theory of Vision and the
should
Nature.
We
infer, there
Principlesof Human
Berke
fore, that the only philosophicalinfluences
upon
he drank
the original springs at which
as
a
ley were
youth. Moreover, he always speaks with the dogmatic
from
but
his material
certaintyof one who has drawn
few

Never

sources.

who

man

branche.
ture

of

influences

The
a

reaction

upon

were

of Locke

Berkeley accepted
reacted

from

Locke's

Locke's

as

causes," reinforced
reaction

took.

But

his

opinion along

the

Male-

and

partly of

the

na

psycho
"

common

student
"

The

view.

Locke

was

of

indecision

points of

many
him

the

early as the time of his

Trinity. Malebranche, with his theory of

sense

at

dualism

by

influence

logical analysis,but
"

he exhibit

is embarrassed

chief

two

does

life

occasional

line that

his

incisive genius had

Berkeley'sown
of
a
relativelygreater influence in dictating the course
his philosophy than
His
mind
is usually the case.
was
and
continuouslyversatile. Further
precocious,fertile,
to have
seems
Berkeley's simple religiousnature
more,
been
an
important factor in determining his intellectual
His peculiar idealism
belief.
could
take root only in a
mind
inspiredby faith.

AND

BERKELEY

The

Berkeley were
gion. He may

so

to

be called

the

the

teachingof

interests

true

he
that

on

and

of

of

looked

the

Holy

the

himself

upon

Land

pur

and

hand,
and

obscure
and

of faith

union

philosophy

one

abstractions

the other,from

retake

reli

dogma,

religion. His

to
on

thereby bring about

would

who

service

scholasticism

knowledge. Berkeley

rational

and

dogma

be

free

to

rationalism

terms,

would

they

was

pose

unlimber

would

of

religiousEnlightener. He

not, like the deists, stripreligionbare

would
but

dedicated

173

life and

The

Berkeley.

of

Purpose

HUME

as

crusader

indi
spiritual

for the

vidual.

We

have

of this
of the

that

remarked

periodof
individual.

of

one

Enlightenment is

the

The

is therefore

for this

vidual

is

longs

not

superior
to

material

religiousbeings

who

can

period.

environment

his

to

world, but
talk

Berke

which

spiritualindividual,and

is the

even

presuppositions
the independence

around

individual

ley'sphilosophy centres
unique

the

to

and

Such

he

because
a

walk

indi

an

community

with

God.

be
of

The

English Enlightenment passed from Locke to Berkeley.

into complete ascendency and
the
The
inner life came
the Lockian
spiritualindividual emerged. From
phi
contradictorymotives, there ap
losophy,with its many
peared the audacious one-sided philosophy of Berkeley,
with
its proclamation of the reign of spirituality.It
stood in marked
with the development of the
contrast
a
Enlightenment in France
development of material
ism and
material
The
atoms.
spectralalthough stub
"

born
which
the

boundaries

Locke
human

Berkeley.

of

the

supposed

unknowable
to

shut

intellect,crumbled

around
before

material
the

the

world,

powers

of

hand

of

HISTORY

174

The

casual

PHILOSOPHY

the

history of thought is,how

disconcerted

often

ever,

of

reader

OF

the

at

philosophy as Berkeley's in
the immediate
and especially
as
English

is also

Berkeley

that

member
cal.
it

is called

school

called

refers

that

all

the

But

idealism

and

of

yet

must

we

re

antitheti

not

are

source

knowledge

our

primarily derived

is

knowledge

our

The

of Locke.

follower

empirical school,

and

to

such

period of empiricism,

this

idealist.

an

empiricism

^Empiricism

means

the

of

appearance

These
sense-perceptions.]
sense-perceptionsmay
kinds : they may
be (1) psychologicalfacts,
be of two
and
or
(2) material facts. Berkeley was, like Locke
Hume, an empiricistof the first class ; and yet because
of material
he denied
the independent existence
facts,
idealist.
He was
also an
he was
an
empirical idealist,
philosophersof the Enlightenment
just as the French
The
critic may
find that
were
empirical materialists.
Berkeley is not a consistent empiricist,to be sure, but
Locke.
neither
was
Berkeley started out by affirming
the testimony of experience against scholastic
speculalation
and
abstraction
assumed
the
; yet all along he
scholastic
Nevertheless, this as
conception of mind.
sumption of the individual makes
Berkeley a true child
of the Enlightenment.1
from

Berkeley's
The
is

of this

growth

difficult

not

not

so

much

other

of

nature

Berkeley

knowing1
successful

to

page

understand
in

and

Hume

As
process.

The

the
in

were

in his attempt.

or

Locke

were

to

Hume.
to

Hume
It

remember.

to

really also dualists, like

ideas

tried

from

and

is

history of metaphysics (the

epistemology (the theory of

objects of knowledge
Hume

Locke

to

English school

reality)as

Enlighteners.

substances.

Relation

General

overcome

substituted
the

ideas

Locke

by them
were

and

for material

antithetical

this dualism, but

all

he

to
was

the
not

BERKELEY

asks, What

knowledge). Locke
replies to his own
"

ideas."

of

substance

that it is

sense

of

Berkeley

was

substance, because

the

and

right to

no

more

The

not

an

material

idea, in

an

The

advance

from

cancelled

Berkeley

the material
is not

substance

follows

as

Locke,

idea

or

idea.

an

of

know

the

for

not

? The

objectof knowledge.
it than

assume

only things we

development

brieflyput

existence
a

is

our

spiritualsubstance

the

We

The

Hume

of

material

the

is

ideas.

the

of these

he

know

side, and

one

Berkeley

substance
spiritual

substance.

the

And

can

we

objectof knowledge.

an

cancel

reason

have

know?

we

consistentlyenough asked, Why

then
same

175

assumes

Neither

of cancellation.

one

Hume

on

Locke

from

he

time

same

the other.

on

can

question, that

spiritualsubstance

the

the

At

HUME

AND

the material
exist

to

are

English school

our

may

be

"

Spiritualsubstance

"

jdeas

material

"

substance.

Berkeley, Spiritualsubstance

"

ideas.

Hume,
Hume

is

made

Locke

only halfway. Hume

among
only self-consistent empiricist.On
is derived

knowledge

from

the restriction

of

three

these
the

the

was

assumption

sense-perceptionthe

English empirical school

tory of the

Berkeley

logicallyconsistent.

went

all

ideas

was

that
his

history of

knowledge.
of

Berkeley's Points

Agreement

with

Berke

Locke.

psychologicalanalysis as the
basis of his own
theory. The purely scientific aspect
of the contents
does not
of mind
classified by Locke
as
call for particular
him.
criticism from
Logical classifica

ley starts

tion

does

from

not

seem

he accepts Locke's

Locke's

to

concern

he
analysis,

him

very

much,

and

often calls Locke's

while
classes

176

by

HISTORY

other

He

names.

commits

logicalempiricism in
"

It is evident

to

PHILOSOPHY

OF

himself

to Locke's

the first sentence

one

any

that

jectsof knowledge,

who

they

in his

takes
are

Principles:

survey

either

psycho

ideas

of the

ob

actually

else such as
are
; or
perceived
imprinted on the senses
by attending to the passionsand operationsof the mind ;
and
by the help of memory
lastly,ideas formed
or,
imagination either compounding, dividing,or barely
representingthose originallyperceived in the aforesaid
ways." Our knowledge, therefore, deals only with ideas.
and
There
the simple ideas of sensation
reflection,
are
from
these.
ideas compounded
and
Besides acceptingthe psychologicalanalysisof Locke,
Berkeley also adopts without question the assumption
and
all the philosophersof the En
to Locke
common
lightenment, the assumption of the independence of
But
the individual
soul.
besides all the endless variety
of ideas or objectsof knowledge, there is likewise
some
I call mind,
what
or
thing that knows
perceivesthem
spirit,soul, or self. By which I do not denote any one
of my
ideas, but a thing entirelydistinct from
them,
wherein
thing,whereby
they exist,or, which is the same
they are perceived."
all
that
Berkeley, therefore, (1) agrees with Locke
from
knowledge is derived
sense-perception,i. e. he
with
Locke's
empirical psychology, and (2) he
agrees
with
also agrees
of Locke's
one
assumptions, viz.,that
the spiritualsubstances
exist.
"

"

"

"

The

Negative

Side

of

Berkeley's

Philosophy.

We

Berkeley's general relation to

and
and
in particular his agree
Locke
more
Hume,
Locke.
We
with
ments
are
now
prepared to examine
the teaching of Berkeley by itself.
have

now

pointed

out

BERKELEY

HUME

AND

177

Berkeley was obliged to devote a good deal of time

Locke
to the negative side of his philosophy. Just
as
could
not
construct
an
empirical psychology until he
had
all allegiance
disclaimed
to innate
ideas, so Berke
until
he
had
idealism
construct
not
an
ley could
brought to bear in a polemical fashion all his forces
against abstract ideas. Of his two masterpieces he de
and
the entire essay on
the Theory of Vision
votes
a
Nature
to this
good part of his Princi2)les
of Human
end.
1. In

ideas.

stract

have

of

He

this he

only

not

that

abstract

ideas

his

advances
denies

correspondingexternal

nies

proof

exist

that

analysisof
abstract

but
reality,
in

the

he

ab

ideas

even

de

itself. The

mind

deceptionin abstract ideas arises from the use of words

Words
as
are
general terms.
always general ; ideas are
idea that exactly
an
always particular.There is never
useful not as a con
Words
are
corresponds to a word.
of ideas, but
and
for incitingmen
to action
veyance
word
is used, what
a
arousing the passions.Whenever
think
of is the particularsense,
of
we
idea, or group
sense
objectsthat give rise to it. For example, the word
be employed by us except in connec
yellow cannot
tion with the thought of some
particularyellow thing.
of the extremest
Berkeley is a nominalist
type.
2. Again Berkeley seeks to show, by demolishing the
distinction
between
primary and secondary qualities,
"

"

that

matter

distinction

of

was

an
as

accepted by

was

it

as

of

abstract
old

as

Locke.

idea

has

existence.

no

the

Greek, Democritus,

We

have

already

thing like a lump of sugar, the sense

whiteness,roughness, sweetness, etc., are

because

they depend

upon

our

sensations

for

This
and

described

qualities
secondary
their

ex-

178

OF

HISTORY

istence

are

the

not

true

they

affected, and

PHILOSOPHY

in which

ways

organisms

our

copies of things ;

the

are

mathemati

are
form, size,density,impenetrability,
qualities,
because
senses
they exist independent of our
mary

pri

cal

copies of things. Hobbes

true

are

that

such

size

The

ary.
as

much

At

some

the

all

shows

and

eyes

body depends

Vision

that

fol

second

are
qualities

or
solidity,

and

color.
takes

Berkeley

third

dimension,

it is

an

arising from

sensations

on

two

the

shown

Berkeley

its sweetness

Theory of

and

body,

depending
of

of

question

already

and

impenetrabilityof

in his

length

material

and

that

sense-perceptionas

on

the

up

by maintaining

him

lowed

is erroneous,

distinction

had

and

the

complicated by

of

inference
convergence

the

sensations

of

the

cause

of

the

touch.
be

Berkeley professedto
in

man
"

the

of matter

is

only

losophers who
finds

them, and

which

and

the

for

departed

that

of the

denied

the

other.

thesis.

He

was

felt that the

conception
those

breath

that

know,

we

of the

with

Locke's

Berkeley

controlled
to free

foes

of

the

to

by

the

religionfrom
religion
"

as

spiritualsubstance, he

in

common

he

know.

Berkeley agreed

Now

phi

abstractions

denying the existence of

Berkeley accepted,therefore, one

assumptions

ligiousnature

mysterious

one

cannot

we

Locke

from

the

explain things as

to

seek
in

existence

terial substance.
two

wishes
to

not

is real

that

something beyond perception.

street

Therefore, while

sumption

that

maintained

philosophers say
in another

philosophy

philosophicalsubtletyfor

seek

in

man

wants

He

sense."

common

The

who

street

pleading

Enlightenment,
was

trying to

ideal
false

atheism

ma

of the
but

he
a

prove

of his ardent

re

philosophy. He
and

materialism

the

compose
subsistence

PHILOSOPHY

OF

HISTORY

180

of

frame

mighty
without

mind

Or

world, have

the

their

that

"

not

being

is

any
be

to

Berkeley'sposi
of a modern
tion in the terms
interpreter of him : All
men
mentally discerned ; all objects are
objects are
that
the existence
Berkeley means
tallyconstituted."
of
of all objects are
within
the confines
and
character
no
consciousness, and there are
objects outside of con
As sense-perceptionsthey have
sciousness.
reality; as
and
memories
distinctness; but
they lose their warmth
neither
perceived nor
they are not objectsat all when
remembered.
These
objectsare always colored by the
sense-perception.They are received through the con
Minds
sciousness,and constituted
by the consciousness.
known."

perceived or

we

state

may

and

ideas

their
2.

the

does

Berkeley

mind

all that

are

not

soul, nor

or

perceivethe

exist.
to

try
he

does

But

soul.

"

in the

the

prove

to

attempt

spiritof

the

of

existence
that

show

we

Enlightenment

he

hardly questions its reality.He takes its existence

for granted, and like the philosophersof the period he
I am
makes
I know
direct appeal to consciousness.
a
conscious
of my own
being." Like Locke and Descartes
he allegesthe direct intuition
of the self. In the Prin
of our
minds
notion
a
own
or
ciples he speaks of
spirits."Since the ideas are copies of other ideas, there
"

"

can

be

idea of the

no

knows

spiritthat

ledge
have

or

notion

direct

ideas,

an

it."

We

activity whose
in his
1

have

of ourselves

knowledge

perceived,but
sertion

soul ; but

in

in

of

the

"

therefore

knowing

direct

ideas

our

realityconsists

Commonplace

Hook,

he

not

made

which

Phil, of Enlightenment, p. 64.

he

the

know

something superior

perceiving. Indeed,

Hibben,

is like

notion

in

to

we

the

being

the

began

as

in

college,that
All

persons.
of

signs

the

cepts

of

over

of

our

what

which

we

they

are

is

if

we

is

as

absolutely

"I."
sufficient and

minds

our

existence

control
the

remove

adequate

in explain
difficulty

no

explains the
no

conscious

existences

One

minds, for

own

have

much

so

persons.

There

ideas.

not

by

means

But

support have
"

one

images

trol them.

sis

existences

the

explain all

ing

things are

Spiritual substances

3.
to

other

181

exist but

nothing properly does

of what

certain

HUME

AND

BERKELEY

of

? What

per

substantial

material

"

our

con

hypothe

Suppose I grant that I exist and have control of

exist and
imaginativeideas, and that other minds
my
have control of their imaginativeideas,how then, I ask
I to explain the great world
of percep
Berkeley, am
tions

over

which

neither

nor

other

have

men

control?

Berkeley'sgeneralpsychologicalpositionmust be sum
marized
here in order
this important question.
to answer
It is as follows : (1) All things are
than
nothing more
perceptions.(2) All ideas,both perceptionsand images,
be caused
are
passive,and must
by something in itself
active. (3) Souls are active and the cause
of ideas. The
soul is the cause
of our
question then is, What
percep
tions? Perceptions are
ideas, are passive,but they are
the ideas of whom
? Repudiate the material
substance,
and what is the cause
of perceptions?
Perceptionsare not originatedby me ; they cannot be
self -originated,
because
they are passive and not active ;
be originatedby a material
substance, be
they cannot
it does not exist. Their
cause
originmust be sought in
the infinite spirit,
If you will examine
God.
the ideas
or
which

observe
which

constitute
these
attention

what

we

call

nature

objects,you

characteristics
significant

has

already been

called.

about

will

them,

They have,

to
as

182

OF

HISTORY

have

we

said,

orderliness

They

distinguish them

speaking
the

objects are

ture

strength,liveliness,distinctness,

that

God

are

dependabilityof the
of the Being whose
acter
is. They reveal
a
Being
ing

the

orbits, the

of

The

of nature

who

is

The

provision of

regularity

reveal

the char

world

of nature

infinite,
om
intelligent,

regularityof

of

Na

orderly way.

the

and

imaginations.

God.

language

constancy

the
the

the

bodies

heavenly
earth

for

chang

man

to

all

"

language of an orderlyBeing.
the
Now
we
see
importance of Berkeley'sdeviation
in his (Berkeley's)conception of all ideas
from
Locke
be a
as
passive. All ideas being passive,there must
of them.
The only active causes
are
cause
spirits.I am
the cause
or
imaginations. I per
perceiver of my own
the

laws

ceive
or

of nature

from

in His

us

world

benevolent.

seasons,

their

to

language

and

nipotent,and

PHILOSOPHY

another's

invariable
finite

and

movements

be the

spiritmust

the

are

and

know

that

When

cause.

nature

purposive harmony,

spiritis

the

We

cause.

who
societyof spirits,

speak

to

another

indeed

are
one

know

another

person

speaks
that

in its
in

an

living in
in their

own

language.
The

doctrine

Berkeley strikes beginners and people

who
understand
it, as absurd.
temperamentally cannot
The
reduction
of the trees, sky, etc., to ideas is a theory
has
that
of ridicule
it.
all kinds
brought down
upon
Dr. Johnson
When
heard
of it,he is said to have stamped
his foot upon
the ground, and
thereby refuted it. Byron
is quoted as saying, If there is no
matter, and Berkeley
has
what
Others
he said."
proved it, it is no matter
of

"

have

asked

if

with

ideas.

But

of material

we

eat

and

Berkeley

objects,and

the

drink
never

ideas
doubted

point of

his

and

are

the

clothed

existence

theory is missed

AND

BERKELEY

if

think

we

of

ence

an

objects.

"

What

he did.

that

HUME

183

denied

he

is the

unknown

substance, matter, behind

The

I write

feel it ; and

table
if I

of

out

were

existed, meaning

thereby

might perceive it

or

study

my

if I

that

that

external

exists,that is,I

on

and

see

I should

say

it

in my

study

were

other

some

exist

does

person

per

ceive it."
Another

has

in the

tree

What

When

Berkeley

and

(so/ws
exists

but

have

has

mean

not

what

in

ipse),i.
himself

modern

the whole

Life and

Hume's

assumes

is the

Writings

in

same

342

Read
;

Rand,

most

Modern

Eucken, Problem

upon

called

that

nothing

thing

else.

human

any

the

both

per

solipsist

mind

existence
the

may

If the

being,it
God.

of

of matter

existence

materialistic

and

the

in
of

other

universe.

the

(1711-1776).

Hume

of external

resemblance

periodsof training that

point of time,

their
twenty-five,

answered

perception.

one

but
greatly in point of discipline,

very

of

the

of David
marks

some

Berkeley's.After

to

some

Berkeley assumes
One

life bears

of

forgotten?
has

believes

who

perceived.

own

philosophy is

mind

existence

depends

merely my

religiousexplanation of

The

are

thing exists, by

scientist
universe.

that

objectionand

perceived by

the

perceiving God.
the

the

been

never

ever

his modifications.

and

in

events

one

e.

Berkeley which

has

one

existence

that

of

perceived,what
no

this

not

perceived,if

The

past

does

existence

thing
is

is

have

says

be

that

considered

he

ception,he

is to

forest

existence

Berkeley has
it.

If to be

deeper.

goes

asked

been

question has

produced,

were

at

differed

almost" the,

ahmil^the

age

important philo

Philosopn^ns^pp.
326"/"y

Classical

of Human

Life, pp.

delband, Hist, of Phil., pp. 472-476.

42(K422

Wiri-

HISTORY

184

turned

Both

Berkeley

from

between

antipodal by

were

marked

Hume

Scot.

the

had

; he

of art.

"

was

blow
he

The

making
the

he

which

an

Treatise

middle

the

same

Hume
class

engaged

were

sym

to

in

the
the

of

personally very

although perhaps

not

All

please his

was

his works

after

and

readers

for

Englishman, Berkeley the

public service,and
different

tal

his

Always afterward
this is important in

Scotchman

of

of

while

Treatise

the

him.

society,had

empirical school

temper,

worth

seemed

of

were

everything else

improvement

about

Locke

and

object

recovered.

never

written

were

personalsuccess.
same

he

Hume

service.

above

failure

judgment

our

up

Irishman,

where

of moderate

popularity,and

to

eye

No

for the

it made

unless

from

had

was

imperial,his

in their

was

interested

reputation.

in literature.

ents

of the

appreciation

no

was

kindly dispositionand

vain, and

own

him,

intellect

they

He

last.

border

and

for

nature

the

the

nature

intellect

his

of

was

in his
to

and

man

yet he

of

to

provincial." Berkeley's sympathies

pathies were
imperial

for

Hume's

While

of

thirty-six,

by different
Berkeley is in

animated

unimpassioned

legends

love

no

of

ceases

nature

"

forty-one. There

men

unimaginative

was

unimpressed by
lived

the

pursuits

age

of

age

and

nature,

with

contrast

the

two

enthusiastic

The

purposes.

the

other

to

at

the

politicsat

to

resemblance

the

philosophy

missionary work

to

Plume

and

PHILOSOPHY

OF

the

universitytraining,
are

of men,

be

to

philosophy.

kinds

from

came

But

and

of
representatives,

classed

in

they were

were

their

types,
nation

alities.
1. Period
born
the

in

of Training (1711-1734).

Edinburgh

border.

He

was

and
a

lived

student

there
at

and

at

Hume
Ninewells

was
on

Edinburgh University

AND

BERKELEY

and

(1723-1726)
of this
2.

period he

Human

1737
read

Fleche,

published
and

by nobody
Book

in

was

He

year.

all the

was

occupations

retirement

where

He

Mature.

and

wrote

In

Hume
La

especiallyat
on

in 1734.

next

unhappy.

was

1737

to

the

185

From

of Philosopher (1734-1752).

Period

1734

law

studied

in Bristol

in business

HUME

he

his Treatise
was

I in 1748

an

and

his

wrote

returned

France,

in

Treatise

It

(1739-1740).

absolute

called

in

Edinburgh

to

So

failure.
it the

he

Enquiry

was
re
con

full statement
Understanding. Hume's
in the Treatise
of knowledge is contained
and
Book
III in 1751
not in the Enquiry. He
rewrote
and
called
it the Enquiry concerning Principles of
of all my writings,incomparably the best,"
Morals,
and
in 1757
II as
he published Book
an
Essay on

cerning Human
of his theory

"

the Passions
with

quainted
in

tutor

Four

and

Smith

he

became

bassy

to

Vienna.

in

he

needed

secretary in the
In

1740

became
he

1751, the

same

ac

published
and

Political, in 1741-1742,

1745, because

1748

He

Dissertations.

Adam

Moral

Essays,
a

in

In

money.

was

1746"

English military em
he

that

year

was

recastingthe third book of the Treatise, he wrote his

was
Dialogues concerning Natural
Religion, which
also
not
published until 1779. His autobiography was
publishedposthumously.
In
3. Period
1752
(1752-1776).
of Politician
Hume
the only
published his Political Discourses,
work
of mine
successful
its first pub
that
was
on
"

lication."

In

burgh, he

wrote

This

work

lution to

1754-1761,

was

give an

and

while

Librarian

at

Edin

published his History of England.

the first serious

attempt

impartialaccount

since

of the

the

Revo

earlier strug-

HISTORY

186

Stuarts.

gles against the

fame,
his

and

1765

Hume

he

far

enough

entertain

to

Rousseau

met

in

Rousseau

by

Frenchman.

eccentric

in 1766

State

of

Influences

show

no

what

were

it is uncertain
drew.

He

does
he

although
shadow
is

school

he

read

Hume
He

Roman

felt the

Hume

1769,

written.

influenced

ley.

He

admired

Locke,

years

he reacted

and

direction.

the

the

the

in

the

It

educated.

least

at

Pe

the

stu

writings

lines

also

from

from

of

that

and

Locke

his

reading.
he

put it

the

not

past he

and

Berke

Berkeley had
further

and

Plutarch.

philosophyhad

reaction

advance

was

example,

past that

true

naturally took
Hume

he

library at Ninewells,

Cicero, Seneca,

along

for

Fleche

over

of

this

which

after Hume's

the

In

reason

Hellenic-Roman

in

that

the

from

was

university,he pored

belief

writ

that

influenced

the

dissatisfied with

so

for

La

at

was

the

and
extensively,

was

same

in

The

Descartes,
Descartes

During

influence

aside, in the

over

at

Secretary

Hume.

sources

Treatise

that

Stoics

became

yet been

all the

where

Locke.

by

life at the

of the

the

by
sins

Under

erudition, and

philosophers of

Greek

riod, and
dent

treated

Rousseau

of

Thought

his

wrote

of the

the

Hume
visited

Edinburgh

to

mention

not

probable,however,

by

advanced

was

badly

appointed

returned

the

upon

Hume

ings of

Hume

that

says

was

; he

Later
was

society.

doctrines.

his

at

in 1776.

died

and

He

Hume

the foundation.

English Embassy

and

and

England

1763"

of

time.

came

In

by French
Enlightenment had

him

this

at

the

got great

1757

Treatise.

the

much

the French

thought of

The

II of

made

was

In

in its wake.

secretary of

was

Paris, and

Book

of

it he at last

Through

followed

fortune

restatement

PHILOSOPHY

OF

made

step in the

acquainted

with

the

HISTORY

188

that

truth

called

agnostic. So

far

as

things which

the

reason

ideas, he is
the

of

of matters

the natural

fact,and

Hume

sciences.

may

or
phenomenalist, a positivist,

he maintained

affirmation

his

and

reasoning (2)

correctlybe

In

things exist. This was

affirmed the validity(1) of
that

He

probabilityof

the

and

contention.

mathematical

(3)

PHILOSOPHY

be known

can

Hume's

not

OF

know, he is

cannot

that

we

only existences, he

is

know

can

In
positivist.

there

that

are

and

that

phenomenalist.

some

agnostic.

an

ideas

his affirmation

an

only

ideas

Are

are

external

Experience is dumb.
Have
external
existence?
Experience is
objects an
dumb.
Are
of our
souls the substance
thoughts? Expe
But
mathematics
rience is dumb.
has truth, experience
is beyond question, and
the workings of nature
are
probable.
objectsthe

We

shall

to

period of

serious

intellectual

sensations?

Hume

find

of this critical

foundly

of

cause

the

the

He

is

critical mind

keenest

Enlightenment.

his examination

in

life.

be

of

the

past-master in the

He

roots
art

of

is pro
of the

raising

fundamental
that
the
questions. He not only shows
still unsolved, but he also calls
theoretical problems are
untested
the hitherto
to account
assumptions of practi
cal life. But this is criticism,positivism,
phenomenalism,
or
agnosticism,and not skepticism. He speaks of his
doctrine
like that of the Middle
as
Academy, in contrast
with that of Pyrrho. He
skepticism
says that excessive
employment, and common
occupations.
upsets activity,

conclusions

The

instincts.

natural
pears,

nature

Hume's

of

the

intellect
time

Every

never

agree

with

positiveskepticism

our

ap

destroys it.

conclusion

toward
positivist

life

as

can

to

the

practicalattitude

best be stated

in his

own

of the

words

AND

BERKELEY

(Treatise, Book
lish it for

reasoning

is

I,Conclusion):

into

choice

of

favor

If

those

this

absurdities.
subvert

reasonings,we

have, therefore,

We

between

false

reason

fortunately it happens

that

elaborate

or

manifest

most

estab

embrace

we

understanding.

left,but

Most

all.

the

then

we

refined

no

received?

be

to

ever

189

Shall

"

that

generalmaxim,

we
run
principle,
If we
rejectit in
entirelythe human
no

HUME

and

at

none

since

is

reason

incapableof dispellingthese

clouds,

that

melan
philosophical
backgammon, I converse,

and

of this

cures

me

choly. I dine, I play a

game

purpose,

and

am

with

merry

fool, as

all who

reason

my

follies shall

the

incidents

ticism.

Where

The

of

disclaimed

against

existence

still further
those

innate

and

derived
ideas

was

materialism

rationalism.

with

is

is

strict

Locke

simply

this

made

"

Berkeley.
:

upon

psychology

empiricism

and

impression.

Hume

cancellation

any

abstract

upon
;

The

simple. It

that

every

idea

until

of

of the
the

ideas.

Locke's

is the

the
had

of

polemic

Hume

went

attack

except
upon

unverified

tradition

ideas

an

was

general attack
Hume

is thus

factors

in

his

existed

ideas

factors

Hume's

made

to

he

existence

the

and

further

attack

Berkeley's attack
upon

in

skep

itself with

proceed

knowledge

impressions.
an

to."

not

of all abstract

denied

from

of

belief

his

Berkeley went

the

did

Locke

theory

length

at

ideas.

nate

his

be

our

mixes

be assented

to

of Ideas.

Origin

still to preserve

livelyand

is

reason

construction

in

ought

we

If I must

anything certainly
are,
natural and agreeable. In all

at least be

of life

No

"

believe

or

propensity it ought

some

of

friends.

my

suffices to

nature

attack
upon
made

incompatible

which

he

found

empirical psychology
image

or

copy

of

an

190

HISTORY

What
classes

ings or

is

impression? Impressions

an

(1)

sensations

emotions

and

inner

or

vivid

An

an

an

impression,because

impression.
of

impression
of

the sensation

is

yellow is

have

should

and

yellow; the feeling of anger

thought of anger. Impressions are
of

is the

feeble

more

For

copy.

vigorousthan

more

lively

very

be mistaken

never

it is the

? It

idea

an

it is fainter

which

two

impressions; (2) feel

impressions. Impressionsare

they always

idea

of

are

outer

What

character.

of

the

or

mistaken, because

never

PHILOSOPHY

OF

for
than

example,

the

vivid

more

copy

thought
than

the

simpleand elemental.
and find their origin? We
back
of them
Can we
can
go
We
receive
not.
impressions; echoes of impressions
linger as ideas ; ideas may be compounded with other
deals in his criticism mostly with the com
ideas. Hume
and
pounding or combining of ideas, but this is the sum
of his psychological
substance
mental
analysis of our
life. The following table will help us.
Sensations

outer

or

Impressions sions
original)Feelings

inner

or

impresimpres

sions

Perceptions
(= mental
states)

Memories

of

production
sion

Ideas

or

of

exact

an

or

an

re

impres

combination

of

impressions

(= derived) Imagination or a combina

tion,separation,and trans
positionof impressionsac
cording to the imagina
tion's

It should
are

not

be

noted, however,

coordinate

according to

own

that

Hume.

laws.

the

above

classes

Impressionsare

BERKELEY

AND

prior to ideas, and of

inner impressionsare
derived

The
the

mind

inner

"

such

idea

in

and

the

from

"

portals of
the

? Error

error

imagination in

impressions

nothing

impressions.How

as

mind

faculties

enter

can

from

the

copy

there

can

the

mind

be

under

manipulation
of

and

outer

is the

then

arises

their

the

sensations.

Since
two

thing

standing

sensationalist, for

except through the

several

or

is

impressionsare

impressions,every

one

any

impressionsthe feelingsor
posteriorto the sensations and

of Ideas.

Association

191

the

Hume

the

originalof

most

of

them."

from

HUME

of

the

combin

ing, separating,and
An

their memories.
tion may
from

and

the

of

often

of which

one

What

Hume

does
mind

the

transposingthe impressions and

idea resultingfrom
such transposi
is referred
to an
impression different

? He

its functions

does

exists

Hume

as

the

modes

distinction

between

The

and
whole

faculties

and
we

are

from
call

selves
ture

and

mind

all

with

that

memory,
as

Hume

exist

ideas.

the

powers

combine.

ideas

lifeand

mental

the

powers

copies of impressions or

va

makes

no

imagination, judgment,
different groupings of

accompanied

as

and

the

by

different

faculties of

feelings.
the mental

of ideas. Isolated
nothing hut an association
explained as copies of isolated impressions;

life are
ideas

(2)

that

mean

conception,etc., except (1)

ideas

faculties

reality,since

by mental
by which

means

rious

not

copy.
the

by

mean

impressions and

are

it is the

ideas

these
trains

of

thought. Why
The

together?
of ideas.

tive relations

also says

Hume
as

derived

are

"

only

answer

groups
do

ideas
is that

frequentlyspeaks
the

that there is

manner
a

"

of

of ideas

which

group

them

it is the

of these

associa

conceiving ideas."

gentleforce

"

or

"

na

He

determina-

"

tion

will

impressions and

the

take

but

some

critics

has

introduced

to

Hume

association

of

them

ideas.

bine.
ternal.

There

depend

on

the

trary

to

According
ways

in which

association.
contrast,

by

they

he
not

are

are

impression.

Hume,

ideas

which

ideas

and

the

rules

un

they happen
com
ex

does

that
ideas.

is the

to

and

not

This

is

necessary

impression must

be

what

having propertiescon

quality of identityin

an

necessary.
there

three

are

associate, called

There

(1)

way

This

as

The

nature.

to

An

conceived

intrinsic

fixed

relation to other

non-contradiction.

be

the

transposed,

accidental

qualityof

one

about

they happen

way

only

own

impression is

in the

occur

ideas

cannot

its

that

takes placewith
relationship

between
is

an

that

combined,

in the

its accidental

property of
it is,and

Their

combine

quality of

according to

Impressions

Relations

theory,

interlopers;

door

are

diminished

Ideas

occur.

Hume

Hume's

in

nothing mysterious

They

laws.

freedom.

ideas.

Associative

process.

are

back

is

there

der mechanical

to

by

they

other

psychologicalinventory.

and

augmented,

knowing

that

say

with

relations,and

their

important place

an

in his

mentioned
But

whole

the

explain

relations

out

relate themselves

of the ideas to

Given

PHILOSOPHY

OF

HISTORY

192

is the
occurrence

law

the

of
of

fundamental
three

laws

resemblance

thing

calls

of
or

up

is based
opposite.Mathematics
and
this law of the resemblance, the contrariety,
upon
the
is the
quantitative relations of ideas. (2) There
law
of contiguity in time and space, by which things
recalled
to
happening together in time and space are
gether. Upon this law are based the descriptiveand ex
is the law of causation,
perimental sciences. (3) There
which religion
of
and the metaphysics of the world
upon
a

similar

thing

or

its

193

nature

The

based.

are

explain all these

he to

impressions?
sions, then

If

laws

they

his

Hume

questionwith

of association
be

cannot

theory

that

is, How
derived

as

from

derived

all

is
from

impres

is derived

knowledge

impressionsgoes to the wall. The Rationalists and

his predecessors,Locke
and
even
Berkeley, had con
ceived
mathematical
propositionsand causation as unof things. If Hume
is to es
derived and in the nature
tablish his doctrine of complete sensational
empiricism,
from

here

is his test.

These
the

objects of
Hume

tion.

by

associations, and
human

makes

lations of ideas

contiguityand
of

tions

of

ciations

"

of

as

of

associations
but

those

those

derived

associations
either

of
are

from

"

re

Associations

of

matters

"

are

looks

of outer

causation

are

investiga

resemblance

Hume

Furthermore,

as

causation

of

associations

contiguityas

allegedto be,

of fact."

matters

"

or

ciations of resemblance
while

of

reduction

classification of them

ideas."
of

further

associations

fact," while

impressions,are

interest,inquiry, and
a

his well-known

isolated

not

are

"

upon

rela
asso

asso
impressions,
inner impressions,
what
not
they are
inner impres
some

sions.

The

Association

mentary
the

of the three

spatial and
1

of

Causal

events

Contiguity.

is the

classes of association, and

temporal
are

This

to

Hume

order

in

which

merely alleged matters

most

ele

concerns

impressions
of fact.
,

194

HISTORY
to

come

in

Two

us.

other

is

and

hear

face,

we

may

tains

that

man

is

impressionscome

succession, and

the

given

of the

when

his

remember

this association
the

impressions.

outer

impressionswith

ceive

the contents
we

tainty of

the

that

that the

shall

we

in

rises in the

sun

of

matter

There

is

The
and

certain

distinct

brute's

of

us

face.

an

and

another

This

see

"

tween

of

clear

impres

one

the
man

it with
inner

im

contiguityconcerns

with

the

"

contiguityhas

relation of
to do with

of fact."

matters
I.

the association

of

Mathematics.
the

association

But

there

is

of resemblance

intuitively

only

concerns

do

the

contrast

we

association

is

face of

The

unlikeness.
or

only

impressions,and

other

man,

cer

repeated.

This

impression, we
to

fact

of fact."

with

pressions,while the association

outer
impressions. This has to
ideas," while

It is

given

is

we

make

not

matters

"

which

difference

likeness

of

this

The

times

many

im

order

to-morrow.

Resemblance.

of

have

we

or
similarity

reminds

east

cer

from

recur.

may

only

impressions

same

to-day does

east

association

When

degrees of

order

per

"

argue

the

we

outer

our

we

in

recur

science

Association

sions.

when

of the

is the

immediate

probability,however

no

This

in which

see,

fallacy.Any

order

of fact"

our

order

that it will rise in the

tain

its

as

the

of

impressions must

our

involved

are

know

but,

occur,

It is the order

certaintythat

"matters

order

main

coexistence

perceive the

same

man's

Hume
or

impressions.

about

exact

pressions. We

We

the

of the

have

certainty

succession

see

the

also.

impressions themselves.

outer

do

of

We

remember

name

or

remembered,

also.

we

his

time

same

is

them

remembered

; when

name

the

at

of

one

be

likelyto

with

PHILOSOPHY

OF

this

and

difference
that

of

be
con-

196

HISTORY

less

PHILOSOPHY

OF

explain their

The

psychologicalorigin.

illusory
idea of substance
originatesfrom the similarityof the
frequentconjoining of certain impressions. The impres
sions
sweet, rough, white, etc.
occur
together so
the imagination creates
the conception of
often
that
"

"

of

substance

the

from

after the

impressionshas been observed

From
the frequent association
of

the idea

material

material

substance.

Berkeley

had

of

But

found

sensations, and

the

about

But

used

simple
I cannot

it,and

plained ?
Soul

gives rise
Soul,

How

does

is due

to

exists

The

made

upon

of

Among
Hume

causation

have

to

in

in

has

mind

Soul.

the

or

touch

it

or

nothing
it exists.

not

realityas
? The

Their

idea
of

reappearance

mind.

my

no

of

substance

an

psychologicallyex

the

frequent

that

see

know

or

it be

not

the

whether

can

feeling that

behind

feeling

spiritual sub

Can

that

Soul

the

how

thought

the

the

come

Ego

the

Ego?

affirm

the

to

we

did

against

shows

it arise

of
the

similarity

or
metaphysical identity,

them.

Association

Science.
which

He

of my

conception of

trains

same

them.

against

test

object of knowledge,
the

be

impression

The

if the

be

of times.

arises

do

of

Berkeley in his criticism of

Berkeley went only halfway.
bodies were
only conjunctions
rejectedas meaningless the

behind
could

could

I the
it?

see

Thus

not

association

large number

of ideas

Berkeley's argument

cherry

Have

had

he

attack

same

stances.

the

that

substance

unknown

arises

substance.

evidently follows

Hume

coexistence.

of their necessary

This

them.

experience, but

first

the

behind

sugar

of
the

turned

occupies the

Causation:

many
his
most

Hume's

traditional
critical
of

his

Attack

on

conceptionsupon

examination,
attention.

that

He

of
dis-

BERKELEY

in the

it both

AND

HUME

Treatise

and

197

in the

Enquiry. He
is the first philosophersince Aristotle to give it
compre
hensive
that all philosophical,
He saw
treatment.
theo
indeed
scientific knowledge rests upon
and
this
logical,
It was
conception of causation.
accepted without ques
tion by the Scholastics
of the Middle
Ages, the Ration
cusses

alists of

If the

time.
for

naught

for

sis that

all

validityof

existence

we

objectof

sense

first

the

and

ideas.

foundation
the
and

Locke

warranted

and

but

the

science

senses."

causal

had

of

causal
in

belief

principleeven

whose

then

"

has

doubt

the

even

had

two

been

the

behind

being ;

argued

because

Not

beyond

but

argument

human

All

knowledge

gone

on

go

sense-perceptions

has

man

an

cause,

latter

substrate.

senses."

to

of

of

is not

functioningsoul

concept

and

the
to

activities

unrestricted

dares

Upon

God,

causal

concept

material

itself has

of the

many

He

although

knowledge

the

memory

Hume

depend

cause

God, although

causal

their

ideas ?

falls also.

accepted the

physical

same

to

beyond

of

Again,

sensations

In

Descartes, Leibnitz, and

restrict

to

and

the

on

senses."

his criticism

for the existence

cause.

for the

mental

go

impression.Imagination can
is accepted not only as
for God

existence

pretended

of

concept

can

impressionsand

substance

demonstrate

can

Berkeley and
for

the

we

goes

psychologicalanaly

of

consists

material

uncaused

or

and

memory

of Hume's

arguments

unrestricted

our

own

criticism

relation

that

psychologyfalls,all
the

the scholastic

as

of

knowledge

spiritualand
the

of

means

becomes

if Hume's

And

by

"

evidence

what

case

scientists of his

the

conception is valid, Hume's

the

beyond
that

Renaissance, and

the

from

this is
it

"

un

goes

only theology,

the

memory

certainty of

and
the

in scientific knowledge. Is there

connection

necessary

any

can

if another

given ?

is

law

of what

result

will

of what

tific

theory

In

of

review

his

and

If he

the

is

But

order, but

of time

one

The

need

they

in this order
means

order.

transferred, but

Impressions come
or
"

as

of fact

matters

ideas

They
"

in

does

deny

a
as

the

time

memory,

idea

have

we

that

not

and

thus

never

not

are
"

this is sufficient to show

by

any

is that

of

power.

consequences
the

are
"

only
of

matters

relations

that

occur

is not

cause

impressions

is

is necessary.

may

as

with

relation

objectivereality.From

no

succes

given

the

order
of

space

impressionof

no

sequences,
of

be

thus

thus, and

The

and

found

"

occur

therefore,be only

be

that

have

we

the

We

nonsense.

concept
do

have

psychologicalorigin to
idea

It does

arise?

priori concept,
an

impeach

between
Hume's
is not

cause

real.

is its

how

to

; consequences

have

view

valid and

however,

relation

"

must,

and

point of
To

as

said

temporal

Sequences

powers.

fact."

not

This

again.

causal

power

be

can

occurred

have

not

cause

substance, scien

conceptions of

impressions happen

outer

necessary

theologicaldogma.

is all that

that

is,therefore,

cause

had
(associationby contiguity),Hume
sion to be a qualityof impressions and to
them.

event

one

necessary

of

case

with

historyany

is successful

in the

fall with

must

and

event

question of

been

has

of

in nature
every

that

so

occurrence

before

gone

Hume.

he

as

cause

that

? The

come

with

paramount

ing

has

the

Is there

binding

so

events

among

predict

certaintywe
causal

PHILOSOPHY

OF

HISTORY

198

e.

by

an

not

be

of
the

cause

would,

concept, and

explained ?

originate(1)

analysisof ideas, nor

How
as

an

(2)

impression,i. e. a sensation, nor

(3) as
since memories
are
images of impressions. The

outer

BERKELEY

idea of

strong that it makes

is

199

inner

an

livelyfeeling connected
does
it happen that
how

But

tion.

HUME

originatesfrom

cause

strong and

AND

connected, is

believe

us

the

impression

"

with

the

imagina
feelingis so

the

idea, with

which

it

The

reality?

feelingdoes not arise

from
a
single instance of conjunction of two impres
the conjunction of two ideas repeated
sions, but from
times.
The belief
in cause
is a feelingoriginating
many
in the constant
conjunction of impressions. This ex
plainswhy the ideas that fire will burn, that poison will
will wet
kill,that water
are
so
lively.The conjunc
tion occurs
times, and an inner necessityor com
many
pulsion arises to imagine the second
impression after
a

"

the

first.

Given

the

first

learn

idea, we

to

expect the

second.

in objects,
Repetition produces nothing new
it produces in the mind
a
new
feelingto pass from
idea to the idea usuallyattending it. Necessityex

but
one

ists in the
The

What

mind

and

Extent
remnants

applied his

in the

not

and

Limits

of

knowledge

destructive

that, if Hume

objects.

of

remain

criticism ?

had

been

Knowledge.

