The Ways of Manhood and Womanhood

The divide between the sexes can bee seen across cultures all over the world, especially
here in America. This divide has made some people wonder whether or not the two distinct boxes
each gender is associated with will ever disappear. A man is seen as needing to follow a certain
way of life; one different from a woman. Can this ideal of the sexes following different paths be
explained through household objects and layouts, or can it be explained through behavioral and
biological explanations? The topic of gender roles in America and how they began changing
with the industrial society is analyzed and explained better through the lens of an archeological
discipline, compared to a socio-psychological discipline. An archaeological disciplines analysis
displays a more fair representation of society through material findings, as opposed to a
psychological discipline whose findings are more bias and therefore dont provide an accurate
representation of shifts in gender roles in America.
The two sources that will be examined include a book and a scholarly article. The book,
The Archaeology of Gender in Historic America, is written by Deborah Rotman. The scholarly
article, Psychology and Gender at the Turn of the Century, is written by Henry L. Minton. The
former is of an archaeology discipline while the latter of the two is from a socio-psychology
discipline. Being from two completely diverse disciplines, they have more differences in their
use of evidence and argumentation than similarities.
The similarities may be slim, but they are still relevant. For one, they both use academic
language that is at times complex in understanding. Both of the texts also organize their sources
and analysis well through explanations based off of their own individual disciplines. A major
similarity is that they were both composed under an academic context for review by an academic
audience. This audience is made up of professionals, students, or researchers on the area of

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expertise that each author is geared towards. They are able to view the text and understand the
terminology that the author incorporates into their writing, thus allowing them to follow along.
When comparing each text, there are many differences in the ways in which they use
evidence and present their argumentation. The book, The Archaeology of Gender in Historic
America, provides historical analysis of gender in America during the 1800s and 1900s and
explains how gender roles began shifting. Given that an archeological discipline is a branch of
social sciences, it is able to study history by reconstructing past life and societies through
documentation and analysis of material culture. When looking at written records, such as those
from a socio-psychological discipline, the elite members in society who mostly compose these
records have different experiences and views than most of the populace. Therefore, a material
record of archaeology provides a closer representation of what society was like.
The archeological disciplines analysis of gender roles is supported through
archaeological findings upon households located in America. Under the discipline, the author
examines buildings and objects that were used during the time period of the nineteenth century.
The author, Deborah Rotman, states how floor plans were delineated by gender throughout
American homes in this time. (52) She talks of gender roles and how they reflected upon the
way a home was built. In doing so, she further examines how gender roles were deeply
embedded in everyday life, thus showing how the discipline of archaeology presents evidence to
back up an argument. Here, the author demonstrates that the way in which rooms are placed in
the home parallel the use of each room to societal expectations of gendered roles. This exhibits
how an archeological study emphasizes the way structures and objects pertain to a way of life
during a certain point in history by providing material evidence and reasonable explanations that
back up the topic at hand.

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An archeological disciplines explanations and findings are argued to display a fairer
picture of society, however the discipline is not completely free of impurities. The discipline may
be subject to its own bias when choosing samples to include in analysis. It may also face
problems such as looting of artifacts that may hinder investigations. However, despite these
circumstances, the archaeological discipline still provides a better understanding of society and
gender in America.
Deborah Rotman demonstrates now an archaeological discipline portrays American
society through material evidence. For example, Rotman mentions ceramic dishes and how the
color of these dishes had symbolic associations with male and female activities and, therefore,
with separation of mens and womens roles. (57) Certain colors represented what each gender
would do. One would be for women cooking while another may be for then man who is doing
yard work outside. Here, the author provides solid evidence to interpret the concept of gender
roles and the association of two separate spheres in the gender in America at the time. An
archaeological discipline not only allows her to explain this historically, but also through
archeological findings that clearly depict what life was like in nineteenth century America.
The other text, Psychology and Gender at the Turn of the Century, is based of a sociopsychological discipline. This discipline studies peoples thoughts, feelings, and behaviors and
how other people influence them all. Those in the discipline explain behavior as a result of social
situations. This may seem more likely to give a valid explanation of the way a society operates,
however, psychologists often give their explanations under different points of view that are
highly bias.
In the text, Henry L. Minton utilizes evidence and presents his topic of changing gender
ideals ans how there was increased representation of women in the workplace and higher