Human
after

His

Hume

has

critics would

an

consistent,no

knowledge
whatever
would
remain.
Upon the basis of pure posi
tivism, that all knowledge is composed of impressions
and
their copies, knowledge is an
But
impossibility.
swer

he

introduced

made
and

element,

knowledge possiblebecause
allowed

Taking
these.
the

additional

an

Hume's
are

doctrine
two

empirical.The

ideas.

Such

relations,"that

it afforded

synthesis

distinctions.

There

matics, and

"

as

classes of
formal

consists of

it

stands, his results

sciences,the formal

includes

logic and

are

and

mathe

knowledge of relations between

knowledge has certaintyand validity.Em-

HISTORY

200

consist in

piricalsciences
Such

knowledge

There

is

to

than

more

probability.

in

demonstration

call forth

Its results

ence.

amounts

never

of fact.

of matters

knowledge

certaintyor

no

PHILOSOPHY

OF

natural

conviction, but

not

sci

belief.

Beyond these subjects we have no knowledge whatever.

Metaphysics and theology are only fictions. Beyond im
no
pressionsand the copies of impressions we can make
The tendency of thought to trench
assertions.
beyond
its own
of all our
territoryis the cause
metaphysical
It tries

difficulties.
and

do,

the

relation

of

relation
mental

principleof

Hume's
so

true

in the

als. In

the

Hume

was

end

principles:

he

philosophersof

the

agreed

to

"

destroyer
evidence
that

of

the

in the reason,

is the

in the

that

remarkable

sense

stood

almost

alone

period in building ethics

the

among

upon

the

he

origin in
oldest

the

reason

form.

oldest

not
not

form.

had

scientific
:

Hume

revealed

that

ad'

Deism

object of

and

of

contemporaries.
because

he

mor

account

no

religiondid

feelings;

but idolatry,
religion,"
etc., is
he

its

is

Enlightenment.

deism.

the

proposition,but

by showing
but

deism

religionis

religion

first

his

against

"

natural

torical instinct

more,

is

took

differs from

investigation
; that religionhad
that

the

Hume

Ethics.

that

the

Hume

the

historical

vanced

and

and

Religion

general the Enlightenment

; in this

of

funda

among

past

three

and

idea of the

erroneous

the

idea

erroneous

philosophers shows the historical

applicationof his positivismto religionand

alone

the

of

empiricistto

an

and

imagination

to

nature.

Theory

exceptionamong
He

substance

give the

Reason

the

us

intended

not

was

ideas.

give

material

cause

it

is abstract

result

of resemblance

spiritualand

what

do

to

his his

originate
"

natural

Further

philosophers of
feelingsrather

the

than

BERKELEY

the intellect. The

upon

pain,and

and

ure

AND

toric

led him

sense

Both

not

and

morals

idea of the

clusions

only probable and

in

exists

science, so

are

under

the

the

world

of

determined

by

the

the

in them

God.

But

Hume's

same

most

his

cogent

kind

of law

of

nature-phenomena.
the

feelings,and

this

cannot

Our

intuitive.

not

be

that
will

is the

is based
It is
world

con

moral

cause

The

reason

passions.Our moral judgment

feelingof sympathy (Adam Smith).
in the
probable that there is a purpose
a

pleas

are

empiricallyinves

be

of the

fore

man

reason.

religionshould

in

activities

of

this conclusion.

tigated.As
are

201

ethical motives

an

to

HUME

is

slave

on

the

practically
and

established.

there

On

the

principleof probabilitythe world may have grown

mechanically or by chance.
Religion is naturally
up
reasonable
be proved.
enough, but its doctrines cannot
same

The

Britain
enment.

Hume,

Scottish
the

School.

reaction

The

from

Scottish

This

school

represents in Great

the sensualism
School

was

of the

Enlight
the British reply to
reply. They were

justas Kant was the German

the late eighteenth century reactions in two countries
to
the Enlightenment. The teaching of Kant
was, however,
also the beginning of a new
and a new
movement
period.
The
Scottish School
has no
such
importance.
Reid (1710-1796) was
the founder.
Thomas
Reid ad
mitted
that Berkeley and Hume
drew
legitimateconclu
sions from Locke's
general assumption that the objectsof
Reid main
thought are not things,but ideas. Therefore
tained
that Locke's
be given up.
Still
position must
empiricism remains tenable and must be applied to the
What
the data
of conscious
are
phenomena of mind.
? Not individual
ness
ideas, as Locke
said, but complex
ideas or
will be discovered
judgments. The elements

202

HISTORY

later

by

analysis

given.

The

which

simple

later

the
the

and

and

their

made

empirical

Thus

servation.

of

the

outcome.

were

Reid,

The

Dugald

possession.
includes

sense

objects

attention

perceived,

sensualism

psychology
were

as

in

although
prominent
Stewart,

the

to

of

members

became

in

science

accord

Brown,

inner
the
its

to

of
and

of

hands

their

with

members

school

point

of

opposed

impor

the

the

from

Philosophy

they

Enlightenment,

istic

Hamilton.

called

upon

of

and

sense,"

"

The

psychology.

perfecting

the

which

judgments."

common

of

ob

cause.

School

attack

of

judgments,

common

reality

then

existence

"

self-observation.

of

tance

the

and

common

upon

judgments

natural

"

truths
that

of

of

paper

form

the

"

first

are

inscribed,

from

or

faculty

principles

Scottish

The

rather

these

principle

the

of

in

truths

the

self-consciousness,

are

piece

to

belief

add

starts

makes

the

which

introduced

to

possesses

states

first

are

original

faculty

blank

characters

certain

Among

not

knowledge

Mankind
this

is

reflection

involve

complex

these

understanding

Our

jects.

of

mind

PHILOSOPHY

OF

Sir

the

ob
school

sensualschool

William

201

by the long wars

and

the

Louis

XV

extravagance of paternalgov

ernment.

The

reign of

It is

social forces.

seethes
in which

period

strivingto gain his rights under

have
so
long repressed him. The
French
for

political
liberty.In

the

except perhaps the Age

with

period

Pericles

of

individual

the
of

the

struggle
history
"

is the

"

is
that

of

development

other

no

struggleof

institutions

the

is identical

Enlightenment

the

with

historyof

with politi
philosophicthought so intimately connected
of the reign of Louis
cal history.The
fifty-nine
years
filled with
XV
interest both
are
excitingevents which
the philosopherand the historian.
The French
Enlight
is the
reaction
enment
against that protective and
its zenith
under
Louis
interferingspiritwhich reached
the magnificence and the util
XIV."
With
Louis XV
could
not
ity of ecclesiastical and politicalabsolutism
For
be maintained.
the
was
hierarchy of the church
unable
longer to keep up its claim of independence and
morality ; and the State was
rapidly exhausting its
Each
event
by exhausting its financial resources.
power
in the historyof France
in the eighteenth century had
"

therefore

two

each

was

ment

of

could

not

criticism

aspects

land

the

individual.

have

been

would

situation
the

in

movement

little bound

they
of

The

to

Revolution, and

the

pioneers in
of the

conscious

lead

; but

England
could

to

us

is

the

movement

to which

upon

comparison

interesting.While

ecclesiastical
without

end

Enlighten

looking back

inevitable.

seems

and
political

elastic that

led

step in the development of the

century the result

the

each

"

institutions

in
were

their
the
with

Eng
so

absorb
the
disintegrating
the Enlightenment, and while they were
so
institutions that the growth
to traditional

would

in individualism

be

was

and

institutions
political

exactlyopposite. (1)

Louis

205

the situation
constitutional,

France
the

FRANCE

IN

ENLIGHTENMENT

THE

had

In France

become

in

the church

inelastic bodies

They had reached the limit of their

and
development. So deeply rooted in absolutism
spe
cial privilegeswere
to in
not open
they that they were
novation
reform.
or
During the reign of Louis XV
which
the only question was,
be crushed
the
would
under

XIV.

"

new

individualism

mise
their

usefulness, gave
church

tified with

people

old

possible.The

was

French

forms

the

or

had

and

within

by beheading

(2)

had

state

and

In the

compro

for many

and

been

years

tyranny, while

king

place

next

century gained many

one

No

institutions, having survived

way.

oppression

institutions.

the

iden

English

needed

forcing out

the

re

another.

Consequently the English government of the eighteenth

identified with the libertyof the individual.
century was
and
In England political
speculationfollowed
religious
In France
reforms.
the op
and did not precede political
positewas true. To the mind of the French people the
and the state only
church
representedonly superstition,
and tyranny. The
more
they seemed to sup
profligacy
social structure, the more
rapid,
port each other in one
virulent, and excessive would
naturallybe the reaction
individualism
got a footing.
againstboth when once
that while in England the Enlighten
The result was
critical and
ment
negative,in France
always remained
it became
obstinate and positive
an
dogmatism. Behind
creed.
French
criticism was
developing a philosophical
and
social cause
a
The French
a
Enlightenment was
philosophers of the
self-sustainingidea. The French
not superior men
eighteenth century, on the whole, were
for they were
intellectually,

inclined

to

make

the

small

206

PHILOSOPHY

OF

HISTORY

look

largeand the large great. But although their per

inaccurate, they had an enthusiastic faith
spectivewas
and
in progress
humanity.
his

centre

French

had

language

the

language

of

ber

Hobbes

how

four

his

at

years

influence, and

writings

of

English had
the

other

Louis
the

The

circle

Euclid

is

taken

their

were

ex

XIV's
remem

spent

there

gained
of

centre

all
the

scholastic

indirectlyin

directlyor

all seventeenth

scientists

training.During
the

was

Latin

the

Paris, Locke

in

and

seen

rival. The

no

of

and

intellectual

beside

Paris, Leibnitz

erudition

this

XIV

beginning of Louis
in Europe. We

the

century philosophers.The
from

cue

hand, it is doubtful

there

half

the

if

dozen

French

late

as

death

the

as

Frenchmen

but

that

on

of

knew

English language.
About

the

the

to

of

(1687)

The

in 1660

British
then

Locke's

publicationof

of

centre

London.

in Oxford
tion

of the

time

intellectual

Paris

and

place

nowhere

century Paris

seventeenth

the

it had

its

at the

near

mathematical

Paris

1690

to

science.

found

or

made

taken

istingjust before and

reign had its equal

Louis

in France.

predecessors had
of Europe, and up

two

as

Influence

English

The

founding
the

was

scientific

began

to

gravity began
of

the

beginning
influence.

supplant

the

psychologicaldoctrines

of

Locke's
to

Essay
from

move

Royal Society
the

organiza

Newton's

physics

Cartesian

physics,

the

dogmatism of
the Rationalists,among
the thinkers of western
Europe.
Newtonian
the
physics and English empiricism became
scientific watchwords
of the eighteenth century ; and
late in accepting them, it is
were
although the French
said that at the end of the Enlightenment there was
no
cultured

Frenchman

who

could

not

read

English.
O

We

ENLIGHTENMENT

THE

find that

such

IN

Frenchmen

notable

FRANCE

207

Voltaire, Montes

as

quieu, Buffon, Brissot, Helvetius, Gournay,

Lafayette,Maupertuis, Mirabeau, Roland,

visited England during the period from
seau
XIV

of Louis

Revolution.

to the

Jussieu,

and

Rous

the

death

Poets, mathematicians,

historians, naturalists, philologists,philosophers,and

essayistsall agreed

necessity of studying

the

to

the

their fathers
had
not
people on whom
deigned to waste
thought except in contempt.
motive
But perhaps the political
was
quite as strong
of the eighteenth
the scientific in turning the French
as
England. The English government was
century toward
the example of political
libertyof that time. The rising
thinkers
had no alternative
of France
but to
inquisitive
turn
to free England for spiritual
support againsttheir

language

and

decrepittyranny. The first French visitors were

amazed
at English prosperity,
even
though the crown
amazed
in power
had decreased
at the libertyof the
own

"

press

amazed

Parliament,

and

at

the

control

thus

by the representativebody. England

venues

for all the thinkers

the

of

re

became

Europe, and through

her literature taught the lesson of political
libertyfirst
to all Europe.
to France, and then
school

the

The

Two

same

as

the first
the

it does

England.

in

extending

to the

Enlightenment of

the

social

nated
the
seau,

and

by Voltaire,

of

individual

and

advanced

the

results in the

France
are

second

much

the

periods:

two

the century, when

is

thought

second, when

practical.The

Encyclopaedists;
and

There

middle

; the

intellectual cultivation
becomes

itself in

divides

eighteenthcentury

The

Enlightenment.

French

of the

Periods

of

first

lie in

to

his salvation

period

is domi

by Montesquieu
is dominated

Revolution.

by

and

Rous

208

The

periods have

two

although the
represent
the

ualism
took

second

to

period

the
-

the

classes.

made

was

early,it attained

of individ
It

naturally
then

of

theories

of

practicalexpression
it

change

to

the

principallyon

society.While

on

move

culture, and

of the

the

their

on

attack

their

first,

church, in the

began
of the

until the middle

not
significance

sec

battle

the state

on

op

the

In the

practicalreforms.

some

whole

rationality.In

had

monarchists

make

the

defend

to

sec-

aristocratic,

was

intellectual

of

that

"

the

period the champions

forced

of

intellectual

doctrine

find

to

first

were

ground

and

attack

second

bound

In

period,the

ground

the

the lower

to

were

monarchy

ponents' own
ond

Yet

spontaneity. The

second.

ancient

first

form, first,of intellectual

first

in the

while

means,

democratic.

the upper

from
the

the

this
The

of

institutions
an

social.

was

Both

elevation

the first was

of
gradual filtering

appeal

an

all that
and

emotional

was

the

against the

century. But

"^Enlightenmentand

motive,

radicallydifferent.

are

in his reaction

the seventeenth

ment

fundamental

common

gradual progressiontoward

Kvhilethe

used

means

individual

flond was

PHILOSOPHY

OF

HISTORY

century.
The

Intellectual

and

taire, Montesquieu,

representativesof

the

and

Montesquieu.

1726,

and

Montesquieu

France

the

in

Voltaire's

London,

Letters

and

sophy of Newton
to

be

in 1734

in 1738.

of Newton

published

on

Voltaire
in

and
l

English

appeared
published
in France

were

first

Vol

England

in

they both returned

published his Letters on

were

1741.

had

written

in 1734.

in Amsterdam

until

to

The

Vol

1728, and

Montesquieu

the

went

his Elements

in France

was

Enlightenment

Voltaire

in 1729.

English

Encyclopaedists.

the French

taire

to

(1729-1762).

Enlightenment

His
in

of the Philosophy
published a fierce
in

1728, published

Elements

1738, but

was

first

of the Philo
not

allowed

of

discussion

FRANCE

institutions
against the political

invective

1721,

IN

ENLIGHTENMENT

THE

1734, and

in

twenty-two editions

Romans

the

Voltaire

eighteen months.

and

deistic

form, and Montesquieu expounded Locke's

of

Their

government.

ment

against

about

1735.

The

aim

of

all

religioustheory

writingswere

in

theory

read

by

the

revolutionarymove

existinginstitutions

this movement

of

widely

this theoretical

classes,and

upper

the

intro

Locke

duced

espoused

in

1748, selling

in

Laws

Spiritof the

his famous

in

France

of

of

decadence

the

209

momentum

got

entirelyaristocratic.
The solution of the existingpredicament in France
lay
for them
in the greater care
of the masses
by an en
lightenedtyranny. The dualism of the classes was always
The

assumed.
is to take
able

to

them

the

few

cultured

be

to

are

was

place of dogma.

reason,

have

masses

them

reason

not

are

capacityfor education,

no

religionsuffices.

The

; for

To

free the individual

amen-

and

from

for

terror

his morality from

Jesu
to release
supernatural,
itical dominance,
intellectual independence j
to give him
of state and church
this was
the working idea of the
be free,
intellectual Enlightenment. Thought should
of

the

"

and

the

of

conscience

meled, because

the

aristocracyof
ignorant,who
church
the

and

the

be

cultured

were

state.

sufficient

movement

aristocracyshould

new

is

reason

rationalistic,the

thus

should

the individual

then

The

guide. Being

for

the

the dominant

French

should

old

A
an

"

corrupt and

of the

instead

untram-

aristocratic.

was

substituted

illumiuati

be

classes

in

in
participate

existingpolitical
privileges.
Voltaire

he went
*

Read

to

a
(1694-1778).* Voltaire was
therefore
England, and he was

Ueberweg,

Hist,

of Phil,

vol.

deist when
very

much

ii,pp. 124-125.

210

PHILOSOPHY

OF

HISTORY

impressed by the prevalent English deism.

Among
the English deists, Bolingbroke had the greatest influ
ence

him, and

over

he

"direct

the

was

of

progenitor

'Voltaire's religiousopinions."Bolingbroke's light and

^ superciliousinfidelity
of
suited

subject; but

every
of

his

sojourn

ity all

Locke

prodigal son
arms

of

that

modest

what

he

does

not

his

cartes'

French

saw

it in

naticism.
tians
:

His

have

however,
God's

/I fond

looked

deist, who

bringing

cannot

we

all

dogma

He

himself

was

passion for

him

the

cast
"

as

cold

invidi

Des-

and

French

and

and

as
Christianity,

amounted

scathing

know
under

his

we

He

He

criticism,and

suspicionupon

against the
and

and

was,

know

can

nature.

fa

Chris

that

atheist.

an

he

to

"

was

while

everything."

ignorant philosopher." To

great that his constructive

immortalitywere

makes

Deism

that, while

preferableto dogma
invective

know

to

English government

so

believed

nothing, he

called

were

the

enormous

Empiricism

Toward

upon

he denied

atheism

the

no

assured."

Voltaire

English

between

strictures

existence,
of

is well

Locke's

between

has

many

into

myself

country, his hatred

own

so

like

pretends

never

substance

government.
his

Locke.

to

having sought

in truth

; who

between

Rationalism,

the

Hobbes, Berkeley,

threw

PhilosophicalLetters

Catholicism,and

and
who

man

whose

comparisons

ous

father

know

marks

chimeras, I returned

many

his

of

on

familiar

with

always returning

ashamed

so

to

possessions,but

.-

but

found

and

In

read
"

Harassed, wearied,

truths

He

England."

in

was

wrote

but bears

of his books

one

world

genius,Voltaire

universal

not

"

the

of

man

English philosophers,

the

Cudworth,
"

Voltaire.

to

the

him

superstition.His

French

statements

impersonal.

clergy was
about

God

so

and

212

HISTORY

There
with
i

the

Voltaire

did

from

and

who

individualism

and

the

of the

connection
it went

wrote

skepticismthan

Encyclopaedia reached

skeptics,atheists, and

fiud

we

wider

of Voltaire.

did the works

of Voltaire

deism

in

noticed

men

different classes than

circle and
Instead

be

the

toward

PHILOSOPHY

to

Encyclopaedia

further

much

things

two

are

OF

contributions

materialists,

who

men

"

'

becoming

are

negative

more

advances.

century

The

in

their

reached
Encyclopaedistgroup
ceased
to be
a
philosophy.Diderot
first step in philosophy is unbelief,
far

so

Their

sophy.

materialism

to

as

the

as

of

thorough-going agnosticism

the

went

opinions

that

think

had

said

and

unbelief

it

where

point

his

that

the

associates

is all of

philo

sensationalism, naturalism, and

extreme

sometimes

in

appeared

disguised

form

in

the

often in independent writ

Encyclopaedia,but more
the source
of inform
ings. The Encyclopaedia became
ation for everybody. It spread information
all
among
classes and
stitutions.
the

to

undermined

The

court

became

now

The

most

to be

appear

result

and

the

the

object of

connected

The
the

Locke's
into
*

375.

the

who

psychology

of this time

not, however,

Encyclopaedia. He pub

Sensations

conceived

in
a

which

1754,
pure

endowed
He

into France, whence

it

by

reduced

sensationalism.

him.

was

sacred

traditional,

was

does

figurativestatue

of smell

it

been

of the sensationalists

with

on

had

in

to all.

scorn

psychologicalanalysisto

well-known
sense

what

because

(1715-1780),*

lished his Treatise

Locke's

laborer

for French

reverence

that

was

profound

Condillac

was

their

only

with

introduced
was

carried

Germany.
Read

Hand,

Modern

Classical

Philosophers,pp.

347-

ENLIGHTENMENT

THE

Social

The

of

period

IN

French

Contrat

second

dominates

the

nated

first.

the

revolution.

period

to

by

freedom

that

see

without

in

that

ciety.The
adroit

the

the

fatal blow

the

But

serious.

church.

the

being

directed

point where

Voltaire

Voltaire

of

taire his

At

of

causes

eration

and

hearted, for

opinion was
thought, but
*

Read

character

at

what

He

the

not

appealed

reformer

not

in

Eucken,

of French

the

to

the

be

of

found

streets

Problem

so

and

the

the issue

of

work

itself.

began
under

received

But

too

aim

was

State

of the

too

were

attention

moment

the
from

the

the

at

influ

Vol

concrete

intellectual
Strict

Rousseau.
were

itself out

Voltaire

their abstract
to

it seemed

time

revolt

was

first and

literaryfreedom
a

he

Rousseau

left off.

rightof individuals,and
was

of the church

one

originalproductive impulse.

freedom,

not

and vain,
although superficial

(1712-1778).*

Rousseau

ence

the

to

enough

Voltaire

deeply social,the malady againstwhich

ing was too vital ; and besides, at that
was

self-culture

amusing, had

been

un

did

Enlightenment would

But

the

He

structure

in earnest.

downright

was

by

social

intellectual France

tyranny

have

at

structure.

the

and

domi-

historian

not

was

social

at

might

if the intellectual

in

He

literaryfencing between

so

Voltaire

individual

the

1762

to reinstate

revolutionize

not

strikingat

churchmen

been

not

thought.

he could

dealing a

was

as

of

pulling down

realize

aimed

never

derstanding,to emancipate the

and

with

of Voltaire

that

objectivepoint was

His

second

of Rousseau

influence

as

had

Voltaire

in

Social

The

in the Revolution.

culminates

The

Enlightenment begins

Rousseau's

publicationof

213

(1762-1789).

Enlightenment

the

FRANCE

mod

negative, half

Rousseau's

type. Public
Versailles,as Voltaire

in
of

Paris.

Human

The

Revolution

Life, pp. 423-433.

^
/

214

then

to

came

Rousseau

and
tion
the

j pounded
the
be

to

aim

in

fought

lived

and

his

His

ation.

1750

in

1773, which

of his doctrine

his constructive

Rousseau

was

his

and

Social, 1762;

trat

He

them.

disgust and

the

Emile,

utilitarianism

Holbach.
j

When

He

was

turned

amid

half
admir

volumes, the

published

negative

1762

Confessions,which

Le

side

Con-

contain

thought.
at

first

contributor

of

Helvetius

he

wrote

suddenly perceived how

j enment

made

was

the

to

paedia, but at heart he cared nothing for the

He did not
of knowledge and
understand
art.
prehensive intellectual ambition of Diderot ; he
the

life,

He

trouble.

represent
;.

had

century.

prize essays

two

Helo'ise,1761

impossi

the contest

fill twenty-two

being

ones

how

which

adventurous

self -created

works

numerous

and

and

inspiresboth

career

important

most

how

quarrel with

to

fully ex-

of Paris

nineteenth

wandering

friends, only

insane, and

in the

again

over

and

was,

radical-

and

shows

History

school

full of hallucinations
many

Rousseau's

Convention

the

Convention.
of each

Rousseau

the

sections of the Commune

in the
the

attacked

theoryof modera
Constituent
Assembly and

classes,while

introduced

was

ble

middle

of Voltaire

Voltaire's

lockinghorns.

and

upper

schools

find the

we

represented in

was

I ism

head, and

PHILOSOPHY

OF

HISTORY

the

against

his

absurd

and

the

both

the

the

state

com

resented
of

1750, he

in

intellectual

distressingsocial

diffusion

materialism

prize essay
the

Encyclo

Enlight-j

of France.!

existingorder and the

would-be
intellectual reformers.
The temporal order of
to him
things was
Study, knowledge, and culti
awry.
vation
to him
the deep-lying
were
only a gloss over
degradation. Society,as it is constructed, is artificial,
is a tyranny. God
and all organization
exists,and He

ENLIGHTENMENT

THE

is good. Man
his

his

simplicity,corrupted

him

into

was

that

entire

sufferingand

of

FRANCE

215

until civilization and

good

was

IN

sinful

anarchism.

virtues, and

It

transformed

Rousseau's

being.

was

Go back
inequalities.
of that idyllic
state
plicity

to

nature

let children

the

away7'and

and

call

of

condemnation

a,

past. Sweep all the so-called civilization

level

invaded

art

in the

grow

sim

undi-

up

__

rected
"

except by

immortal
In

and

an

lectual

inquire into

did

They

celestial

ing up

then

not

man's

self-respect.He
that

plea was

the

unfortunate

the fortunate

for

in the

compelled
of wide

French

not

people so

only

and

century
is the

time

own

between

sentimental

essential part.

his words

"

"

for

eloquence
were

that

sympathy.

ma

He

greatest misery for the

supporters appeared

true

but

as

upon

His

he.

the
have

some

all events

At

mo

emotions,

They

and

only

he

influence

nineteenth
said

he

that

sounded

the

in art, litera
civilization,especially

education;

correlation
a

our

and
such

of its

and

generous

the

human

listen.

the

one

greatest modern.

ture, and

to

extraordinary,and

was

keynote of

taught

no

own

the

appeal to

to

one

appealed to

with

hold

with their present

the

"

'

lunatic.

mean

doctrinaire

compassion

monarchy

his

upon

given

were

greatest number,
the

was

intel

the

contemporaries

the

Frenchman,

every

were

of

was

alone

made

His

in contrast

in all France

jesticlanguage

to

he

will result in action,

His

corruption Rous

which

motives

unpracticalideal

an

and

false.

that

see

lie alone

saw

sound

the

state.

tives

voice."

oppression

Enlightenment

not

"

sympathetic chord

that

uncorrupted instinct,

own

tired of

age

struck

seau

did

their

for

Nature

he

showed

and

the

the

fundamental

passions. Rousseau

deism, in which

sentiment

is the

Revolution

The

it grew

the

was

the

were

immediate
of

practicalones

policy. The growth

and

tion,economics,

The

issues

in the

(beginning 1760), in the study

as
.science, in the theory of government,
of the French

distress

lie

the American

i of

class

I middle

hearted

real

of

for nature,

an

Revolution

for the

age

the

power,

French

political

well
the

of the

the foolish

statesmen

the

as
success

French

and

half

all these

"

brought on the crisis. Yet

the
of Rousseau, fallingon fruitful soil,were
In
the
immediately preceding the
years
there was
a world-wide
agitation,an enthu
at

cause.

siasm

positionof

that

words

the

measures

factors

were

to

physical

of

government,

volution, the advance

of

out

finance, legisla

sciences

financial

of the

consummation

natural

in France.

Enlightenment
which

PHILOSOPHY

OF

HISTORY

216

and

the

end

exaltation

for the

of man,

societythen

and

contempt

existing.There

was

presentimentof impending change, which most

Thinkers
full
were
prepared to welcome.
people were
such
of illusions. Even
despots as Frederick the Great,
of Russia, and
Catherine
affected a
Joseph of Austria
radicalism, and Spain, Portugal, and Tuscany, as well
moved
with
as
England, France, and Germany, were
a

vague

great humanitarian
sal
the

as

to

sentiments.

the condition

The

of the human

eloquent expression of

debate
race.

this world-wide

was

univer

Rousseau

was

movement.

(1740-1781). As the
Enlightenment in France, so the Enlightenment in
Germany had its introductoryperiod. The history of
Germany from the end of the Thirty Years' War
(1648)
to the publicationof Kant's
Critique (1781), or 133
into two
periods at the year 1740,
years, is divided
the Great
when
Frederick
crowned.
The
was
period
1740
from
to 1781, or
forty-oneyears, is the German
The

German

Enlightenment

IN

ENLIGHTENMENT

THE

GERMANY

217

to
1740, or
period from 1648
is introductoryto the Enlightenment,
and, as in France, a period of absolutism.
The
Introductory Period (1648-1740). Absolutism.
The
politicallyand intel
spirit of absolutism, both
the
end
from
of the
Germany
lectually,dominated
(1648) to the crowning of Fred
Thirty Years' War

The

Enlightenment.
ninety-two years,

erick

later

ended

and

began

in

than

full

in

the

Again,

about

of Kichelieu

(1610)

idea
great protective

for seventy-two

intellectual dictator.
was

ruled

years

In

as

since

the

under

known

once

Thirty

as

central

of Louis

in

XIII

XIV,

who

and
political

other hand, it

the

on

grew

Louis

and

and decay
disintegrating
Empire, but
Holy Roman
only a collection of states

idea of ab

The

government.

less, for within

the

prevailednone

solutism

the

War

Years'

nominal

it

absolute

Germany,

spectre hovering over

ing nation

thirty-five
years

France

in

the efforts

the

are

countries, however.

splendor from
to

Ger

There

years.

two

Germany

France.

dominated

hundred

one

between

differences

some

Absolutism

(1740).

France

and

many

It

Great

the

the

several

in
religious,
and political
tellectual,
opinions of his subjects.
and socially
the Holy Roman
Empire was
Politically
and splendor of con
in strikingcontrast
to the power
had left
The Thirty Years' War
temporaneous France.
land
The
the empire absolutelydesolate.
was
impov
erished, the nation
disrupted,and the population re
states

from

duced
millions

long

monarch

each

seventeen

after

nothing.

the

it had

and

was

war.

their

as

to the

millions

before

The

had

degraded

It left the

lute within

dictator

war

the

people

poor

the

been

and

respectivestates.

It

nation.
the

The

war

to

five

generation
had

settled

princes abso
upper

classes

218

HISTORY

everywhere, except
The

universities

they

established

Weimar,

at

reduced

were

the

absolutism

the

what

prince of

state

state,

each

that

so

exhausted, but
moral

their

still

were

the

activityamong
immorality

own

their

practi

gained. Lutherans,

been

no

of

profligate.

positionbelow

up

and

to

The

respectivedogma.

Germany politically
prostrate

left

war

his

were

antagonistic.There was
Orthodox
they set
; often

become

The

religion for
Catholics

Calvinists, and

prove

to

religiouslibertyhad

callyno

had

Renaissance.

in the

were

PHILOSOPHY

OF

intellectu

ally stagnant.
In the

possible
of

the

the

detect

to

intellectual
the

The

of

seeds

veloped

on

Pietistic

Leibnitz's
1. The
the

German

(2)

the

movement;

France

foreign ideas
intellectual

from

revival

beginningsare

early German

(4)

lay

that

within

Enlightenment

modern

soil. Those

own

of

it is

beginnings

that

sources

French
of

the

are

War

important point

an

from

The

influence

her

rise of Prussia

to

It is

freedom

the

that

movements

civilization.

own

Thirty Years'

the

resuscitated

was

largelyto

the

follow

Enlightenment.

Germany
her

that

years

the

and
due

were

England.
de

were

(1)

literature
transformation

the

(3)
of

rationalism.
rise of

the

little electorate

powerful kingdom

politicalbasis

of

of

Prussia

of

in

Brandenburg
1740

was

the

Enlightenment that followed.

No state had
suffered
more
during the Thirty Years'
War.
The
entire population was
reduced
to less than
million, and Berlin, the capital,had only three hun
a
dred citizens.
The
was
as
harshly absolute
government
The
elsewhere.
as
rights of the citizens were
entirely
taken
Prussia
by the three princes who ruled over
away
1740.
But
1648
between
and
a
powerful kingdom
the

the church.
and

leaders

Its two

Francke

were

devout

The

Pietists

The

holy
not

were

therans, but

for

of the

and

eration

universal

religiousfreedom.
church, but
Pietism
shall
two

they

united

speak

next

had

first with

at
"

their

won

the

in

onslaught

with

his

formal

personal

regen

stood for
the

upon

saving individuals.

Rationalism

of which

"

against orthodoxy,

but

we

the

when

victory they quarreled. Although

itself

later became

the Pietistic movement

it furnished

of

no

content

were

had

priesthood.They

made

They

early Lu

the

ecclesiastical

earlyperiod taught. They opposed

ism, and
they proclaimed the need

deeds.

good

to

Luther

what

members

the

figures like

heroic

stood

they

and

consecrated

men

entered

movement

Netherlands

the

and

Spener (1635-1705)

were

(1663-1727).

from

Germany

PHILOSOPHY

OF

HISTORY

220

ground

religiousfreedom

for the
these

Enlightenment. During

conventional,

hundred

of the

of German

years

religiousabsolutism, the Pietists represent the moral

religiousbodies.
activityamong
the
4
of the Enlightenment was
The
chief
source
In turning back
to the life of
philosophy of Leibnitz.
will remember
this distinguished German
the reader
hundred
the
first scientist in two
that he was
years,"
and
that
he
who
the Rationalist
was
presaged the
born
in 1646, just two
Enlightenment. Leibnitz was
"

years
year
those

before
after

the

the

war

death

unfruitful

years

closed, and
Louis

of

after

XIV.
the

war

died
He
and

in

1716,

lived

one

during

before

the

philosophystands out promi

low plane of the intellectual activity
of
In 1686
that time.
he completed the construction
of his
philosophy by introducingthe conception of the indi
vidual as a dynamic centre.
Enlightenment
nently from the

; and

his

he

German

Many

difficulties and
French

the

make

it readable

Tschirnhausen

were

(1729-1786), and
German
Enlightenment

Tetens

the

for

like

about

losophy.

The

medium

of

French

the

of Leib

its tech

people

as

French

people.
(1651-1708), Men

delssohn

come

221

for the

for the

Encyclopaediawas

these

Among

GERMANY

philosophers,about the time

tried to free philosophy from

later

nitz, had
nical

IN

ENLIGHTENMENT

THE

(1736-1805),

but

did

not

reasons

many

in the

popularizingof phi

philosophy of Leibnitz did reach the peo

stirred through the
ple directly,but the people were
nitz's
the

literature

philosophy became

universities

until

the

Halle

it

the

the

was

in

lished

by

other

it,not

the

the

circles, and

Leibnitz-

remained

Wolffian

German

universities

German

dominant

philosophy. Leib
thought only in
so

Critiquein 1781. The

(1679-1754), developed and
its advantage, into an
absolutism,

the

schools.

philosophy
Once

estab

it remained

unchanged there
thought that penetrated

of French

invasion

of

Kant's

of the
for

canon

the

to

name

than

academic

professor,Wolff

under

even

and

publication of

transformed
and

rather

circles. Even

Voltaire's

residence

at

the

Berlin

(1750) had no influence upon the Leib

nitz- Wolffian
philosophy of the Berlin Academy. The
impreg
dogmatic absolutism of this philosophy remained

court

at

nable

in academic

"

and

then
these

among

cast, except
doctrine
Wolff
trines

circles and

only by

German.

Rationalists,
in

the last to be

was

There

once

incorporating in

their

was

dislodged

little progress

doctrine

had

eclectic fashion

an

been
the

of others.

systematizedthe

of Leibnitz

ically.This

was

for
in

unordered

the

purpose

1706,

when

of

by

and

desultory doc

teaching
the

aid of

them

log

Leibnitz

222

HISTORY

he obtained

the

He

with

instant

seen

from

met

trine is
are

Reasonable

on

the Powers

lectured

professorshipof

mathematics

The

rationalism

success.

Thoughts
Understanding, etc. He
he was
1723, when
expelledby

until

theologicalinfluence.

was

coincident

His

the

and

the

Thomasius, who
in letters

Latin

either

of

he

the

only
and

In

reduced

to

the

mechanism
sumed
is to

be

reduced

was

"

strate
reason.

it

and

of

power

body

doc

teach

that

doing

this

they lost
that

taught

representation;

of the

the Leibnitz

applied to
for

divine

everywhere, and
only by

result
to

was

all

human

departments, and

everything,and
Wolffian

ends.

deduction

that

the

and

is

suf
was

huge

Rationalityis

as

of its existence

from

evident

philosophy

affair. Wolff
to make

world

to

monad.

principleof

knowledge

commonplace

purely deductive
The

the

principleof identity.The

obtained

ciples. The

has

in

instance, he

For

soul

designed

to be

used

largerpublic,in

leading ideas

extended

so

that

reason

had

preestablishedharmony appliesonly

of the

general,he

writ

Leibnitz's

it. But

disseminate

mind

human

had

systematized Leibnitz's

peculiar force.

relation

ficient

He

Leibnitz's

down

again,that

the

the Great

few, and

expanded

for
superficially,

thereby could

all their

the

for

Wolff

French.

tongue.

toned

so

in 1740

German

the

treatises

and
or

German

ing, and

of Frederick

crowning

the first to do it. Leibnitz

was

trine, broadly and

the

Halle

to

return

Enlightenment. We
few general aspects of his teaching. He em.
German
language in his lectures, following

the

ployed
ten

the

beginning

note

can

of his doc

God, Reasonable

Thoughts on
of the Human

with

Halle.

at

works, which

of his

title of many

the

Halle

at

PHILOSOPHY

OF

empty
undertook

of

prin

Leibnitz

rationalism
to demon

is above
what
intelligible
reversion
to
a
philosophy was

proof through

the

Truth

processes.

tion. Thus

produced

tism, because

problem

no

it all truth

the

is derived

Wolffian

The
German
with

the

was

dogmatism

in

personal

sophy

of Leibnitz

through

of

Lessing

writings

ary

subordinated

to

of

Summary

the

of

through

its translation

itself the

In
that

the

by combining
Wolffian

merely supplanted
Luther.

and

Pietism,

with

religion.It

like

more

its translation

incident

an

hand

became

was

in

factor

individualistic

and

pe

experience.

its combination

and

also lost its absolutism

was

deliverance

of Melanchthon

and

classifica

it ; it

to

is the

one

literature.

its absolutism

became

the
other

the

logical

Leibnitzian

was

became

on

scholasticism

dogmatic

and

on

German

new

Rationalism

It lost

and

It

from

Rationalism

Enlightenment
Pietism,

into

the

none

and

difficult

was

to

and

and

thorough-goingdogma

rationalism,because
reason

problems by

philosophy that

shallow.

but

223

mathematical

; it was

omitted

all

of definition

matter

formal, clear

Leibnitz

with

is

Wolff

and

of

cogency

GERMANY

it solved

scholasticism,since

mediaeval

dantic

IN

ENLIGHTENMENT

THE

Herder

in individual

into
and

philo

the
the

liter

thus

was

culture.
of

Literary Enlightenment

Ger

Enlightenment was
(1740"1781). The German
thus made
possibleby the politicalgrowth of Prussia,
literature,by the rise
by the development of a meagre
of Leib
of Pietism, and
by the Wolffian interpretation
nitz's philosophy. All these were
important features of
The year
the century followingthe Thirty Years' War.
1740
is the beginning of the German
Enlightenment.
many

It marks
cline

of

Wolff's
lin

the
the

crowning

of Frederick

the

influence

of

Gottsched

in

return

(1750)

is

to
an

Halle.

The

important

arrival

factor

Great,

de

literature,and

of Voltaire
in

the

the

in Ber

rise of

the

224

German

its

at

was

with

and

the

which

(1773-1787),

in 1759

death-blow

brought

(1756-1763)
of his Let
In

Literature.

Storm

the

by

Enlighten
(1760), con

War

on

basis.

firm

Stress

and

these

Gottschedism,

to

Enlightenment

the

followed

was

Years'

Modern

most

gave

established

This

to

the

Lessing

Letters

Seven

the

the

later

years

publicationby Lessing

the

concerning

ters

spiritof

height twenty

with

temporaneous
and

The

Enlightenment.

ment

PHILOSOPHY

OF

HISTORY

movement

Enlightenment proper

the

end.

an

1730-1750
the Swiss, the
1740

The

ing of

"

the

Enlightenment inaugurated
"

The

Great,

the

of Wolff

return

1750

Gottsched,

Experimentation

Anacreonticists, etc.

Frederick

ism, the

of

Period

1751-1780

Lessing

1773-1787

Storm

lightenment proper
1787-1805

and

the

at

Berlin.

to

Enlightenment.
Period.

Stress

and

The

"

En

end.1

an

(Schillerd. 1805).

Classicism.

1795-1850

Halle.

to

of Voltaire

coming

of Gottsched

decline

the

crown

(approximately) The

Romantic

Move

ment.

1850-

The
Political

The
erick

the

Realistic

Enlightenment
Political

Great.

philosophicaltheories

ment.

Germany
in this

throne
he

of

the

respect. The
now

Germany
German

in the

therefore

was

of

changes preceded

follow

France

Movement.

like

end.

In

real

of

Wolff
the

sense

Classicism

and

the

Halle,

German
Romantic

the

and

Enlightenment
were

never
a

the

to

that

granted,

support
has

unlike

reforms

that he

his avowed

movement

did not

of Frederick

coming

powerful Prussia,
to

and

Enlighten

England

inaugurated, the religioustoleration

his recall

Fred

"

come

continuation

of

in-

to

an

of it.

THE

IN

ENLIGHTENMENT

GERMANY

225

things,and especiallythe Seven Years' War

the political
groundwork that made
(1756-1763) were
Frederick
possible the Enlightenment in Germany.
himself is the great figure in the German
Enlighten
Frederick
is in the French.
ment, justas Voltaire
ac
for political
acts
complished in concrete
Europe what
Voltaire
accomplished for ecclesiastical Europe. Vol
of the spir
taire destroyed the ecclesiastical absolutism
itual power,
while Frederick
destroyed the absolutism
with the name
of the Holy Roman
so
long connected
Empire and the House of Hapsburg. Before he died,
tellectual

he

had

freed

Austria,
In the

Seven

who

had

professedto

thought
the

was

upon

of

to

War
a

from

states

given

Years'

example

an

rope

and

the German

the

given

ideal
political

new

of the

be the servant

principle of

the

equalityof

Eu

to modern

in

autocrat

an

State.

His

of his State.

the advancement

of

its death-blow.

Empire

had

he

the dominance

whole
He

set

his

subjectsbefore
the law, and the principleof religious
and philosophical
and in
liberty.In his external
struggleswith Austria
the internal
construction
of his kingdom Frederick
is
the protest of the Enlightenment against the arbitrary
despotism of politicalEurope. The example of Fred
erick was
calls the
to all Germany. Kant
an
inspiration
the Great.
eighteenth century the Age of Frederick
Frederick
made
his subjectsfeel that
had
they were
Prussians,or, as Goethe
(Fritz's
puts it, Fritzche
men) ; that the great foe of the German
people was
the German
Empire as personifiedby the Austrians
up

"

"

Saxons.

and

issue
the

When

deadly war

combined

he
of

force

Austria, Russia,

and

had

seven

of

conducted
years

more

France,

than
all

to

successful

singlehanded
half

of

against

Europe,

"

representing political

226

HISTORY

absolutism,

he

"

in the

Reforms

states.

people of

undertaken

were

Saxony, Brunswick, etc.,

and
Joseph of Austria.
Frederick

Furthermore,

of

those

among

looked

he

lightened ;

of

what

himself

English,and he
studied
Bayle,
acquainted

with

piricism of

Locke.

materialist
for

he

of what

He
deism

the

as

of the

ment

of

people. All

by him,
as

and

people

they
be

Course

not

the

were

states
new

of

looking

the

(1)
wise
in

the
;

reforms

(2) Germany

which

intellectual

Lessing,of

whom

concerted
and
we

action

aesthetic
shall

best

The

Since

man.

after

themselves,
autocracy

France

Why
polit
it did

princes adopted

was

of

segregated

difficult

current

speak.

why

reasons

composed

was

the

enlightened

permitted.

in

as

the German

that

be

Enlightenment.
three

are

mind,

happy.

become

There

of

and

enlighten

his benevolent

German

movement

ical revolution?
not

incapable

under

em

atheist

be

be

was

the

the

institutions,such

he

of

and

the

must

rule, and

compelled

had

become

attitude

restrictive

enlightened,rational, and

The
did

are

be

must

Prussia

no

He

and

an

undertook

corporations,could

should

man

the

therefore

and

guilds

best

to

his

was

enlightened, to

State, he

servant

what

speculation. Con

above

most

great

time

his natural

was

was

French.

was

one

become

father

of

of Wolff

at

was

greatest

had

philosophy,

emphasized morality

ceiving himself,

mother

rationalism

the

but

his

French

read

He

intellects.