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education in the 1900s. He talks of gender roles in America, more specifically through the field
of psychology, but does so by also explaining analysis of different psychologists. As women
began emerging in the workforce more, they were professionally marginalized, making the
discourse from men psychologists at the time reflect an androcentric bias. The author, Henry
L. Minton, analyzes this by providing examples from various psychologists.
Two of them mentioned include G. Stanley Hall and James Cattel. Hall agreed with the
evolutionary theory and used this to explain his thinking on the differences between genders. He
uses the science of evolution to explain behavior that coincided with thoughts on gender at the
time which was that women should devote themselves to task of motherhood. His thinking is
one-sided and only considers the means of evolution as the reason for different gender roles. Hall
believes that due to evolution, the physical and behavioral attributes of women appear inferior to
men. Another psychologist that uses bias is James Cattel. Cattel articulates his behaviorist
manifesto with its central theories of objectivity and control. He uses scientific methods such as
these to explain why he believes behaviors regarding how education was becoming feminized
are not beneficial to males. In conclusion, although psychologists at the time provide analysis of
changing gender roles, they did so under different points of view that were highly biased due to
what they believed in. These bias explanations sounded more like opinions. Therefore, the
socio-psychological discipline does not provide an accurate explanation of the shift in gender
roles in America.
Each of these two disciplines displays evidence and argumentation in the ways that they
do because of their audience, the knowledge their research produces, and the way they treat their
sources. In the book, Rotman is addressing an academic audience that is most likely from her
field of study. It may be composed of colleagues, students, or young minds interested in the way

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archeology is used to explain the past. This disciplines knowledge of the field allows it to
produce compelling research about archaeological findings and how these findings provide a
particular insight into a time in the past. The sources that are included in the text are often ones
of archeological examinations that other people in the same discipline have done. Rotman
includes these to increase credibility of their knowledge and relevancy of their argumentation to
the research. The scholarly journal does this differently since a socio-psychological discipline
offers a different context. In the journal, Minton is also addressing an academic audience. The
terminology that is included is complex and only fit for an educated mind. The disciplines
knowledge of the field is what allows the research to be geared towards explaining arguments
through observations of behavior. The studies data are then analyzed so that it may be
interpreted to back up claims being made throughout the discipline. Sources that are included in
the text are often ones that involve these studies or ones that involve knowledge from
psychological theories and methods of collecting data that are also used to back up
argumentations.
The two scholarly publications of the archeology discipline and the socio-psychology
discipline mentioned above give clear indications throughout their texts of the different ways
they approach the topic of gender roles in America. Each provide detailed explanations on their
analysis, however, the archeological discipline provides a more reasonable one. The discipline,
as shown by Rotman, is able to give an understanding that reflects the larger population in
America during the late 1800s and early 1900s. This understanding exceeds the sociopsychological explanations that are bias upon the point of view of the psychologist.
Journal Abstract

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After careful consideration of the topic being researched and explained amongst the
archeological and psychological disciplines, several questions have arose that look deeper into
gender roles. One question pertains to how household floor plans and objects have changed over
time along with gender roles. This question would focus on looking at how the kitchen has been
placed in the home or what the color of ceramics and dishes look like compared to how they
have looked in the nineteenth century. The second question considers if people put less of an
emphasis now on physical differences in genders and in the way each sex performs roles now.
Another question focuses on if the changing roles of genders in America has affected other
cultures or led them to follow suit. One last question would be if one of the reasons why gender
roles have been challenged greatly today results from the increased acceptability of homosexuals
in society. Homosexuals may cross these gender boundaries and represent the elimination of
boundaries that each of the sexes has been boxed in. In doing so, they dont conform to societal
expectations, therefore not conforming to particular roles that may be expected of them as well.
Looking at the questions mentioned above, the objective for them would be to research
extensive evidence as to why gender roles are the way they are. Males have been portrayed as
being the head of the household and preforming tasks that are considered masculine. These tasks
include doing yard work, taking leadership roles, and playing sports. On the other hand, female
roles have been described as the total opposite. Females are portrayed as being submissive
individuals and doing tasks such as child rearing, house work, and being in the kitchen cooking
for the family. These two separate spheres have been embedded in society for so long that most
believe these ideals to be right.
After reading about the two different disciplines, archeology and socio-psychology, there
seem to be certain methodologies that would aid in attempting to answer these questions. One

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way would be preforming a census or various studies pertaining to the questions so that a more
thorough understanding of the populations views are provided. Another way would be to
research findings done by leading people in the disciplines. This would provide evidence for
explaining how theories and ideals can show the meaning behind gender roles. The
methodologies listed above could be exceptional beginnings to build upon when answering the
questions mentioned.