German,

was

the

as

early training.His

his

by

Russia

personally en

was

himself

upon

Baden,

of

Catherine

by

himself

enlightened

denationalized
fond

and

Bavaria,

in

his

German

other

many

in

only

inspired patriotism not

subjects,but

own

PHILOSOPHY

OF

There

(3) a
begun by

was

is

no

doubt

228

HISTORY

PHILOSOPHY

OF

Enlightenment, Lessing is
the savior of it. The
Enlightenment in England stopped
the
with
with the phenomenalism of Hume,
in France
continued
Revolution,but in Germany it has in a sense
classic period of Goethe
to the present day. The
even
originator of

Schiller,the

and

Germans,
not

scientific

death-blow

in

past, but

assaults

he

the

set

movement

which

basis, upon

of

Lessing.

He

pedantic absolutism

the

to

of the

achievements

perpetual source

intellectual

the

against

the

intellectual

permanent

and

modern

their

have

only gave

of the

German

the

stood

it has

for

sentimentalism

upon

hundred

fiftyyears.

not
only
Lessing. G. E. Lessing (1729-1781) was
sound
of the social world.
scholar,but a polishedman

He

was

dramatic

ist,a
and

and

of

of

writer

upon

thought.

His

art.

and

comedies,
and

translator

ecclesiastical

philosophy and

Faust,

Nathan

the Wise

essay

history,
is, after

greatest literaryproduction of Ger

the

With

him

French

rejectedthe

epigrams, fables,

literary critic, a

student

Goethe's
man

writer

German

models

literature

accepted by

begins.

Gottsched

He
he

introduced

he sur
Shakespeare to the Germans
; and
passed all his contemporaries in literaryand artistic
reform, social enlightenment, and
religiousemancipa
tion. Lessing and Winckelmann
the first to spread
were
love for the
a
past by a critical study of it. Lessing
was

not

violent

criminating critic.
for

The

an

said
would

like
that

not

subjectivityand

upon

were

from

the

have
and

had

Wolff.

chosen

Herder,

Leibnitz.
his

dis

wished

in

intuition, rather

interpretersof
Enlightenment in

true

the

Voltaire, but

if Leibnitz

literarywriters, Lessing

insistence

differed

He

interpreter,he

new

Wolff,

iconoclast

their
than

Lessing
conception of

ENLIGHTENMENT

THE

the

its

in

present
interested

was

models

things.

Both

in

in

aesthetics

of

"

the

in

Herder,
to

God
time

drew

creation

all

historical

Renaissance,

the

the

problems

the

from

of

and

the

them

with

the

origins

the

to

this

too,

pointed

immanent

and

antiquity,

from

229

past.

Herder

which

literature,"

thought

the

At

light,

to

GERMANY

Lessiiig

an

universe.

the

came

world

with

past

believed

of

harmony

continuity
development.

in

perfect

IN

and

the

and

the

"

Enlightenment.
literary
for

writers

their

as

of

the

understood

his

was

motive

an

His

in

the

Storm

and

interruption,

century

and

He

thus

by

the

through

German

Period

Enlighten
so

that

transcended
he

individual

principles
Stress
the

point

appears

the

enlightened
his

subjective

individuality

Stress

But

the

Leibnitz

of

and

it.

perpetuated.

eighteenth

Thus

doctrine

Wolffians,

the

taking

power

Storm

by

that

in

life.

individuality.

mental

only

of

Lessing's

ment.

Pietists,

agreed

view

Lessing

that

The

suppresses

were

Period

not

was

funda

so

proved

German

be

to

Enlightenment

projected

himself

instruments

of

beyond
that

the

century.

CHAPTER

KANT*

The

French
ical

eighteenth

brilliant

intellectual

has

compared

been

Period

of

Greek

of

Aristotle).

that

political
their

There
this

epoch,

Some

(1)

in

Pietism,

century

periods

phe

the

at

close

and
it

Systematic

the

death

Socrates

of

the

when

appeared
countries

respective

(2)

their

the

back

that

at

were

period

the

as

origin

or

sentimentalism

Windelband,

Hist,

Locke

of Phil,

as

217

pp.
a

ff.).

foreign

here.

influence

Germany

of

noted

from

come

upon

introductory

(see

them

enumerate

swept

converged
already

have

we

religious

and

The

influences

empirical psychology
Read

the

the

in

productions

to

(1648-1740)

merely

us

(1635)

Germans

which

far

as

later

Spener

The

large
of

some

even

Let

source.

its creative

(from

the

Enlightenment
are

In

empir

renewed

was

the

with

English

alone,

there

Both

of

six

were

the

Germany

but

ebb.

beginning
to

thought

fortunes

lowest

the

by

France,

ended

the

past

eighteenth

inconsistency

own

century,
life.

France

while

the

the

through

yet

nor

In

Hume.

of

the

its

in

pass

Traditional

proved

nomenalism

to

not

political revolution,

movement

of

does

Germany.

of

way

from

thoroughfare

England,

through

century

by

times

modern

our

in

Influences

Philosophical

intellectual

The

Germany.
into

of

Convergence

that
in
of

the

eighteenth

Rousseau

among

pp.

with

began

the

529-531.

(3)

younger

KANT

231

(4) The Rationalism of the Leibnitz- Wolffian

cir
philosophy,which was most powerful in academic
mathematical
cles ; (5) The
rigorism of the naturenew
literarywriters in
philosophy of Newton
; (6) The
intuition.
and
their insistence
subjectivity
upon
Germans

The

Three

philosophy will

German
teristics.

(1)

losophy of

the

be

Philosophy,

of German

Characteristics

It is scholastic

have

to

seen

three

It is the

academic.

or

At

universities.

professorsof

charac

the

phi
same

expressionof the so
cial genius of the German
people.Napoleon testified
The
he said,
this when
to
English inhabit the sea,
the land, the Germans
the air." (2) This
the French
German
philosophy is mystical.It is profound rather
It is not founded
external experi
external.
than
upon
but upon
a
questioning of the inner and spiritual
ence,
and spiritual,
like the phi
life. It is inward, religious,
accurate
interpre
losophy of Plato. One of the most
has pointed out
similarities be
the many
ters of Kant
Kant
and Plato (see Paulsen, Immanuel
tween
Kanf).
nevertheless
cosmic, or a
philosophywas
(3) German
whom
are
now
we
descriptionof the world. These men
of science.
not ignorant of the world
to study were
or
time

it must

said

be

to

be

the

"

Political life offered

regarded by

was

man

them

no

them

as

in external

time,

"

things.As Madame
There
was
nothing to

too

concern

the

was

inner

reference

universe.

with

point
to

of

the

it. The

De
do

universe."

view,

and

Germans

noble

for

Men,

regarded
tried

to be

Stael

save

to

soul

The

attractions.

engrossed

said
him

however,
all

of

of

the

whose

took

things with

humanize

the

nature
as
working out
They looked upon
which
consciously took
unconsciously those processes
that
The contemplationof beauty is not
place in man.

232

HISTORY

of

external

an

Thus

Life

for

has
but

is not

God

Two

philosophy
of the

Kant

cosmic

in

us

Periods
is divided

formation

our

not

strength

of

nature

realityare

joyful outlook,

because

easy,

The

PHILOSOPHY

world, but of the inmost

individualityand

same.
are

OF

and

one

because
is

reality.

our

equal

to

the
tasks

them

?
of German
into

of the

two

Philosophy.

epochs : (1)

German
the

period

critical

theory of knowledge by
metaphysical development

(2) the period of the

of Fichte, Schelling,
Hegel, Herbart, and Schopenhauer.
Kant
belongs both to the Enlightenment and to Ger
of the
idealism.
He is the point of convergence
man
and
the point of
intellectual forces that preceded him
him.
For
this
departure of the idealists who followed
historians
he is
differ as to the period in which
reason
from
he is the transition
the
to be placed. In one
sense
he is the introduction
Enlightenment, in another sense
of German
idealism.
But in realityhe forms
an
epoch
al
between
the two.
Although the dualism, which was
the background of the philosophy of the Enlight
ways
formed
the background of his thought, al
too
enment,
though he on the other hand looked upon his Critique
to
Reason
meta
as
a
of Pure
only an introduction
he occupies
physics,which he never
wrote, nevertheless
a
unique place in drawing up for his time and for the
future
the new
a
new
conceptual standard
by which
problems might be criticised. The problem that Kant
of
set before himself
was
epistemologicaland not one
metaphysics.
After Kant
there appeared a growth of metaphysics.
idealistic
The
great German
systems appeared. At
first the Kantian
but
at
misunderstood,
theory was
Jena,

then

the

chief

intellectual

centre

in

Germany,

KANT

there

formed

was

map

which

280),

p.

and

many,

Weimar

and

other.

Schiller

Kant

the

Kant

is

notable

the

(see
Ger

literarycity of

main

Goethe.

The

Jena

of

of

under

Weimar

near

example

the

by

is

of

literature

followed

was

the

was

philosophy

the

upon

Jena

residence

the

of Kantians

little group

Rheinhold.

leadership of

233

the

stimulated
of the

of

each

influence

In

time.

various

poetry

of

philosophy
Fichte,

of

systems

Schelling,Hegel, Herbart, and Schopenhauer, which

built a metaphysical superstructure upon
the Kantian
foundation.
Influences

The

Kant's

thought

five different

1.

the teacher

the

attachment

for

ethical

Goethe,

early
"

There

Luther,
indeed

influences

parents and
school

this

ethical

of

Puritanism

formalism

well

of

as

his

the

War.

Years'

Pietists

the

F. A.

to

Konigsberg.

of

least

at

later

reminds

moral

in

the

lost his

rigoristic

personal life,sprang

own

training.Schiller
always something about

which

It will be

never

Pietistic
is

Schultze,

churches

his

his

upon

was

Kant

and

of

one

but
quitted his cloister,

rid himself

from

the earliest influence

high

Thirty

theory, as
his

2.

his

against the

period after

has

to

that

reaction

about

was

of the

remembered

from

This

due

was

by

development

sources.

Pietism.

life,and

modified

was

The

Kant.

upon

wrote

Kant,

the

monk,

can

never

who

to
as

who

quite

of its traces."

Leibnitz-WoljfianPhilosophy. This influ

ence
came
during his academic
training in the Univer
he entered
at the age
sity of Konigsberg, which
upon
Ttie

of sixteen
which
to

years.

Frederick

Halle,

"

This
was

the time

in

was

crowned
when

1740,
and

the

Wolff

same
was

the Leibnitz- Wolflian

year

in

recalled

philo-

234

HISTORY

sophy
must

the

at

was

be

not

dominant

fullness

in German

avowed

the

discipleof

ing

The

Kant

indebted

was

The

Wolff

the

the

and

physics

of Kant's

development.

One

he

never

To

his

next

off the

universitytrain

metaphysics

the

at

importance

teachers

uni

the

at

included

lectures

whose

least

at

was,

of decisive

of Kant's

the

shook

Newton

career,

an

acquaintance with

his

between
of

own

was

for

school

for

Knutzen,

Martin

versity was

also

antagonism

beginning

in his

Wolffian

Kant's

Kant

nineties.

the

(until1760), and
metaphysical dualism.
Physics of Newton.

Newton.
of

circles until

years

Wolffian
3.

in

It

Germany.

philosophy remained

this

academic
it

of

control

of

forgotten that

theory supplanted
twenty

PHILOSOPHY

OF

philosophy,mathematics, and natural science. Through

Kant
with
Knutzen, the young
personal intercourse
introduced
to the Wolffian
was
philosophy,and also to
and
the Newtonian
mathematics
physics. During his
activityas

teacher

Kant

period,a predilectionfor
physical geography
in which

entered

he

University

of

and

showed,

even

anthropology.
his

Konigsberg

later

science, especiallyfor

natural

upon

his

into

career

as

(1755),

he

The

same

year

teacher

in the

published

his

Theory of the JTeavens, in which he antici

of the
pated Laplace by forty years in the formulation
nebular
hypothesis.
4. The
Kant
Humanitarianism
got
of Rousseau.
celebrated

from

Rousseau

advantage
was

well

of

into

new

litical consciousness
to the

of

man.

Kant

had

prolonged youthful development.

his thirties

Lessing, became
due

evaluation

influence

social

when

the

movement,

force

in

Germany.

appeared

among

of Frederick

He

begun by
A

the German
the Great

the

and

new

po

people,
to that

HISTORY

230

external
fewest

changes

versity,and

born

was

school

the

to

at

in 1724

then

capacityof

in the

the

were

Konigsberg

city and

of that

acted

then

Kant

life of Immanuel

in the

possible.He

he went

PHILOSOPHY

OF

its uni

to

in fami

tutor

privatKonigsberg. He became
and
docent
in the universityat the age of thirty-one,
professorof logic and metaphysics at the age of fortyin 1778,
He
four.
called to the University of Halle
was
lies in the

province

of

Konigsberg. In fact, Kant

but little outside
outside
the province, and
went
never
himself
the city. Nevertheless, in the eightieshe saw
the most
become
important figure in Konigsberg, and
but

he

in

the

refused

to

leave

nineties

the

most

academic

1794

In

circles.

important
he

of the

reactionarygovernment

and

was

"

obliged

public addresses
conflict

died.

ning
his

his

in

The
to

life.

externals

the

end

unusual

an

descriptions.*

is notable

singlenessof

the
*

rationalism

Read

Kant,
Sketch

Hist,

Problem

; his

Philosophers,
of

Human

Modern

of Phil,
Life,

pp.

pp.

the

begin

lectures,
of

hours

have

it is the
to

outer

been

history
of

solution

youthful point of departure

Heine
quotation from
i, p. 63 ; Stirling,Textbook

Windelband,
Classical

devotion

of Wolff

Royce, Spirit of

These

because

the

vol.
;

His

the

friends, his

many

Kant

with

all

eighty,he

his

"

problem.

speculativeproblem.

was

from

great

subject of

of

were

his

made

life of

life

only

of

age

dinner

upon

The

the

his

reflection
the

his

of

at

undeviating routine,

an

daily walk,

1804,

In

the

was

II

from

future

the

in

censure

William

of Frederick

religion."This

on

the

under

came

refrain

to

in German

power

pp.

point
in E.
to

of

attainment

Caivd, Phil,

Kant,

Biographical

Philosophy,
532-534

376-405,
435-452.

chap,

Rand,

420-424

of

iv

Modern

Eucken,

237

KANT

was

the

Pure

Critiqueof

points his historywas

of his life

spoke

into

two

the

at

parts

two

Kant

reversals.

series of mental

divided

as

these

Between

Reason.

year

and his critical periods.At that

pre-critical
time there was
a
change in the form as well as the con
tent of his writings. His
pre-critical
writings possess
are
a
heavy
graceful,flowing style; his critical works
1770

and

his

artificial
which

with

two

fore

the

far

divided

period when
1770,

the

tried

thought
the

as

and

structure,

of Kant's

content

he

at the

into three
was

he

was

his main

in natural

was

philosophy of Newton,
period,led
That

him

is to say, he

to

He

con

fall into

to

life may

was

there

critical

rationalism

by

his

inspiredby

was

of

writings,

the

natural

which, in the latter part of this

mistrust

began

is

shown

interest, as

science.

contending

seen

he
(3) 1770-1804, the period when
epistemologist.
In the first period he accepted the

Wolff, but

labor

(1) 1724-1760, the

rationalist ; (2) 1760an
empirical skeptic;

epochs

Wolffian

when

period

be

the

thought

Kant's

1760.

year

reveal

reconcile

to

pre-critical
period will

subdivisions
be

their

his

motifs. So
cerned

in

to

the

metaphysics

suspect that the

mere

of Wolff.

logical

be
"could not
operationof concepts by the
pure reason
In the next
about things in the real world.
a statement
convinced
his second
ten
period he became
years
that the metaphysics of the rationalists
was
impossible,
and
yet that the metaphysicsof the empiricalschool of
the English was
equallyabsurd. His writingsduring this
time are more
devoted to questionsof metaphysics
strictly
and
his critical period. This
epistemology. Then came
was
inauguratedby his celebrated Dissertation of 1770,
followed by a period of eleven years of literarysilence,
"

"

"

238

HISTORY

silence broken

peared

the

publicationof

the

by

1781.

in

Reason

Pure

works

his

1781

Between

mature

more

PHILOSOPHY

OF

Critiqueof

Kant's

from

1790

and

ap

Among

pen.

(1788) and
Critiqueof Practical Reason
the model
the Critiqueof Judgment (1790), formed
on
Besides
Reason.
of the Critique of Pure
these, his
and
notes
minor
one
an
writings were
very numerous,
in the last year of his life. But
the writ
essay by him
of the phi
after 1790
in the main
treat
ings of Kant
to be
losophy of law and conduct, and show themselves
the writings of his declining
years.
The
Kant
Problem
of Kant.
problem which
The
placed before himself was that of epistemology. Episteset to
mology is the theory of knowledge, and Kant
The
work
to
investigatethe knowing process.
pecu
them

liar
of

of
significance

the
time

and

of

he matured

of

Yet

he

saw

had

proved

that

the

itself

he

of

relations.

metaphysics of
it was

He

was

the

Englishmen

was

logicallytrue,

was

real
find

enough,
out

thought

problem

and

the
the

because

equally sure

of any
but

but

it

not
never

relation

real

to

Rational

value

morals.

merely
dealt

the

the

with

empirical

metaphysics

empiricalmetaphysics

true.

between

be faced

one

inadequate because

was

truth.

He

of Wolff

not

that

So
the

realityof things. He

in his time

felt the

was

had

concepts, and

certain

never

not

was

rationalism

metaphysical

and

problem

regionsof religionand

inadequate

logicaloperation
real

the

the

of his time

problem

out

philosophy.

metaphysical speculation,although
speculationin

of

that
him

upon

conception

procedure

fact

the

upon

converging

new

the

that

of such

to

rests

of

method

the

convinced

was

Kant

influences

various

his

of

the

were

and

Kant

determined

logicalprocess
felt that

settled

was

the
the

of
first

prob-

KANT

lem

239

epistemological
problem. He
planned to face later the metaphysicalproblem, but he
delayed this until too late in his old age. The problem
of Kant
be put in the simple question,What
can
can
know
? The
we
metaphysical problem that he deferred
is real?
What
Yet his problem was
not
nearly so
was,
would
it ; for the
to make
seem
simple as this statement
com
epistemologicalproblem which he set himself was
plicated by the Wolffian
metaphysical dualism which
he always presupposed. Since
Kant
agreed with the
dualism
the theory that a great gulf sepa
Wolffian
and matter
his query
about
rates mind
knowledge was
the simple question,What
? but the
know
not
can
we
know
about
the external
can
we
longer question,What
of

knowledge,

the

"

"

"

world
The

?
Method

of

problem
epistemological
shall we
solving it. How
Kant
a

calls his method

criticism

the

in

conditions

special sense

There

Kant.
a

the

is bound

method

new

find

of

what

out

we

critical method.
in that

general sense,
of

knowledge.

of

confining

it

to

the

procedure
know

can

It is not

in
?

only

weighs carefully

It is also

itself

with

up

criticism

in the

restricted

field.

be employed,
pointed out that two methods
may
the transcendental.
He asserted
the dogmatic and
that
had
been
the dogmatic method
employed in the past
and had proved itself fallacious. What
is the dogmatic
method?
All
philosophy was
dogmatic to Kant which
knowledge is true by showing
sought to find out what
how it originatedand developed. Dogmatism
is no
solu
tion ; it is merely a psychological tracing of ideas
to

Kant

their
if

we

These

sources.
are

cists. The

sources

rationalists,or
true

method

will be

either

sensations, if

we

is the transcendental

innate
are
or

ideas,

empiri
critical

HISTORY

240

method.

What

is this method?

of the

nature

PHILOSOPHY

OF

itself. It is

reason
"

It is

study

of

the

of

the

examination

an

judgments have in any

instance a universalitybeyond human
experience,and
human
to
experience. The logic of
yet are
necessary
be absolutelyreliable ; and yet at
such judgments must
the same
time the judgments must
be applicableto the
world
of things.The
method
being transcendental, such
because
transcendental
judgments are
they tran
; not
scend
our
experience,but because they are necessary to
is not what is chronologi
experience.The transcendental
"

to

reason

pure

callybut

what

if its

see

rationally
prior. The

is

the

indispensableto knowledge.

the

findingof

search

the

this

is

critical method

is

Kant

indispensablecondition.
field of

whole

The

transcendental

the

for

reason

would
Since

this.

to

thinking,feeling,and willingare the fundamental

forms
of the reason,
of thought for
he sought the realm
the transcendental
principlesof knowledge, that of the
will for the transcendental
principlesof morality,that
of feelingfor the transcendental
principlesof beauty.
Kant

The

Threefold

World

Subjective

of Kant"

States,

In his
Things-in-Themselves, and Phenomena.
for those indispensable conditions
of knowledge
external
of

the

been

world, Kant
realm

of human
In

twofold.

world

as

dual,

sciousness,and

however,
and

not

word

"

Wolff

words, Wolff
there

had

was

Wolff

yet

world

"

we

is used

that

for
Kant's

of

problem

had

conceived

the

correspondence,

conscious

lack

the

world

the

of

that

better.

The

is

one

of

of

states

realityis independent
are

of

character

the

independent realityto

again reminded
metaphysics.

of

threefold

the

life. To

which

To

consciousness.

The

other

in

part by part, of

unfolds

search

of

con

reality.
reader

is,

epistemology

KANT

Kant

Now

he

but

to

came

that in such

see

knowledge. For how

absolutely independent

be

build

to

He

into

division

with
new

of the

realm

of the

ness

realm

of

world,

the

inner

of

phenomena

ledge. The

and

Wolff's

other

describe

twofold

may

2. Matter.

ideas

alone.

scious, a
The

thus

compared

be

2.

Phenomena

own,

with

It is

knowledge.

Things-in-themselves.
evidently is

subjective states
For

; and

realm

which

realm

the

"

it is the
of

this is not

of which

gives

to

me

only connectinglinkage between

of

realm

not

what

we

in

nobody

else

my

subjectivestates is the accidental order

empiricallyor by association,they occur.

own

by

mean

is that

my

intuition

individual's

the

subjectiveworld

This

realm

know

of their

Subjectivestates.

apprehension

sensations

knowledge.
live

of

knowledge.

and

of

values

1.

3.

realm

immediate

realm

world

"

of

and

reality

of the

value

the

or

Kant.

1. Mind.

of

conscious

absolute

the

the

were

below.

world

world

have

Wolff.

realm

of

each

to

phenomena

being

realms

two

threefold

The

of

world

the

in its

consists

shall

we

1.

or

phe

dualism

gave

These

The
things-in-themselves.

of

he

and

of

Wolff's

epistemologicalvalue.

subjectivestates

could

of what

world

"

sharpness of

divisions

three

knowledge,

that

Kant's

of

individual, the world

or

which

the

there

Consequently Kant
independent realities

us

worlds

dissolved

world

of

dualism,

conscious

be

we

intermediate

an

up

nomena.

Wolffian

the

plundered

situation

can

no

is

Wolffian

the
entirely

up

gave

never

241

which
is

con

individuality.
various

of time

in

Animal

purely
which,
int

HISTORY

242

ligencepossesses
tions, and

these

only

such

as

the

of

its

but

sensa

subjectivecon
has

constitution

looked

Kant

consciousness

and
sense-perceptions

mental

capacity for knowledge,

tion of ideas.

PHILOSOPHY

modifications

are

Such

sciousness.

OF

associa

only the haphazard

the content

upon

objectonly

of

the

not

of

subjective

psychologicalinves

tigation.
realm

The

2.

distinctlydoes
bodies,
Kant

has

not

Kant

to

be remembered

must

material

the

plundered

material

things-for-us,not

mean

objects.It

nature

not

is not

Kant
knowledge. By things-in-themselves

of

the realm

selves
things-in-them

of

realm

of

that
dualist.

the

which
left behind
are
as
a
things-in-themselves
all sense-perception
and so beyond
residuum
lie outside
divine
all knowledge. A
intelligencemight have the
as
objects of knowledge, but not
things-in-themselves
is the unknown
human
we
beings. The thing-in-itself
But
if this realm
of things-in-them
and
unknowable.
that we
selves is so absolutelyindependent of us
can

The

in

not

Kant

this

repliesto

in-itself

is,we

are

beyond

even

our

Kant

also calls

gards

them

while

as

denied

sense-perception,it

Kant
of

stands

as

"

"

limitingconcepts

to

and

divine

the

reality is

ne

problem."

"

mere

thing-

although

things-in-themselvesNoumena,

pointed

that

out

subjectivityand

selves lies the

the

name

"

call

the

between
of

that

of human

realm

every-day speech

he gave

re
non-

little to be

as

affirmed.

as

realm

say ivhat
it is. For

say that

obliged to

it exists ?

say that

we

cannot

we

Their
intelligence.

sensuous

our

can

postulate to perception,as

cessary

3.

it,how

know

way

any

the

knowledge,
of

the

things-in-them

physical nature,

world

beside

or

which
and

phenomena

we

to
"

or

in

which
"

the

HISTORY

244

mind

the

is
; in

control

Kant

by

entirelypassive and

is

mind

the

knowing

is without

its content

activelyen

This

relatingits ideas.

is called

synthesis.

When

Kant

of

nature

him

to

in clearer

activityof

the

and

formulating

was

gradually came

more

of

state

collectingand

in

gaged

PHILOSOPHY

OF

the

that

more

the

his

the

outline

human

synthetic
He

reason.

of

secret

there

problem,

the

felt

knowing

pro

of combin
explained by its function
experiences into a unity. This conception
ing many
of synthesis is what
separates the Critique of Pure
Fur
all the previous writings of Kant.
from
Reason
thermore, the three books of the Critique are
exposi
different
tions of the
synthesis
stages in which mental
be

to

was

cess

(1) perception, (2) understand

de
The
knowing activityof man
ing, and (3) reason.
in
velops in these three different forms of synthesis,
of the higher.
which
each
lower
stage is the content
What, then, is the central factor in knowledge? It
completes

is the

itself: in

of

syntheticpower

seriatim, but

it

consists

in

they

are

pose

we

hear

power,
in

and

the

one,
we

the

thrown

ticking of
all
and

"

say

series in which

whose

mind

come

them

holds

activity
its

moment

present

human

they

as

and

dynamic agent

It retains

turn.

power,

them

is not

is not

so

one,

on.

But

two, three, and

each

term

the

and

Now

do

if

have
so

includes

Sup

screen.

apprehend
we

pictures,although

upon

clock.

should

we

its

ex

like

stereopticonpictures appear

longer being

no

one,

past. The

which

upon

synthetic
one,

the

disappear in

then

is

synthesizingin

periences of
curtain

actively relates

mind

together. The

its sensations

of

.merelypassivelyaware

mind

The

mind.

the

on.

the

had

we

would

no

be

synthetic
We

count

preceding

KANT

Two

term.

This

is

includes

knowledge.

245

and

one,

three

includes

It is cumulative

experience. The

perience of twenty animals, each having one

the same
the experience of one
is not
as
experiences.In

twenty
if the
did

mind

not

is not

has.

of

what

through

man

happens,

but

Knowledge, then,

what

the

having

man

on

man

imagination

important thingthe

power

Kant

to

and

memory

ex

experience,
act

nature

experiences. So

over

carry

would

vain

etc.

two,

is the

human

mind

unifying of

the

manifold.
There

passive

sensations

Sensations,
of which
finished

therefore,

are,

and

the

on

one

aspects

the

active

hand,

through

reason

fabric of

of

knowledge.
unifying power

of

the
the

the

are

its various

to

other

material

raw

forms

Sensations

knowledge.

On

knowledge ; the
of synthesis.
power

two

the

creates

are

there

hand,

out

the

content

is the

active

Knowledge consists of
sensations
and synthesis in conjunction.Reason
alone
deals with
or
thought relations
imaginations,when
it tries to treat objectsof which
sensations
ever
not
are
the
material.
Sensations
raw
alone, however, are
only
The oft-quotedsayings of Kant, that
subjectivestates.
Only in experience is the truth," and that
Concep
tion without
perception is empty, perceptionwithout
conception is blind," refer to the restriction of know
and to the synthetic func
ledge to the sense-materials
reason.

"

"

"

"

tion of the
The
tion

Place

does

knowledge?
of

reason.

of

in

Is

sensations, the
different.

synthesisone
Is

in

The

of

synthesison

feelings,the

What

Knowledge.

synthesis occupy

knowledge ?

very

Synthesis

the
the

the

total
factors

same

process
or

Kant

level with

is

of

elements

imaginations? No,

synthesisthat

posi

the
it is

describingis

246

HISTORY

the

not

does
a

product

not

of

the

much

so

the

result

animals

of

combination

Kant

his

is

of facts

in

make

from

frame

unification,the

of

observation

talking about

of

as

the

framing

of the unified
act

Kant

inference.

an

is not

the

combining experiences as

The

them.

of its

law

of

synthesisthat

of combining
the

from

biologistmight

as

habits

The

them.

conclusion

or

by synthesisthe

mean

result,such

law

PHILOSOPHY

OF

act

manifold,
the isolated

binding

experiencestogether is synthesis. Synthesisoccupies a

level

higher

than

the

elements

of

knowledge

know

or

itself.

Synthesis is the knowing process rather

than the known
product. It is constitutive ; it is creative ;
it conditions
experience and puts the material of experi
be thought to be a voluntary
not
ence
together. It must
ledge

act

of the

Furthermore,

human

and

is the

mind

knowledge;
minds

that
should

we

linkage of

the

matics

the

or

the

and

same

of the

in
have

never

world

pendent

nature

The

as

world

are

of

on

same

their
the

those

These
laws.

account

source

ways
order

and

of mathe

are

The

for

of expe

independent principlesof
not

sen

is the result

accident
as

cause.

the

are

if the

the

laws

universal

will

it

universalitybelonging

knowledge

physical law

their

synthesisof

absolutely the

depended

as

all human

much

knowledge. Knowledge

function

do,

synthesizes.

sensations, the "given,"

in

them

will not

orderly arrange

ways.

source

everybody. They

conceptionof

or

However

same.

Take, for example, such

rience.

for

is the

in the

of the difference
of

acts, it

differ,they combine

sense-materials

will

syntheticfunctioning of

the

everywhere

sations

to

mind

the

pleases.When
minds

the mind

mind, which

the

same

ordinary
an

their

inde
neces

sityfor everybody and their universality.As independ

differ for different peoplesjust
ent principlesthey would

KANT

as

Human

knowledge.
the

In

differ.

sensations

the

geometry,

could

do

the

think

alike,

no

about

guiding

same

have

we

the

physical laws,

same

have

think

then

not

under

we

should

we

case

reason

principles.However,
same

that

beings

things,nor

same

247

the
time-

same

alike
simply because we function
syn
thetically.Knowledge is thus the common
possession
the synthetic functioningof the
of humanity because
is identically
different
the same.
individual
men
A very good way
central
to get at Kant's
principle
this picture. Suppose that be
of synthesisis to draw
of human
sides the race
beings with its own
peculiar
of angels
of ordering its world, there were
race
a
way
with
its own
another
of hobgoblins
endowed
powers,

estimates; and

endowed

likewise
y, and
be

races

groups

would

others.

No

be

In

of

anything

in

first

with

common

In

one

and
of

members
and

the

and

their

next

time

theirs.

time

no

are

We

struction

of

angels has
space,

aspects of
our

but

our

doing

so,

world

would

world

not

means

of

and they in
reality,

have
of each

would
each

that

is

able to get

Holy

Writ

described

only that

synthesisand
our

The

common

But
be

be

would

own.

in

sometimes

the

even

its

synthesis. In

mental

the

even

another.

this

of

world

realityof

been

each

know

The

would
the

each

one

race

to

x,

of

place

have

know

powers

and

in

of

would

of each

live in
of

world

to

on

one

would

the others.
the

would

own

of the

home

race

members

outside

having

each

members

all. The

the

order

from

race

trying to interpretreality,and
construct

place,each

the power

No

the others.

so

please. What

you

have

and

powers,

absolutelyisolated

different.

be

own

the

would

one

existence

its
number

any

"

situation ?

the

would

with

as

space
not

of

interpretativecon

theirs. The

same

would

HISTORY

248

have

be

to

world

of

world

made

said

of

of each

different

from

the individuals

of each

had

that

human

physicalnature,

whose

laws

science.

How

millions

of different

millions

of

mental

it be

can

rational

laws

of

The

our

laws, and
The

laws

of nature

but the laws

the

laws

knowledge
the

thesis.
but

in

of

world

the

combination

"

physical

Does

behind

synthesisis

we

actually engaged
and

through
thesis

is the

Kant

says,

The

Kant

by

does

not

of

the

believe

itself constitutes

sensations

framed

ideas must

be taken

reality,

from
that

of

body

of

human

science

or

syn

realityexist?

Yes;

for

angels.

us

as

the

world

the

in which
is shot

synthesis

syn

therefore

representation."
the

an

uni

our

mental

universe, and

Indispensable
seen

reason.

experiences. Mental

our

is my

It will be

in

all,the

of

order

mental

"

The

world

for

of

"

these

varietyof objects of

absolute

framework

Judgments

ledge.

all

and

is

constitutive

through

many

world

after

laws

of

funda

of absolute

entire

scenes

Mental
are

so

same

the

the

the

nature

the

the

are,

are

of

independent

it exists

laws

live ? Because

nature

law

word, the

the

of reality.All
interpretation

of the human

all the

is called

in which

the laws

not

are

The

powers.

construct

They

linkage of facts, all

verse,

of

the

because

as

under

are

they

minds.

own

world

members

inhabit

known

beings

beings

fashion.

common

mental

are

one

the

in

by

common

beings

human

human

in

common

particularworld

Yet

race.

live

worlds

other

world

live in

would

each

all the

inhabit

would

None

z.

of each

powers

would

race

y, and

x,

reality.But

absolute

mental
differing1

PHILOSOPHY

OF

Human

to

above

idea

or

Know

discussion
a

sensation

that
taken

knowledge. Knowledge consists of

is,
together in a synthesis. That
together with other ideas. This is

KANT

in

called

grammar

249

proposition,having

subject and

predicate.In logicit is called a judgment. The only

human
a
knowledge is in the
being can
express
way
form
of judgments, but all judgments of human
beings
not necessarilyknowledge.
are
into
divided
two
large
Judgments are
by Kant
classes, analytic and
synthetic. The
large class of
analyticjudgments are not expressionsof knowledge.
is an
What
analyticjudgment ? An analyticjudgment
merely expresses in the predicatesomething that is con
in the
usual
tained
meaning of the subject. Such a
judgment articulates the meaning of an idea by empha
of its well-known
attributes.
Thus
we
sizingsome
say,
Gold is yellow." Such a statement
about
gold does
show
not
an
ex
any knowledge. It is called sometimes
that
It is tautologous,but
not
on
plicativestatement.
look
then
trivial. Let
to syntheticjudg
account
us
if they express
ments
to see
knowledge. But first,what
is a synthetic judgment ? A syntheticjudgment is one
in which
in the usual
the predicate is not
contained
of something
meaning of the subject.It is a statement
about
For example, the judg
the subject in hand.
new
watch
is yellow
The
is a syntheticjudgment
ment,
the predicate yellow is not a necessary
because
part
of the meaning
of
A
watch."
synthetic judgment
therefore
relation.
brings two ideas togetherin a new
It thereby enriches
knowledge and is the expression of
discovery.The syntheticjudgment is often called ampliative.(The double meaning which Kant gives the
term
synthetic"need not confuse us. Synthesisis used
the framing constitution
of the mind,
by Kant to mean
and
also as one
of the
results of the activityof the
all
mind, i. e. a class of judgments. In the first sense
a

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

250

HISTORY

judgments,

both

OF

PHILOSOPHY

analyticand

are
synthetic,

expressions

of

synthesis.)
Are
all synthetic judgments expressions of know
He
ledge? Kant
replies that they certainlyare not.
points out that there are two classes of synthetic judg
ments

class

one

priori. By

posteriori and
means
judgments

judgments

induction
"

calls

posteriorihe
which
sense-perception,

some
or

he

is

observed,
and

it is

am

also

rules

tute

true

that

or

white," I

are

am

from

an

such

greater
far

so

in

This

sense-perception.Now
from

out

would

those

rule out

that

rises in the

large,do
experience,however
knowledge, but merely probability. The
which

empiri
as

posteriorijudgments,

on

consti

even

sun

founded

I have

as

relation,

generalizationsof high probability,such

A

if I
say,

new

cal

east."

less

or

syntheticjudg

ideas

upon

judgments

knowledge.

in

posteriorijudgment, because

founded

founded

example,

making

am

Swans,

"

joining two

making

statement

Kant

warm,"

because

ment,

inferences

are

other

particularjudgments

are

sense-perceptions.For

of

To-day

that

the

not

or

The

"

those

give

cases

us

upon

are
always limited,
judgments are founded
and there
observation.
be exceptionsbeyond our
may
the expressionof
The only kind of judgments that are
true
knowledge must, therefore, be syntheticjudgments
is to say, they must
that are
some
a priori. That
express
relation between
ideas that is also universallyand
new
the universal
necessarilytrue. By a priori Kant means

and
the
tutes

such

necessary
universal

and,

and

knowledge.

furthermore,

necessary,
He

points

he

maintains

that

and

nothing else,consti

out

that

we

make

we
judgments. When
say that the three angles of
angle equal two right angles,or that every event

such
a

tri

has

HISTORY

252

PHILOSOPHY

OF

(1) conceptual knowledge and

of fact," Kant
pointed out
(2) knowledge of matters
This is the only valid kind.
that there is a third kind.
This knowledge is based on
syntheticjudgments a pri
ori. Such knowledge arises independently of experience,
i. e. is a priori, and
yet is valid for experience,i. e. is
such
that
statement
knowledge is
synthetic. Hume's
Kant
synthetica posterioriis not accepted by Kant.
reach

certainty.Besides

"

is,therefore, bound
thetic

we

turn

we

find

now

that
know

we

We

reason.

review

he

undertakes

by

is the

Under

study

he

can

human

that

the

the

of

show

what

the

is

reason

of

matics

are

forms

of

a
essentially

the

is limited.

To

world

and

proved
is

mind

the

furnishes

necessary
his

Pie

case.

is valid

valid.

forms

and

Now

of

Knowledge

sensations

answer

How

of the

forms

as

its

question,

knowledge possible?

the

knowledge

must

we

forms.

the

priori,

knowledge,
has then explained
thus
proved that

Kant

to

tries

to

show

speciala priori forms of knowledge are and in

validityof such forms consists. In the first

of the

undertakes

is

that

knowledge
the

its warp.

If

Kant,

about

problem,

the

framework

knowledge

conditions

he has

human

what

book

solve

study

is the

which

is,the universal

thinks

why

to

said

have

we

pure

sensations, but synthesisin its several

not

If Kant
that

found

synthesisas

what

how

Knowledge.

Human

complex thing, consisting of

and

woof

what

critical

and

syntheticpower,
to

Validity of

to

have

phenomena

class of syn

of the

Proof

The

can

be

can

this third

how

and
priori is possible,
binding on experience.

judgments

thought

show

to

Critiqueof
to

and

show
how

mental

what

Pure
the

they make

he
JReason, the ^EstJietic^
a

priori

forms

knowledge

synthesis. In

the

next

of

valid

mathe

by being

part of the

KANT

253

Critique,the Analytic, he tries to show what the a pri

and
of the knowledge of physical science
ori forms
are
how
physicalscience valid and objective.In
they make
the

of the

forms
in

part, the Dialectic, he

last

and

reason

These

knowledge.

synthesis. The
Finished

by

ing,and
of

stages

no

in

validity

which

different

three

higher stage

has

the

involves

understanding, and

the

forms

of

lower

its

as

con

perceptions,repro
a

recognitionof

the

thinking subject.Perception,understand

reason

not

are

separate acts, but different levels

These

consciousness.

one

have

priori

perception, understanding,

are

knowledge

in the

ductions
whole

three

are

stages

Each

reason.

tent.

why they

activitydevelops as

knowing
and

shows

the

discusses

will be

taken

in

up

suc

cession.
i.

In

Consist

does

What
?

Kant

the

Validity of Sense-Perception

points out

(1) Sense-perceptionhas (a) a

like sound, color, etc., and
qualities,
of space

and

content

(6)

the

of

sense

relations

time.

originally
belong to the subject
its forms
of sense-perception,
and are
not introduced
as
from
without
by experience.
of space and time a priori knowledge
(3) By means
is possible.
If there is any
validityin perceptual knowledge, it
of space
and
time ; not
depends upon the constitution
the character
of the empiricalcontent, or the sensa
upon
tions. The questionabout the validity
of sense-perception,
of mathematics.
then, is a question about the reliability
There
in sense-perception:
two elements
neces
are
a
Space
sary and constant, and a changing and accidental.
the constant
and time are
element.
They are homogene(2) Space

and

time

and

ous,

many

All

there

lation

homogeneity

of

assuming

that

functions

of

of

and

themselves.
and

space

and

space

time

time

level

the

are

"

to

of this

due

are

is this
be

unity

perception,the

in which

of consciousness.

By

uniform

of

prehensile organs

ways

and

explained ?

of

forms

re

inherent

originaland

are

oneness.

to the

not

are

How

perception, the

They
sensibility."

time

are

time, and the

one

bodies, and

apprehension, the

of

and

space

in space

time

quality.They

in

same

only divisions

are

movements

and

in space

the

only one

times

differences
and

ways

is

and

spaces
the

and

always one

unities,for

PHILOSOPHY

OF

HISTORY

254

our

synthesize

we

If

given
they were
is no
in experience, there
reason
why the several
times
and
should
differ
be intrinsically
not
spaces
ent, like different bodies with different qualities.How
be mental
to
by conceiving them
syntheses in
ever,
the
level of perception,they explain the universality
the
of mathematics.
of the
laws
colored
They are
an
beings wear
spectaclesthat all human
; or, to use
the mould
into which
all sensa
other figure,they are
of our
tions are
run.
Being the unchangeable forms
sensuous
receptivity,
they have a validityfor the entire
universal
of perception. They are
because
one
compass
experience of space and time is valid for all spaces
because
think
and times ; they are
cannot
we
necessary
of objects apart from
them
perceptual syn
; they are
theses because
we
they increase knowledge. Of course
of this perceptual synthesisof the sen
unconscious
are
on

the lower

sory

elements

in

and

space

place automatically.We
after it has

process
tions

space

as

the

and

taken

materials

time

as

can

the

The

process

nevertheless

place,and

of
a

time.

speak

knowledge,

and

priori elements.

takes

analyze
of the
the
But

the

sensa

forms

of

in actual

KANT

255

in
to us
come
never
experience,sensations
turned
their rawness.
to the un
over
They are never
derstanding unless they bear the stamp of space and
of knowledge, therefore, starts
with
time. The
process
complex material
complex because it has been synthe
In other
sized below
consciousness.
words, perceptions
of knowledge with
into the process
two
come
aspects :
(1) their permanent and necessary form ; and (2) their
and
accidental
changing content.
conscious

"

In

2.

Consist

What

does

Kant's

understanding

the

Validity of
of

discussion
is

given

in

the

the

Understanding
synthesis of the

Analytic, the

the

second

of the understand
Critique.His treatment
ing is similar to that of perception. The understanding,
be it remembered,
is regarded by Kant
the second
as
of a complete synthesis of know
stage in the process
ledge. It is synthesison a higher level than perception.
the
under
Indeed, perception is the material which
Kant
seeks
standing synthesizes.As in the Esthetic
to show
:
(1) the a priori factors of the understanding
and
(2) that these a priori factors give to knowledge
its validity.The
unifyingprincipleof perception is the
mathematical
physical nature, which is the sub
; but
of the study of the understanding, is more
ject-matter

part of his

mathematical,

than
and

time

exists

as

Natural
a

number

forms,
a

more

connected

science
of

more

than

than

shapes

system

possesses

an

of

of

aggregate
and

motions.

space

Nature

substances, causes,

besides

its mathematical

for
general a priori principles

etc.

basis

the

validity

of its conclusions.
Kant's
that

task

was

perception

principlesof

therefore

possesses

space

and

the
time.

only begun by showing

universal

and

synthetic

Perception is only

the

256

HISTORY

PHILOSOPHY

OF

beginning of knowledge. It is not knowledge, but only

On
the other
hand, the un
subjectiveconsciousness.
derstanding is the faculty of knowledge, and therefore
Kant
its a priori or universal
seeks to point out
ele
its validity.
ments, and by their presence
prove
Since the days of Aristotle
the general terms
used
in reasoning have
been
called categories.
Any classterm

or

genus

certain

summa

classes

with

be

may

be

can

some

one

the

genera,
the

lowest

traditionallyknown
that

called

or

other

in
of

formal
butes
These
search

classes

logic treats.
and

relations

evidently are

judgment

them.

of

of

They

Aristotle
But

are

of the

everything
under

come

ten,

names

these

what

"

Aristotelian
such

as

classes

of

the

objectsmay

be

analyzed.

the

Kant

synthetic categories. He

syntheticforms

must

or

been

have

analyticalrelations,

into which
not

that

connotation,

are

classes

extensive

most

substance, quality,
quantity,etc.

categories are

There

category.

categories,because

as

affirmed

is

seeking.
is

attri

He

looking

understanding itself,which

is in

for

the

trans

perceptionsinto objectsof knowledge. He is not

ideas
conceptions. For
looking merely for abstract
become
nature
objectsonly when
they are thought as
human
mind.
to
things with qualitiesuniversal
every
of the perceptions the
The
out
understanding creates
form
the natureworld
objects of thought which
; and
the constitutive
the categoriesof the understanding are
principlesof such objects.The categories are the re
of synthesis through which
lating forms
objectsarise.
difficult part of the
The
most
Critique is called the
in which
of the Categories,"
Deduction
Kant
attempts
of the understanding from
the syntheticforms
to derive
kinds
of judgment. Kant's
list is curious
the various
form

"

KANT

but

unimportant,

useful,
"

into four
of each

substance

and
and

general kinds
of these

only

257

and

enumerates

follows

kinds, as

Categoriesof Quantity,
Categories of Quality,

categoriesare

divides the

He

cause.

these

of

two

three

categories
categories

"

Unity, Plurality,Totality.

"

Reality,Negation, Limita

"

tion.

Substance, Cause, Reci

Categories of Relation,
procity.
Existence,
Categories of Modality, Possibility,
Necessity.
the same
These
positionin the un
categoriesoccupy
derstanding that space and time do in the perception,
In respect to them
they are the a priori principles.
The cate
the a posteriorimaterial.
the perceptionsare
They are
gories are pure, innate, and transcendental.
the ob
of the understanding. Thus
the inner nature
both
a
priori and
jects of the understanding contain
are
a
syntheses of manifolds.
posteriori factors, and
the
under
Perception synthesizes sensations, while
standing synthesizesperceptions,and states the synthe
of a judgment.
sis in the form
of the understand
the a priori forms
Having named
show
that
Kant
does
our
by their means
ing, how
has validity
when
the
? Because
knowledge of nature
to
understanding functions, it prescribes these forms
and form
perception. Impressions would remain
vague
them
of thought
did not
think
less, if we
; by means
weld
we
impressionsinto objects and give them a co
herent
by under
reality.This is exactlywhat is meant
an
independent thing and
were
standing. If nature
prescribedlaws to the understanding,the laws would
be universal
The
and necessary.
never
universalityof
"

"

"

HISTORY

258

laws

the

of nature

PHILOSOPHY

OF

be

explainedonly by supposing
that
the understanding prescribes its laws
to nature,
but only so far as it
not
to nature
as
a
Thing-in-Itself,
in sense-perception.Universal
and
appears
necessary
is possibleonly if the connections
knowledge of nature
and relations of nature
are
absolutelyidentical with the
of thought. The categoriesof the understanding
modes
have
the laws
of
therefore, because
objectivevalidity,
the fundamental
the understanding are
laws of nature.
The
A
understanding has given such laws to nature.
synthetic
priori and therefore universal and necessary,
therefore
consists of objects
and
creative, the world
of the understanding. There
under
laws
are
as
many
kinds
of natural
objectsas there are categoriesof the
understanding.
If

will examine

we

shall find

we

that

perceived. Man
there
He

has

only recently;
and

and

has

call the world

its

objects have

in

South

of

possibleif

the

How

laws

is it

of nature

of the

the

whether

are

the

The

man

understanding conceives

the

law

at the

of

cause

South

must

and

Pole,

have

the

North

another

Pole

side of

the
the

even

understanding

possible?

is

seen.

perceptiblethings,

the

laws

It would

limited

of

nature

the

to

side

em

the laws
and

because

beyond

though they

have

"

not

apply

actuallyperceived

all substances

effect obtains
even

never

possiblebecause

thing

not.

moon

been

has

beyond

were

It is

understanding

not

are

perceived facts.
pirically
everywhere,

of nature,
never

other

stars

objects of

the

are

the

seen

telescope.These

yet they

he

Pole, and

myriads

are

that

space

never

objectsof knowledge.
be

we

only partlyexplored the earth, and

the

he

there

of his

reach

of

regions
seen

never

what

many

has

vast

are

moon,

can

the

or

hu

in this way
the stars, and
never

been

HISTORY

200

of the

creator

in

ness

objects of knowledge ; rather conscious

is the
general the consciousness of humanity
"

"

is not

Kant

creator.

sumed

Kant

does

"spirit,"but
the

ego," or by
of

unity

think"

He

"empirical ego"

ego

always identical

this

or

that

rather

than

the

scious

Self

is

with

itself,rather

self-active

always

empiricalconditions.

upon

postulateof

level

of

forms

just

Just

of

the

only

sary

to

because

from

it,not

of

Self

the

the

by

Reason

calls his criticism the

the

term

"

"

Reason

ing process.
narrow

the

Self

sense,

perception or

In the
as

Self,and

time

by

its lower

understanding

must

in

be

is

This

were

neces

theoretical

very

different

Kant

any

sense

Dialectic

if it

postu

soul.

of the

wide

he
a

understanding.

postulated to

Validity? When
Critiqueof Pure Reason,
a

are

on

experience,is

is thus

Kant

Itself

in

the

are

on

categories.It

the

the

as

understanding
and

space

known

notion

the traditional

Has

as

explainthe unity of knowledge.

conception

dependent

accepted

human

at

thinker

as

syntheticconsciousness

explain the universalityof

late

the

the universal

so

be

must

Self

super-con

never

synthetic consciousness

unifying forms

higher level

and

categoriesof

the

as

The

he

it is the

the

It is the universal

categoriesof

universalized.

unifying

It

knowledge.

it the

through
become

all

than

about.

thought

as

what

that

It is the Self

particularmoment.
Self

it with

ground

the

"soul"

the transcendental

"

contrasts

on

the

"transcendental

the

or

clumsy phrase

more

apperception."

calls the

the

super-conscious Self

"I

the

super-consciousSelf,must be as
knowledge.
compactness of human

call this

not

idealist.

an

explain the

to

but
solipsist,

higher consciousness,

or

PHILOSOPHY

OF

as

treats

he

the

whole

the

Reason

know
in

like
special facialty
This

is,of

course,

uses

the
con-

KANT

of terms, like his

fusing use
but

it should

are

known

cause

261

of the term

use

"

"

Synthesis

difficulty
provided the

no

The

beforehand.

term

"

"

Ideas

two

uses

is also used

While
specialuse.
the
usually an idea means
any thought, here it means
syntheticform of the specialfaculty of the reason, just
the categories
the form
of the understanding, and
as
are
of sense-perception.The
time the form
space and
syn
in two

senses.

thetic

forms

God,

of

is the

place it

Reason

the

soul, and

the

What

In this

the

are

totalityof

office of this

Ideas, viz.,

the

three

the

universe.

specialfaculty of

the Rea

They represent Kant's way of

mind
to get
statingthe natural tendency of the human
from its knowledge the greatest possibleunity with the
is a synthesis
Consciousness
greatest possibleextension.
is never
satisfied in being partialand incomplete.
which
The partialsyntheses of its faculties of perception and
understanding do not satisfyit. Perceptionand under
standing tell us nothing about God, about the soul, and
of the universe, for these faculties are
about
the totality
fettered to experience.Yet God, the soul, and the total
So the
ity of the universe are very important matters.
the boundaries
Reason
of experience, and
leaps over
thinks
in poaching in the territoryfor
it is justified
bidden
with
Reason
is not content
to knowledge. The
and
the partialand relational knowledge of mathematics
of physicalscience, but it would
deal with the unrelated
and
the unconditioned.
need
Indeed, we
only search
son

and

our

own

nnd

that

its Idea-forms

has

minds
we

must

the

how

see

ourselves

things,which
things. On

to

Kant

we

alone

is to

satisfied with

explained by

contrary,

unconditioned,which

not

are

be

true

long to
will

We

conditioned

other

know

fact.

conditioned

the

explain all

absolutely
conditions.

HISTORY

262

We

are

and

to

forever
render

make

seeking to
rational

is nevertheless

Now

PHILOSOPHY

OF

and

impossible to

it is evident

that

gories of

the

into

all

exist

knowledge.

Kant

asked

Physical

need

facts, and

as

about

the

Reason,

The

Reason

and

transcendent

which

is

transcendental
the

in

human

the

gainers when

The

taught

Kant
the

soul

of
the

that

itself. From
"

the

Kant

what

the

from

he

calls

and

tran

its cate
that

means

about

knowledge

to

while

"

the

soul
the

he

in order

had
time

Cogito ergo

of the

limitations

make

they

are

and

to

Reason

they

goal.
show

also

Their

of

be

theology will

be

illegiti
destroyed knowledge of
longer

no

has

are,

the final

is not

science

Soul.

Ideas

"

Ideas

that

says

Idea

his famous

How

not

"regulativeprinciples

are

our

Both

knowledge.

true

and

give

the

when

appears

ing

God

judgments

possibleexperience ;

that

knowledge

use
illegitimate

mately.

laws

existence.

question:

refers

They

legitimateuse.

that

enter

principlesof experience. Kant, however,

that, by showing what

show

space

the

understanding

of

willingto acknowledge
a

per

their

knowledge

knowledge

necessary

have

sense

synthetica priori

are

Ideas

of the

the limits

beyond

for

in distinction

transcendent

gories. By

cate

they possible?

its three

knowledge

of

and

concerning

Are

the

mathematical

different

knowledge

scendental

of

asks

he

How

"

But

they possible,but

are

is

"

and

proof

no

them,

judgments possible?
of

the forms

and

not

are

that

sense

indispensable.Cause, time,

ception are

Reason

of the

in the

understanding

of what

complete account
our
knowledge.

the Ideas

indispensableto knowledge

synthesiscomplete,

our

make

room

used

for faith."

psychology had
intuitive knowledge

Rational

direct
when

sum,"

and

Descartes
this

formulated

conception

of

self-

KANT

direct

the

of

object of

assumed

of such

been

has

consciousness

popular.

can

have

intuitive

had

ascribed

the

and
simplicity,substantiality,
spirituality,
to

we

the

as

basis

soul

has

qualitiesof

immortality

soul.

the

Kant
If

myself

thought. Upon
knowledge that each

own

my

itself,the Rationalists

263

denies
turn

back

that

we

have

any

to his definition

such
of

self-knowledge.
knowledge we find
Knowledge, to be

synthesisof a manifold.
knowledge, must
(1) be based upon sensations,and on
that account
(2) consist only of phenomena. The soul
of
is not phenomenal, but
the deepest kind
reality.
How
I have
can
knowledge of my soul ? The soul is
spiritualand not phenomenal, even
according to the
the
soul
Rationalistic
is pre
philosophy.Therefore
cluded
from
being an objectof knowledge. Further
the Rationalists'
more
conceptionof the soul as simple
immortal
make
it an
and
would
impossible objectof
knowledge. An object of knowledge is not simple, but
is the unity of a manifold.
The
unifying or synthesiz
ing function is not an object to itself. Sensations are
synthesized by space and time into perceptions; but
time
and
In
not
are
objectsfor the sensations.
space
I think," which
understanding, therefore, the
synthe
sizes the perceptions into judgment, cannot
be an
ob
jectfor the understanding.
Kant
be careful to distin
points out that we must
the transcendental
and the empiricalego.
guish between
We
have referred to this distinction already. In Kant's
criticism of knowledge he maintained
that there
must
be postulated a
syntheticunity of apperception," if
knowledge is possible.But such an ego is only a postu
late ; we
have
can
no
knowledge of it nor can we say
it to be

"

"

HISTORY

264

it is. We

what
the

or

know
of

sameness

demands

this.

universal

OF

PHILOSOPHY

that

the

from

knowledge

This

is the

of

immediacy

experience
to

moment

transcendental

moment

kind

ego,

of

syntheticbackground.

this is different

empiricalego, which I
know
can
as
an
object of experience. The empirical
I can
of myself at any time
know
a group
ego is what
of sensations, feelings,or
such
thoughts. Now
groups
moment
to
moment.
change from
My knowledge of
changing self.
myself consists only of my momentary,
the
This changing self is not
immortal, simple, and
identical soul of which
have been speak
the Rationalists
ing. The empiricalself is complex and transitory; it is
an
objectof knowledge, and it is not therefore the same
I think I
the immortal
soul.
is impossible.
I
as
think
me"
make
the "I"
is possible. To
an
objectis
to commit
a
fallacy.
But

from

the

"

"

"

Idea

The

about

soning

the

as

reference

to

dictions

were

tique in

the

have

must

space.

world
and

is
no

The

parts which

attention
of

The

antinomy
world
cannot

composed

is

world

of

be

divided.

The

"

world
in finite

infinite.

and

the

simple).
into simple

Antithesis

parts subject to further

world.

Cri

in the

inclosed

is eternal

in the

of

self-contra

Thesis:

immortality (or
ultimately divisible

simple thing exists

the

early with

antinomies

of

be further

about

very

infinity.Such

followingso-called
antinomy of creation.
beginning in time and
:

rea

experience

problems

four

The
:

Kant's

of

in

self-contradiction

inherent

problems

Antithesis

(2)
Thesis

the

to

test

put into final shape by Kant

The

(1)

reference

attracted

reason

contradiction

the

beyond

matters

totality.The

The

Universe.

sharply with

appears
world

of the

"

The

division,

KANT

The

(3)

265

Thesis

of freedom.

antinomy

There

is free

be accounted
phenomena that cannot
There
is no
for by necessity.Antithesis
freedom, but
:
everything takes place entirelyaccordingto the neces
there

dom;

sary

laws

of nature.

The

(4)

antinomy

Antithesis

There

Critics have

but

part

exists

as

or

neither

There

of the

cause

within

is

world.

without

nor

the

being.

problems as thus
not
are
altogethercosmological prob
the contradictions
of psychology and

include
that

theology;
when

as

that

pointed out

Kant

by

lems,

theology. Thesis

absolutelynecessary

an

stated

of

either

being

necessary

world

are

contradictions

is,all the

it is used

these

show

They
dialectically.

Reason

of the
how

Ra

both

Empiricism, as metaphysicaltheories,are
in their
the
universe
is
nature
contradictory.When
treated as an
objectof knowledge, contradictorypropo
tionalism

sitions

and

proved

The

be maintained.

can

and

In

refuted.

mies, both
to

the last two, both

if

they

refer

the

plied only to

theses

different

to

while

the

apply

to

The
in

us

does

not

that

we

If

worlds.

The

Idea

the

in

Idea

deny
cannot

Idea

Idea
of

inextricable
of God
that

make

God

God

be

exists.
an

be true,

may

Ideas

the

are

ap
in

involve

universe

being

may

involves
as

and

demonstrated.
He

un

of Noumena

the soul

difficulties

cannot

respect

of free will and

of

the

antino

; in

phenomena, they

The

of God.

paralogism, the

tions

false

being may apply to the world

Idea of necessityand
conditioned
the world
of phenomena.

Idea

involves

are

both

are

first two

antitheses

and

of

world

explicablecontradiction.
conditioned

the

to

respect
antitheses

and

theses

contradictories

merely

us

whole

contradic

Kant
maintains

objectof knowledge. The

HISTORY

266

Idea

In

for

of

one

Kant

is to

Reason

the

God

of

OF

of

the

which

God,

is the

Critique.God, purely as

the

Kant

by

who

mum,

that

they

includes

so

do

total

sum

all

same

as

reality,the

finite

He

have

all that

is conceivable

of

in

appears
constructed

realissi-

ens

Himself

qualitiesin
is the

primal
such
of

of

cause

Idea

an

total

sum

object of possible
experience. Only particularthings or phenomena are
God
realities for us.
the transcending total of par
as
ticular things can
have
only a conceptual realityand a
validityfor thought. The total has the realitythat any
This is Kant's
idea
has.
general criticism of the dia
the

important

part in traditional

proofs

for

His

had

played

philosophy

the

examine

to

God

of

general conception

felt it necessary
lectual

an

of God.

lectic Idea
But

is not

need

constructed

conception,is

of

Him.

limit

not

the

had

of all being. Now, can

possibility
objectivevalidity? No ; the Idea

the

of

the

as

expression of

perfectunity.
earlier writings Kant

his

conception

PHILOSOPHY

three

Kant

that

intel

important

in order

existence

show

to

so

their

falsity.
He

takes

the

accepted by

the

idea

fect

who

being

of

did

must

not

exist.

include

the

essence

istence, because

the

real
or

be

perfectbeing.

predicates. The
cannot

Rationalists.

thought.

predicate."

goodness,for

It

quality

the
"

God

unreality of
Kant

it adds

must

the

and

be

of

to

per

perfect
its

among

His

ex

realissimum

ens
"

Being

qualitylike love,

nothing

is

"

involve

had

of God
not

Idea

existence

repliesthus

is not

Idea

would

being

Therefore

of

The

God's

of

ontologicdlproof
originated with St. Anselm

existence,which
been

the

first

up

the content

is

no

power,
of

the

HISTORY

2G8

PHILOSOPHY

OF

attempts through its Ideas

is that

such

speculation has

ledge. Mere
of

the

of

not

be

but

they can

Ideas

the

world

while
the

were

were

immortality of

for

way

the

unable

propositions.The
faith

based

"

It

points
ledge. In

one

criticism

limits

the

out

destructive
our

have
No

its

; for

intellectual
been

considered

knowledge beyond
ties

mental

our

boundary

Themselves,
scendental
there
hand

are

are

transform

clear the

is what

conscious

our

of
;

that
In

to

proper

the limits

of

powers.
know

human

for it establishes
has

knowledge

another

realm

it is

sense,

how

futile

regions that

explore many

possible that

of

knowledge.

is transcendent

"

no

experience. Experience

itself.

Experience is the
understanding. Reality,the Things-into

unknown

knowledge
the

God,

contrary of

against dogmatism

the

powers

of the

if

as

of

Reason

extent

limits.

own

it shows

is

of

and

strivingis

knowledge

we

of the will,

the

prove

conclusion

against skepticism the

validitywithin

freedom

it is constructive

sense,

if

governed

existence

Pure

Critique of

implies,

name

truth,

regulative

of the Reason

Ideas

can

morality.

on

The

Conclusion.

to

hu

things. Moreover,

the
the

is

existed, and

related

soul, and

the

They
"

are

Still,

of

alone

better

prove

speculationis

all these

its

totalityof

speculation cannot

atheistic

which

if God

soul, as

world.

their purpose.

experience is

our

knowledge

integralpart

an

have

must

the

know

our

be

regulateexperience. They

if there

as

are

experience,
to

cannot

by experience,in

in that

act

reason

they

verified

"

added

never

soul, God, and

the

the

mind, and

man

beyond

soar

conceptual thought

realityof

Ideas

the

to

and
is

possible. Within

transcendental
sensations

unknowable.

factors
into

that

phenomena,

But

tran

experience
on

and

the
on

one

the

KANT

other

give

kind.

These

transcendental

reliable,but
tional

add

they

of

account

not

whit

one

one

humanity.

The

value

is defined.

Our

world

and

another

accuratelyassessed

of

as

members

of

withholds

will be

value, if in

of

be assured.
in the

found
The

Ethics

ever

new

and

the

of

tence

Kant

the

of the
Kant.

Two

in order

of

impor
mental

our

of

this

may

reality
can

is

assurance

that

reason,

he

which
it to
it

Practical

things

within."

law

merely assigning

of man,

of

Critique

"

moral

showed

theoretical

is very

is

will.

increasingadmiration
longer we reflect upon them
and

now

own

its contents

that

points out

our

reality,we

way

and

above

was

moral

other

is

as

intellection

pure

some

now

Problem

The

the

Kant

knowing

it. The

think

nevertheless

from

us

of

reality.It

seen

interpretationof what is reallyreal. This

form
tant ; for although the restricted
powers

world

existence

is

ra

lessened, but

relative

perspective.It

in its proper

On
be

can

one

is not

phenomenal
world

we

of

knowledge

of

its content.

to

factors

transcendental

these

with

placed

validityfor all man

factors make
knowledge

phenomena

these

to

269

had

fill the mind

and
:

awe,

the
In

no

Reason:
with

the oftener

starry heavens

this

desire

classic
to

sen

humiliate

is the
its

understanding. He
the powers
place among

might do its proper work more

The world of morality and the starry heaven
efficiently.
have the un
not
impressed Kant equally. Kant would
After his criticism
derstandingchasingwill-o'-the-wisps.
of the understandinghe turned
to the will,or as he calls
it the practicalreason,
and criticized its functions and
ethical
in his
This
teaching of Kant
scope.
appears
MetapJiysicof Morality and in the Critique of Practi
cal Reason.
His early Pietistic education, his reading
that

HISTORY

270

his

OF

PHILOSOPHY

English moralists,influ
his theory of morals
his investigations
enced
; while
into the history of civilization,his theoretical
philoso
phy, and his independent analysisof the ethical feeling
which
his ethical development took.
marked
the route
of morality to Kant
has
world
The
primacy. In his
theory it is the real world, for compared to it the world
the world
of the theoretical
of scientific phenomena,
of Rousseau,

study

of

the

is relative.

reason,

in Kant's

idea

central

The

of

theory

morals

is that

freedom.
as
spontaneity is exactly the same
his theory with Hedonism.
The value of
contrasts
what
he does spontaneously,not
life depends on

rational
This
man's

what

on

happens

central
his

of

zens

of

composed
is

just as

science

is

the

If ethics

in

has

science, a priori or

real

society.In

of

be

religionthe

preferred
its citi

the

church

true

God

freely;

laws

freedom,

rational

pure

validityits
from

of

laws

the

laws

be,

must

and

law

be valid

it must

yet valid for all

be indifferent

content

as

of
as

itself,and

reason

syntheticor applicableto experience everywhere.

moral

in

principleof growth.

rational

derived

is the

opportunity to

sole

system of

freedom

beings worshiping

system of the pure

Ethics

in

free

is
self-activity

education

nature.

freedom

of

republicis to

of the

because

spontaneous

idea

discussions

the

government

monarchy,

the

to

is

of

This

in all Kant's

thought

theory

him.

to

to its

If the

content,

irrespectively.The

source

is thus the same

that
of
as
principleof morals
science : it is a priori. The
principleof morals is uni
versal in its applicationto experience,justas the a priori
synthesisof knowledge is. However, just at that point
of the

the

difference

science

and

is to
that

of

be

between

seen

morals

"

the

between

foundation
the

reason

of
as

KANT

271

in the form
Reason
practical.
of knowledge is restricted to experience ; but
reason
in the form
of the will, while applicableto experience,
is not restricted
to experience. If the understanding is
and
of experience,it is empty
without
the content
use
less. The
understanding must always be a synthesisof
manifold.
the other
On
hand, the practicalreason
a
and

pure

needs

be

the

as

reason

obeyed anywhere

in itself. It need

is sufficient

It

content.

no

have

nor

concrete

any

not

in

content

is
to what
phenomenal world. It has no reference
but
to what
ought to be. The world of morality and
The
different
worlds.
of phenomena
the world
are
of morality is absolute
world
reality,while the world
world
of morality is
of knowledge is only relative. The
the unconditioned, while that of knowledge is condi
tioned
by experience. Morality applies not only to hu
man
beings, but to all rational beings, if any other ra
tional
beings exist. Knowledge, however, belongs to
the

human

in the

empirical,but

the

which

law

has

not

its home

in

transcendent, intelligible
world,

would

knowledge

to

moral

The

beings alone.

be

the

world

of

Things-in-

Themselves.

ing

The

It.

Reason

questions
the

are

there

any

We

part of
shall

If the
some

any

as

Can

of

those

has

of the

This
is

and

is
an

being

on

the

necessary

priori principlein

(1) Is
the question
not
priori synthesis

be

phenomena
first of
be

must

Practical

Dialectic:

of

validity,it

concern

Critique of

the

is, How

world

Questions

Two

the human

comment

universal

such

the

now

will

the

priori synthesis?

possible? (2)
a

same

Analytic, which

of the

be

and

Law

Moral

The

the

moral

and

and

necessity?

these

problems.

expression

principle.Can
our

still

consciousness

of

find

we

HISTORY

272

If

1.

The

we

search

called

We

will

may

the

likelyto
is
and

to

object
be

not

an

that

different

in each

be

as

is

the

one

Such

about

an

arouses

act

of will is

it.

Such

be

would

there

example,
individual

among

unpleasant

men

another.

to

and

use

an

else ;

one

it forth

For

objects of

are

impulses.

for any

example

is

first

gain something,

to

case.

there

ambition.

judgment does not help us in mak

the most
dis
are
selection,for people who
ing our
criminating often are the most
unhappy and useless.
All these things are
indeed
goods, but they are goods
for the moment
goods that are
dependent on some
goods in themselves.
They are
thing else, and not
legitimateends enough, but they are so transitorythat
In

all these

better

called

Law.

that

The

that

pleasure

pleasant to

is true

same

to

find

action.

desire

we

the Moral

shall

perhaps

circumstances

what

The

the

upon

consensus

no

incentives

because

will would

of

for

of

pleasure,perfection,etc.

dependent
act

consciousness,we

our

inclinations,or

the

of use,

PHILOSOPHY

Question concerning

classes

two

are

First

OF

matters

"

they

cannot

be

valid.

It is evident

that

when

the

will

governed by inclination,it is governed by an empiri

and not by a universal and necessary
cal (a posteriori*),
empirical principlesare
(a priori^) principle.Such
called by Kant
hypotheticalimperatives.
itself to see
if the principle
Let us look to the reason
that we
shall
of its practicelies there ; for it is certain
not find the principleof universal
validityfor our will
is a spontaneous
our
impulses. The reason
among
syn
thesis. It is a fact that any
one
verify who will
may
is

his

search

The

reason.

need

not

be

consciousness
will

may

compelled

"

that

man

may

be

impelled

from

from

without.

The

will

from

within, and
will

may

be

KANT

proclaiming its right because

imperative in itself,

an

is

273

it is

reasonable, justifyingitself because

will the

is the

expressionof

unconditioned

is the

validitybecause

It has then

mous.

sal and

This

necessary.

kind

Then

reason.

is then

the

it

autono

is univer

reason

willingKant

of

in

reason

free because

and

acting. It

reason

reasonable,

It is the

reason.

will is unconditioned

practice.The

of

function

it is the

functioning because

it

calls the

imperative. It is the moral law. It is a law

categorical
unto
itself,and it is the only basis for moralitybecause
it is the universallyvalid reason.
there is no
The categoricalimperative is unique
"

kind of will
Tt is the one
nature.
thing like it in human
ing that has absolute validity; and that is because it is
end.
The conscience
unique in having itself for its own
individual.
said
be
to be its expression in the
may

Kant
as,

formulates
Act

"

The

through

maxims

various

of

which

you

act

universal

law

of

from

will

your

morality,like

positionto

the

same

gories do

the

understanding. They

the

than

rather

all

become

act may

beings

good

the

in

called

good

The

virtues

desirable

they
2.

are

The

world

without
or

they

not

the
may

"

or

nothing
out

also

fortune

be

evil

cate

maxims

of

are

specific

law, that inspires

possiblybe

can

of it,which

qualification,
except
gifts of

not

maxims

rationally.A

the moral

even

from

moral

the

act

because

it,is good. Nevertheless

ceived

who

shalt

the forms

are

proceed

impulses, and

from

for

adapted

should

Actions

will.

moral

to

were

nature."

Thou

"

law

will that the

the

lie,"occupy
to

moral

of the

valid command

maxim

if the

as

become

the

may

and

be

can

good

con

be

will."

good

and

mischievous, if

expressionof the moral will.

Second
Question concerning the
the

Moral

274

HISTORY

Law.

This

leads

tion, How

principle be
to

is

man

cooperate

the

to

us

such

can

effective

with

in

it, the

moral

law

is not

selves

the

natural

the

to

answer

life ? Of

human
formal
act

second
and

purely necessary

principle so

PHILOSOPHY

OF

is

no

universal

what

if the

that

quea

service

inclinations
The

moral?

longer

only transcendental, but it is tran

scendent, for it does not have experience as its content.
It is its own
It is independent of all expe
content.
rience in three
In origin, it contains
: (1)
only
ways
formal
a
principle; (2) In content, it contains only a
formal
principle;(3) In validity,it is not concerned
whether
it is obeyed or
what
not
to
as
; it declares
done.
if what
ought to be is never
ought to be, even
Kant's
The
ethics, Of
question always arises about
and
formal
such
service
what
remote
a
can
principle
be ? Morality takes
place in the world of experience;
and
here is Kant's
principleof morality existingin the
world
of unconditioned
of
reality.Of the usefulness
such a principle Kant's
explanation is not fullysatis
factory.His ethics is fundamentally a rigorism,from
which
he is unable
to escape.
Duty and inclination are
moral
which
in antagonism. Only those acts of will are
of duty. In them
are
performed solelyfrom the sense
inclinations

they oppose the moral

they are inspired by
Moral

service.
which
"

the
friends

The

so

am

no

will

is

bad

are

only

they

narrowed

when

of ethical
to

that

in

consciouslyparamount.

would

serve,

swerve,

since

gladly

when

but

to

this

in

me;

virtue

from

to

my

act

through

delights me.

friends, whom
to

moral

is therefore

I love, I

incites

forced

affection

The

the

imperative of duty

clination

And

will,they become

action

whom

indifferent

are

other

thou
way

lovest, thou
can

must

guide thee;

first seek

to scorn,

for

276

HISTORY

The

i.

moral

Postulate

law

seeks

The

free will.

itself and

The

will based

"

ought

ledge of freedom,
causal

only

well

as

free, and

our

proved

the

of

to

When

the

can

guarantee
The

what

Postulate

will is virtue.

spiritsand

est

reaching

this is

only

wills,he
3.

The

wills

as

reaching

of

if he

to

vouchsafe

forward

future

he

virtue

of

in

must

the

The

it

Soul.

goal

of

correspond

or
man

be

may

the

and

world

of

is thwarted

life. His

high

happiness.

If this

this

guaranteed.

proof.

immortal
Existence

between

When

Yet
man

being.
of

postulateGod,

harmony

that

be virtuous

be
a

of the

prove.

of

both

to

and

not
an

the

cannot

may

life must

were

fact

he
necessity,

highest good

postulate and

Postulate

in

of

world

union

the

postu

in

world.

belongs

man

attained, another

is to be

this

object

an

primacy

relation

be

cannot

happiness.

no

virtuous

the

for his

is the

good

is

were

we

as

Immortality

is
in

two

Since

happy.

free

There

still not

and

the

inclinations

the

between

not

in

of the

of

if

the

understanding

as

knowledge

as

Freedom

is shown

well

as

is not

morality,and

the

be
its

as

act

of faith.

act

know

no

commands

to

Freedom

the

understanding

reason

ought

its exercise.

postulatewhich

reason

the

happy

is

of

pure

goal

the

will, we

of

have

can

the

what

we

an

The

ence

But

understanding.

condition

over

eye

in

impliesfreedom,

freedom

will

2.

of

It states

knowledge, but

late is the

the

necessityrules.

existence.

states

We

is
upon

consciousness

I can."

in

is. Its mandate

what

"

will

is based

reason

freedom

implies

for

knows.

as

the

upon

implies

all scientific

unconditioned

free. The

us

which

for

An

unconditioned

The

Freedom.

vain.

in

within

PHILOSOPHY

of freedom

is therefore

law
"

of

is the basis

knowledge

moral

OF

God.
as

Faith

alone

goodness

able

and

277

KANT

world.
I

will,

tality,

When
I

by

create

and

God's

unconditioned

things
1

is

Kant's

through
morality,

is

will

of

my

if

as

But
real

God

the

rewards

my

immor
will

my

this

When

my

because

being,

in

existed.

freedom,

my

existence.

justly

disproportionate

so

are

willing

my

law

faith

in

is

an

these

founded.1

well

theory
which

will,

distribute

to

that

punishments

and

able

alone

and

happiness

he
omitted

of
tries
here.

Beauty,
to

reconcile

discussed
the

in

his

antagonism

Critique
of

of

Judgment,

knowledge

and

CHAPTER

THE

Idealism
dissection

laid

scientific
In

parts.

trine

had

of

modern

has

at

stage of

ments

the

world

and

inconsistent,
stage is the
find
is

it to

be

always

the

made

and

life

philosophy

of

German

the

time

popular,
its

and

the

Read

we

kinds
of

like

all social

the

move

critical, self-

was

The

second

and

we

shall

Criticism

lines.

In

systematization.
naturally, therefore,

was

its
to

the

Culture
the

was

proximity

of

philosophy
Spinoza

introduced

Windelband,

Hist,

into

was

and
of

centre

Weimar,

to

of

Kant

the

became

resurrected

Germany.

of Phil,

intellectuallyvirile

express.

Jena

hand.
close

ten

represented

several

which

in

inter

incoherence

enter,

new

ready

ten

culture.
that

and

there

University

the

tradition.
now

to

in

was

teaching

long sleep

of

doc

He

stage

along

was

hand

went

Kantianism

At

first

which

Kant,

and

destructive

movement

centre

it famous.

the

over,

The

his

differing

are

are

time."

movement

great systematic

many-sided

There

"

say,

present

His

many

in the

Critique, which

inducement

after

Germany,

of

its

of

spirit

byLessing.

departure

to

reconstructive
an

it into

the

had

separated

professor

wont

upon

one

of

been

He

in

inaugurated

social

acted

had

knowledge.

and

had

German

philosophy

first

he

Kant's

of

criticism
of

open

point

been

philosophy

Kant's

Kant's

processes

been

pretations

the

this

the

Berlin

IDEALISTS

knowledge

became

systems.
of

of

doing

time, which

GERMAN

Kant.*

after

fine

XI

pp.

Kant

568-569.

from
was

IDEALISTS

GERMAN

THE

279

the

"all-crushing" critic; Spinoza was

mystic. Their oppositiondid not amount
the

tradiction, but

of

was

Spinoza

became

revolved

the

the

the

of the

foci

Kant's

con

Kant

and

about

which

Kant.

generationafter

succeeding philosophersshow

the

to

sort.

intellectual

two

thought

correlative

dogmatic

influence

All
upon

them, for they all accept his epistemology.They show

Spinoza in varying degrees.

shall now
meet
we
philosopherswhom
of

influence

the

The

The

into groups.

divided

consists

first group

hold, Fichte, Schelling,and

of Rhein-

These

Hegel.

be

may

the

took

conception of the thingdestroying the Kantian

The
in
in-itself and
constructing a pure idealism.
lead

in

second

group

These

tried

sics of

the

ever,

of

be

not

is

The

moral

and

can

light of

their

be

of

this

time

lastly,of

the

would
mis

the

did

much

forerunner
of

names

Caroline,

Jean

in this group.

the

was

the

the

of this

Tieck, Wacktwo

Romantic

Schiller,and

"

to

Hegel. This

understood
age.

of

Goe

popularize Kant's

doctrines.

Fichte, Schelling, and

of Kant

summary

Schlegels,Novalis,

poet Schiller
and

of the

spread

literaryRomanticists, whose writ

spirit.The influence
philosophical

it included

two

the

of
how

was,

mention,

(1763-1825)

Dorothea

"

school, which

especiallyprominent

and

enroder, the

aesthetic

of

consisted

group

Spinoza.
thought

without

of the

Richter

movement,

the.

and

group

Spinoza

women,

Schopenhauer.
develop a metaphy

oppositionto

German

the

ings partook
Paul

in its

complete

cellaneous

of

and

to

ways

rationalistic

Kant

of

leaders

Herbart

A
third
thing-in-itself.

unsuccessful

doctrines

of

different

in

Wolffian

old

the

consists

They

group

of

disciples

sympatheticallyonly
were

not

in

the

advenphilosophical

GERMAN

THE

turers, otherwise

Goethe,

would

281

of the
great representative

the
not

IDEALISTS

have

associated

with

age,

Schellingand

Hegel on equal terms.

They stood for the revulsion of
the period againstall external
systems, and for the reali
realm
zation of a spiritual
of free spirits.
They sought
factitious and
not
a
imaginary condition, but tried
rather
the essentials of the spirituallife.
to discover
and
their only
reclaim
They would
realityspiritually,
in their haste
in carrying out
their princi
defect was
sharers
in one
ples. Fichte, Schelling,and Hegel are
movement.
common
They tried systematicallyto pre
the

sent

evolution

of the

tion of

thought. They

bolder

than

tions of

thought

which

he

thought free, and,

they would find there
spiritualrealm seemed
had supposed. It
one
is cosmic

and

It is
and
the

world

spiritis

transforms
work

of
under

They

would

their

spirits,

own

infinite universe.
to

be

wider

The

than

any

History to them
law of progression.
one
of assertions, negations,
For Fichte
spirituality.

matter.

battle

the

down.

for

cosmic

external

moral

artistic
and

ends

for

construction,

internal

worlds

; for

Hegel the cosmic spirit

unfolds
in a strict and rigorouslogic,
whose
consumma
tion is thought of thought. But while Fichte, Schelling,
and Hegel look at the world
each in his own
they
way,
members
of one
toward
movement
are
common
spirit
ual

of

cosmic

limita

self-governingrealm, quite

movement

syntheses. Life is
spirit is a cosmic

which

was

the

transcend

in upon

them

to

Kant, but they were

laid

whole

the

evolu

unbroken

an

to

to

had

gazing

develops

Schelling the
into

the

upward

an

back

went

set

from

as

They sought

he.

different

world

living art

freedom, and

physics.

toward

the

reestablishment

of

meta

HISTORY

282

Life

The

Johann

and

Fichte's
with

sometimes
hostile

Kant.

disposition.Fichte's
of curious

his

by

moral

and

of

life

and

his

conflicts,
with
irascible

throughout

was

tragedy

and

un

of

sometimes

stubborn

own

external

series of

the

the

retirement

as

of

with

contrast

poverty

contrasts, both

love for the

In

up

notable

most

scholastic

extreme

created

forces

the

life looms

(1762-1814).

Fichte

was

uneventful

and

master,

Fichte

disciplesof

disturbed

of

Writings

Gottlieb

immediate

PHILOSOPHY

OF

one

His

romance.

and

in his early
theological
appears
youth in his voluntary self-denial and in his sermons
the geese
which
he
to
was
herding. Again, he made
a
preparation to become
preacher, but his intellectual
him
abandon
it.
to
training in the universitydrove

He

became

with

his

Then
he

necessitarian

and

philosophy,although
the so-called

came

thorities

Berlin

he

turned

his

weighed

his heart

his

his

defiance

of

In

the

tumultuous

life

down.

Controversy

and

his dismissal.

and

square

Atheistic

"

professorat Jena,

was

it

tried to

"

when

the

au

days

at

metaphysics into patriotic

appeals,

joined the army, but his death inter

vened.
dif
The inner development of Fichte, too, was
Kant's
ferent
from
that
of Kant.
inner development
with his long life. Fichte, on
the
coincident
other
was
hand, at the age of twenty-eighthad read and accepted
Kant's
philosophy,and four years later had created his
in his later years
This
modified
own.
was
only slightly
in the direction of the pantheism of Spinoza. Kant's
life was
the political
of his time,
current
apart from
and

have

would

Read

Royce, Spirit of

Phil., chap,
486-490

Problem

of

Classical

Philosophers, pp. 486-496,

Hist,

Human

Modern

of Phil.,

Life,

pp. 579-581.

pp.

516-535

v;

Rand,
;

Eucken,
Modern

Windelband,

284

HISTORY

however,

made

returned

to

who

His

Life

another

was

this year

in

1793

Jena

milestone

he

called

was

to

So

Fraulein

marry

in comfortable

now

at

author, Ficlite,famous.

real

Zurich

herself

was

3.

the

PHILOSOPHY

OF

he

Rahn,

circumstances.

(1794-1799). The year 1794

in the biography of Fichte.
In
the principaluni
to Jena, then

versity of

Rheinhold.
In this
Germany, to succeed
he published his philosophy in his best
known
year
remained
at Jena
work, the Wissenschaftslehre. He
that of
only five years. At first his popularityexceeded
filled his life with
the popular Rheinhold, but he soon
He
controversies.
and the
quarreled with the students
Contro
clergy, and in 1799 the so-called "Atheistic
in which
charges were
brought against
arose,
versy
his teaching as
atheism.
Brooking no criticism either
of his teaching or of his official position,he defied
the
dismissed.
authorities of the universityand was
In 1799
Fichte
4. His Life at Berlin
(IIW-ISU).
"

went

Berlin

to

but
affiliations,

to

he

found

first he

large and

lectured.

he

lic,to whom

At

live.

He

had

sympathetic pub
received

warmly

was

academic

no

by

Schlegels,Tieck, and
His philosophical
Schleiermacher.
system got little de
velopment ; but the influence of Spinoza appeared in his
the ethical
and
religious
teaching. He lectured
upon
and
social
political
aspects of his philosophy,and upon
the

Romanticists,

circle of

subjects.In
to

lin

1808

the German
was

founded

years.

Fichte
remained

was

delivered

People.

losophy, but
two

he

and

he
For

with

in

was

in

the

"

he

In

1810

connected

1812

famous

the

University of

called

was

came

to

with
the

dissuaded
difficulty

Berlin

and

Addresses

his

preached

chair

the

the

to

of

phi

universityonly

call
from

Ber

to

arms,

and

enlisting.He
the

soldiers

in

THE

wife

His

camp.

tracted

her

nursed

Influences

The

of the

that

which

285

hospitalnurse

as

she recovered.
her

through

and

con

Fichte, how

sickness,died

of

the

in 1814.

disease

mate

IDEALISTS

volunteered

fever, from

who

ever,

GERMAN

did

Fichte's

upon

influences

Teaching.

Fichte

upon

would

esti

Any

distorted

be

himself.
recognizethe calibre of the man
Fichte was
He was
im
essentiallya puritan reformer.
withal
but
a
life-loving,
simple-minded
petuous and
All the philosophical
influences which
he was
man.
ca
pable of feelingwould
naturallybe turned by him into
ethical and religious
the life of men.
to reach
sermons
He must
be thought of as the crusader
armed
with ab

truths, which

stract

for

the

It

natural

be

through

Rahn,
her

came

clearer

ness.

But

and
"

with

giant'sstrength

man.

that

the

in

his

source

Romanticists

the

Johanna

the

then

wields

principalinfluences
Fichte's
doctrine
should
be Spinoza and
Kant.
as
Lessing,Rousseau, and Pessure, such writers
him
much
in his early years,
furnished
material

talozzi
and

he

upliftof

moral

was

upon

To

not

two

also

was

influence
and

the

later

after their

his

two

two

of power

to

marriage

his

lost much

character

His

years.

great influences

wife,

him, and
aim

be

of its harsh

Fichte

upon

were

great philosophicalforces of this time, Spinoza

Kant.

Spinoza

Fichte's
in terms

idealistic

philosophy
of

Kant,"

and

has

been

also

as

described
"

an

as

inverted

Spinozism." The influence of Spinoza upon

Fichte's thought is seen
at both ends of his life. At the
amateurish
an
beginning he was
Spinozist.He found
that the theological
trainingof his boyhood was a neces
sitarianism
like Spinozism. He
lost his faith in Chrisand he was
tianity,
unhappy because he found Spinoza's
or

HISTORY

286

doctrine

of

he

Kant

and

having

to

read

difficultywithout

Spinoza. For

Kant

and

intolerable

necessitywas

Then

able.

PHILOSOPHY

OF

found

yet

unanswer

solution

the

change

of his

doctrine

of

had

placed behind the necessitated

world
the free spirit.In the last period of Fichte's
life
the influence
of
the
mystical side of Spinozism ap
peared, through Fichte's intercourse with the Romanti
cists in Berlin.

Why

Philosophize. To

We

distinctlya
words

that

found

in

and

he

he

ideas

about

mind

other

the

hand

all

under

there

On

his

the

classes

two

satisfaction
reached

Fichte
duce

of

law
ideas

He

of

there
which

ideas,
arise

of

the

only

of

the

individual

voluntary.

from

solution

the

are
are

is primal ? Fichte

of ideas

the

all his

necessity. On

of

contingent and

the

con

Which

felt that
of

contrast

philosophy

and

the

philosophicalcuriosity would

our

the

only by
calls the

classes

hand

one

philosophicalcuriosityarose

these

in

nature.

own

physical nature,

the

are

feel

we

philosophicalproblems

the

are

classes

two

of

philosophy was

different

very

that

world

sciousness, which
of these

two

antagonism.

experiences

our

wrestlingwith

is

certain

was

their

and

personal problem,

his

from

Fichte

of

reduction

class

one

philosophera dogmatist

voluntary ideas, which

our

compose

sciousness, to the necessitated

to

who

the
seeks

be

other.
to

individual

re

con

series.

Spinoza sought to
the philosophy of Spinoza depressed Fichte
do this,and
there
is the alternative
intolerable. But
to the phi
as
series by voluntary
losopher to explain the necessitated
consciousness.

gins

to

This

reflect,he

is idealism.

necessitarianism, and

by

an

Either-Or,

choose

must

idealism.

choice

between

The

moment

between
He

is

man

dogmatism,

be
i. e.

always confronted

freedom

and

necessity.

GERMAN

THE

Moral

The
to

his

sity. When

read

great light came

events

of

consciousness.

work

of art

man

and

of the free

he

his Vocation
the

of Man

individual

the

sight of
and

he

spair that
the rock
an

ultimate

perative

hope
and

of

the

above

that

weighed
amid

Duty
is

shows

that

citizen

of

the

that

means

such

the

be

contain

by

the

mere

still

in

must"

greater de

Finallyhe

are

the

the

is

always
freedom
in

me

world.

He

finds
finds

categoricalim
above

necessity,

reducible
of my

Next
appear

of appearances.
fact

of

by

world.

are

exists.

sea

In

real.

development

of the

all events
down

the

is overwhelmed

events

autobiographical

duty

This

to other

inner
to

"

life.

perform,
I

that

superior to phenomena,

supersensuous

Fichte

to

cannot

and

one

of

oppressed by

in

of

slave

oppressionis not

first

always lodged
am

be

world

may

irreducible

phenomena

there

the

"Thou

neces

creations

philosophy was

necessitated

duty.

phenomena.
That

is

saw

necessitated

the

cannot

realitywhatever

no

of

therefore

Man

At

believe

to

comes

ances,

mind.

the

that

saw

(1800) he gave
the awakening

story of

the

he

and

that

see

can

philosophy of

spirit.The

him.

compel

world, but

He

Kant's

events.

Fichte

Reason
a
Critique of Pure
He
flung himself immediately

Consciousness

necessitated

287

early life

the

idealism.

phenomena,

were

terms

the

him.

to

side

from

escape

he

the

In his

Awakening.

despair 110

upon

IDEALISTS

heaven

does

beyond the grave, but already encompasses

us,
and
its light dawns
I
heart."
in every
human
That
myself am a freelyacting individual must be the funda
mental
thought of every true philosopher."
between
therefore choose
Every one must
dogmatism
and
fall a victim
not
to skepti
idealism, if he would
one's choice :
will determine
cal despair. Two
motives
not

lie

am

"

288

HISTORY

theoretical,the

one

is the

mainly
has

the

on

high

moral

his

much

of

will

duty,

control

they may

dom

of

he

will be

all his

him

to

seem

be

to

planation of practical life.

additional
either

theoretical

dogmatism

his world

consistent.

conscious

facts

thinks, the idealist

of consciousness.

terms

rethinking his

of

task

does

Fichte

attempt

that

he

overcome

tated

can

facts of

ledge

of

science.

principlewill
ness,

so

to

as

with

his

the

true

he

But

will

find

answer

we

own

nature.

philosophy of

sciousness.

The

nature

of

comes

the

the

rethink

the

be

to

point

from

Ego

the
is the

con

know

What

of conscious
of life that

after all ?

of Fichte's
the

of

done?

only apparent
that

so

necessi

the

problems

believed

life

in

theory

the free states

the outcome

He

idealist has

between

the central

be

facts

consistent

is this

to

but, Fichte

Philosophy. How

must

the manifold

prove

explain the
;

the

and
he

how

place at

illuminate

life's dualism

Here

idealist

an

chooses

knowledge.

up

physical nature

As

sciousness?

that

necessitated

dualism

the

free

will be the

cannot

Fichte's

draw

believe

make
theoretically

rate

scientific

to

there

determinism

any

Principlein

Central

The

At

individual

the

man

explain the

can

depend

Conscious

then

must

of

will

only satisfactoryex

dogmatist

terms

idealism

disposed to

The

idealism

The

in

But

motive

experiences,however

the

motive.

or

If

is.

he

be necessitated.

to

seem

and

choice

man

over

primary

dogmatism

systems, man's

manner

sense

since

and

practicalone,

PHILOSOPHY

practical.The

other

equallyconsistent

are

in

OF

struggle

principleof
study

of

con

subject for

is the essence
of the Ego or
study. What
philosophical
intel
the personality? It is activity,
will, vitality
; not
lect and changelessness.But can
the
not
we
get beneath
activityof the personalityand ask, Why does it act?

GERMAN

THE

Yes, because
said

it

all. The

IDEALISTS

ought. When
of the

essence

have

we

of
vitality

289

said this

we

the

is moral

Ego

have

of life ; it is ulti
obligation.Ought is the foundation
If we
ask why there is an
mate
ground of existence.
is,there ought to be. The duty
ought, the only answer
exists
the

that

Ego

you

must

and
act

I shall have
and

it acts

duty.

in response

In order
to

to

duty.

be,

This

is free activity.
The Ego is unconditioned
because
activity
it is acting out its own
Thus when
Fichte is talk
nature.
ing about the Ego, the ought, the moral law or freedom,
he is talking about the same
thing in different guises.
Fichte placed moral
freedom
the central principleof
as
metaphysics and tried to rethink the world of necessi
tated
of moral
freedom.
He at
experiencesin terms
view of life,of which
monistic
a
tempted to construct
the free moral
personalityshould be its inner vitality.
and liberty
Monism
Fichte's war-cry.
was
Realityis in
be no
us
realityindependentof us. The mor
; there can
ally free Ego is the central principleof life.
Such
to the German
a
people would
appeal
message
It would
to two sides of their nature.
appeal as a meta
physics to the mysticism in their blood; it would find
also a practical
in the humanitarian
and revo
response
lutionaryspiritof that revolutionarytime. Be up and
be doing, for reality
is not what
people commonly think
it is. Your
environment
is only apparently an independ
ent existence
beyond your control. Reality is not static.
Rethink
it and make
it dynamic. Not being, but acting,
and
free acting,is reality.Such
Fichte's
sermon
was
the Germans
of his day. His
to
be stated
theory can
in the terms
All
of the Greek
Heracleitus,
things
change," provided the change be thought of as moral
the
to think
to Fichte
activity.To philosophize was
"

HISTORY

290

universe

where,
in the

free

as

universal

Existence

existence

us.

Thought

the

world

from

and
is

from

Moral

He

habit.

our

own

Fichte

World.

he

was

inspiredby

did

not

carefullyelaborate.

cult

obliged to

do

itself,and

to rethink

If

Ego
reason

On

from

start

we

the

"

world

which

has

been

extended

its

knowledge.

world
the

product

ideas.
he

point of
is

view

and

the

the

scheme

thing-in-

system of

been

the

called

things there

All Being
thing-in-itself.
of the active

Ego

and

in

active

the

activityof

of

was

nature

"

as

us

he

Ego.

existence

before

early

this stand

free

re

he, Fichte,

that

of necessitated

by

diffi

Kant's

that

philosophy has
a

is not

ex

in
great difficulty

taking

of

be

philosophy can

morally

heart

such

educate

great

explain away

to

created

Kantian

an

In

spreads out

In

jectiveidealism.
the

the

Fichte's

this account

place for

the

activityof

but

maintained

things :

two

of the

He

Kant.

true

shall

we

few

truly Kantian,

not

represented the

terms

and

shaped by

activity.
a philosophy,the
prin
and
over
again as a

His
his

words, and

philosophy was

be

thus

general conceptions which

some

stating his meaning.

action, and

may

of

Nevertheless, there

feel.

to

over

man

was

few

had

repeated

He

pressed in

in

thought

essentiallyaction,

which

of

is

environment

our

inactivityno
and
to participate
higher than truth.
see

dualism

Freedom

only through

ciplesof
kind

activity,to

freedom.

is derived

our

The

moral

free ourselves

to

PHILOSOPHY

OF

the

is

Ego.
sub
is

no

only

object of

Ego acts because it must, and then

reflects upon
its activity.Its knowledge of its activity
is in grades from
sense-perceptionto complete know
Kant
had
referred
sensations
to the thingledge. Now
in-itself

sensations

as

The

their
are

source.

But

this is unnecessary,

only the activityof

the

Ego.

since

Sensations

HISTORY

292

activity.We
is not

Being

of

ought

sonalityfrom

meaning

new

substance,
moral

God,

to

the

process,

theatre

of moral

of
the

would

duty."

human

naturallygive

God

is the

world-order.

God

is."

"

per

reality.God

absolute

moral

is created

regarded

that

something

Being

material

height,he
the

performed.

is the

sensible

If Fichte

but

is,is to be explainedby

world

is the

but

drama,

it is

which

Doing,

The

"

human

our

Whatever

this moral

sal

be.

Man.

and

create

of

Doing.

to

PHILOSOPHY

stage upon

cause

"Nature

action."
God

the

the

for the sake

what

only

not

also

create

we

OF

is not
univer
is the

Universal

Ego, a free, world-creatingactivity.God was

Arnold's
conceived
by Fichte as Matthew
something
ourselves
for righteousness." When
I
that makes
not
find in myself that duty is realityand
that
not this or
I find that
fixed and
real
crystallized
thing, when
my
self is moral
functioning and not a tangible form of
"

flesh and
that

God

I take

is universal

duty, universal

in which

God

bones, then

The

Gods."

are

poor

finite

cept
and

as
we

matters

moral

we
are

How
in

that

fighting God's

His

so

little whether
of

the

in

far
I

as

we

speak

world.

Writ

acting!

clarion

of

They

my
are

not

Ye
our

We
won

are
ex

voice of God,
that

express

in

of

lot is made

humble
is

"

says,

Itself

victoryis

is the

us

only part

manifests

acting,God

our

find

functioning,

not

Holy

dignifiedour

Duty

persons

This

Ego

moral

are

the

battle, and

win.

purpose

As

absolute

Egos.

by thinking

He.

are

we

step. I then

next

participating.We

am

yea,

"

the

own

the

voice.

It
the

duty

or

same

thing.

enjoined labor upon every rational soul to per

form
his duty of reaching high ideals,through his hum
ble tasks, of
fightingthe good fightand keeping the
faith," is to Fichte the meaning of coming to a con"

GERMAN

THE

sciousness
It is
of

this

not

What

and

to

think

duty

and

record

this

of

is

order

duty

coming

moral

the

to

come

so

His

far attained.

of

process

within

my
I

When

so

self?

its appearance

It is to think

myself,the cosmic
self-consciousness.
Realityis

coming

with

God.

think

real

everlastingduty

myself ?

is to

293

myself,my

of

tory is the

order

to self-consciousness.

In his later

succumbed

teaching Fichte

Spinozism of

ous

is

existence

is the eternal

is it to think

consciousness
far to

What

phenomenal

It
necessity.

me.

self.

of one's

IDEALISTS

the

period.

He

to the victori

God

conceived

as

an

impulseis directed toward Himself ; he

conceived
active
finite things as products of this infinitely
in
consciousness.
The finite products find their vocation
imitatingthe infinite producer, which imitation consists
in the activityof producing other
finite things
not
blessed
through the categoricalimperative,but in the
life
of sinking into the infinite.
Since realityis this
What
Moral
a
Reality involves.
of moral
development, its conditions will arise
process
Ego

whose

infinite

"

"

of itself and

out

coming

reason

tions out
be

to

of its

Fichte

phy

"deed-act"
to

ness

this

the

in

the acts

think

of

the
what

whole

business

is involved

the

itself. Since
as

same

first

of

what

place,consciousness

calls

philoso

in this

original

of conscious

self-consciousness

showing

condi

own

Fichte

"

that

is

historymust

original deed-act," as

showing

the

the world

its

develop

must

All

Since

of consciousness, this attempt

will be

1. In

it
itself,

thought

consists

creation.

own

originaltask.

explained as

it.

the

be its

is

reality,

realityinvolves.
always

involves

something else. To use Fichte's

technical
language, the Ego posits itself (since it is a
moral
act it positsa non-Ego
process) and in the same
consciousness

of

HISTORY

294

objectof consciousness). The

Ego against a
distinguishable

is the necessary

(which
absolute

Ego

PHILOSOPHY

OF

"

asserts

distinguishablenon-Ego."
call to become

the

call, and
his life's

Both

the

at

the

absolute

time

same

His
and

Ego

in

non-Ego

the

is the

law

the
are

in that

he

is his

creates

non-Ego.

creations

of

surging duty

ever

feels

himself

assertion

that

who

boy

asserts

in

career

which

Ego,

is like

He

lawyer.

career.

It

that

God.

or

Ego and the non-Ego are the creations of

that absolute
Ego, which is cosmic duty or God, yet each
limits the other.
Ego and non-Ego are correlative terms ;
The world
both
is,
originate in the free act of God.
While

both

the

therefore, the creation

of its

activity.It

own

given

materials

terial

of

and

duty put

that

In

the second

prevents

ing

to

the

know

condition

of

forms.

active

be

task

in

its

categories,limit

place,this awakening

from

curious

task, and

opposing

is essential

and

is the
we

ma

create

activities.

our

of the

Ego

to

contradiction.

calls

me

yet in that
In

to know

call

duty

attempt

always under
limiting non-Ego.
am

the

as

it,the spatial

being performed.

duty completely

condition

While

may

my

the

world

we

perform

an

The

knowledge.
sense

as

its sensations

contradictory.Duty

nature

to

self

creates

of itself involves

consciousness

Duty is by
myself and

real

the

even

into

temporal forms,
2.

of its

in order

matter

of

the

The

time
Ego and at the same
thwarts
the Ego's full knowledge of itself. So long as
the non-Ego exists,no
complete knowledge of myself is
possible.A limitingnon -Ego makes the Ego limited,and
therefore prevents complete knowledge and fulfillment
of duty. Duty calls upon
to perform a task, but under
us
such that it cannot
be performed. So long as
conditions
the boy strives in his legalprofession,
duty appears ; but

non-Ego

to

the

GERMAN

THE

is

long

so

with

that

only
of

the process
To

dition.
The

strive

is and

what
and
ment

The

dialectic

which

ought

to

performance.
in the

the

moral

task

require

the restraint.

First there

in the

between

the

requirement is

calls the Thesis

con

nowhere.

contrast

under

are

is endless.

process

Fichte

We

static

goal is

be, between

be

must

we

some

the

in the eternal

seen

perform, and

to

with

not

is

progress

contented

how

strivingand

is

what

actual

the

shows

morally is reality;

contradiction

295

incomplete. Moral

rendered

duty

endless, but

IDEALISTS

is the stage

call of the

absolute

in the mu
Ego. The next stage is the Antithesis, seen
tuallylimitingEgo and non-Ego. The next stage is the
accomplishment is gained, but
Synthesis,in which some
becomes
which
only the Thesis for another Antithesis;
The
and so on infinitely.
terms
Thesis, Antithesis, and
important, for they are
employed by
Synthesis are
Fichte's successors,
Schellingand Hegel.
seek the plan of nature
in the
We
Romanticism.*
ourselves
We
this plan. Why
outside world.
need
are
the difficult roads through physical nature
?
traverse
we
"

The

and

better

road

purer

lies within

mind."

own

our

(Novalis.)
Romanticism
about

lasted

be

would
ual

was
a

great European

in

Germany

and

Rousseau

manticism.

from

wide
*

and

Read

French

Storm

and

Stress

Beers, History of Romanticism

pp.

1-25

Century,

pp.

it

and

intellect

the

Heine

as

Ro

Revolutionists,

of this world
Period
in

Beers, History of Romanticism

132-139.

Coleridge,Byron, Shelley,

in the forefront

were

The

movement.

Century,
teenth

Wagner

of

Lessing to
the

Ossian, Scott, Wordsworth,

1850

to

to speak
perfectlyjustifiable

period

Keats,

1750

from

century

which

movement

was

Eighteenth
in Nine-

HISTORY

296

phase

of

it ; and

that

followed.

and

Classicism

from

ent

it

cause

If

the
was

Goethe

German
Storm

Romantic

Schiller

and

Classicism

thoroughly

infected

Stress

of the

literarynames

ment

have

with

century, be
germs.

mentions

1795

from

to

first the
then

mentioned,

the

Some

1850.

the Romantic

with

of

phases

Classicism, and

connected

already been

differ

was

Romantic

Lessing, one

proper

lives. The

different

the

Period, then

movement

their

seventeenth

of

account

after

Romanticists,

(1787-1805)

of the

take

Classicism

of

were

episode in

an

Classicism

thought
and

the Period

was

only

was

is to

one

even

so

of German

Period

PHILOSOPHY

OF

move

Richter, Tieck,

"

Schlegels, Schiller, and

and
Goethe.
Fichte, Schelling,
Hegel are the philoso
and embody its spirit
movement
phers of this Romantic
in different
degrees.The true philosophicalexponent
of it is Schelling.
accidental
and
Romanticism
is an
inadequate name
for this world-wide
literaryand philosophical move
the exalting of the individ
In general it means
ment.
Wackenrode,

ual,
tic

admits

who

"

Novalis,

law

no

individualityis

the

himself."

above

dominated

The

unrestrained

by

Roman

fancy,is

by feelingand passion,and prefers the vague

mystical to the clear and defined. In literature

animated
and

Romanticism

is contrasted

icist

emphasizes

ual.

The

the

except

no

truth

of the

the

play

of the individual

historical
of

to

traditional

common

principleamong

common

the

defers

has

Romanticist

Romanticists

type, the Romanticist

the

Classicist

Classicism.

with

canon

right

to

the
form
even

is

intuitions,which
found

Class
individ

and

law

with

only

subjective
"

in the

expression

fiercelyegoisticwills seeking

other

disagree. The

Romanticists

Romanticists

The

case

in the

self-realization.

THE

The

GERMAN

historical Romantic

mighty
revolt

its

it could

what

was

conventions.

narrow

against the period of

scorned

discontented

were

movement

297

passionateand

againstthe previous shallow

reaction

life with

IDEALISTS

reasoning about

not

with

intellectual

Romanticism

the

was

Enlightenment, which
These

define.

typical ideas

Romanticists

and

with

logical

them.

They challenged the universe,

because
it was
obedient
not
to their egoisticcravings.
It is very clear what
the dangers as well as the great
of this German
Romanticism
The dangers of
ness
were.
the movement
lay within itself,in its aristocratic exclusiveness,its reluctance
of

strength and

itself may

be

of

to

face

firmness

the
of

forces

of

character.

largelyresponsiblefor

these.

evil,its lack
Yet

the age

Its

strength

lay also within, in its deepening of self-consciousness,

in its rejuvenatingand ennobling the whole
of
expanse
being,in its intellectual conception of man's most inti
relations to himself, to his companions, and to the
mate
world
around
him.
Sometimes, indeed, the spiritual
force of this small
band
shows
itself quite capable of
world.
strong action in the outer
Napoleon himself as
cribed
his downfall
not primarilyto diplomacy or to the
bayonet,but to the resistance of the German
Ideologists.
We
have
Goethe
already spoken
a Romanticist.
as
of Spinoza'sdoctrine and its accept
of the resurrection
model
as
ance
a
by this time. The Romanticists, fol
lowing Spinoza,conceived of nature as a unity in which
the

divine

Reason

manifests

itself in

its fullness.

Nature

is

indeed, for the time

Becoming. So fitting,
was
Spinoza'spantheism that Goethe, the literaryex
it the central principleof
ponent of the period,made
his poetic thought. Goethe
be understood
can
only as
the Romantic
Spinoza. The philosophy that underlies
in

HISTORY

298

Goethe's

work

mantic

is noted

here

all

was

the

for

his

philosophy was

conceived

for

himself.

He

did

conventions

sonality,but
when

of

as

he

in

for

longing

life

desire

in

to

man

finite. Man

world

his contribution

himself.

around

resists it,and

garb,

way

human

but
own

our

tween

them
life

of

is

through
life

them.

is like
both

is severed.

by returning

whole
spiritual

of

are

We
to

the
of it.

Nature

the

world

shows

how

to

The

go

things. At

behind

Both
if the

empty

nature,

in

therefore
and

in

modern

and

ex

the

nature-phe

facts of nature

nature.

find

her

us

large scale,

the

world, he

Besides, the world

on

in

does

of

products

mysticism

life.

is not

heart

history and

by disclosingto

us

experiences

orbits, but

scribed

to

Goethe

in

nature's

to

nomena,

and

Here

soul.

con

in the

soul, because

human

artistic view

an

presses

the

to

is related

soul.

most

had

joy

from

Goethe

for

upon

the

to

Spinoza

function

the

by

the universe.

differed

to

reacts

alive

world

the

gives clearness
closelyshe

Man

becomes

Goethe

To

the

way

per

littleness and

Goethe

own

his

with

human

independent

an

makes

his

of

and

is realized

agreement

from

only

trivialities

interchangeivith

merely passively appropriate

not

our

have

Ro

the

himself

by

Truth

truth.

infinite.

the

all

limitations

mere

emancipation
for

formulated

the

upon

in full

was

Spinoza's pantheism
ceived

as

be true

to

look

not

is in vital

Goethe

not

philoso

highly strung personality,and

fall from

Therefore

his

and

application. Like

universal
was

in

Ro

the

philosophy,Goethe's

Romantic

manticists, Goethe

man

of

example

an

personal revelation,

doctrine

the

as

movement.

Like

phy

PHILOSOPHY

OF

are

in

move

connection
the

this is

secret
return

different times

real,
pre
be
of
to

Goethe

HISTORY

300

Romanticists'

the

headings :

three

Man

Man

has

ledge

of

the

face

Life
Of

fifteen

found

1795

from

and

essays

of distinct

Jena.

at

became

to

his

atmosphere.
silent.

University of

He

when

he

treatise

im

most

chair

of

he,

fond

to deliver

found

that

his

several
suc

philosophy

written

so

sixteen

at

published

were

1812

ceased

even

Berlin

works

After

the

philosophy,the

his call to the

technical

spirit.

own

were

he

Fichte's

on

veil from

Berkeley, he was
write brilliantly
in

twenty

was

merit

led

All

academic

he

before

years,

reads

seventy-nineyears,

1810

Like

know

Schelling (1775-

began to
published his first

He

which

drew

his

life of

to

has

history he

of

many-sided genius,and
early years.

he

own

there

long
Schelling's

years

his

Writings

the

is

one.
essentially

are

Romanticist

productive period.

portant

of

it becomes

finite world

when

nature

The

and

and

world

reading

nature.

of nature

1854).*

of

In

himself.

the

cess

under

ego.

nature

knowledge

historyof

the

his soul until

expand

of the

and

the

The

stated

The
Thing-in-Itself.

no

limitation

(3)

be

may

"

is

There

(2)
only a

It

God.

with

one

motives.

ideal is to

Man's

(1)

PHILOSOPHY

OF

of

in

writing,

lectures
notes

an

at the

of them

Hegel, in comment
publishedwithout his consent.
ing on Schelling,said that Schelling liked to carry on
his thinking in public.
Schellingand Fichte may be studied together because
docside of Kant's
they are alike in developing one
were

490-494
in

Eucken,

Read
;

Problem

Wernaer,

Germany,

pp.

of

Human

Romanticism

132-143;

losophers,pp. 535-568.

Rand,

and

Life, pp. 457-464,

the Romantic

Modern

Classical

School
Phi

GERMAN

THE

trine.
with

But

their

Fichte's

careers

life of

IDEALISTS

were

very

301

different.

Contrasted

poverty, struggle,self-created
devotion

tagonisms,long-delayedvictory,and
life
morality,is Schelling's

of

early

to

academic

an

rigorous
success,

friendships.The life of Kant

of inner
routine
one
was
development and outward
;
that of Fichte of early formulated
thought and exter
nal warfare.
Schelling'slife,on the other hand, does
strike us
of development, either externally
not
as
one
rather
series of changes. He
or
a
subjectively.It was
looked upon
his own
philosophy as a development, but
its linkage is thread-like, due to his wonderful
imagin
ation and mobilityof thought.With
his great suggestive
he depended more
analogy than logic; his
power,
upon
and
his philosophylie before
if ever
in
us
as
argument
of continuous
readaptation. Schellingpossessed
process
all the fervor
and
insightof the Romanticists, and all
difficult to
their egoism and
more
caprice. It is even
characterize
his philosophythan that of Spinoza.He was
theosomonist, pantheist,and evolutionist ; parallelist,
phist,and believer in freedom
; he accepted the doctrine
of the Trinity; in all this he was
the true Romanticist.
is intelligible
only in
Schelling'sphilosophy of nature
the lightof the great artistic ferment
of his time and
the expression of his strong artistic personality.His
as
his
ideal of artistic insight into nature
became
for him
idea of science. Realityis nature, and nature
is a work
of art, self composed and
self renewing. The endeavor
of Schellingwas
into
all human
existence
to fashion
prosperity,and

artistic form.
but

later he

romantic

At
was

first he looked

impressed

life
Schelling's

the basis of the

may

be

changes of

with

its

divided

his

nature

upon

as

rational,

irrationality.

into

thought :

six
"

periods on

302

HISTORY

1. Earlier
of

son

and

gen,
in

Period

the

the

(1775-1797). Schellingwas
of

chaplain
educated

was

he

held

positionof

family at Leipsic for

listened

lectures

to

medicine

and

several

ters, among

them

; and

notable
The

in 1797

led

Jena.

Schelling
of

upon

him

to

his

call

on

this

time

Leipsic
he

on

had

speculative mat

a
a

chair

the

he

time

this

Principle in Philoso
Philosophy of Nature.

as

nobleman's

twenty

was

in

with

the

Kant

doc

influences

powerful

most

were

University of

the

early acquainted

was

Leibnitz, but
at

he

university

of

University

for
to

in

During

essays

Ego

Ideas

These

trine

the

at

his

tutor

years.

physics. Before

published

phy

two

Tubin

near

After

town.

the

speculativescience

historyand

that

the

school

cloister

in

university of

education

PHILOSOPHY

OF

and, especially,

Fichte.
2.

The

Philosophy

Schellingwas

called

completed
mentation

of

what
of

Nature

he

afterwards

had

then

the

centre

spiritof

which

of the

gel. Schellingwas
his
3.

While
who

had

^Esthetic
constructed

Romantic

united

basis.

wife

this time

that

the

supple
Fichte

at
were

Jena

the

of

very

as

was

moving

August

Jena

he

Philosophy

Hegel.

Schle-

lecturer,

many.

Philosophy (1800-1801).

he

the

ideas

of Kant

and

Under

this

influence

Fichtean

"

Jena

Idealism.
the

here

was

movement,

the

of

influence

colleagueof
of

successful

very

the

with

was

friend

Caroline,

Transcendental

still at

He

(1797-1800).

Leipsic

at

Romantic

publicationsat

The

it

philosophy

helpful

was

and

begun

Fichte's

through

Fichte

(written1798).

and

and

Jena

to

Goethe, Schiller,and

Nature

of

felt

the

influence

of

Goethe

philosophyof

Schiller,
into

an

Schelling re
the
Ego on a

GERMAN

THE

4.

IDEALISTS

303

TJie

Philosophy of Identity(1801-1804). Schelundertook

to
ling now
put his recast philosophy of
Fichte
of Spinozism. This
the basis
caused
a
upon
break between
him
and Fichte and
Hegel. In 1803 he
married
Caroline, the divorced wife of August Schlegel
and

the

idol of the

accepted a

call to

Romantic

circle,and

the

same

year

the

Universityof Wurzburg, where

he remained
three years
(1803-1806).
5. The
and
God
Philosophy of Freedom
(1804became
1809). The doctrine of Schellingnow
mystical
the influence of Boehme.
and showed
In 1806 Schelling
called to the Academy of Munich.
was
6. The
Philosophy of Mythology and Revelation
be
called
well
(1809-1854). This may
Spelling's
concerned.
period of silence, so far as publicationwas
He who
had
poured forth his thoughts in print now
became
to publishinganything. He
averse
accepted the
in 1806
call to Munich
and
remained
there, excepting
his seven
at Erlangen, thirty-five
(until
years
years
much
under
the influ
1841). During this time he was
of

ence

Aristotle, neo-Platonism, and

had

first

then

he

of
the

an

official

spent

the

positionat

seven

years

as

teacher

called

ment,
the

and

to

he

Berlin

to

became

member

privilegeof lecturingat

Comparison

Philosophers.
of

Fichte

and

We

have

of

he

Fichte

the

1841

Hegelian

he

move

the

1854.

Schelling

and

already spoken

Schelling to

In

entered

Academy with
University.He was
remaining years in

of

and
he spent the
sixty-six,
elaboratinghis system. He died in

Brief

1827

the

now

University

Munich.

the

at the

in

counteract

He

of Munich

Academy

Erlangen (1820-1827); and

newly founded
University of

was

Gnostics.

the

of the

Romantic

as

relation

movement.

304

HISTORY

What
ism

is their relation
is

non-technical
of

nature

material

Ego

the

phasis upon

for

his

for the
which

insight into

human

of nature.
of

Fichte

; for

he

developed

be

regarded

could

reason

not

was

that

from
a

to

affairs blinded

saw

as

was

Nature

the

nature

be

assumption

his

unity

of

act.

him

Fiehte's
the

to

Schellingto

therefore

such

his

em

non-Ego. In
adequate philosophy
that
is only
nature
Fichte was
only the

no

gave

of

ideal

of the

expense

contribution

The

sophy

at the

reason.

stage upon

subjective because

Fichte

terms

Fiehte's

philosophers?

as

called

commonly

PHILOSOPHY

OF

meaning
the

philo

unwelcomed

by

philosophy

could

view, provided

point

of

in the

service

keen

of the

easily
nature

reason.

In

Fichte
was
brief,the development of Schelling over
science
this:
of nature
to
a
(1) Schelling added
Fiehte's
science
of mind
he
transformed
; (2) Then
Fiehte's philosophy of mind
into an
aesthetic
philoso
phy of mind ; (3) Then he tried in several successive
metaphysical ground for his
attempts to find a common
his recast
and
own
philosophy
philosophy of nature
of mind.
the method
of Schellingwas
dif
While
not
dif
ferent from
that of Fichte, his general motive
was
ferent ; for to Schelling the universe
must
not be re
Ego, but as
garded as the creation of an active moral
of its own.
for Fichte
While
to
having an existence
think
is to produce, for Schelling it is to reproduce.
To the investigatingmind
of Schellingexperience and
observation
of knowledge ; yet it must
the sources
are
be inferred
that Schelling'sphilosophy was
induc
not
tive or that he derived
the Ego from
the non-Ego, as
if the Ego had been
from
evolved
the non-Ego. These
the da}rsbefore
the modern
were
theory of evolution.
Mind

does

not

have

its

source

in

nature

on

the

con-

GERMAN

THE

trary, mind
Reason.

and

the

according to
mind

is

have

nature

have

They

IDEALISTS

305

common

parallelexistence

law.

same

Nature

in

source

is

and

the

develop

existingReason,

Reason.

thinking

Schellingstarted
with Kant's
as
early conception of nature
dynamic
that matter
exists through the interplayof the forces
of attraction
and
human
repulsion.The
organism is
the highestexpression of such dynamic activity.In the
world
there is nothing dead.
is the lowest
Matter
ex
pression of dynamic activity; the vegetable is next, the
Schilling's Philosophy

of Nature.

"

animal
of

this

is the

thing

of

play
terms,

other

Everything
but

is the

which

of rich and

Self in

two

the

poles

two

Becoming.

between

the inter
romantic

Nature

is

ascending

an

matter

of

; every

In

forces.

the

on

extremes,

itself in

forces

matter

is life movement

correlative

manifests

varied

is the consummation

are

oscillation between

nature

Such

brain

the

on

contrary

whole

human

productivity.Thus

mind

in nature.

reason

ing

and

the
of

process

hand

one

and

next,

and

liv

scale

mind.

the demands
of
consistently
this Romantic
period.* The high expectations of the
physicistsof the previous century had been unfulfilled,
for they had
in obtaining a purely me
succeeded
not
chanical
explanationof the derivation of life from mat

conception

ter.

Darwin

that

time

for

the

still to

was

been

conception of

many

and

seemed

repudiate

the

usurped
*

the
Read

place of

which

at

this

There

time

these

was

at

argument

no

the world.

discoveries

magnetism

thus

offered

progress,

tricityand
to

Medicine,

come.

showing great

mechanical

however,

met

in

had,
elec

mysterious qualities
mechanical
theory. Vitalism
mathematics.
Spinoza rather

Shelley,Love's

Philosophy.

HISTORY

306

Galileo

than
be

the

was

conceived

as

PHILOSOPHY

OF

model

of

which

unity in

Nature

time.

the

Divine

the

must

manifests

itself in its fullness.

All

these

influences

He

sophical undertaking.
Goethe
in

states

poetically.Nature

states

It

measurement.

is

be

to

life, not

and

of his time

with

the

need

of

same

into

cosmic

Goethe

of

need

colors

not

morphology
the

same

mathematics

"

of Colors

atomic

as

filled

purposeful meaning.

Theory

"

he

felt

than

nature

rational

this in his

shows
upon

of

He

natural

the mani

gaps

used

when

regard
of

speciesas

one

speciesin

in each
the

as

ture

only

derived

from

sure

preliminary stage

to

the

expression. One

impeded

the

settled
a

fit of

modern

safelybe

it may

the

rational

said

the

question,and
as

well

as

back

was

not

thought

; but

he

saw

and

next,

of

all
na

this Romantic

on

sentiment

of serious

that

as

in time.

excessive

work

He

did

accomplishment

century looked

merely

he

another.
be

nineteenth
as

and

sense,

ascending scale,to

the

divine

science

need

an

modern

merely precedes another

The

not

in the

evolutionist

an

he

but

movements,

something essentiallyqualitative.Schelling,too,
not

its

has

of forces

were

The

as

Nature

goal.

another

one

Goethe.

as

purpose

the

"

only

the connection

purpose.

deeper meaning

give

looks

its

as

teleological
conceptions.He

in with

can

how

show

to

of divine

transcends

Everything
place. Schellingused the

their transformation

festation

It

mechanism.

determined
logically
science

described

understood

truly
life

be

to

rule.

by

productivity having organic

rational

is not

measured

quantities nor

is

first philo
Schelling's
philosophicallywhat

in

appear

has

investigation.Yet

nineteenth
that

that

nature

mechanical

century has
will

always

explanation.

308

of

sense

that

as

HISTORY

OF

of will.

It does

belongs to

PHILOSOPHY

phenomena,

sense

accompanies morality. Sense

of the

will become

by

Schiller

of

man

which

the

offered

art, while

religion.Art

refines

the

will, and
will

moral
of

makes

is not

the

the

called

education
had

pre
the

feelings,tempers
for

moral
is not

art

Yet

will.

only

the

Complete life
the conflict
between
when
comes
morality and sense
disappears in artistic feeling. Only as man
plays is
he truly man."
for
The ideal that Schiller formulated
means

education, but

end

stirrings

Kant

for the

room

that

was

appears

thus

sensuous

the

Toward

play impulse."

"

Schiller

sented

the

the

need

of earnestness

nor

is obliterated

That

silent.

qualityof

the

have

not

goal

well.

as

"

this

Romantic

soul of

the
when
soul

stands

sense
"

does

nobled

by

Schiller

for

this

practice and

in

"

stand

trasted

ing

to

with

himself

and

is

play

was
seen

preacher
trine.

in his works.
its extreme

The

culminated.
the

"

in

would
itself. He

imagination

Schlegel'sLucinde.

tried

to

preserve

the

who

Kant's

to

this ideal

The

Roman

both

in their

and

they

in them
con

lives accord

live out

his

substituted

for Fichte's

en

humanism

Romanticist
"

Philistine

frequently very wayward

in

aesthetic

is

literaryproductions. Thus

valuable

of the

its nature

impersonated

Romanticist

The

rules.

exists

beautiful

"

aristocracyof culture, and

an

geniality

individualityas
endless

their

for

law

in antithesis

conception to

"

ethical

time

his

represented it

ticists carried

to

This

rigorism. Goethe

in his life and

came

because

inclination.

own

expresses

Fichte's

and

conflict

in

While

moral
rigoristic

oppositionto duty, the

know

not

its

in

Seele."

schone

"

Kantian

the

man

the

was

age

moral

own

the

law,

capricious.This

Schleiermacher

purity of Schiller's

the
doc

GERMAN

THE

In

his construction

IDEALISTS

of

his

He

ism.

in what

reason

looked

Schiller's

theoretical

the

and

and

as

from
or
Theoretically,
understanding, consciousness
from
conscious ; practically,
or

will, the
The

unconscious

reflector

is not

merely passive. He

But

active

the

neither

events,

the

nor

product

being.

series

of nature

In

nor

either

active.

of his

view

by

point of
of

of
the

be
the
the
un

of the

view

consciousness.

The

as

of

transforms

morality.
transformed

events

complete. Neither

as

moral

he

is neither

by

as

the

passive

perfected
perpetually feels the
wholly passive nor

will is

man

antagonism

na

passively apprehended

of

condition

contradiction, since

wholly

events

series

will, is ever

moral

of

is determined

re-shapesand

freedom

the

through

that

as

of
activity

point

the

between

in the
they occur
produces them. Thinking man

nature

as

"

the

creation

is the

re-presenter of

world

nature

ture

world.
or

same

the

willing Self re-shapesthe products of

For
a
thinking being is not merely a

practicalor

the nature

the

'the conscious

Self.

of

Ideal

antithesis

Fichtean

practicalreason

the unconscious

tween

theory

Transcendental

he called

upon

mind

philosophy of

own

Schellingadopted completely
aesthetic

309

between

man

will and

sense

Ego,
when
he transcends
both
will and
both morality
sense,
and
science, in the conscious-unconscious
activityof
artistic genius. This is the highest synthesis.In Schelthe philosophy of
at Jena
on
ling'slectures delivered
is

ever

present. Man

art, after he

had

realizes

written

his

the

fullness

Transcendental

of

his

Idealism,

developed and applied this theoryand it determined

the subsequent development of aesthetics in the Jena
circle. Kant
had
previously defined genius as intellect
defined it as playthat works
like nature
; Schiller had
he

HISTORY

310

ing ; Schellinglooked
climax

of

the

is the

The

it

upon

philosophy of

is the instrument
reason

PHILOSOPHY

OF

by

Transcendental

the

In the next

in 1800.

Idealism

published his System of Identityin

some

For

view.
ive

Ego

for

ground

common

Nature

Mind

and

is not

his

the

sees

than

other

object

ject and

as

is also

question

Yes,

but

all contradictions.
unconditioned

that
ence

Schellingcould
;

for other
to

attempt
shows

the

give

construct

influence

of

Spinoza's substance,

indifferent

to

both

mined

in its content.

"

mental

the

It

basis

beyond
the

of these

suitable

most

Identityor
imply conditions.

name

Indiffer
In

this

Idealism, Schelling

realitythat

and

was

this

reason

turning

made

is

to

Hegel

us

absolutely

phenomena,

nature

It is absolute

that
part of Schelling,

call his

exist?

Spinoza. Identity reminds

yet is the realityof both.

him

is the

absolute

an

and

it

reality.

Self

was

would

names

ob

Sub

Self.

highest condition,

what

it

is also

in

one

of existence

antithetical aspects of life ? The

two

on

are

absolute

the

But

object

reflection

deeper

own

It is itself the

condition.

limited

subsequent

nature,

conditions

the

finding

perceivesthe

Self

its

is, Does

then

outside

of

of

hope

he

year

absolute, but

not

in

and

object,mind

The

of

form

the

absolute, but is

and
itself,

his

preceding points of

two

The
limited, although subjective.

ject as

aims.

reason

Schelling published

Identity.

of

logic,

not

develops. Artistic

reason

which

the

and

reason

Art, and

mind.

the

toward

goal

System

which

aesthetic

as

and

undeter

Spinozism
break

with

Identity the night,in which all cows

black."
much
under
the
are
came
so
Schelling even
of Spinoza as
influence
to imitate
Spinoza's form of
presentationin the Ethics. But Schellingregarded the
worlds not after the manner
of
objectiveand subjective
and

"

THE

IDEALISTS

GERMAN

311

Spinoza as independentof each other. On the contrary

he looked
both
ideal and
as
upon
every phenomenon
real, and as having its logicalplaceaccording to the de
in which

gree
ences

the

what

are

elements

two

constitute

combined.

are

phenomena

Absolute

the

Differ
is

the Indifferent.

Schellingillustrates this by the magnet,

is itself an indifference
which
of oppositepoles of vary
ing intensity.
In the nature
series the objective
factor predominates,
and
in the mental
series the subjectivefactor. The uni
is the most
verse
perfect work of art, the most perfect
organism, and the best expression of God.
Schilling'sReligious Philosophy. Romanticism
turn
religious

tury under

the

tive of this

below

but

by
religion,

beginning
of

influence

movement

feeling lies
in

the

at

which

the

be

can

is meant

not

The

that

thought

Reason

relation

aesthetic

eighteenth cen

Schleiermacher.1

was

art.

of the

took

mo

religious

completed only

dogma,

morality,

nor

the

world-ground,a pious
feelingof absolute dependence. It is the feelingof be
Schleiermacher
ing permeated by the Absolute.
taught
in the true Romantic
spiritthat religionis an individ
is different
from
ual matter
church
and
organization.
in this time of quicklypassing shades
of imagin
Thus
Schleier
and
ative thought Schiller idealized Greece
Middle
macher
the
to
Ages. Susceptibleas he was
of his time, Schellingembodied
this teach
every idea
in his later teaching. With
the
ing of Schleiermacher
other
he expected that the concept of reRomanticists
1

an

F. E. D.

Schleiermacher,

stitutions

and

Charit^

in 1802

nary

at Halle

in Berlin

at

the

b. 1768

University

court

in 1809

University.

to

of Halle

preacher
preacher

in 1796

Stolpe ;

at
at

educated

church

in

the

Herrnhuten

preacher

in 1804
in Berlin

at

the

in
Berlin

professor extraordi
;

in 1810

professor

312

HISTORY

ligionwould

furnish

the

Schellingnow

of Ideas

doctrine

intermediaries

his

hands

tional.

the

his rival

of

many

control

But

years.

of

being called by

and

this
and

to

the

the

and

divided

the

the

Herbart

(2)
which

and

have

we

ethical

and
at

the

the

cause

men

are

the

irra

in his old

the official

as

We

into

two

groups

Romanticists, and
In

our

this

have

first group,

Fichte

eye,

Romantic

called

ethical
to

is the

nature-lover,

ideal

fightfor

conviction's

Schelling points to the beauty of nature's

ductivityas a realitythat lies hidden in mystery.
these theories show
profound insightinto life and
are
expressiveof the period in its attitude towrard
the

is the

type of

the

Puritan

type of the sentimentalist.

point of

view

of the

Idealism

Yet
of

con

unrealized,

sake.

Fichte

Hegel;

systematizer.Fichte's
an

age

doctrine.

present under

intellectual

under

Schellingsaw
thought for

to Berlin

Schopenhauer.

ception of Reality is always

in whose

and

Kant

exhorter, Schelling the

Hegel

of

of Idealism.

philosophers after

(1) Fichte, Schellingand

satisfaction

Culmination

as

eclipsedby Hegel

academic

authorities

and

grew

theory

Munich

German

Himself,

doctrine

spokesman against the Hegelian

Hegel

Indiffer

Schellingpassed

Schellingwas

had

he

of

Later

world.

theosophy

influence

in

intuitions

change,

Schellingretired

after

of

with

into

The

God's

as

another

through

the Absolute

Him
as
Infinity,and he conceived
and potencies.In the development of
the neo-Platonic
thought he introduced

line of

new

harmony,

of all.

welfare

eternal

inner

an

of all

or

possessingmodes
this

in

longer called

no

God

but

ence,

for the solution

all antitheses

about

bring

final basis

problems, overcome
and

PHILOSOPHY

OF

pro
Both
both
life.

idealist; Schelling
both,
the

even

from

period,were

the

par-

GERMAN

THE

tial

expressions.Idealism

like all social movements

stop until it had

not

formulation.
The

This

social

gathering

forces

all

culminated

was

of

found
the

under

its

run

in

full and

in the

pletion in

the

died

in

1831,

which
its

philosophyof Hegel.

the

naturally

leadershipof

the

side

observer

of

his intellectual

Napoleon,was
of

the

currents

of

had

been
to

came

this

the

move

greatest of
in 1815

it reached

philosophicalsystem

litical kingdom

systematic

politicalside

its intellectual

and

It would

eighteenth century

On

; and

course.

politicalidealists,
Napoleon Bonaparte,
On

much

must

313

social movement

culminated

climax.

Waterloo.

But

was

momentum,

magnificent
ment

IDEALISTS

its

at
com

Hegel. Hegel

kingdom,

like the

po

immediately shattered.
of

historywill

find

in the
stubborn
significance
persistence of the
intellectual phase of the Idealistic movement
long after
its political
dominance
had
Hegel ruled the in
gone.
of Germany
from
for sixteen
tellectual world
Berlin
years after the battle of Waterloo, and his philosophy
was
officially
recognizedby the Berlin authorities. This
stubbornness
of the realm
of ideas can
be exemplified
than
one
politi
throughout history,for it requiresmore
cal earthquake to demolish
intellectual
a
well-organized
theory.
scattered
the
be said to have
drawn
Hegel may
threads
of the preceding idealists into a system. Like
them, he firmly grounded his philosophy on the Kant
ian epistemology.Like
them
also, he sought to find
of the conscious
absolute
Ego. This
realityby means
Fichte's
that all three were
idealists. But
only means
It
conception of the Ego was
only partiallyformed.
could
absolute
since it needed
to be
not be an
reality,
confronted
by a non-Ego in order to assert itself and

HISTORY

314

live.
was

Hegel

in

were

essence

to

him

both

Reason.

The

Reason

that

see

action, purpose,

either

than

itself. To

consciousness

Ego

discerningenough

was

fundamental

more

PHILOSOPHY

OF

Ego

the

Ego

and

could

the
not

or
non-

know

non-Ego unless the Ego was in

the
To distinguishthe Ego from
the beginning rational.
ground of similarityupon
non-Ego, there must be some
for this ground
In his search
which
both
based.
are
Hegel at first allied himself with Schelling.The bril
liancyof Schelling's
thought dazzled him. Then he saw
universal
the abstract
that Schellingonly led back
to
of Spinoza.A mystical "black
night Identitywas not
It merely
did it explain anything actual.
actual nor
This is too
said that the Absolutely Real is unknowable.
easy a solution of the complexity of life. Having neither
explain the actual
meaning nor
actuality,it cannot
and meaningful things. The
concrete
Absolutely Real
that

created

it had

the

"

be

must

tory has

been

the

Absolutely Real
Reason.

With

Schellingthe
as

Hegel

Why
Kant.
the

There

Reason
must

Fichte
esthetic

had

the

"

were

more

also

deed

travail.

act

"

it must

His
The
be

primacy, with
Hegel the Reason
had

concepts.

to-day
Kant

concrete.

history and

feeling,with

several

be

its toil and

include

remains

representativeof
1. He

in

series of

articulated

an

it must

universal, but

reasons
:

the

Representative of
why Hegel remains

"

learning and

abilitythan

the other

post-Kantians.
2. His
own
an
interpretationwas
interpretationof
facts. By the other post-Kantians things are
not
repre
sented as they are, but as they have been
transformed.
a
Hegel, however, was
respecter of things as they are.
satirist ;
He was
a
Hegel was possessedof no sentiment.

HISTORY

316

OF

PHILOSOPHY

entirelyacademic,
in many
but unlike Kant's, his experiencewas
university
circles
Tubingen, Jena, Heidelberg, and Berlin. His
thirteen
at Berlin
remarkable, not only for
were
years
in
but
for his influence
his philosophicaldominance,
societyand court. The official recognition of his phi
authorities
detriment
a
was
losophy by the Berlin
in the end ; for immediately after his death, in 1831,
Fichte
it lost its influence.
at
Hegel had succeeded
Berlin, and by the irony of fate, Schelling,
already an
called by the Berlin
authorities
old man
in Vienna, was
to combat
Hegel's followers, after
Hegel's influence.
his death, became
their
engaged in angry disputesover
of their master's
philosophy. His philo
interpretations
intellectual
The
attacked
world
sophy was
by Herbart.
him
turned
from
and the
to empirical discoveries
away
In twenty years
doctrine
of evolution.
Hegel's influ
and
is scarcely
ence
was
to-day his name
insignificant,
of a German
mentioned
in the lecture room
university.
His influence is,however, growing and powerful in Eng
opposition.Like

Kant's, his

life

was

"

land

and

even

in

of

the

United

Germany

no

States.
one

has

Still it must
so

dominated

be

said

the direction

jurisprudence,sociology,theology,aesthetics,and

tory (a science

which

Hegel

that

his

himself

created).Hegel's
of dis
erudition, his abilityto systematize,his power
sufficient to
crimination, are
explain such influence.
that
his philosophy gives, lies less
The
illumination
in his metaphysical theory than
in his applicationof it
tradition.
He won
to history and
adherents, not by his
abstruse
understand, but by
arguments that so few can
illustration ; not by his demonstration
of the Absolute,
but by showing how
that Absolute
is what
the religious
devotee

seeks, what

the

moralist

presupposes

and

the

GERMAN

THE

historian

recognizes. In

detail

arbitrarilyfitted

he

ciallyin

the

ent.

He

carrying

facts

the realm
dealt

are

of

with,

his

theory

in

his

theory,espe
the historyof philo
pure thought,where

this

successful,for example,

was

317

out

his facts to

philosophy of nature,

sophy, and history. In

conceptual

IDEALISTS

is not

so

in

science

the

appar

of

aesthetics.

and his technicalities

Hegel'sliterarystyleis difficult,
almost
barbarous.
He uses
are
philosophicaland com
with meanings to suit himself.
He
terms
loves
mon
paradoxical phrases,and is pedantic in his insistence on
systematic arrangement.
1. Formative
Period
(1770-1796). Hegel was born
in the years
at Stuttgart in 1770, and
between
1788
and 1793
he studied
philosophy,theology,and the class
ics in the Universityof Tubingen. Among
his compan
ions there were
From
1793
Schellingand Holderlin.
to
a

1796
further
2.

he

was

study

tutor

in

Switzerland, where

he

made

of Kant.

Formulation

Philosophy (1796-1806).
his philosophy for the first time in
Hegel formulated
the four years
(1796-1800) of his life at Frankfort,
where
he was
acting in the capacity of tutor. In 1801
he became
privat-docentat Jena through Schelling's
recommendation.
He edited a philosophical
journalwith
friends
so
Schelling,and the two were
long as Hegel
found
assistance
of value to himself.
When,
Schelling's
in 1803, Schelling left Jena, Hegel began to criticize
his former
friend's philosophy. Hegel was
appointed
professor of philosophy at Jena in 1805.
3. Development of his Philosophy (1806-1831).
1806.
He wrote
the Phanomenologie, which
was
pub
lished

in 1807.

of

his

HISTORY

318

1807.
of

The

PHILOSOPHY

OF

Jena, and

Hegel

after

discontinued

universitywas

to edit

Bamberg

to

went

the

battle

news

paper.

1807-1815.

Hegel
and

gymnasium,

Nuremberg

was

at

in

1811,

the

at

teacher

as

age

of

in its

forty-one,he

married.
He

1812-1813.

publishedhis Logic.
1816-1817.
He was
professorof philosophy at Heidel
con
berg. He published his Encyclopaedia,which
sists of three parts : Logic, Philosophy of Nature, and
This was
enlarged in 1827.
Philosophy of Mind.
he met
1818.
Fichte at Berlin, where
Hegel succeeded
with

marked

wide

influence.

When

losophicaltheory
thirteen

At

the

Realism,
amiss

at

sion.

Moreover

height of
point to

of which

the

it is

expression of

exercised

very

to Berlin

his

phi

already formulated,

and

his

came

and
spent in illustrating

were

his

"

fame, he died

and

three

Realism

and

Hegel

the

was

of

forty-oneyears
world-wide

which

of cholera.

It will

Idealism.

contrast

Idealistic Period

fined within

he

history.

thought,

The

was

Mysticism,

this

of human

Idealism

in

where

Hegel

Berlin

at

years

verifying it
1831.

and

success,

of the

with

consummate

movement,

is restricted

to the

the

expres

European thought
1790

be

great types

Mysticism

between

not

and

is

con

1831.

philosophical
German
people.

the

of
Mysticism and Realism
represent the civilizations
longer periods and of many
peoples. Mysticism is, for
example, the attitude of mind
frequently found in the
Middle
Ages in Europe, and may be roughly said to be
the philosophy of the Oriental
a
peoples. Spinoza was
belated
mystic and its best European exponent ; and
againstthe revival of Spinoza'sMysticism during this

GERMAN

THE

period Hegel
been

as

it

Modern

whole,

Greek

represents

been

to

confined

it is
in

of human

quite impossible to
than

more

crude

these

contrast

From

that

be

can

being

"

very
;

within

the

and

that

realityis
for nature

immediate

intuition

soul

and
of

is within

the

of

with
as

the

that

love

the

for

soul

has

chologicalprocess
beauty.

Both

object,and
sory.

Now

love

as

result

in the

Realism

God

is

only

and

is
the

in the

is

found

be
the

the

immediate

absorptionof
is

the
over

the

all else
more

Real
pro

frequentlyallied

apparently the

of either

unre

reality,

one

by

never

apparently is

theory that

"world

illusion.

an

the artistic ecstasy

presence
is

with

of God

of art

work
of

contrasted

Mysticism

less

realityis

of

is to

knowledge

vague

the

in the

mystic

all else is

is

definite,besides

very

There

soul

direct

; the

be

sense.

reflection.
logical

aesthetics

the

very

none

mystic'sworld

to

is to

the world

ity is gained by
cess

objectsare

God

it is

for him

usuallysought

not

transitory.The

therefore

within

alityof

thing,although
a

of nature

the

briefly

immediately

mystic'srealityis a

Such

Real

mystic'spoint of

the

which

theories

always undetermined,
real.

on

discourse,"

since

abstract

so,

of

years

apprehended. However,
and

an

to

contrast

itself to extended

way.

realityis

view, absolute

as

reflection.

philosophy lends

"

followed

Realism, and

on

all

at

historyand has
limited civilization,
yet for profund
the meaning of life Idealism
is the

ity of insight into

consummation

few

has

of dominance

civilization. In

ism, Idealism

Since

fate that Realism

science is based

was

Realism

all civilizations

in

Hegel's long period

directlyupon
idealist.

irony of

the

was

319

his stand.

idealist took

an

popular philosophy

times, and

the

IDEALISTS

same

intuition
same
a

psy

thing

soul
seems

of

in its
illu

easilydefined

HISTORY

320

PHILOSOPHY

OF

Mysticism. It is simply the conception of many

and of the thinking
realities independent of one
another
of independent
mind.
Reality is not one, it is a plurality
are
things,all of which
independent of the thinking
than

Such

process.

ism,

reflection
is

This
Let

of their

proof
number

the

"

"

by

series,which,

reaches

Let

processes
that
an

only

2."
of

The
and

certainlythe
scientific
to the

realm

however

definite

and
of

the
the

we

know

Realist

can

is

goal of

real, and
that

it is

never

scientific

On

would
the

the

say
"

is

series

is

"

quite definite

and

least exact

and

It is at

attainable.

extended,

Realist

admits

do.

represent the definite

The

nature.

incomplete,but

best

of

matter

^-+ | + ^...2.
realityor meaning

far

series itself

increasingseries

unknowable.

fragmentary

the

phenomenal

the

definite

series l

the

represent the

of the infinite
"

reality.

be illustrated

can

is

them

in Ideal

As

against Mysticism, such

but

undefined.

not

are

of

knowledge

our

ledge

realities

knowledge belongs
the

other

hand

the

that, since exact

Mystic maintains
knowledge attains
only the changing and phenomenal, exact knowledge is
attain the real by effort and
cannot
we
illusory.When
sense
knowledge, why waste our time in seeking to do
in one's self. To
? Realityis right at hand
the
so
Mystic the infinite series of fractions is unreal, because
it is and always will be incomplete.The
2
ideal
can
be got by direct and
intuitive
knowledge. Thus to the
Realist the infinite series is real and the goal
2
is
the
2
is real and
unreal, while to the Mystic the
fractions of experience are
unreal.
that neither Realism
Hegel felt profoundlyconvinced
with its definite realities nor
Mysticism with its unde
fined goal was
an
adequate explanationof the world and
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

GERMAN

THE

life. The

incomplete,nor
be

must

both

leading to

must

2."

truly and

the

on

and

the

it

hand

one

it be

must

"

"

definite,but

not

other

number

the

"

the

on

must

321

be

only

not

all-inclusive. It

also be

must

be

truly real

IDEALISTS

It

vague.

infinite series

absolutelyreal

be

must

explanationof everything that happens,

joy,evil,
and
change. In
necessityin nature, every least event
of Hegel the solutions
of the
the lightof the idealism
to fade in importance,and
Mystic and the Realist seem
in significance
and
the problem of life seems
to grow
meaning.
the

"

Fundamental

The

In contrast
the

with

formulate

Mysticism

of

doctrine

Fichte

terms

and

nations

whole

There

be

was

(1)

conscious
is

sciousness

To

as

of contradictions.
not

We

consistency as

principleof

life. In

in

In what

as

coordi

his

conceived

in

clear

has

that

the

Kant's

only

mean

we

be

con

by

con

(2)

essentiallya

accept contradiction

and

and
our

real

of

characteristic

fundamental

science

studied

followed

has

who

must

which

is unique in this.

must

the

who

one

is what

consciousness

whole

be

must

The

unities.

conscious

to

absolute.

any

synthesis.This

sciousness,and
world

conceived

world

of psychology, or
principles
epistemologicalanalysis,it is
are

would

principlesupon

the

unities

tried

variety,of

and

still be

The,

consciousness.

that

with

as

organic whole.

an

fundamental

well

as

single
still be many
? Hegel
and
one
his problem. The
truly abso

unity, and

rests

of

terms

this

two

are

doctrine

universe

of richness

it be

can

clearlythat

lute must

the

contradictions, be

How

Realism,

Idealism.

Schelling,Hegel

yet be

this world

can

and

and

conception of

everything and

clude

saw

Principles of Hegel's

The

world
and

explanatory

ordinaryhuman

322

HISTORY

problems we

try

This

ent.

is

tions

useful,but

in

omit

doing

everything

its

has

do

not

and

processes

of

get

full

life's nega
and

inconsistencies

not

opposite;

the

observe

to

do

we

so

incongruitiesexist

negations and

logicallyconsist

are

calculations

in such

incongruities.But

and

pains

get results that

to

explanation. We

PHILOSOPHY

OF

They certainlydo

if

will

we

thought, we

take

the

shall

find

do
thought is fundamentally inconsistent. Why
we
usuallyregard thought as a self-consistent process ?
In formal
methods
of formal logicare
such.
Because
our
smoothly and consistentlyfrom the pre
logicwe reason
conclusion.
If we
look
mises
to the
more
deeply into
shall find that such
thought, we
consistency is made
to the
possibleby ignoring the inconsistencies
necessary
question therefore is not,
very being of thought. The
that

Can

the

What
Let

cosmic

whole

is the law

of

consider

us

that

Cosmic

Unity.
is

thought

longs to

develops

consequences

demands

that
to

correct

goes

that

say

Thought is
jectsthem.
limitations

within

us.

process

Thought

the

Hegelian

shall

think, but

we

Thought
which

transform

is
is the

old

the

on

truth

Thought be
Thought
yet it controls our nature.
without
regard to the will and

human

of

Hegel
us

insists

conceives

minds.

He

It is

solved.

be

rather

is the

embraces

us.

that

life
all

would

of

not

thinking
the

world.

things and

Hegel emancipates thought

objectiveand
Thus

Hegel

contradictions

within

on

of
principles

two

within
self-operating

nature,

our

its inconsistencies

these

but

consistent?

as

in detail.

philosophymore
The

conceived

be

from
make

all

pro
the

thought

realityinto thought.
that this self -operatingthought

the
essentially

great cosmic

reality of
undercurrent

the

universe.

that includes

HISTORY

324

Mind

ment.

is behind
cosmic
the

and

matter

them, but
is

reason

principleof

PHILOSOPHY

OF

not

are

the

are

aspects of
of

modes

that

successivelymind

and

mind

In

and

which
reality
reality.The

matter,

and

not

Schellingthings
proceed from the absolute. In Hegel they are the abso
lute.
The absolute
does not exceed
things,but is wholly
in them
their organic unity. Everything is under
as
the conceptual labor of thought. The
important thing
is to refer all our
complex states to the unifying cosmic
illuminatingidea. Absolute reason
concept and have one
is absolute movement
the perpetual movement
of life.
nature.

"

Yet

this absolute

reason

change according to
law
as

and

goal.

its end

its

the

purpose

what

the

as

The

the

"

likes

our

dislikes

and

is the

cosmos

that

reason

law

of

refuses
is its

"

and

reason

of

philosophy,according
should

world

be, but

to

to

own

has

It is not

unfolding self-consciousness.

own

to

Hegel,

recognizeits

to tell
nature

rational.

We

must, therefore, be careful

conception of
tion of Him

the

unity of

God

to

from

Hegel's
distinguish
that

other

concep

single,and isolated unity.

quantitative,
An
isolated and
imply the exist-,
single Being would
individual
of other isolated Beings. Such
would
ence
an
be limited
In
them.
by others and dependent upon
technical
with
one's self impliesdiffer
terms
sameness
from
A good example of the conception of
others.
ence
be found
in modern
isolated God
an
can
theology ; such
God
is a unity, but
is only the
He
a
greatest of the
several

as

in the

powers

absolute, for the One

there

Wahre
But

is.

Limitation

ist das

Hegel

universe.
be

to

Such

absolute

an

is not

One

must

implies something

be

all

else.

an

that
Das

Ganze.

does

not

mean

by

the

Oneness

of God

an

GERMAN

THE

aggregation of parts,
big, is

ever

he

325

and

system

mean

aggregation

complete

never

is. An

there

does

nor

parts. An

of

arrangement

IDEALISTS

of

parts, how

include

cannot

if it includes

aggregation,even

all that
the

past

temporal series
points to something else to give it meaning ; and yet
Realitymust not stand outside any part of the temporal
series. The Absolute
Reality must include the temporal
series,and yet the temporal series is not in itself Real
that Realityis a system
ity.Neither does Hegel mean
or
societyof individuals,whose knowledge and will im
ply one another ; for such an organizationof individuals
it.
also has its meaning in something below
The Absolute
Realityis a spiritualindividual. It is
is self-moving,subject
a unifyingconsciousness, which
and

the

present, is

ive, and
is

active.

not

It is the Idea
in

completely self-identical

be

abstract

lute must

in

modern

absolute
an

and
and

like

actual.

Nor

times

dialectic

for

its otherness."

Haeckel

these, too,

encloses

"

One

Whose

nature

Where

all

Absolute

is its

of

the

Abso

in its

abstract

through

itself."

it

the

Reality is

self-discovery
movement;

own

art, religion,and
the Earth

Unbound,

Soul
own

things flow

cannot

only

is,as Shelleymakes

Prometheus

harmonious

panorama

the

Absolute

in

It

conceived

alone

its

itself and

by Reality

are

all within

is revealed

movement

for

has

personalitywhich

Spiritengaged
of
self-appropriation
by means
this

thinks

that

Cosmic

Absolute

philosophy.The
in
picture man

The

The

Spinoza'sGod,
does Hegel mean

vitality,as

or

It is pure

"

terms.

thought
be

life

merely

of

"

Absolute.

or

of many
a
soul,
divine control,

to

all,as

rivers

to

the

sea."

progressiveknowledge
appeariug under successivelymore

history is

the

HISTORY

326

forms.

adequate
larging

relations.

relations

in

reasoned

not

to be

to

in

conceived

It is cosmic

as

consciousness

Being regarded as
development.
Cosmic

the

is fundamental

which

reason

of consciousness

cess

but

evolution

an

cal evolution

growth

It does

not

restricts

of

view

or

like

the

infinite

the

subject to
is

cosmic

law

The

of

pro

evolution,

an

unfolding.Ordinarilybiologi

an

take

in

of the fact

account

universal

series

as

under

particulartype

the destruction

development

upon

unity is

destruction, action

and

significant.

more

unfolding. It

an

means

nature

is the

self-conscious

in consciousness.

not

type

one

be

itself to the

It does

construction
It looks

is

that is

consideration.
the

cosmic

it must

syntheticconsciousness,

but

is

and includingall
individuality

an

If

Law.

become

in

Absolute

terms,

individual

an

en

Absolute

is the

The

himself.

anthropomorphic

It is

The

of

ever

Absolute

is the

Philosophy

apprehension

in

Absolute

Religion

man.

world-process realized
ness.

is the

Morality

social

personal

PHILOSOPHY

OF

way
and

that

of another.
and

consider

reaction, equal.

along a tangent

process

But

of numbers.

destruc

the

must
tions, the defeats,the reciprocalretrogressions,

accounted
tion

for

is not

circle.

The

includes

in

therefore

is not

Absolute

contradictions

advance, but

upward

an

therefore

in

interpreted in quantitativebut
everything in
coming

to

Reality is

the

as

consciousness.

unfolding of

the

ing.
Such

Its

the
a

same

at

is

appears

any

The

is to

consciousness

meaning

clearness

Absolute

evolution

and

Evolu

consciousness.

trulyAbsolute

consistency,but
cannot

truly be

only way
of

the

itself. The

in the

clearer
clearness

to

Absolute
Absolute
or

itself

with

as

to include

temporal beginning

becoming

closed

qualitativeterms,

think

of

be

which

end
alone.

the

which
categories
related.

come

stand

these

IDEALISTS

GERMAN

THE

the forms

are

The

forms

task

of

327

consciousness

of any

philosophy is

togetheror seriatim,

unitary development. They are the

development of Spirit,God, the Idea, or
of

What
the
as

is this law
the

are

cosmic

well

as

categoriesof

organism

take

consciousness

of life ? The

fundamental

three

to

be

In

two.

of

words

they

Negativity.It

is

are

The

Return-to-itself.

tradiction,and
Law

other

three

can

necessary
the

denied,"

cos

be

"to

Synthe

the

Assertion, Con

cosmic

dialectic

contradictions

transcended,"-" Thesis, its Antithesis,and

sis of the

? How

conceptions of

be,"

to

"

are

development

the

of

the

in

Absolute.

the

Ego

cosmic

the

account

the consistencies

categoriesor
mic

spiritualcircular

of

moments

as

links

What

to under

not

but

be

law

is the
in

process

the

meeting, of the
equalityof action and reaction. In Hegel's hands con
the very principleof cosmic harmony.
tradiction
becomes
It is the struggleof thought to comprehend itself by
contradictoryand created experiencesfor
using its own
is the arising
such comprehension.
The phenomenon
but
itself does
and passing away
which
not
pass away,
and reality
exists in itself. It constitutes the movement
of

union

contradictories,of

extremes

"

of the life of truth."

this
you

Assume

the truth

will find

contradiction
its assertion
assertion
the

The

it in
or

and

some

tory appears

of human

in the

it and

Examine

doctrine.

detail

assertingnot only its own

also the

The

its contradiction.

consciousness

the

truth

between

lies in the

opposites.The
same.
Any stage

two

is the

conscious

relation

assurance

of

the

law

of

of his

truth

But
which
principles
historyis founded.
upon
such assertion by any epoch arouses
opposition; and

the

is

consciousness

of any

opposite,but

that transcends

cosmic

law

of
any

the

HISTORY

328

next

stage

PHILOSOPHY

OF

in historical

principlesthat synthesizethe
and

epoch
ness

drives

then

to

the

deeper apprehension

tion, until it finds

Idea

that

"

modern

thought
of

power

diction.

rest

in the

Absolute

Perhaps

tion.

its

oppose

his

was

negation

and

most

of itself in

Spiritualadvance

notable

and
asser

of the Absolute

contradic

contribution
the

upon

to

tremendous

stimulatingforce
is made

conscious

higher

is continuous

emphasis
the

of

previous

self-assertions

own

knowledge

Truth

Hegel's

law

it. The

of

assertion
the

of

assertion

oppositionto

historyto

is the

development

in contra

through opposition.

Formulating his
of his literary
theory in 1800, Hegel spent the most
in exemplifying it. The
career
Ph'dnomenologie (1807)
is an
attempt to show the natural historyof thought in
experience. He shows there the series of stages through
the mind
which
stages corresponding to logic,
passes,
the
to society.In
to the growth of the individual, and
of his

Hegel's Application

Theory.

"

dialectic
an

external

way

until

is evolved

reason

external
then
into

consciousness

movement,

as

consciousness

it becomes
a

synthesis
and

views

of

the

two

back

in

; then

e.

of

Reason

self-consciousness.

ethical,religious,
and, lastly,
an

upon

absolute

itself
reason.

Logic (1812) as an applicationof his

theory to thought
regarding thought as consistingof
his Encyclopaedia(1816),
general concepts. Then came
and
containing his Philosophy of Nature
Philosophy
In his Philosophy of Nature, nature
is re
of Mind.
dialectic as logic,but in
garded as revealing the same
the external
world.
Nature, therefore, stands to logic
its antithesis.
The Philosophy of Mind
as
places mind
the
the synthesisof logic and nature, and elaborates
as
Hegel

wrote

his

world

self-conscious

develops by continuallyturning
an

the

"

GERMAN

THE

subject
the

two,
is

Logic
Nature

tory

in

same

both

forms.

The
to

comes

and

Idea

forms,
ness,

and

Spirit

and

Idea

Absolute
itself:

in

(1)

(2)

in

nature

Logic

Nature

organism

art,

by

a?i-und-fur-sich.

content

is

is

always

(3)

in

Spirit

the

spirit

in
with

logical
itself

Essence,
individual

through

conscious

morality,

social

is

Spirit

Logic

fur-sic

the

matter,

right,

philosophy.

his

always

Being,

through

of

and

differentiation

reason,

religion,
is

Logic

through

the

of

Philosophy

Spirit.

The

of

synthesis

dialectic

the

development

the

the

the
to

of

parallel.

self-consciousness,

morality,
an-sich;

Philosophy

the

therefore

are

applied

and

repeated

and

Thus

mind.

Absolute

or

329

and

mind,

objective

mind,

as

IDEALISTS

mind

the

is

the

XII

CHAPTER

THE

PHILOSOPHY

Herbart
of

of

critical

Fichte, Schelling, and

Hegel.

Kantian

of

however,

that

lines

of

classifyall
this

bart

its

these

later

were

surprised

had

second

allied

(1)

of

group

in

their

idealist movement.

the

middle

the

reaction

of

for

more

the
the

ideals

certain

feeling
its due

Some

forced

the

of
at

by

second

not

the

of

the
the

get the

time

hands
had

quarter of

the

were

the

opposition

to

the

their

and

principal

both

both

lived

to

represent

They speak

century

than

for

They represented
Kant's

remained

positivescience

for

They

idealism.

of the

public

motive

of

nineteenth

that

and

importance

1831,

century

period

Her

placed together

published

Romanticism.

and

and

Kant.

strong

in

to

prominent

voluntarist

be

the

Hegel

nineteenth

philosophers

could

they

of

subsequent

German

received

death

against
the

both

the

diver

many

most

may

upon

their

While

before

But

disciplesof

in

(2)

in

It is difficult

ground

emphasis

thing-in-itselfand

writings

the

most

Schopenhauer.

respective philosophies, and

in the

find

to

and

common

the

elements

Schopenhauer

was

ideal

philosophy.

elaboration.

Herbart
and

It

the

loosely tied together

so

philosophers.

stood

Realist,

these

was

distinct

many

subsequent

pessimist. They

the

so

devel

line of

German

of

period

is not

one

group

was

their

the

doctrine, and

by Kant,

in

main

movement

the

were,

gent

The

Schopenhauer.

perfect expression
There

THING-IN-ITSELF

THE

Kantian

opment
ism

and

OF

ear

and

nineteenth

doctrine

had

not

Kant,

but

Idealists.
true

until

to

they

historical

were

rein

criticism

of

Bands

of

century.

HISTORY

332

inspiredGerman

OF

PHILOSOPHY

idealism,for they could

not

developtheir

philosophy of education, psychology,or

art

except upon

metaphysicalbackground. Metaphysics

It

was

as

ethics to the Greeks

year
ian

"

1828

doctrine

claimed

and

method;

to

have

insisted that
he

"

as

English.

Kantian

carried

of the

Kant

the

by disclosingits psycho

step further
He

the

psychology to
As

necessary.

Germans

the

to

Herbart.*

Herbart

logicalgrounds.
true

and

Friedrich

Johann

foundation

necessary

was

contended

the

analysiswas
against Fichte

only

that

it

impossibleto deduce the theory of the world from a

singleprinciple.An all-inclusive principlemay be the
conclusion, but not the premise, of a philosophy. Thus
in exactlythe oppositedirection from
his thought moved
of the Idealists and
the monism
Schleiermacher, with
in constant
he was
which
Experience proved
hostility.
of independent realities ; and
the existence
to Herbart
with the a priori doctrine
he could not reconcile himself
which
of the idealists,
begins by denying the existence
the contrary, philosophy to
On
of the Thing-in-Itself.
its chief concern.
had the Thing-in-Itself
Herbart
as
how
did not see
Herbart
paradoxical his positionmust
of attempting to
be the results
how
futile must
be
He
know
the unknowable.
was
impressed with the
depth of the problem of existence, and he felt that, if
be along scientific
it was
to be explained at all,it must
lines, especiallyin the fields of psychology and educa
is

"

his Realism

was

Herbart's
*

Read

of Herbart

scientific method

The

tion.

the

programme

Ribot, German

mechanics

was

result of his method.

at

the

beginning

of

Psychology of To-day,

Weber,

History of Philosophy,

duction

to Modern

Philosophy,

pp.

pp.

536-543

230-235.

his teachpp.

24-67

Dewing,

Intro

THE

PHILOSOPHY

OF

THE

ing at Gottingen in 1802

philosophy in a general way

THING-IN-ITSELF

was

333

He

follows:

as

defined

by simplifyingthe concepts
that underlie
the different sciences.
Thus
he (1) recon
structed
Realism, (2) restored the principleof contra
basis
diction,and (3) established philosophyon the same
science.
Of all the philosophicalschools in the nine
as
teenth

and

merous

thinkers

The

Herbart

Life

and

was

the

Herbart

by

science,and

to

conservative

dramatic

the

Writings

of

or

of

and
study, lecturing,

efforts

was

of

His

nu

many

attached
better.

(1776-1841).
of quiet
a man

was

his life

arising out

environment.

them

something

He

most

driven

had

Herbart

typicalscholar.
tastes, and

the

was

majority of

for want

situations

his character

school

Hegel's attitude

compact.

into

themselves

and

Herbartian

century the

never

disturbed

contradictions

days

for social

in

in

spent

were

education.

The

influences
his thought were
Leibnitz,
philosophical
upon
Kant, and negatively the Idealists. In his early life he
had read Leibnitz
and
Kant, and before he was
eighteen
he had read enough of Fichte to be repelledby his doc

trine.
he

In

went

1796

he

tutor

as

was

to

student

Switzerland,

lozzi and

laid the foundation

1802

was

he

Jena.

at

where

of his

own

he

From

Jena
Pesta-

met

philosophy. In

he
became
Gottingen, where
full professorin 1805.
In 1806
he published Principal
Points
called to Koin Metaphysics. In 1809
he was
nigsberg,where he published his chief works :
1813
Text-book
to Philosophy
of the Introduction
1816
Text-book of Psychology.
1822
Possibilityand Necessity of Applying Mathe
matics
to Psychology.
1824-1825
Psychology as a Science.
1828-1829
General
Metaphysics.
called

to

"

HISTORY

334

In

1830

he

PHILOSOPHY

OF

called

was

back

Gottingen,and

to

he

in 1841.

died
The

of

Contradictions

tions

practical life

of

therefore
tions of

only

appliesnot

unreflectingminds,

the concep

and
self-contradictory

are

This

vicious.

All

Experience.

but

the

to

this

free

to

else than

their self-contradictions

conceptionsof

our

by simplifying and
world
laws

but

think

We
revisingthem.
consistingof things, persons,

as

such

view

of the world

is founded

an

and

general fallacytakes

forms
For

This

many.

inherence,

it is

example,

the

object at

the

time

same

of

one

as

four

think

the

upon

specific
selfhood.

change, continuity, and

contradictoryto

of

relations, and

fallacyof thinking
as

concep

of scientists

also to those

philosophers.To philosophizeis nothing

and

are

plant as

inhere ; it is contra
qualities
when
it passes
dictoryto think of a plant as the same
through many
changes ; it is contradictoryto think of
in which

many

continuous

and

thing

one

as

space

is

contradictoryto

and

yet
The

tion

as

human

servation
led

to

fore

divergent

long

that

there
is

thought

are

other

hand

upon

the

in

ago

no

discredited
insoluble.

discussion

metaphysics.

of

of these
these

inherent

the

it

same

because

had
as

the
does

his

of

there

reality.To

them

contradictions

great dialectic

be

Skep

concluded

exist.

Is
found

On

of
the

system

thought
in any

ob

it had

Greek

not

contradictions.

can

contradic

matter

The

thing

contradictious

and

centuries, but

many

Truth

always

as

been

it,and

such

parts

states.1

had

Hegel developed
basis

self

conclusions.

observed
is

into

This

by philosophersfor

thought

conceptions

many

tics had

of the

for Realism.

Argument
in

think

of conscious

stream

yet divided

self-

text-book

THE

PHILOSOPHY

THE

OF

THING-IN-ITSELF

335

contradictory?Yes. But is thought discredited because

it is self-contradictory
It is the nature
? By no
means.
of thought to be
the
self-contradictory,and
highest
is the
truth
knowledge of this. So Hegel, instead of
rejectingthe conception of realitybecause
thought is
contradictory,incorporated contradictions into his con
Indeed, he made
ception of the Being of the universe.
contradictions

the

Contradiction

to

Hegel

which

ciple upon
the

corner

is cosmic

law.

had

conception Hegel

give

to

formal

principle that

"

of the

head

"

system.

However,

in such

entirelythe

up

was

from

different

be

cannot

prin

This

founded.

logic was

thing

of his

itself. To

Hegel the highest truth was

exactly the
opposite everythingis self-contradictory.
While
Herbart
agreed with the Skeptics and with
he differed
Hegel that experienceis self-contradictory,
"

from

them

inference

in the

contradictions.

In

experience Herbart
of these

one

him

acknowledging
did not

alternatives.

skepticism. On

which

the

he
the

drew

driven

Philosophy did
hand

such
of

contradictions

find himself

other

from

he

was

not

to

either

mean

for

repelledby

Hegel had given to logic,and he refused

He
to accept reasoning as a self-contradictory
process.
returned
of formal
demands
to the
logic and restored
the principle of contradiction1
it
to the place which
had occupied during the Enlightenment. Herbart
took
his fundamental philosophicalprinciple that ex
as
when
actual
not
they are
self-contra
periencesare
dictory.
The
of experiences shows
that
self-contradictoriness
they are phenomena and not actualities. It also shows
the

mit

that

turn

The

"

principle of

contradiction.

contradiction

"

in

logic is

the

prohibition to

com

HISTORY

336

that

is

behind

they

admitted, but
If

exist ; and

to

appear

The

the reals.

Con

Being.

existence

of

ap

are

appearances

ap

nothing existed, nothing

yet things are

in

not

reality

be.

to

appear

of

indication

an

something.

between

relations

phenomena.

be

of

pearances

much

just so

must

pearances

what

actual

imply

sistency lies

would

the

as

occurrences

Seeming

ground. Seeming things

ground of their qualities; seem
their

realityas

realities

imply
ing

have

they

PHILOSOPHY

OF

that we
can
experience
agreed with Kant
only phenomena. There is also a similarityin the two
theories as to the relationshipbetween
phenomena and
The
the thing-in-itself.
similarityis,however, only su
Kant
reasoned
from
the relativity
of pheno
perficial.
the synthetic unity of apperception, i. e. to
to
mena
in general, while
the
consciousness
was
thing-it-itself
Herbart

to

Kant

Kant
to

unknowable

an

and

pointed

phenomena
from

phenomena

in Kant's

existence

upon

than

consciousness

depends

on

the

existence

ralityof independent
forms

of space

has

time

rather

than

to

power

an

of

independent,

of

depend

the

for their

consciousness,
power,

independence

Even

things-

thinking subject.

creative

no

Herbart

hand,

but
of

to

itself
a

categoriesand

plu
the

syntheticforms.
All are
the result of the relationships
independ
among
the spring of all activityand
ent
Reals, which
are
ex
istence.
Herbart
thus gave
to the
things-in-themselves
all the independent functions
that Kant
attributed
to
consciousness.

and

to

and

Reals.

To

existence

phenomena

creative

Herbart

the

to

doctrine
the

other

point

objective reality rather

While

the

Phenomena

in-themselves.

remainder.

consciousness

to

On

selves.
things-in-them

reasoned

irreducible

are

not

innate

THE

The

the
at

get

of

ber

In

from

the

in

nal, but

ture
"

the

be

absolute

limit

the

should
in

inhere

of space

at

but

in

the

we

same

can

be

does
plurality

subject

they

time.

Their

that

they

say

cannot

phenome

not

are

whatsoever;

of

changes

place,Herbart

second

of relations.

Why

not

limited

not

may
na

have

nor

ne

that

mean

they

another.

one

In

limitations

their

even

and

pluralism.

exist, not

to

space." They

position."They

gated, and

as

Reals.

is therefore

Reals

many

known,

of

meaning

posita pluralnum

to

these

among

doctrine

point

cannot

(1)

the

would

we

of phe
explain the multiplicity

"intellectual

one

occupy

experience, if

must

interpret the phenomena

to

to

phenomenal

any

We

place, a multiplicityof Reals,

is needed

conceives

is

relation

Herbart's

nomena.

of

way

(2)

the

first

singleReal,
He

and

Reals,

derived

true

337

Phenomena.

conception of Reality and

The

phenomena.

THING-IN-ITSELF

Nature

contradictions

true

THE

and

Reals

Many

remove

to

OF

PHILOSOPHY

Why

do

the

Reals

the

Reals

Herbart

as

the

be

continuities

multiplicity

appear
to

appear

things,the
things?

assumes

qualitiesthat

things,and

of

phenomena

the

altogethersatisfac

is not

tory in his explanation of this problem. It is the prob

of

lem

the

explain
ness

but

of

unity
due

as

such

to

Realism.

relations.

There

the

manifold,

Herbart
are

Kant

which

of

synthetic power

explanation

an

Herbart's

the

the

was

speaks

actual

could

conscious

precluded
of

two

relations

from

kinds
among

of
the

Reals.
as
as
can

by Herbart
Although the Reals are conceived
simple and unchangeable, he also thinks of them
going in intelligiblespace." We
coming and
"

never

know

tions is. The

what
actual

the

nature

relations

of

between

these
two

actual

Reals

rela
are

HISTORY

338

essential

not

basis

their

seeming
of

tions

and
"

in the

Reals.

relations

among

phenomenal

them

Herbart

regards

relations

which

"

lations

they

as

The

Soul

the

things. These

much

world

of

other.

reactions

the

on

Like

real.

appear

to

actual

looks

is to say,
world

relations

Mental

among

relations,or

tions

in

its

Each

Phenomena.

The

disturbances

the

part of the

real

bears

with

other

to

Real

has

of the acts

Consciousness

think

;
can

Our

to the

Reals

of

knowledge
of the

These

indifference

ideas

of the relations

From

same

in

pointwhere

they are

it is

self-preservation.
states, and

of

of the
the

the Soul-

is not

souls

do

not

Conscious

of Reals.

therefore

live within

Reals.

Soul

of consciousness.

disturbance

We

of the Soul

the

isolated

community

consists

Soul-

their rise. Con

as

Nevertheless,
in

self-

at

other

which

take

of the Soul

states

inner

is the

the conflict

the

not

of

its manifesta

the

aggregate mental

Soul.

they have no
arise only

results

Reals.

is the

inas

it is unknowable.

phenomena

is,therefore,

form

its effort

knowledge

Reals.

other

sum-total

essential

in
the

Reals,

science

Reals, mental

sciousness

Real

among

other

the

take

self-preservation
among

Psychology is the

re

co-exist," they mutually disturb

"

all the

of

us.

have, however, immediate

an

That

phenomenal

preservation. Prominent

the

relations

phenomenal

experience as

the

not

Reals

the

as

each

ness

rela

single function, viz., self-preservation

; and

one

the

the

inherence, continuity,

of

"

the

are

are

semi-existence.

merely
and

know

can

we

have

(zufallige Ansichteri),and

are

Realities,but

that

relations

such

can

calls these

having

as

nor

All

space

Herbart

contingent views

PHILOSOPHY

Real,

either

to

change.

upon

OF

ideas, which

Soul-real

Soul, which
held

by
is

are

other

merely

together.The

HISTORY

340

theory. The

educational
environment

mental

influence

the

conception of

of

life,the theory of the devel

mental

upon

of

opment

PHILOSOPHY

OF

life,the

method

natural

of

"

prepa

ration, presentation,association,systematization,and
"

of

application
the

of

correlation

laws

the

of

At

nate.

the

recent

has

hope

different

had

theories

in their

sci
In

been

has

in

met

in

was

Mystic

very

Herbart's

Realism

as
thing-in-itself

Mysticism was
theories

an

the

and

an

(2)

the

theories,
source.

same

interpretationof

realities

while

of
interpretation

it

consciousness, and

both

the Kantian

how

shows

have

can

because

Realist, Schopen

was

Re

idealistic devel

took

only

which

was

many

for the

of
interpretations

different,

seemingly

Herbart

with

grouped

Herbart
-,

Philosophical

movement

upon

While
thing-in-itself.

both

century, psy

mathematics

his

and

especialdislike

an

the Kantian

that

their

hauer

is

Schopenhauer

both

built

for exactness

Schopenhauer

lations.

opment

fortu

so

way.

Arthur

(1)

to

practicallyabandoned.

operates with

psycho-physics,which

his

upon

not

was

mathematics

been

demand

the

years

from

much

of

theory

apply mathematics

to

attempt

founded

are

time, during the nineteenth

one

; but

"

psychologicalphenomena

chologistshoped
ence

all

subjects

Herbart's

psychology.

subject,the

educational

an

as

Kant's

Schopenhauer's
one
reality.In
it the

with

reason,

of the

thing-in-itself.
The
best
approach to Schopenhauer's doctrine can
perhaps be made by contrastingit with his pet aversion
to Ideal
the doctrine of Hegel. Schopenhauer was
turned
he
ism what
to Faust
Mephistopheles was
conceived

were

as

derivations

"

"

Read

Rand,

Eucken,

Modern

Problem

Classical

of Human
Philosophers,

Life,
pp.

pp.

510-518

629-671.

PHILOSOPHY

THE

Romanticism

THING-IN-ITSELF

THE

OF

pessimism. The theory of empirical

to be highly developed in the nine
was

into

evolution, which
teenth

century, lay in theoretical

of the

immediate

torical

of

which

the

all

with

teaching
To Hegel the his
is the struggle of

cosmos

its

in the

germ

of Kant.

followers

development

reason,

341

essential

contradictions

is

Schopenhauer the
is also an endless struggle,
historyof the cosmos
although
is absent.
a
Hegel could
struggle in which all reason
the history of the cosmos
conceive
as
a
development
worthy of investigation.Schopenhauer,on the contrary,
took no
interest in history,because
it could not
to him
form an in
be a development. To Hegel, phenomena
timate part of the cosmic
struggle,since they are the
of the cosmic-reason
content
Schopenhauer, phe
; to
f utilely
strivingto

nomena

soning
As
hauer
most

To

illusions of

surface

ebullient,unrea

an

Will.

the first theoretical

expressed

for

the

pessimistof Europe, Schopen

nineteenth
He

essential characteristics.

during
but

the

are

to itself.

come

his lifetime

to-day it

account

on

century

its

recognition

got

scant

of the

vogue

is

of

one

of

Hegel
Hegel, who

Schopenhauer, rather than

has
a
popular influence,and is widely read. This is
of his masterly literarystyle and
partly on account
of the content
of his doctrine.
The
partly by reason
nineteenth
carried along upon
a strong cur
century was
of pessimism because
of (1) industrial problems,
rent
which

of
So

involved

ethical

many

(2) its breaking away

long as the unbounded

vailed, the

teaching;
hold

world
but

had

when

of the nineteenth

considerations,and

from

optimism

little
Realism

traditional

room

with

for

because

religiousties.

of

Idealism

pre

Schopenhauer's

its limitations

took

century, then did Schopenhauer's

HISTORY

342

day

of

PHILOSOPHY

OF

The

recognitioncome.

popular

mind

has

found

in

Schopenhauer its best philosophicalexpression,and

representativesof his teaching have been numerous.
Richard
them
are
Among
Wagner (1813-1883) with
his music
Hartmann
dramas
; Von
(b. 1842) with his
theory of the unconscious; Nietzsche (1844-1900) with
of egoism
that in view of uni
his extreme
statement
versal evil,the only hope is in the survival of the strong
"

est

in the

and
The

Life

virtue

and

of selfishness.

Writings

(1788-

Schopenhauer

of

the kind
of genius who
is
1860). Schopenhauer was
He
lived a long,
always an alien to the world of men.
his inherited
emotional
lonely,isolated life,in which
and
and more
became
more
brooding nature
cynicaland
he found
him
pessimistic.Even in his paternal home
self a stranger. His father pushed him
into mercantile

business, which
father
to

he hated

his brilliant mother

her Weimar

home

circles

academic

menting

physics which

was

and

neurasthenic

genealogy

one

us,

uncle

father

closed

so

of
who

that

him

expressed as
the

get

his

of

welcome

was

doors

of all

he, in

com

academic

an

believe

not

in

meta

But

to be understood.

lay mainly
"

he

death

and

failed to
did

peculiar

the

visitor. The
to

the German

causeless
night-terrors,

before

only as

of his isolation

cause

told him

it,said that he had

on

hearing,because
the

were

after

; and

in himself.

He

was

subject of ill-temper,

depressionsand

dreads.

With

the

Schopenhauer's family on his father's side

could wonder
the grandmother insane,
?

insane,
suicide.

"

one

uncle

idiotic,one

neurotic, and

his

were
peculiarities
Schopenhauer'sown
not
as
pathological.He had a genius that blossomed
late. He wrote
early in his years as Hegel's blossomed
his two
important works before he was thirty.
a

PHILOSOPHY

THE

THE

OF

THING-IN-ITSELF

343

(1788-1813). The
of Schopenhauer were
wealthy, and in 1803 he
in England, France, and
Holland.
with them
entered

he

of Education

Period

1.

business, which

he

In

the

death

of his father.

the

classics,
philosophy,and

1809

the

up
he

next

traveled
In

1804
on

year

busy studying
learningin Weimar,

Hindu

was

Berlin.

and
Gb'ttingen,
Period

gave

parents

Production

(1813-1831).
he wrote
In 1813
the Four-fold Root
of the Principle
JKeason, in the Thuringian forest,when
of Sufficient
other German
men
were
against
rallyingto arms
young
thesis at
accepted as a doctorate
Napoleon. This was
2.

Jena.

From

1814

World

The

on

of Literary

expositionof

to

1819

Will

as

he

and

his doctrine.

Idea,
The

of the

Will

Will

3.

Art

as

which

;
a

at

is the

2.

work

complete

is divided

work

parts: 1. Theory of Knowledge

Forms

in Dresden

lived

into four

Descriptionof

Deliverance

the

from

the

from
the Will.
In
Morality as a Deliverance
1820
he got a positionas Privat-docent
in the Univer
the only year of his teaching
sityof Berlin. This was

and

; 4.

was

3.
went

an

Period

failure.

utter

of

Retirement

Frankfort-on-the-Main

to

tirement.
circle of

to

Slowly he became known

disciplesabout him. He

Influences

The

(1831-1860).

principalinfluences

upon
upon

live alone
and
died

Schopenhauer's

In 1831
and

gathered a

he

in

re

little

in 1860.

Thought.

Schopenhauer'sthought

The
were

he got his transcendental

(1) Kant, from whom
himself
theory of knowledge (he always considered
to be Kant's
he got
true
heir); (2) Plato, from whom
his formulation
of eternal
Ideas
as
offering an escape
from the Will ; (3) the Hindus, from whom
he got his
and the confirmation
of his pessimism.
ethical-Mysticism
three

HISTORY

344

Schopenhauer
Europe, because
lightenment
for

spirit;
and

among

he

denied

all for which

such

the

cordances
ference
the

the

reactionaries
were

been

that

philosophersof
the Enlighten
against the En

part of its essential

presupposition of

philosophy has

harmony.

to

unique

Rousseau

as

PHILOSOPHY

is

Even

stood.

ment

OF

traditional

existence

is

essentiallya

Schopenhauer,however, appealed
and

that

of

sorrow

fundamentally

of

source

the

existence, and

theology
the

to

drew

the in

is irrational.

existence

Schopenhauer's unique teachingwe

look, therefore, farther

than

dis

modern

For
have

Europe.

The

have
we
European philosopherswhom
studied, developed their philosophiesfrom purely Occi
dental sources.
Schopenhauer drew from the Orient as

preceding modern

well

as

from

covered

the Occident.

Orientalism.

interestingEuropean

The

The

Romanticists

study

scholars

of the

since

the

Hindus

had
had

re-dis
been

beginningof

the

Schopenhauer, who was introduced

to Indian
friend, Fr. Mayer,
philosophy by Goethe's
translation
read the Upanishads in a Latin
they
; and
much
contributed
the development of the
to
theory
his own
emotional
and
which
had pre
cynical nature
saged. The Hindus had long felt that the main problem
of existence
is moral
and
physical evil. Schopenhauer
found
in this teaching the statement
of his own
attitude.
He esteemed
the principlesof Christianity
and
Bud
dhism
because
their central
faith in a
requirement was
rather
redeemer
than
creator.
a
Christianityhad no
of its
account
on
originalmetaphysics,but Buddhism
metaphysics had an especialimportance in Schopen
hauer's
not
only a pessimism, but a phi
eyes. It was
is only a blind
losophy of pessimism. Our existence
strugglefor enlightenment and arises out of a flowing
nineteenth

century.

of

chain

World

The

Man

perennialre-births.
and

illusion of existence

the

Will

as

TH1NG-IN-ITSELF

THE

OF

PHILOSOPHY

THE

and

needs

released
the

be freed from

to

from

World

345

re-birth.

In

Idea.

as

The

Reason,
Four-fold Root of the Principleof Sufficient
The
world
knowledge as,
Schopenhauer summarizes
which
is Kant's
is my
theory of know
presentation,"
ledge. A conscious subject vitalizes all things. But the
have no
corresponding realityin the outer
presentations
created by my
world.
own
subjectivityfrom
They are
"

the

"

root

world

Will
which

This has a fourfold

of sufficient reason."
principle
"The
mathematics, and will-activity.
: logic,
cause,
in The
of phenomena is my idea," and
World
as
is a truth
This
and Idea
Schopenhauer says,
holds good for everything that lives and knows."
"

Man

alone

to the

reflect upon

can

that

realizingsense

tion, he begins

it. We

realitybehind

the world

remember

is

an

man

ideal

to the

philosophize as

to

When

this truth.

comes

construc

of

nature

Herbart

that

the

started

proposition.However,

Schopenhauer
departs from Kant's teaching in one important respect :
that
the thing-in-itself
although he agrees with Kant
be understood
cannot
by ideas or a chain of reasoning,
The
is knowable.
World
he holds that the thing-in-itself
from

as

the

Idea

is

same

but

of appearances,

world

by intuition
by
thing-in-itself
of this first-hand or
The certainty

the

"

"

shows

how

is. For

poor

our

reasoned

even

second-hand
or

mediate

perfectform, viz.,science, is under

gets below
If

reason

revelation

know

can

look

of

genius."
knowledge
knowledge

immediate
or

mediate

knowledge
the

law

the

of

in its most
cause

and

nothing absolute. Science never

phenomena.
reveals
Idea, what
as
only the World
does intuition give of the thing-in-itself?

therefore

can

we

reveal

HISTORY

346

Intuition

reveals

OF

the

finds,first,the Will
ified

his

in

members

of

be in himself.

to

and

the

body

in

He

its

finds

of

Man

it

members.

structures

are

Will.

be

to
thing-in-itself

body

own

PHILOSOPHY

object

All

the

function.

some

desire.
Every part is the visible expression of some
Hunger, speech,locomotion, have their different instru
Will
is immediately known
ments.
the reality
to us
as
in us.
In
spiteof the exaltation of the reason
by the
modern
Enlightenment, is it not secondary to Will ?
For behold ! Let me
look beyond myself. The
reve
lation of the realitywithin myself illuminates the reality
of the outer
world.
resistance
in other
My Will meets
in
things. The everlastingstrivingof the Will appears
all nature.

It appears

tallizingof

the

of

ments

hurry
the

ocean,"

animals, show

of

that

proof
This

Will

World

is

stand

Will

in the

The

impulse

the

do

is the

by

mechanical

with

in

of

waters

the

is

world

and

the

differences

"

motiva
than

any

fundamentally

World

Will."

as

Only

same.

in

Will

appear.

is

only reality.Differences
exists

for

magnet

vegetation,the

realitythe

one

the

crys
move

which

analogy stronger

an

which

reason

stone, the

persistenceof

as

Will

relation

and
of

cause

the

only

is to

of
objectification
essence
phenomena what

is the freedom

is

World

and

is the

things are
There

the

World

Idea

Will

"

Idea

of

in

the
com

illu

are

is

man

one

differences.

of those

The

always

all and

sions, and

is

fall

in all the

"

realityof

nature

as

to

mon

the

All

Will.

as

"

the

pole,the perennial push

tion

"

diamond

matter.

the

to

in

that

determined

only one

is within

when

Will, and

Idea

effect,but
the

all

the

World

as

not

World
Will.

expression.

things ;
the form

world

do

the

is to

they have
so

as

and

yet all

of ideas.

is in

reality

348

HISTORY

instinctive

blind

OF

force.

striving. Life

rected

of

unreason

The

Nature

is the

creates

itself and

of

essence

is the

Will.

the

PHILOSOPHY

things is

expression of

It is

objedification

Will

without

of the Will

is forever

the

absolute
an

that

undi

object.

perpetually

unsatisfied,unresting,and

unhappy.

The

The

Moment's

"

Of

Being

And

Lo

The

Nothing

from

! the

of

Misery

fundamental

absolute

misery

it must
does

merely

but
illusory,

Idea

has

it set out

from

the

World

Idea.

is very

many

that

realityitself

proportion
To

small.

long,their

satisfaction

thrown

ing

be

may

is not

contains, and
the
*

Werther,

as

is

no

of

is

while

and

the

example

of

The

for

are

World

alive

"

there

to-day that
The

pessimism

finite

the

cares
can

FitzGerald's

Goethe,

due

his

craving which

greatest evil that

last

ever-spring

impossible.

Khayyam,

are

like the alms

Our

infinite

satis

are

desires

our

scanty,

him

ed., quatrains xlvii-lxxiii

an

of life

supplied

equation between

Omar

Will

that

wants

to-morrow."

of life. The

Rubdiydt

Read

lation, 4th

ment.

there

despair of

misery. Willing
arises from
suffering.

that

keeps

to

the

such

our

lasting peace

adequate

satisfactions

of

is short

that

The

is irrational.

want

one

prolonged

make

wants

world

beggar

reveals

appearances

Furthermore,

not.

are

to

the

and

"

Schopenhauer's pessimism

that

mean

Pessimism.

"

of the

nature

very

that

in want,

the

fied

misery

the

as

haste

Will

of
irrationality
the

make

Idea

as

"

reacht

Oh,

of
objectification

source

Moreover

has

"

World

Waste

the

Caravan

from

that

is the

its

amid

phantom

remembered

be

not

Well

the

taste

momentary

"

the

of

follows

pessimism

as

Halt

to

and
betrans

Sorrows

mainly

it

of

environ

fall

sand-fold

THING-IN-ITSELF

been

born

than

man

means

done, satisfaction

is

respitefrom

or

The
that

than
that

life

offers

the

Buddhistic

the

re-birth

of

act

deliverance
is

How

Will,

Will

deny

transcendental
ways
other

one

1. The
found

into

to
"

life"
is

be

the

Will

temporary

the

Will

and

in

only passes

by

become

have

World

and

(2)
the

if he

Will

Will

takes

this

form,

freedom

question
be

man

he

seeks

life."

to

to

Idea

as

since

may

classic

possibleto

the

of the

of Will.

form

another

suicide,for

and

which

freedom

it is

soul

it is

performance

the

of

denying

? This

all

giving up

denied?

question

de

grim

finds,rather

in

is not

part of

misery

give up life,since

attitudes

two

of affirmation

the

in artistic

is

the absence

the

in

phrases that

he

in which

in which

merely

life is the

own

the

Will

the

may

essence

the

act

an

in life. Pain

consists

the suicidal

two

uses

descriptionof

Suicide

the

he

escape

(metempsychosis)

of

desire,but

that

affirmation

is merely
(1) if man
is "affirmingthe Will
way

and

relief from

escape
that

one's

doctrine

Schopenhauer
in the

an

But

taking

greatest

all is said

tinged with

not, then,

torment?

of

is

escape

Why

means.

act

the

an

"

and

misery

The

Deliverance.

life itself. It is

haven

shows

pain.

Schopenhauer

spair of

of

of

Way

is

live is to

Will

the

the

thou

willingagain.

to

meaning

no

positive; pleasure is negative,and

of

To

then

destroys not only

itself. There

satisfaction

other.

After
not-yet-satisfied."

of the

the ache

this is

striving,and

new

349

and

in any

willingto attainingand

Attainment
"

in

worse

from

go

is to have

creature

THE

OF

PHILOSOPHY

THE

life.

we

are

How

in
may
a

presupposes

sought

in

two

is temporary

and

the

Will

may

be

permanent.
deliverance

of

the

disinterested
contemplation (Schiller's

HISTORY

350

OF

PHILOSOPHY

contemplation).Art deals not with particularforms,

but
isolates
eternal
an
types (Platonic Ideas). Art
of
the
eternal
the stream
world's
out
object from
changes, and places it beyond all relations of time,
its object from
Art not only removes
place,and cause.
the contemplator as
the World
Idea, but it removes
as
well. The
contemplatingsubject and the contemplated
and
the subject is temporarily
objectthus become
one,
saved, for he is elevated above all desire and pain. This,
but
however, is possible not to the majority of men,
only to those few possessing aesthetic fancy, and for
them
is ranked
only at intervals. Music
by Schopen
hauer
the highest form
of art,
above
as
even
poetry,
it is not
and
that among
the
surprising therefore
Schopenhauerian worshipers have been many
promi
"

"

musicians.

nent

2. But
offer

to

Will

artistic ecstasy is too

lastingdeliverance
life and

to

transcendental

pletefreedom
since

it is the

This

act

in

the

will

but

act

this

be

callingit

the

bring
is

transformation

and

birth

the

work

the Will

pletefreedom from

of

mystery,
nature.

our

is

right
Com

grace.

through

comes

com

church
of

of

act

more

and

miracle

of the

Another
into

man

supernatural,and

new

affirmation

Idea.

as

freedom

complete

must

from

World

restricted

fleetingand

de

moral

liverance.
This
who

man

involves

of

vain

the

the

Will.

the

facts

that
To

all

take

fundamental

is thus

that

is
all

double
with

only

true

feeling.The

open

the

to

striving for

alike manifest

are

this

the

ethical

men

feeling of sympathy

misery. Sympathy
and

and

Will

the

appreciates two

happiness is
ations

from

lasting escape

view

others

moral
Will

of
in

life
their

motive

in

us

is

PHILOSOPHY

THE

if

moral

only

sympathy

In

complete

is

not

the

work

since

he

Nothing
of

spairs

hope

asceticism
that

overcome.

to

by

through

art

and

find

shows

himself,

the

way.

is

be

can

the

made

close

be

of

his

completely
"

but

does

In

thy

him.

Will

The

may

de

it

count

not

deliverance

the

of

Schopenhauer

Absolute
to

by

Schopenhauer

At

ALL."

made

come

Nothingness.

the

science

will

could

we

be

eradication

But

be

impossible

seems

this

Will.

of
if

for
others.

our

endless

can

asceticism

would

deliverance

unachievable

Will.

even

result

the

ascetic

sym

the

world,

sannyasi

the

full

that

our

though

complete

extreme

are

we

says

and

of

that

sure

and

Even

and

Hindu

mystery

quite

effective,

denial,

The

desire.

and

want

exists,

whole

the

remove

sympathy

mortification,

asceticism,

not

sym

on.

pass

absolute

by

But

own.

does

form.

deliverance

moral

the

the

351

our

still

its

to

still

it

misery

out

would

as

and

changed

goes

tragedy

This

The

only

has

pathy

THING-IN-ITSELF

hurt

palliative,

disease.

of

cause

another's

feel

we

is

pathy

THE

OF

by

even

only
be

some

hope
time

is

CHAPTER

THE

PHILOSOPHY

The

had

OF

Return

the

return

follows
will

with

of

tendency

this

set

the

illustrate

and

of

Realism.

it is the

belief

pendent

of

anybody's

the

distinction

ism

has
of

types

that

whole

is

type.

just

studied

have

had

been

the

of

spread

Read

All

Hist,

Weber,
man

Life,

VII;

pp.

Royce,
1

Royce,

the

Modern

518-523,

romancing

""

69.

70

the

James,
Mod.

World

and

the

that

pp.

703-708;

of

Nietzsche,

60

Hu
Also

I, IV,

IX.

i, pp.

the

period

Lectures

vol.

the
been

when

Problem
;

Lecture

Individual,

had

But

of

spirit

Pragmatism,
Phil.,

Germany

Idealism
in it.

to

which

Idealism,

of

559-573

In

great

period

Although

Eucken,

Real

are

by

Philosophers,

524-553,

Spirit of
The

shared

great

possible

is meant

literary

had

four

mind

of

Real

Idealism.1

and

representative
and

the

types

of

type.

Classical

of Phil,

Zarathustra

Sprach

is such

nations

and

Rand,

These

Idealism

leading

events

great

The

philosophical

world-wride.

of

inde

quite

exist

one

is what

general

Moreover,

attitude

an

This

civilization.

philosophical
we

being

we

again

In

them.

thought.

Realism

words,

realities

knowing
of

Before
define

to

is Realism

or

which

century

tendency.

Critical-rationalism,

ism, Mysticism,
other

reality

been

account

well

last

have

nineteenth

be

may

What

metaphysical

would

the

this

it

forth, however,

the

century,

abbreviated
of

of mankind

history

the

recorded

The

CENTURY

nineteenth

philosophy

the

nature

If

be

to

Realism.

explain

NINETEENTH

the

thought

to

of

THE

Realism.

to

terminated

XIII

f.

PHILOSOPHY

reaction

passed, the

had

world

the
we

We

Century.

of

theory

have

of Ideas

this

of

Realism

civilization
and

the

also

we

it

as

the

have

of the

nature

appeared

in Plato's

reviewed

the

Both

of Plato's doctrine

in medieval

and

mediaeval

give expressionthrough

societies
"

modern

the

of

natural

science.

made

it

But

in

cosmic

Idealism

part of

nineteenth

Reason

and

as

wins

two

for

reasons

pressed with
marked

of

Natural

does

Natural
to

science

(1)
the

proves

its

century.

scientific

and

had

Reason.
of

the

The

Nature

and

distinctness

ideas

of

is

independence.

Spinoza. There
of

of

science

conception

sublime

of

century

cosmic

ideas

labor

The

conception

The

experience,and

imperative needs

the nineteenth

as

in

that

the

in antithesis.

science

are

that

German

are
ex

is in

romanti

mathematically and

is formulated

require the

kind.

part company.

victory over

with

science

not

the

nature

stand

clearness

in

demonstrated

his

Now

Enlightenment,

conceived

to

esthetic

an

the natural

up

century the

that

this

contrast

cism.

taken

the

has

total

our

realityexistingin

Democritus

ing

had

world

the

conceived

in

and
a

Plato

the nineteenth

importance

phenomena

conceptions begin to

two

over

of

varia

ancient

been

has

century

question of

Renaissance

the

societyto

still different

nineteenth

degree

of

life ? German

find

we

times.

ecclesiastical Realism.

an

The

been, What

conception
of

to

period

Realism

has

ancient

conceptions

Realism, mediaeval
the

that

Nineteenth

tion

Realistic

felt

reaction

the

already discussed

of ancient

Realism

likewise

was

period of

353

consider.

Character

The

CENTURY

Realism

to

It is the

over.

brieflyto

are

NINETEENTH

THE

OF

natural
of

science

more

interpretation.(2)

usefulness, thereby respond

of the economic

changes

of

HISTORY

364

In this modern
riveted

the necessary
world

become

slave

than

Not

division

and

have

ences

been

Hegel

Reason

had

been

it had

historyfor

will find

one
spirit,

C.

B.

centuries

and

in

Realism
"

tive

in its

been

in

concrete

and

for

with

reaction

supremacy,

The

and

back

its

from

and

had

been

in their

of the

centu

present
modern

preceding

critical,
nega

usually an

it ; modern

and

leaves

second

of

sci

external

the

said about

Realism

the

is

practi

within

turn

fifteenth

practicalresults, and
or

to

world,

the cosmic

that

turn

to

preceding Realism

distinguishedby

ambition

time

is this to be

comparison

tradition

attention

become

our

in the third

them

the fourteenth

the

periods

rather

similar to the nineteenth

Nevertheless, there

era.

cities,of the

lived.

has

man

time

no

wishes

one

enor

economic

has

man

of

had

steam,

the

this present

but

engaged

so

the

multiplied.

period of

and

been

with

commanded

specializedand
said

has

modern

have

have

size of

have

been
effort

factories,of

and

world,

the

the

Social

labor.

itself. If

scrutinize

of

number

ideal

would

that
realities,

ries

of

in which

one

cal.

the

has

world, work

been

metaphysical problems
another

the

in

of the outer

Work

things

in

to his

Human

serf.

outer

century has

increase

minute

to

in the

man

championed

universe

progress.

of machinery,
electricity,

mous

of

own

in material

Inventions

nineteenth

of

its

work

"

The

become

the

relation

structure

The

been

be interested

to

century has

himself.

its

to

time

in man's

mechanical

has

apotheosized
hands.

and

man

man

reallybeen
nineteenth

laws

against

enthroned
has

has

The

environment.

seemed

has

man

If at any

century has

interest

of

attention

his environment.

upon

the

PHILOSOPHY

period the

of the nineteenth
man,

OF

opposition
Realism

has

positivepracticalresults, its
and

its

shaping of

the whole

HISTORY

356

the

between
that

of

date

the

take

the

of

The

in

late in

old

the

speculativepower

Idealistic

science
of

branches

by

on

and

biology

to

in

the
men

many

empirical phenomena
;

died

came

leaders, but

borne

was

and

(1815)
Hegel

After

Hegel (1831).

study

all

to

PHILOSOPHY

battle of Waterloo

successors

empirical

genius.

tended

of

place of

in

terest

of the

death

adequate

no

OF

was

ex

which

geology,

studied

being

began to occupy
historically,
the centre
of the stage. In spite of the fact that the
of modern
nearness
philosophicaltheories blinds us to
their true perspective,yet even
that in
now
we
can
see
Idealism
the philosophical
comparison with the German
were

doctrines

of
of

survey

nineteenth

the

the

The

field.

whole

Idealists

fore the eyes

of the

1831

its attention

shifted

Idealists

the

the

was

sophical problem

to

cerned

only

with

critical

problem
the

of

life

modern

; the

to

partialin

are

problem

part of that problem. The

one

of

century

their
be

was

world

about

scrutiny of only

philosophicalproblem
of the

cosmos

nineteenth

the

century

reexamination

of

to

philo

was

con

environment

the

man.

Philosophical Problems

The

tury. In summarizing what

before
had

us

its

run

1831

the

filltheir

1831

situation

course

leaders

as

of

had

have

we

something
a

this

empirical interest

conditions

natural
Thus

that had

Idealism

no

had

forth

come

and

Side

by

certain
rewarded

about
to

one

1815

great empirical interest

there

called

with

between

originsof history,law, philology,etc.

have

mind, and

died

Idealism

within

arisen

of

Cen

said,we

follows.

as

had

Nineteenth

above

social attitude

Idealism

places. But

there

of the

and
in the

side

with

economic

genius

in

science.
we

find

even

before

the

fourth

decade

of

the

PHILOSOPHY

nineteenth

The

other.

powerful
to be

tory and

two

historical

view

upon

include

them

From

the

tendencies
of

357

(1)

new

modified

world

the

science

natural

each

exercised

; natural

science

writingof history.His
drawn
science were
together,but with
new
conception that would
philosophical
with

reckoned
natural

tendencies

strong

The

producing

out

and

influence

CENTURY

meaning of historyas an evolution

interest in the
(2) a remarkable

the

sciences.

natural

had

two

century

conceptionof
from
origins;

NINETEENTH

THE

OF

in the

both.
interaction

these

of

two

tenden

powerful

philosophicalinterests were
(1)
grouped around two general problems. These were
The problem of the functioning of the soul ; (2) The
problem of the conception of history.
cies

i.

the

The

great variety of

Problem

of

the

of

Functioning

the

Soul.

metaphysics and the reaction from

its an
speculation,psychology began to loosen from
chorage in philosophy. Psychology,which had been a
became
the study of the relation
study of mind, now
of mind
and
body. The tendency was
strong to make
psychology an empiricalscience,and by the use of the
of science to become
methods
a
part of physiology and
With

the

decline

of

been

biology. Philosophy has

sciences

have

last to

attempt

our

with

been

to leave

the

turned

Deprived
to

natural

port. Concerning the relation of

solutions

which

all the

Psychology has been

and
nest
to-day in some

it is coordinated

sciences.

losophy,psychology

many

in

the

of

largeuniversities
the natural

brooded.

nest

have

been

the

in the curriculum

of

basis

science
soul

in
for

to the

phi
sup

body

offered.

Following the Sensationalist,Cabanis, who died in

of the jFrencljIdeologists,
so-called,con
1808, some

HISTORY

358

that the soul

eluded

etc.

said

some

tivity;

as

fered

widely in

basis

of the movement

Stuart

the

concluded
mental

states

So

William

Sir

the

championed
Of

Hamilton,

aroused

great heat

alityof

God

and

ing questions,and
school

into

Hegel

had

circles

as

lowers

who
his

pret

"the

in

nature

led

to

the

doctrine

in

could

not

be

into
as

nominalistic

nature

"in

of naturalists

the

and

his

of

the

soul

was

"

accordance

as

this

Germany,
to

of

physical.

to

of

Kant,

soul

of
The

person

became

of the

burn

Hegelian

left

"the

standing in

soul

the

wing."

orthodox

"

with

In
the

be

the

traditional

the
"

left

whose

wing

doctrine

substance

with

"

in

the

immor

by invertingHegelianism

materialism,

found

laws

philosopher."Those fol
tried to inter
right wing

its otherness."

in

he

State

the

followed

psychical

the

states

dissolution

considered

Feuerbach
tality.

of

study

conceptionof the soul ;

theological
terpreted Hegel as a pantheist,in
soul

the

but

Hume's

to

challenge

of

always maintained
composed

England,

experience.

the

"

the

hypothesis

the influence

right wing"

the Prussian

in

theologicalcircles.

the

determines

separate realms, and

materialistic

the

course

ac

the whole

conceived

under

life of inner

brain

phrenology,

back

mental

reduce

cannot

of

The

movement

psychology. He
physical states as two
that psychology as

of

on

materialism.

the

climate,

Ideologistsdif

great interest

led

by phy

skull

French

associational

and

the

of

but
interpretations,
was

Mill

result

conception
The

mind.

their

is

shape

phrenology aroused

John

the

the

the

mind

determined

temperament,

sex,

age,

the

that

which

faculties of

of

everywhere

developed

some

according to
the

is

influences, such

sical

PHILOSOPHY

OF

and

conceived

1854,

at

materialistic

widely spread

the

soul

convention

conception
among

the

physiciansand

German

the heart

"

under

the

Kant"

was

teenth

became

But

of science

the

and

Kuno

leadershipof
begun, which

and

Fischer, the

lasted

contradic

the needs

"

subjectof controversy,

359

in

of

1860,

return

"

the

throughout

to

nine

century.

There

two

are

in relation
soul:

CENTURY

naturalists.

the inferences

between

tion

NINETEENTH

THE

OF

PHILOSOPHY

to

they

this

controversy

those

are

that stand

names

of Lotze

out

the

over

prominently

most

of

nature

(1817-1881)

and

the

Fech-

that were
conjured
(1801-1887). They are names
scholars
before
the
with by the generationof American
necessity of
regarded the mechanical
present. Lotze
in which
life
the impulsive mental
the form
nature
as
of man
realizes its purposes.
Every soul therefore has
in purposeful relations
life that consists essentially
a
this is possibleonly if the lives
with other souls. And
Fechunder
of men
an
are
all-embracing Providence.
ner

chose

ner

another

way

to

from

escape

the

materialistic

regarded the soul and body as separate

and qualitatively
different,although exactlycorrespond
unknown
of one
reality.There is a
ing, manifestations
the mental
and the physical,
in which
between
parallelism
the mental
only to the individual
phenomena are known
tendency.

He

As

perceivingthem.
of

nesses

total

individual

the

the

are

The

versal consciousness.

the

are

consciousness,

beings

of human

corresponds to

sensations

so

surface

mechanical

between

This
of

is the

our

own

modern

psycho-physics.We

mental

states

well-known
can

by formulatingmathematical

measure

laws

of

and

We
the

waves

conscious

activityof

tigatethis correspondence by studying

ence

the
waves

of God.

consciousness

surface

uni

nature

can

inves

correspond

physicalstates.

psychologicalmethod
psychicalquantities
of their

occurrence.

HISTORY

360

Our

present psychology has

all these

earlier

Problem

The

in the

contrast

mind

became

When

psychology
thus
soul

the

the

ever,

nineteenth
a

the

purely

the

century.
mental

natural

inroads

of

sci
first

at

science

of

science

in

field of

only the

societywas

that

France

societyand

The

of

nineteenth
a

and

nature

and
sociology,
problem of the

larger scale.

opposition in
of

duplicated in

were

History. The

of

development

century. But

first form

The

its historical
of

problem
a

on

longer

no

of

matter

between

in the

vigorous march

nineteenth

this is

from

history.

teaching

was

life in

the

but

Conception

antagonism

an

social

withstood
the

Kantian

development

of

not

of the

psychology

ence,

seen

explanations;

writing and

contemporary
2.

PHILOSOPHY

OF

that

this

problem

between
of the

century

the

took

traditional

philosophy of
French

religiouscoloring

that

from

arose

the

the

conception
Revolution.

philosophy has,
differentiates

how

it from

Auguste Comte * (1798-1857)

stands
the chief representativeof this scientific re
as
of Hume
duction
of society.He
pushed the doctrines
in his positivist
Condillac
and
to their extreme
system
that human
of social science.
He
maintained
knowledge
had
its objectsphenomena
in their reciprocalrela
as
basis of
at the
tions, but that there is nothing absolute
these phenomena. The only absolute
principleis,All is
is a hierarchy of sciences in which
soci
relative. There
ology is highest. Sociologyincludes all the preceding
sciences,and yet it is the originalfact. The first social
phenomenon is the family. The stages of the develop
of societyare
ment
(1) theological,(2) metaphysical,
that

689.

of the

Read

Revolution.

Rand,

Modern

Classical

Philosophers,

pp.

672-

PHILOSOPHY

and

OF

NINETEENTH

THE

scientific. All

or
(3) positivistic

tail,and

human

history as

stages of growth. In the

be

the

great
lives

In

whole,

will

of

The

men.

ruled

one

contrast

Comte's

to

and

the

have

raised

is not

of

is that

will

lives

the

socialism.

Buckle,

who

mechanical

study historyby discovering the

of

Comte

to which

democracy

theory

these

mankind

and

they

by great minds,

life in de

subjectto

are

positivistic
stage

because
justified

common

is

would

be

361

mental

objectof religious veneration,

men

looks

CENTURY

laws

governing society.
While
ural

human

science

thus

historywas

and

to defend

had

principle of science,

other

was

the

historical

becomes
circle

there

and

of

This

to

of

the

investigation has

it advanced

velopment
of

types, but

other.

(See

theory

is notable
upon
into

world

was

no

type

vol.

i,pp.

of historical

because

the
the

was

it

advanced

the

empirical investigation,that
others.

This

as

theory, among

in

the
and

this

source

because

De

nineteenth

graded

to

evolve

series

into

an

ii,p. 306.) The

vol.

of the

life.

animal

to the

supposed
;

interest

development.

Up

upon

180, 193

evolution

this

race

evolution.
looked

beginning

in its scope

of

devel

notable

most

of the human

Romantic

the

origin of

conception

new

becomes

now

the

century

In

etc.

by

science

origin and

century

it included

of progress

means

(2)

(1)

been

invaded

in the

the

nineteenth

investigation of

an

century, because
and

in

law, philology, art,

middle

spread

great interest

was

the

on

Natural

that

seen

nat

against the

century

evolution.

have

by

science

natural

nineteenth

principle of

history. We

opment

the

in

invaded

its autonomy

naturalistic
hand

being

nineteenth

century

conception,
types

those

of

based

are

changed

the

century,

HISTORY

362

the

comes

The

that

lished
with

of

that

attempted
The

The

make

modern
life has

nature,

which
of

its

and

gulf

between

chemical

them

principle;

it has

ance

its theories

of

of

in

the

had

giving

hitherto

hand

been

it has

cataclysms

this

he

words,

the

be

accounted

in

the

were,

the

aid

adaptation

of

the

for

according

and

to

of

an

of

of

great

of

assur

of

substitute

parsi

historywhich

and

the

that

of

final

structure

The
life

infinite

selection, and

of

the

on

mighty

other
cosmic

gradual gradations.

of

organic

of

equivalence

facts

show

Darwin,

the

wonderful

trivial

mechanically.

development

adaptation, natural
fittest.

to

the

doctrine

with

conception

without

explained

the

shown

movement

tried

phi

hylozoisticnotion

geologicalseries

tury

related

as
electricity

as

the

supposably impassable

all the

to

the

in this

be

it has

of

antagonized

forward

of

conceived

place
:

the

it has

value

Darwin's
was

has

advanced

pushed

action

reduced
to

It

of

principleof

minds

transformation

thought-activity;

mony

the

the

has

it

synthesis against

forces, and

in

origin

evolution

mechanical

of creation

vital

for

the

by fillingin

man

principle of develop

historical

the

Renaissance.

the

theological doctrine
imal

of

reinforced

had

the

its law.

theory

animal

losophers

that

universal

formulate

to

scientific interest

Origin of Species,pub
most
prominently linked
of Herbert
Spencer, who

name

is

of

centre

Darwin's

Darwin

to

and

ment

the

was

1859.

in

PHILOSOPHY

originalphilosophicaldoctrine.

an

became

years

many

to

nearest

book

for

OF

the

nineteenth
life

animal

In

causes.

of

can

other

animals

can

involved

factors
upon

cen

the

earth

differentiation,
survival

of

the

Abbott,

A., Frai*cis

E.

Absolute

from

in

spirit of,

1648

France,

217,

Frederick

the

Great

See

Qualities.

Auerbach,

destroyed
by
and
Lessing,

225;

of, ex
conception
by Leibnitz, 119, 120, 121.
to Spinoza, 95,
Attributes,
according
amined

96.

in

217-223;

1740,

to

scientific

Atoms,

n.

314, 316,

Reality,
Germany,

See

321, 323-326, 328, 329.

Absolutism,

40

Bacon,

Hegel,

of

Reality

Berthold,

Autobiographies,
written

in

Spinoza,
many

the

88

of

n.

them

Enlightenment,

137.

225, 226, 228, 229.

Esthetic

Idealism

of

302,

Schelling,

304, 307.
of

Agnosticism
Alchemists,

the,

Alsmbert,

le Rond

discovery

Anacreonticists,

of, 6.

Kant,

of

Antithesis,

249-

Kant,

264,

265.

295

; of

Fichte,

Hegel,

of

judgments,

material,

Kant,

cism

perceptions,

the

the, of

represented

Aristotle,

tagonistic

schools

by
in

two

the

in
in

Renais

359.

Hume,

of

by

law

to

contig

of

law

by

192-196;

of

law

by

uity, 192-194;
blance,

according

Ideas,

191-193;

causa

tion, 192, 193, 19G-199.

Associational
the

Psychology,

father

Associationalist

Astronomers,
Atheistic
284.

of,

Hobbes

56.

Psychologists,

controversy

of

141.

32-36.

Fichte,

and

282,

Locke,

side

ideas,

abstract
tive

side

183;

and

of

of

his

177-179;

his

Hume,

his

of, 173,
to

Locke
of

points

176;

175,

philoso
of

existence

denies

176-179;

phy,

writings
upon

174, 175; his

with

n.

Nine

n.

influences

negative

295

in

life

George,

Hume,

Romanti

Century,
295

Century,

of, 169-172; the

posi

the

philosophy,
compared,

179-

Descartes,

70 n.,

183,

184.

73

Classics,

n.

Bodin,

Jean,

Body,

relation

ing

mathematical,

philosophy,

of Romanticism,

Blackwood

resem

of

Mathe

of

of

A., History

Berkeley,

the

Schelling's philosophy,
Schopenhauer's
philosophy,

Phi

n.

Eighteenth

agreement

308

Association

H.
in

teenth

and

an

11.

sance,

n., 40

172; the
purpose
thought,
of,
174; general relation

26, 27.

Paracelsus,

in

Fragments

R., History

36

to

seems

n.

W.

History

272.

Arcbseus,

43-46;
48;

146.

M.,

84

aim
com

307.

principle, in ethics, 271, 272.

of
250Kant,
priori, judgments,
252; principles, categories, 257, 271,

and

J.

W.

method,

39-42;
the

40-42;

Bayle, Pierre, 203.

in
Beauty
Schelling's

257;

Art,

apart,

Baldwin,

of, 39;

philosophy,

Hobbes,

stand

Beers,

posteriori,
250-252;

with

matics,

327.
A

Atlantis,

New

Ball,

of

252.
of

his

losophy,

Induction.

judgments

Antinomies

in

of,

pared

the, 224.

See

Analysis.
Analytic

d", 211.
47.

Johannes,

America,

31, 35; life

Francis,

position

of, 42, 43; his

25.

Jean

Althusius,

188.

Hume,

Bacon,

nitz's
Bohn's

Brahe,
Brown,

to

47.

78-80;

Descartes,

Spinoza,

Thomas,

32,

in

Leib

126.

philosophy,
Libraries,

Tycho,

and, accord

mind

of

33.

202.

90

n.

INDEX

366
Browning,
26

Robert,

Paracelsus,

25,

Economists,
enment,

n.

Giordano,

Bruno,

H.

Buckle,
Button,

G.

Butler,

Joseph,

ligion,

L.

L.

his

of Re

Analogy

G.,Lord,

182.

Berkeley,

on

law

to

335

of

Caird,
in

M.

Persistent

W.,

iv,

Philosophy,

110

of Kant,

E., Philosophy

Calkins,

n.

73

n.,

n.,

Cambridge
Campanella,
the

Cartesian

of

the, 74,

334,

imperative,
Aristotelian

Causation,

of

and

Kant

Hegel, 323,

association

mediaeval,

toward

science,

of, 192, 193,

in

is

attitude

the

of

period

of

ac

60.

the

Middle

the

decay of,
subjective, 15.

Classicism,

of,

19-21, 62-65;

Hobbes,

of

causes

German,

Ages,

with,

ance

Comte,

movement,
of

the

the

of
and

two

philosophy,

the

the

of,

name,

293.

Hume,

200;

certainty

Descartes,

to

73 ; in

Fichte's
in

70-72;

321,

bart's

philosophy,

Fechner's

322,

philoso
Schelling's

327;

326,

336,

philosophy,

Constantinople,
Constitutionalists

fall

of,
and

Des

to

phy, 286-288, 293;

309; in Hegel's
philosophy,
sophy,

Science
35

n.

of

Ren6,

Voltaire,

philo
in

338

Her;

359.
6.

Political

in

the

141, 164-166;

31, 35;
48, 49

thought

compared
the

life

in, 65, 66;

writings
conflicting

mental

and

philo
the

of, 66, 67;

influences

upon
method

the

of, 67-69;

contribution

great

principle, 70; in
ulti
doubt,
provisional

absolute

an

of

certainty

consciousness,

im
according to, 70-72; deduction,
ac
plications of consciousness,
cording to, 70, 72, 73; his proofs of
the

reality
77;
to

of

existence

his

of

according

of

relation

world,

ter, 77, 78; of

mind

and

of,

80, 81;

sionallsts

73-75;

matter,

view

the

God,

the

77;
God

body,

to

God

to

minds,

78-80;

relation
and

of

of

Spinoza

the

to, 75of

God
mat

78; of

influence
the

37;

142.

Hobbes,

mate

of, according

implications
72,

212.

ultimate

of

Galileo,

to

English,

the

duction,

n.

cartes,

Natural

Fichte,

of, 69, 70; the

de,

362.

and

81.

cartes,

En

on

360.

B.

3,

Europe

iv, 12, 13.

in

conflict

discovers

variations,

Origin
fully

most

40,46; accord
according to Bacon,
ing to Descartes,
70, 72, 73; use
made
of Des
of, by the followers

with

his

211;

of, according

Cusa),

of

19, 21, 35; defined,

German,

165.

quoted

cyclopaedia,

Consciousness,

pe
239.

a,

his

Robert,

sophical

Auguste,

E.

method

of, according

use

Deists,

6.

Concomitant

17.

210.

224, 296.

Christopher,

Condillac,

the,

formulated

philosophy,

Descartes,

Collins, Anthony,
America,

322-326;

(Nicolas

Evolution

Deism,

87-89.

Columbus,

Hegel,

Enlightenment

Charles

Deed-act

; mod

4-7

85.
Spinoza,
Coleridge, S. T., and
Collegiants, the, Spinoza's acquaint

38

Darwin,

period,
14;

Renaissance,

Civilization,

7, 32-34.

326-328.

Decentralization

165.

Ghurch,

to

of

Nicolas

Deduction,
Thomas,

cording

327,

according

335.

; Kant's

138

Cusanus,

the

327.

1U6-199.

Chubb,

ern,

of,

of Species

ian, 256, 257;

the

the

world

321.

75.

the, of Kant,

273.

Categories,

Hegel,

23-25.

n.

argument,

Categorical

State

his

Tommasso,
41

Sun,

riod

the, 61.

School,

world

to

Counter-Revolution,
Criticism,

n.

the

Nikolaus,

unity,
Hegel,

law, of

Problems

66

Cosmic,

of, 192-194.

experience,

Herbart,

j Copernicus,
236

Enlight

of, 129.

of, according
328,

the

association

Contradictions,

de, 211.

166.

G.

Byron,

Contiguity,
Continuity,

25, 27-30, 32, 33.

T.,362.

of

the,

142.

Occa-

to, 81-84;

INDEX
his

influence

influence

Spinoza,

on

Locke,

on

Denis,

Differential

Leibnitz,

Dogmatism,
Doubt,

332

by

119.

187.

the

Descartes,

Cartesian,

of

mind

70-72.

in

thought, 232.
Dualists, 174 n.
Duty, according
Eclecticism

scholars,

of

304, 309;

of

Empiricism,
137;
189;

171.

Kant,

of

of

200, 263, 264;

313;

Schelling,

314.

Hegel, 313,
begun by Locke, 61 ; de
n.
; in the Enlightenment,
Berkeley, 174; of Hume,

of

the

nineteenth

century,

England,
period, 17, 21,
in

in,

sance

31 ; the

in,
after

Enlightenment
of
comparison
with

enment

in, 204, 205

Enlight

46

Science

Natural
; the

Sci
Renais
the

Hobbes,

61;

in,

145-147;

140,

French

the
the

; influence

Enlight
Enlightenment
of, in France,

the

206, 207.
Enlightenment,
the
second
the,
Enlightenment,
pe
riod
of
modern
2, 3;
philosophy,
of, 132-143; be
general treatment
"
"tries
to
the
new
man
gins when
understand

his

own

nature,

132;

the

of,
practical presupposition
134; the
presupposi
metaphysical
tion

of, 135

140; the

Germany,

; the

problems

of,

Encyclopae
social

(Rous
216-229

introductory
period (absolut
of, 218-223;
ism), 217-223; sources
the literary, in Germany,
summary
the

the

ick

the

Great),

of,

in

Germany,

political

(Freder

the

224-226;
226-228

revived

course

Lessing,

135-

period of empirical psycho

and
Meth
logy, autobiographies,
odism,
137; a period of criticism,
remarkable
of
138;
a
period
in
of
the
changes
political map

of

Epistemology,
of

160-162;

Renais

by

11.

scholars,

Locke,

Kant,

155, 156, 158,

See

239.

238,

Knowledge.
J.

Erdinann,

E.,

Enlighten

the

on

133.

ment,

Eternity

Spinoza's

in

philosophy,

105, 106.
of

200, 201

Spinoza,
; of

Eucken,

Natural

the

movement

ence

in

the, of the

142, 211, 212.

enment,

seau), 213-216

the

; in

207,

(Voltaire,

the

Ethics,

355-357, 361, 362.

Encyclopaedists,

France,

Montesquieu,
dists), 208-212;

sance

of

English
206, 207;

intellectual

Epicureanism

288-295,

the

in

147;

situation

France,

periods of,

the

of

145-

228, 229.

11.

Fichte,

61

Renaissance

by

Jonathan,

the,

289-295.

the

203-206;

of, 223, 224;

Fichte,

to

revived

Edwards,

fined,

the

Enlight
of
135;
Berkeley,
179;
the
of
Kant's
background

formed

Ego,

and

Britain,

in,- in

two

208;

birth

thinkers

203-216;

influence

of

enment,

influential

France,

of

groups

140-143;

in Great

in, in France,

Inventions.

assumed

in

of, in

Germany,

many

in,

of

places

n.

and

the

philosophers

provisional,

matter,

comparison

France,

140, 204, 205;

Mod

to

discovered

denned,

Dualism,

139;

(map), 144;

112, 114,
See

Europe,

England,

211.

calculus,

Discoveries.

his

145, 146, 152.

53.
Determinism,
Dewing, A. S., Introduction
ern
iv, 8 n.,
Philosophy,

Diderot,

87;

367

Rudolf,

n.,

107

223

n.,

236

340

n.,

Evil

352

; of

of Human

40

n.,

n.,

183

n.,

300

n.,

n.,

147

n.,

282

Hume,

269-277.

Problem

Life, iv, 8 n., 23

84

102-106

Kant,

47

66 n.,

n.,

n.,

203

n.,

n.,

315

n.,

n.

Leibnitz's

in

130.

philosophy,
principle of, 3, 361,

Evolution,

Experience,
cording to

contradictions
Herbart.
the

Extension,

according
Spinoza's

of,

ac

334, 335.
of

essence

Descartes,

to

362.

matter,
77, 82; in

93, 95, 96,

philosophy,

102.

Faith

philosophy,

Herder

on,

Richard
Falckenberg,
Modern
Philosophy,
47

writer

143.

n., 55 n., 70

n., 73

History
iv, 26
n.

of

n., 36 n.,

quoted, 274,

275.
G.

Fechner,
Feuerbach,
Fichte,

J.

T., 359.
L.

A., 358.

G.,

and

Schelling

and

INDEX

368

life

312;

and

inlluences

the

his

28G;

285,

ing

288

in

and

in

man,

292, 293; what

moral

293-295;

relation

to

Romanticism,

299;

Fischer,

Kuno,

School,

70

FitzGerald,
the

identified

ical

word,

as

toward

of

with

121

Leibnitz,

France,

the

229;

140,

situation

the

203-216;

203-206;

Enlightenment,

the

the

in, 206, 207; the

English influence
two
periods of the Enlightenment
the

in, 207, 208;

lightenment
quieu,

the

208-212;

the

(Rousseau)

En

intellectual
Montes

(Voltaire,

in,

Encyclopedists)
social

Enlightenment
absolutism

in, 213-21G;

A.

Frederick

the

H.,

the

223-226.

Great,

Freedom,

of,
Spinoza's conception
to
154,
155;
Locke,
104; according
Kant's

idea

the

of, 270;

postulate

Descartes'
73-75

; in

in

135;

phy,

181-183;

existence
276,

Kant,

Mystic,
Vasco

route

to

Gassendi,
introduction
into

modern

discovers

da,

India,

35-39.

of

all-sea

Goethe,
85

author

was

Greek

thought,

of
atomism

120.

319;

in

the

J.

n.;

scribes
age

W.

of

in the

and
the

to

philoso

Schelling's philo
Schel-

freedom.
of. 303.

Hegel's
to

312:

359.

l-'aust, 25,

Spinoza,

the

philosophy,

Feohner,

von.

of

84,

26

85;

n.,

de

as
an
Enlightenment
134; prominent

self-conceit,
Storm

of

postulate

Fichte's

and

324; according

7.

Pierre,

in

to

according

of,

300;

philoso
philoso

according

the

in

277;

phy, 292, 293;

sophy,

Enlighten

philosophy,

of,

261, 265-268;

Kant.

Occasion-

Hume's

idea

the

in

philosophy,
philosophy,

200; in Voltaire's

phy,
210

in

the

minds,

77, 78;

the

in

to

to

Berkeley's

ling's philosophy

Gama,

and

Spinoza's

ment,

exist

of,

Leibnitz's

in

28-30;

the

to
Descartes,
according
of
the
the
philosophy

349-351.

31-33,

Cusanus,

of

matter,

to

228,

philoso

138.
of

relation

world,

of

proofs

of

ence

Enlight

philosophy,

the

Galilei, Galileo,

the

quoted,

276; accord
according to Kant.
God,
ing to Fichte,
289, 290; and
of, 303;
Schelling's
philosophy
of Schopenhauer,
transcendental,

of,

pe

Lessing,

philosophy

Bruno's

in

25;

91-10G;

220.

in,

63, 83.

126,127, 130, 131;

Francke,

12, 16,

in, 230, 231.

Edward,

in

God,

of

course

convergence

alists, 83

in, 217.

pe

217-223; summary

Arnold,

Gibbon,

in,

two

Enlightenment
introductory

influences

Geulincx,

pe

Enlightenment

17, 21, 31 ; the

riod,
in

Science

treat

charac

the

in, 226-228;

phical
Natural

three

the

the

enment

squints
by Leibnitz,
and
psychology,
physics
the

period

3;

in,
literary Enlightenment
the
political Enlighten
in
the
(Frederick
Great),

224-226;

the

used

in

third

Renaissance,

the
the

(absolutism),

ment

metaphys

the

the

the

223, 224;

119,

122.

in,

in

of the

mo

Leibnitz,

to

by

atom

riod

ground

according

the

of, 231, 232;

140, 216-229;

347, 348.

in
223.

of, 232, 233.

Germany,

to

translation

his

Edward,

fundamental

tion,
120;

return

278-329.

philosophy,

17, 21,31;

Rubdiydt,

Force,

"

the

phi

connected

218, 219,

of, 230-329;

riods

his

359.

Kant,"
of

; leads

n.

modern

teristics

and

Descartes

142.

factor

Philosophy,

ment

of,

Schelling, a brief
comparison
303-305.
as
philosophers,

literature

of

Oppo

modern

treated,

Enlightenment,

and

its

places

280

(map),

German

his

the

355, 356.

German

in

reality

to,

according

volves,

and

Idealists,

with

of,

and

Enlightenment,

Idealism

German

God

philosophy

the

the

losophy,

288-200;

of, 290-292;

world

German

prin

philosophy,

his

moral

the

Method
in

nents

in

centre

12.

Renaissance,

accord

central

the

religious

new

Geometrical

ideas,

of

awakening,

to, 287,

ciple

kinds

two

moral

280; the

Geneva,

they sought, 279, 281,

writings of, 282-285;
his
teaching,
upon

what

Hegel,

and

Stress

movement,

INDEX
227;

as

0., 219, 223,

J.

world

; and

179

294.

World

of. See

of

grace.

the
Britain,
Enlightenment
See
England.
in, 145-147.
and

language

Greeks,
in

the

Hugo, 47.
Gunpowder,
discovery

of,

6.

Sir

Hartmann,

William,

Harvey,
Hegel,
phy

G.

W.

with,

Schelling,

279,

281,

312

Schelling,
of

299

comment

and

312-314;

the

the

why

life

the

funda

unity of,
law

of

of,

his

of

322-

320-328;

theory, 328,

the

opposition

and
331, 332;
Schopen
his
compared,
340, 341;
how
philosophy,
interpreted
by
his followers, 358.
Heidelberg, University of, 12.

against,
hauer,

Herbart,

J.

330-332

and

of

Kant,

thing-in-itself,
the
at
begin
teaching, 332, 333; life
the

programme

of

his

writings

tradictions

of, 333, 334; his

of
for

argument

according
mental

experience,
realism,

and

reals

many

follower

to

; turns

332; his

ning

F.,

as

334-336

nature

to, 337,

338

phenomena,

con

334

; his

the

to,

Herder,
rency

J.

Cherbury,
G.

the

prominent

von,
word
in

the

movement,

227;

of

228.

Leibnitz,

105.

Storm
true

and

and

school

of

Mod
40

n.,

n.,

217, 225.

23

representatives
celsus,

23-30.

Bruno),

word,

the

David,

Hume,

(Cusanus,

change

in

terests

shown

lation

of

1'ara-

133.

Spinoza,

on

into

brought

by Herder,

currency

of

consideration

of

Humanity,

pe

31.

of, 22,

atives

Science

period, general charac

; long list of represent

of, 15-21

ter

88

the

intellectual

English
in,

147

to,

life

in

general

Berkeley

re

175

174,

and

n.
dualist,
writings
;
with
Berke
of, 183-186
; compared
the
ley, 183, 184 ; influences
upon
thought of, 186, 187 ; his Skepticism

174

and

187-189

Phenomenalism,
of

origin

law

ideas,

according

association

the

to,

resemblance,
of

194, 195

his

196

196-199;

by

by
law

associa

192, 193, 190-199;

his

philosophy,
of

attack

; his

attack

the

ac

association,
192-194

his

the

ideas,

conception

195, 190

to, 189-

192-196;
in

ology, 195,
ence,

causation,

mathematics

stance,

of

191-193

contiguity,

of

133;

interpreter

the

iv, 36

Empire,

Roman

cur

Stress

Descartes

began

Natural

the

Humanistic

tion

brought into
"humanity,"

and

145, 146

riod, 17, 21,

of
of

the

theory
psycho
politics, 58-00 ; his

to
;

in

cording

according

Philosophy,

191

and

of

n.

the

338-340.
Herbert

70

phenomena,
soul

of,

according

English Moralists, 107, 168.

History
of
Hciffding, Harold,

Holy

idealism,

method

bodies,

application

60

Holland

and

the

52 ;
the

in

to

50-58

Locke,

construct

world,

principle
of

Leviathan,

ern

represent

his

cosmic

cosmic

basis

the

of

on

culmina

314, 315;

application

329

of,
the

of, 315-318;

321,322;

Fichte

they sought,

principle

mental

his

what

Kant,

writings

326;

and

3 ;

to-day

of

philoso

to

the

56; his

to, 55,

logy;

Idealism,

remains

ative

von,

F., German

ends

tion

342.

35.

and

he

E.

R.

Des

writings
the thought

of, 52-54

mathematical

K.

55

with

with

of

; kinds

54,

modern

upon

view

teaching

202, 358.

William,

of

of, 49,

fundamental

Friedrich
von
(NovaHardenberg,
lis),on
Spinoza, 92; quoted, 295.

political

;a

mission,

mechanical

the

Hamilton,

; his

nine

compared

and

life

of, 50-52

Grotius,

30

forerunner

influences

; the

50

14.

Renaissance,

the

compared

cartes^;

recov

n.,

180.

357, 300-363.

48, 49

48

n.,

of, in

31, 35,

materialism,

Renais

of,

132

Berkeley,

century,
Thomas,

theorist, 47

En

of

119

n.,

on

History, conception

Bacon,

naturalism

the,

ered

literature,
in the

Philosophy
107

quoted

Hobbes,

16.

10-14,

sance,

and

before

study of,

n.

teenth

Great

Greek,

G.,

J.

Hibben,

lightenment,

306.

philosophy,

their

Schelling,
Gottsched,

Grace,

297-299

Romanticist,

369

ex

tent

on

and

on

sulvthe

sci
limits

INDEX

370
human

of

199,

to,
and

according

knowledge,
200

; his

theory

ethics, 200,

oi, influenced

201

Kant,

religion

skepticism

; the

Independent
the

world

32.

cording
the

misery

ing

to

and

as,

of

Will,

as

world

the

ac

France,

in

278,

Fichte,

290, 304; aesthetic, of

after

174;

of

subjective,

Schel-

ling, 302, 304, 307; Transcendental,

of Schelling,309,310; Hegel
and
the
of, 312-314; and

isin, and

Real-

contrasted,

Mysticism,

fundamental

the

; Hegel's,
principle of, 321, 322; German,
modern
philosophy, 355, 356.

318-321

Idealists, German,
Ideas,

cording
of

156

to

157;

of

Hume,

ley's
source

181-183

Locke,

174, 175;

accord

of,

157-159

in

the

Berkeley,

abstract,

of

187, 189-191

according
ciation

of, by

192-194

by

192-196;

in

law

of
of

three, according

soul,

totality

neo-Platonic,

of

the
to

the

Schelling's

in

asso

term,

o'f Fichte,

261-2G8;

verse),

of,
;

Kant
uni

286;
philo

sophy,
of
129 ;
Identity,
indiscernibles,
Schelling's philosophy of, 303, 310,

Enlight

in

England,
140

in

Enlightenment,

Germany,

219, 220, 223,

Romantic

the

in

period,

19,

the

move

Natural
35

21,

according

Descartes,
ing
Infinity, Spinoza's

35

n.

Galileo,

to

40, 46

Bacon,

to

Science

denned,

of, according

use

37;

; accord

70-72.
idea

of, 94, 95,

106.

Ideas,

Spinoza,

nied

by

of

73, 156

existence

156, 157,

of

189;

Enlightenment

France,

207-212.

Inventions,

of

the

Middle

in

Ages, 6, 9;

nineteenth

354.

century,
philosophers,

nature
in

of, de

157.

Intellectual

the

Descartes,

156

Locke,

Leibnitz,

Italy

contiguity,

of

Induction,

of

modern,

296.

ment,

Italian

resemblance,

use

of

and

Berke

191-193

law

Kant's

; the

phfTo-

association

Hume,

to

225-229

in

189;
philosophy,
177, 179,
of, according
to
Berkeley,
to
;
origin of, according

Hume,

(God,

innate,

source

Locke,

sophies

189

in

Innate
ac

; innate,
innate, of
denied
by

innate,

156, 157,

Leibnitz,

truth,
72

150

73,

105,

279-329.

their

Descartes,

to

Spinoza,

261

of

Descartes,

Locke,

ing

treated,

proof

the

207-209

to

and

15

Germany,
the

the, in
toward,

12,

expression

and

Kant,

culmination

its

France,

of

of
134.

of, 132-134; in the

rise

accord

Idealism,

279;

the

Renaissance,

enment,

348, 349.

Berkeley,

the

345-347;
as,

Schopenhauer,

independence

Enlightenment,
movement
Individualism,

Schopenhauer,

to

Enlightenment,

of

the,

142.

the

in

Idea, the

Philosophers,

Individual,

235.

Christian,

Huyghens,

of

the

Renaissance,

22.

10, 12, 16,

17, 21, 31.

James,
315

"William,
n.

Jena,

Hibbcrt

Pragmatism,

Journal,
352

n.

233, 284, 302, 307.

Jewish

Cabala,

the, 11.

Samuel,

Johnson,
King's

College

Judgments

of

president

in

New

York,

indispensable

know

to

ledge, according to Kant

synthetic, a posteriori,

171.

(analytic,
priori),

248-252.

312.

311.

Reason,

Pure
tion

from

Ideologists, French,

358.

German

Idols, the,

45.

influences

Illuminati,

of

Bacon,

the,

227.

writings

of the
Immortality
soul, the postu
late of, according
to Kant,
276.
in
Hume's
Impressions,
philosophy,
190.

ing

of, 238,
the

240;

jective

to

Hegel,

of

322.

the

world

accord

his

world

place

of

Critique

marks

the

of

transi

the
Enlightenment
Philosophy, 2-4, 232;
upon,

of,
239;

233-235

235-238

the

threefold

states,
and

selves,

Inconsistencies

his

Immanuel,

Kant,

of,

world

things

life

and

problem

method

phenomena),
of

the

to

the

of
-in

239,
(sub

-them
240-243

243-245
knowledge,
synthesis in knowledge,

372

INDEX

150; his

ancestry,
erance,
fluence

151,

on,

influence

cal

the

152;

politi

sides

two

of

and

his

scholas

158, 160-162

his

162, 163;

sophy,

philo

practical
influence

the

relation

163, 164; general

to, 174, 175; Berkeley's

of

of,

Berke

of agreement
Logic, in the

with,
latter

studied

Ages,

of
its

lor

Mid

the

sake,

own

Hegel's philosophy, 323, 328.

4;
in the
new
religious centre
London,
Renaissance,

12;

an

Locke's

of

in

time

the

about

centre

publication

the

becomes

of

Essay,

206.
R.

Louis
Louis

King, 203.
King, 204.

French
French

XV,

Hegel's
of

philosophy,

the

40

Macchiavelli,
the

in

Magic

19, 21,

Moses,

Methodism,
Middle

needle,

Magnetic
his

in

relation

de, 63,

of

philosophy

83.

universe

the

to

Renaissance,

the

of, 6, 7.

discovery

Nicolas

Malebranche,

Man,

period, 18,

Humanistic

in

8-18;

Paracelsus,

the
in

26;

in
55, 58;
philosophy,
Descartes's
philosophy, 79; in Spi
noza's
103; in Leib
philosophy,
Hobbes's

nitz's

philosophy,
300,

defined,

53

century,

358.

n.

See

309.

Hobbes,

of

Materialism,

of

Fichte's

in

inSchelling's

292,293;

philosophy,
philosophy,

Mathematical

126;

the

New

of

the,

the

48, 49, 53;

nineteenth

38

of

ileo, 37,

Hobbes,

cartes,
noza's

modern

19, 21;

48,

Science

Natural

influence

astronomical
the

48,

Humanists,

54, 56-60;

68, 69,

philosophy,

begin

74, 76;

of
in

35;
Des

Spi

90, 91, 93, 99;

the

de

4-7.

to, according

in

of

Descartes,
of

the

body
78-80

Occasion

the

of
philosophy
Berkeley's philo
sophy, 176, 180; in Hume's
philo
sophy, 191 ; in Reid's
philosophy,
and
202; of Fichte
Schelling, 304;
in
Hegel's philosophy,
324; phe
to Herbart,
nomena
of, according
338-340.

; in

Soul.

See

Modern

comparative
philosophy,
of, iii,iv; diffi
time-length
culty in the study of, 1, 2 ; periods
short

of, 2-4; and

German

idealism,

355,

35G.

of

Modes,

and

mind

and

extension,

accord

matter,

Descartes,

to

77

of

thought

according

Spi

to

96.

95,

Leibnitz's

of,

theory

121.

112,

atoms,

of,

soul-atoms,
the

ation
124

the

Leibnitz,

of

nature

in the

from
of, grew
nings
among

of

Gal

38.

Mathematics,

period,

to

of,

God

to

156-162

Monads,
law, according

of

causes

78 ; relation

ists, 83;

in

358.

n.,

Monadology,

30.
Mathematical

assumed

135.

philosophy

the

noza,

the, 32-

Astronomers,

221.

civilization

relation

ing

man.

11

14; world,

of, 137.

rise

Ages,

Descartes,

in
al

25.

Hobbes,

science,

church,

Metaphysics,
the
Enlightenment,

Locke,

47.

Niccol6,

of

Cartesian,

to

Bacon,

on

324.

15.

Mendelssohn,

Mind,

42.

Bacon,

on

n.;

B., Kssay

T.

10

9,
11 ;

and, according

Macaulay,

world

man,

Mill, J. S.,

H., 359.

XIV,

in

52-54.

cay

Lotze,

of

to
Descartes,
according
Berkeley's
philosophy,
in Schelling's philosophy,

institutions,

in

tellectual

177, 178
:

to

relation

82;

in

Me"lia"val,

17G.

175,
part

75-77,

to,

77, 78

; in

194, 195.

reality of, according

the

God

Leib

122, 123

116,

philosophy,

Matter,

305

114, 119; in

112,

philosophy,

Mechanism

points

ley

by Leibnitz,
nitz's

discovered

calculus,

Descartes,

psychology,
; his
155, 156,
epistemology,

; his

157-160

differential

Hume's

pur

156, 157

ticism,

dle

in

; the

153

155-158;

philosophy,

tol

scientific

152,

on,

153-155;

of

pose

in

training

151 ; the

150,

are

114,

122-125;

of

established
trinsic

the

double

conceived

as

122, 123, 126; represent

general

function
and

windowless,

universe,

ciple

119,

metaphysical
121

unity

125,
among,

127

of,
mirror

prin

the

called

125 ; the
harmony,
(philosophical)
unity

prein

of,

INDEX
superimposed

the

125-129;

logical) unity of
C. de
Montesquieu,
awakening,
Moral,

(theo

of, and

Fichte,

to

287,

reality, a, what
according to Fichte,

of

Moral

of

Philosophers

Fichte,

293-295.

Neo

Enlight

the

English, the,
326.
to Hegel,
Morality, according
Kant's
Morals,
theory of, 269-277.
his
More, Thomas,
Utopia, 41 n., 47.
Moralists,

John,

Motion,

in

in

IHderot,

examination

scien

the

Schopenhauer,

self-destructive,
and

Schopenhauer,

347

318-321

idealism,

of

cal

363.

century,

dissolution

Natura

naturans

facts

15-21

about,

(Galileo,

of

165.

philosophi
the

Philosophy,
modern

philoso

of, led

the

to

6.

Kant,

242.

the
of

civilization

Ages,

Hardenberg.

See

lation

the

Rationalism

the

Greeks,

of,

Descartes,

to

Owen,

31-61

the, 63,

Occasionalists,

gen

discussion

Hobbes),

Bacon,

discussion

of,
the,

period,

Science

Natural

creed

the

Religion,

Natural

of

of

Novalis.

na-

of

German

29, 30, 97.

turata,

eral

natura

of

Middle

Noumena

and

the

doctrine

Nominalism,

231.

quoted,

and

356-362.

of

period

real

3, 352-363.

phy,

the

Napoleon,

of,

the

barrenness

of,

Century

fourth

of

; the

problems

n.

pessimistic,

character

355, 356;

Nineteenth

the, 23.
Mystics, Protestant,
Scheland
Revelation,
Mythology
of, 303, 311, 312.
ling's philosophy

342, 352

century,

philosophy

physics,

234.

by,

of, 353-355

the

twentieth

of

of

and

Realism,

contrasted,

Idealism,

32; his

Friedrich,

341, 342; the

ism

98-102;

Isaac,

influenced

Kant

Nineteenth

350.

Mysticism,
Spinoza,

New

Sir

Newton,
Nietzsche,

of, 119, 120.

to

in

Man,

132-134.

n.

of

according

Music

the

period, 17, 18, 21,23,25,

Universe,
phrase
characterizing first period of mod
the
ern
emer
8-18;
philosophy,
of the,in the Enlightenment,
gence

philosophy, 38;
philosophy, 53; Leib

conception

tific

211

New

Galileo's

Hobbes's

nitz's

Italian, 22.
dominated

1'latoiiism

27-29.
1G6-168.

Morley,

the

359.

Humanistic

141.

enment,

in

353; according

philosophers,
-

Schopen

conceived,

century,

Fechner,

to

phenomena

337, 338; in
how

348;

Nature

reals, according

many

nineteenth

involves,

it

hauer,

of

freedom,

the

Herbart,

to

according

the,

289, 290; world,

Fichte,
290-292

208.

de, Baron,

288

of, 300, 304-306

sophy

129-131.
S.

373

Locke

John,

81

; their

re

81-83.
influenced

by,

150.
Oxford

University,

12.

62-131.
of

Naturalism,
ered

Hobbes,

53

period,

18;

Paracelsus,

rata,

29, 30; in
Rationalists,

of, according
135; in
258,

to

in

128, 129;

the

as

manticists,

two

Pantheism,

Science

Paracelsus,
of

philo

aspects,
natura

na

natii-

of
philosophy
63, 64; continuity

Leibnitz,

123, 12C,

Enlightenment,
of

philosophy
to

conceived

Kant,
by

102.

defined, 94;

of

Spinoza,

94-98.

the

the

according
259

Panpsychism,

14 ; in

n.

Bruno's

and

naturans

163;

in

; its

recov

philosophy

the

tura

the

53

Natural

in

27;

29, 30

sophy,

defined,

the

in

Nature,

Renaissance,

the

in

Locke,

Paris,

Friedrich,

Paulsen,
Kant's

influ

century,

251

priori,
Hume,

190.
of

Phenomena,
to

Kant,

231;

on

judgments

n.

of

Perceptions,
Periods

cited,

synthetic

Pessimism,

philo

scholastic

seventeenth

the

206.

the

297; Schelling's

of

centre

in

ence

248, 255,
Ro

23, 25-27.

the

See

modern

181; of
Berkeley,
Sense-perception.
philosophy, 2-4.

341, 342, 344, 348-351.

the

world

242-243;

of, according

realities

implied

INDEX

374
by, according
and

ture,

ing

of

Philosopher's

Religion,

writer

Ptolemaic

Lessing

Revolutionists,
the,
Philosophical
142.
of the
Enlightenment,
Philosophy, according to Hegel, 326;
modern,

barren

ideas, 355; and

of

Idealism,
in

Phrenology,

355,

nineteenth

the

of

Hobbes's

in

and

in the

See

223,

56;

Science.

Leibnitz,

115;

factor

Enlightenment,

German

220,

influenced

230;

219,
Kant,

233.

Pietists, the, of

the

Enlightenment,

philosopher,

187.

Qualities,

and
primary
secondary, in
philosophy, 161 ; in Berke
At
177, 178. See
ley's philosophy,
Locke's

tributes.

Modern

phers,

iv,

107

147

n.,

236

n.,

282

352

n.,

360

Classical
40

169

n.,

n., 183

n.,

n., 212

n., 315

n., 300

84

n.,

n.,

340

n.,

n.,

n.

Rationalism,

defined,

of, 62-65;

ture

Philoso

n., 66

n.,47

many,

France,

Wolff

and

61

and

the

; the

n.

School

na

of, in

Holland,

Leibnitz-

Ger
of

80;

Wolmans,

221-223, 231.

142.
45

Plato,

Rationalists,

n.

Academy,

Platonic

naissance,

the, of

the

Re

toward,

after

of

119-122.

Leibnitz,

Economists

Political

and
of

the,

tionalists,

the

teenth

Enlighten

of,

Political
Politics

56, 58-

60.

Alexander,

Pope,
say

Popular

quoted,

Enlightenment,
England,
Hume,

the

43;

denned,

of

n.;

of,
the

Great.

Psychology,

Hobbes's
took

189;

of

of

nineteenth

and

223;

philoso
142.

the

of

place

Enlighten

the

Locke,

157-160;

Herbart,

158,

in

357.

the

charactei

224.

Kant,

260-262;

from,

272.

the

273;

in

323.

philosophy,

Protestant,

science,

7.

137;

in

attempt

60;
to

Enlight

the

Philosophical,

Less-

the

Deists,

on,

in

Hobbes,

to

Leibnitz's

118, 119;

writer

164, 165;

the,

201, 202.

according

reconcile,

ing

314,

Locke's

Thomas,

Religion,

enment,
of

338-340;

century,

Reid,
and

philosophy,

nine

of

159.

Reformation,

224-226.

related

in

metaphysics

to

exerted

Reflections

Enlightenment,

empirical,
137;

23.

the

of Real
Reality, of Fichte, 287-295;
and
ism, Mysticism,
Idealism,
320,
321 ; implied
ac
by phenomena,
irra
to
336;
Herbart,
cording
to
tional, the will
as,
according
348.
See
Abso
347,
Schopenhauer,
lute
Reality.
the
Reason,
question of its validity,

Hegel's philosophy,

and

in

the,

of, 6.

218, 219,

the

Movement,

will

the.

in

to,

352, 353;

of, 12.

Psychologists
phers, oflhe

the

of, in

43

334-336;
Herbart,

to

century,

according

Mystics,
rise

Frederick

Hume,

the

188, 189.

Protestant

ment,

father

Bacon

University
Printing,
discovery

56-58;

of

the,

142.

Prague,

Prussia,

133.

Philosophers,

Positivism,

42; Es

Bacon,

on

Mnn,

on

argument

353-355.

Realistic

philosophers, 23,
to Hobbes,
according

Idealism,

the

return

century,

nineteenth

142.

ment,

and

Herbart,

to

See

Leibnitz.

according

337, 338; the

Constitu

63-65.

31,

318-321;

multiple,

28.

Pluralism

contrasted,

for, according

61.

Hobbes,
Plotinus,

the,

Spinoza,
Mysticism,

Descartes,
Realism,

10.

reaction

Platonism,

in

Skeptic

Rand,

cen

philosophy,

G8.

Descartes,

Pietism,

the, 33.

system,

Pyrrho,

356.

tury, 358.

Physics,

Spi

143.

on,

German

As-

102.

noza,

the, "25.

stone,

Philosophical

Psychology,
Psychologists.
of
Psycho-physical
parallelism

187-189.

Hume,

Associational

sociational

337, 338.

Phenomenalism
"

See

; na

reals, accord

many

Herbart,

to

336

Herbart,

to

the

143

Hume's

200, 201; according

to

of

philosophy,
Hegel, 326.

INDEX

Religious

of

philosophy

Schelling,

311, 312.

Renaissance,

the,

character

14

11-15

history,
of

of

philosophers
of
in

of, 15-21
of

of

Natural

period

Hobbes),

31-G1;

61; dis

Hobbes,

of

period of,
general

Science

monads,

func

Romanticists,

erary

Robertson,
Romantic

the

224;

296; its meaning,

sophy,
turn

Romanticists,

religious
eighteenth

of

the,

284, 285

humanism

Goethe

the

J.
of

the

J.,

figure
lightenment,

notable

most

the

of

ence

142

during
his
philosophy,

influence,

216, 230, 234,

ters

n.,

World

299

n.,

and

315

n.,

n.,

352

n.

Individual,

the

236
;

352

n.,

The
n.

Salvation,

Spinoza's

of,

Schelling, F.
and
Hegel,

"W.

J.

what

281, 312;

the

appears

in, 299; life

of, 300-303;

true

his

and

von,

they

Fichte

sought,

Romantic
and

philosophy

279,

spirit
writings
of

Na

233

F.

to

influ
233

Artists, Let

E.

reckon

with,

of

revival

the
61 ; and

Hobbes,

Schopenhauer,
Kant,

to

phical

307

n.

D., 308, 311.

11

represent

of, 22

Locke,

; after

156, 157.

Arthur,

his

relation

; and

his

philoso

330-332

relations,

; and

340-342

pes

simism,

341, 342, 344, 348, 349-351

life

writings

and

influences
345

of

the

way

as

world

of

attitude
in

ward,

19

Bacon,

21

with

teenth

54, 58
attempt

; Hume's

in

3C1.

to

32, 37-39;

at

two
nine

the

invaded

353-357;

century,

evolution,

233.

methods

Hume's

Renais

the

Hobbes,

of, 199, 200;

as

mis

Kant,

Leibnitz's

196-199

on,

classes

of

118, 119

reconcile,

will
the

Church

Galileo,

religion,

tack

the

; in

40-4G

the

348, 349

modern

343-

349-351.
of

of

period

the

idea,

as

deliverance,

A., teacher

F.

the

348

the

and

idea, 345-347;

the

343

thought,
will

reality, 347,

Schultze,
Science,

in

his

world

as

ery

of, 342,

upon

the

irrational

See

Natural

period, Physics.
methods

in

the

Renais

18, 19.

sance,

Scientists

of

the

Natural

period, 31-39, 62-65.

Scottish

See

Science

Descartes,

Leibnitz.

Philosophy, the,
141, 201, 202.
Enlightenment,
Self, idea of, in Locke's
philosophy,
of

102-106.

the

self-destructive
a
Scholasticism,
method, 4 ; mediaeval, Renaissance

Spinoza,
doctrine

and

movement,
of

Education,

Schleiermacher,

Scientific

Modern

of

his

literature,

upon

-Esthetic

Science

169

Stress

Kant,

on

on

by

Royal Society, the, 40.

Josiah,
Royce,
Spirit
iv, 84 n.,
Philosophy,

302,

example

Kant

quoted

to

En

235.

282

notable

and

France

; his

Storm

in, began

aesthetic

of, 308.

Rousseau,

and

the

sance,

of, 297-299;

one

213-216

philo

311.

century,

as

; in

takes

beginning

at

period of, 295,

296, 297

299, 300;

n.

the, 299.

philosophers,

Romanticism,

66

transcend
307-310

brief

227

atives

47 n.,

philosophy

his

of, as
comparison
philosophers, 303-305
; his religious
philosophy, 311, 312.
in
Schiller, J. C. F. von,
prominent

had

279.

his

identity, 303, 310, 311;

world

C., Hobbes,

G.

of

system
Fichte,

192-196.

by,
Revelation
and
SchelMythology,
of, 303, 311, 312.
ling's Philosophy
Revolution, French, the, 213,214,216.
Revolutionists,
the,
Philosophical,
of the
142.
Enlightenment,
German
Ribot,
Theodule,
Psycho
332
n.
logy of To-day,
of the
lit
Richter, J. P., forerunner

300, 304-306

ture,

characterized, 301
ental
philosophy,

124, 120.

association

Resemblance,

the

62-131.

the

Leibnitz's

of

chief
discus

Rationalism

the

Representation,
tion

the

Science

(Galileo, Bacon,
after
England

cussion

discus

30:

(map),

Natural

the

of,

period of,

birthplaces
of

problem

Humanistic

the

22-30;

sion

the

periods

two

sion

period

of

2-4; general
philosophy,
of, 8-11; significance of,

modern

in

first

the

375

School

of

the

159, 160;
293;

of

of

Kant,

Schelling,

Sensationalism,
Sensationalists.

260;
309, 310.

of

Fichte,
See

53.
See

Sensualists.

Ego.

INDEX

376
of

Sensations,
Kant,

perception,

158, 159;

of

salvation,

290, 291;

of

teaching,

Fichte,

339; of Fechner,

Herbart,
Sense

Locke,

of

245;

idity consists,
See

253-255.

in

compared
127; and
Kant,

val

its

according

Kant,

to

of

the,

Enlighten

the

the, of

Sentimentalist,
Seven

Years'

and

Lord,

Shaftesbury,

148,

Locke,

State,

152, 153.

Shelley,
305

P.

B.,

Prometheus

n.

scholars,
Hume,

Skeptics, the,

by Renaissance
Hume,

of

the

of

187-189;

Dugald,

Stirling,

J.

236

Enlightenment,
in

according

Sociology

of

Solipsism,

213-

France,

Storm

3CO.

Comte,

to

72

Descartes,

"

defined,

"

according
monad

of

122, 123, 126; according

;

idea

of

in

338-340

of

problem

the

See

of, 357-3GO.

functioning

time,

means

Herbert,

evolution,

Spener,
tion

of,

Descartes's

the

his

rela

the

his

81-84;

; influence

84-86

training

from

pulse

80

on,

influence

of, 90, 91; the

in

central
93;

his

ticism

his

im

and

86, 87;

npon,
with

of

his

science,

new

acquaintance

the

Colle-

philosophi
giants, 87, 88 ; life and
method
cal writings
of, 88-90
; the

ple

of

f undanental

philosophy,
in

problems
pantheism,
of, 98-102

91,

94-98
;

his

92

the

doctrine

Kant,

Renaissance

224, 227,

movement,

the,"

19, 35.
17, 18.

the,"

traditions,

idealism

of

Fichte,

290,

in

aC'

marked

Renaissance

of, 14,

15.

Descartes's
in

77, 81, 82;

the

of,

240-242.

Kant,

to

world

the

states,

rise

philoso
philosophy

the

and

Occasionalists

Spinoza,

philo
philoso
sophy, 119-122 ; in Locke's
to
Locke,
phy, 160-162
; according
175
and
Hume,
174,
; in
Berkeley,
178
176,
philosophy,
;
Berkeley's
Hume's
of, 195, 196.
conception
law

reason,

Suicide

according

to

of,

129.

Schopenhauer,

349.

according

Sympathy
hauer,

350,

245;

the

cording
of

to

place
to

Schopen

3.31.

according,

Synthesis,

Synthetic

of, in

Kant,

Hegel,

to

knowledge,

245-248;
327.

Kant,

See

judgments

of

of

244,
ac

Fichte,

Deduction.

Kant,

249-

"252.

three

teaching,
; the

11.

304.

295;

princi

his

His

166

to

by

methods,
of

Sufficient

de, 31, 35

place

n.

230.

Descartes,

Jewish

43

n.

81-84, 91-95, 101; in Leibnitz's

Kant,

to

47

202.

141,

Stress

Struggle

of

Mind.

Education,

Baruch

to

torical

his

Strife

phy,

the

362.

J., 220,

P.

Spinoza,

55,

296.

Substance,

253-255.

his

and

by

possible

knowledge
of, according

and

and

Hobbes,

11.

Subjectivism,

according

; the

immortality
276

Hume,

to

the,

postulate of
to
of, according
Herbart's
philoso

261-2G4

Kant,

Spencer,

231.

Textbook

revived

Subjective
cording

conceived

Leibnitz

196

the

72, 79,

Descartes,

to

as,

by

to

Thought,

H.,

Subjective

183.

Space

Schelling,

Fichte,

n.

Stoicism,

229, 295,

Kant,

Soul.

of English

Stewart,

235.

Kant,

Enlightenment

phy,

Kant,
Fichte,

upon

Leslie, Hobbes,

Stephen,

216.

the

influence

de, quoted,

scholars,

the

philoso

ideal, 41, 47.

States,

Unbound

141.

Soul,

the
after

the, according

tory

of

11;

Philosophy,

Lore's

influenced

Social

Leibnitz's,

of

58-60.

quoted, 325.
revived
Skepticism,

to

his

Stael, Madame

225.

War,

with

285.

142.

(Rousseau's

enment

his
the

foci

Spirit, Sc.e Mind,

of
Spirituality
and
Hegel, 281.

Enlight

the

of
of

generation

the

278,279;

141, 212.

ment,

of

phy

Perceptions.

Sensualists,

summary

conception

world

359.

what

102-106

lOu; his

Taurellus,
Tetens,

mys
of

J.

Theology,

11.

N., 22L
Hume's

attack

on,

195, 196.

INDEX

Thesis,

of

Fichte,

Things-in-themselves,
according
how
how

treated

of

by phenomena,
philosophy,

322,

War,

in

by

Van

according
217.

142, 221.

University

knowledge

165.

of

E.

Kant,

of

n.,

in

the

300

n.

Ages, self-destructive,
to
of, according
Descartes,
Leibnitz,

world
to

Tachimhausen,

E.

William,

W.

of

47

70

n.,

iv, 209
in

History

of

its

what

according

validity

of

Leibnitz,

122

harmony,

(philosophical),
imposed
cosmic,

Universal,

the

125;
125-129

preestab-

129-131

(theological),
of

Hegel,

and

concrete

322-326.

abstract,

99,

Universe,

Man's

Renaissance,
Ptolemaic

relation

to, in

8"18; according
system,

Copernican
the, according

33;

system,
to

to

according
34

Kant,

; the

cording

261, 2G4,

judgments
religious

321

idea,

n.,
on

pri

; as
to

the

85.

221, 222, 228.

63, 64, 76, 83

according

Spinoza's

; in
a

in

centre

142.

will

of,

as

according

and

to

conscious

of

contradic
as

Schopenhauer,
misery

Des

philosophy.

of

terms

; rela

to

conception
130

world

Schopenhauer,

Universe.

n.,

12.

to,

298
321

the

to

n.;

possible,

best

tions,

idea

183

282

grace,
God

Goethe,

as

n.,

n.,

Frarjments,

77 ; in

the

to

132

the, Leibnitz's

ness,

of
30

n.,

278

new

of
of

the

100.

of

97

History
23

n.,

the,

cartes,

super

to

119

Christian,

tion

according

n.,

Renaissance,

World,

intrinsic

; the

of,

n.

Wolffians,

ished

to

suicide

Schopenhauer,

to

synthetic

Wolff,

260.

the

n.,

WolfeiitMttel

255-

Kant,

to

348

iv, 8 n.,

Wittenberg,
the

n.

as

349-351.

236

n.,

accord

345-347;

Wilhelm,

ori, 251
Friedrich,

of, 269-277;

according

347,

denial

Kant's

n.

as

according

and

idea,

reality,

the

230

1'hiloso-

n.

Germany,

Schopenhauer,

Philosophy,
221.

von,

History

352

n.,

in

theory
and

as,

Windelband,

116, 117.

332

n.,

School

Schopenhauer,

72.

of Philosophy,

Romanticism

M.,

the, Kant's

349

Middle

5; criterion

Unity,

107

n.,

R.

Romantic

and,

of, 16, 20.

Philosophy,
Understanding,

73

irrational

Schopen

Theories,

233, 307.

ing

Schelling,

of

of,

223.

342.

Hedonistic

Schopenhauer,

standard

consists,

de, 20S-210,

A., History

the

the

349-351.
Council

on

n.

Will,

freedom,

influence

of, 12.

A.

Richard,

Wernaer,

Kant,

to

method,

302, 307-310

Ueberweg,

M.

John,

Weimar,

possible

165.

239, 240; philosophy,

73

F.

Watson,
Weber,

Hegel's

Transcendental,

phy,

his

89.

Wagner,

philosophy,

John,

Turner,

43.

87,

Voltaire,

in

Matthew,

12;

280.

"

of, according

of

(map),

Ende,

Vienna,
to

47

Toland,

Truths

der

philosophy,

Tindal,

Truth,

Renaissance,

41, 47.

Spinoza,

Her

to

253-255.

Trent,

the

containing

iv, 70

means

in

Utilitarianism,

Spinoza's

space,

hauer,

Universities,
towns

304,

Man.

ac

335.
and

Schelling,

to

New

Utopias,

Schopenhauer's

Christian,

95, 101, 102;

Time

See

345, 346.

Years'

Thought,

the

implied

332;

340;

Thomasius,

SOU;

according

311.

291;

philosophy,

of

Schopenhauer,

Thirty

290,

according

basis

265;

336;

330-351;

Herbart,

to

bart, 33G;

240-242,

of,

327.

of,

Schelling,

by

concern

cording

world

Fichte,

by

philosophy

chief

Hegel,

Kant,

to

treated

the

of
the

295;

377

of,
348,

idea,

ac

345-347

according
349.

See