Theory of Equations Volume I by Burnside & Panton

THE BOOK WAS
DRENCHED
a:
DQ
DO
THE THEORY OF EQUATIONS.
VOLUME
I.
DUBLIN UNIVERSITY PRESS SERIES
TIIK
THEORY
EQUATIONS:
01-
INTRODUCTION TO THH THHORY OF BINARY

ALGKBRAIC FORMS.
BY
WILLIAM SNOW BURNSIDK,
M.A., D.Sc.,
LAIE SENIOR I-KLIOW OF TRINI1Y COII.EGK, DUBLIN;

AND ERASMUS SMUH's PROFESSOR OP MATHBMAIICS IN
IHK UNIVBRSI'IY OF DUBLIN;
AND
ARTHUR WILLIAM PANTON,

I'KIIOW
AND 1U1 OR,
M.A., D.Sc.,
IRINI'lY COLLEGE,
DONhOAl I.KCirRI<K
IN
VOL.
EIGHTH EDITION
DUBLIN: HODGES, FIGGIS, &
LONDON: LONGMANS, GREEN
Sc
1924.
DUBLIN;
MA1HEMA1ICS.
I.
(Second hsue).
CO.,
CO.,
NASSAU STREET.
PATERNOSTER ROW.
Printed by PONSOVBV
&
GIBBS, University Press, Dublin.
PREFACE TO SEVENTH EDITION OF VOLUME

HAVING been deprived
thought
it
of Dr.
inadvisable to
the introduction of
new
Pan ton's
to preserve the original design,

this
volume as indicated
co-operation, I have
make any change

matter, as
and
I.
in this
volume by
wished as far as possible

also the limits fixed for
in the Preface to previous editions.
In coining to this decision I have been influenced to a great

degree by the favourable reception already given to this work.
W.
June !//, 1912.
Dr. linrnside died llth March, 1920.

Dr. Panton died 18th December, 1906,
S.
F>.
vi
Preface.
under the
Modern
and
Higher Algebra,
Chapter on
our aim to make this Chapter
It has been
Determinants.
as simple
of
title
intelligible as possible to the beginner;
and
at
the same time to omit no proposition which might be found
For many
useful in the application of this calculus.
Chapter, as well as in other parts of the
this
in
examples
of the
work, we are indebted to the kindness of Mr. Cathcart, Fellow

of Trinity College.
We
have approached the consideration of Covariants and
Invariants
differences
the
of the
simplest
medium
the
through
roots of
the functions
of
the
of
This appears to be
equations.
and most attractive mode
of
the
presenting
subject to beginners, and has the advantage, as will be seen,

of enabling us to express irrational
We
terms of the roots.

to show
how
mode
this
oovariants
rationally
in
have attempted at the same time
of treatment
may
harmony with the more general problem
be brought into
of the linear trans-
formation of algebraic forms.
Of the works which have afforded us
assistance in the
more
elementary part of the subject, we wish to mention particularly

the Traite d'Alyebre of
late Professor
much
to
Young
M.
Bertrand, and the writings of the
of Belfast,
which have contributed so
extend and simplify the analysis and solution of
numerical equations.
In the more advanced portions of the subject we are

indebted
mainly,
among
published
works,
to
the
Lessons
Introductory to the Modern Higher Algebra of Dr. Salmon, and
the Theorie der bindren algebraischen Formen of Clebsch

in
some degree
to
the
Theorie
des
Formes
binaires
and
of the
yii
Preface.
We must record
De Bruno.
Ohev. F. Fad
also our obligations
in this department of the subject to Mr. Michael Roberts,
whose papers in the Quarterly Journal and other
and from whose professorial
lectures
the
in
periodicals,
University of
very great assistance has been derived.
Dublin,
the examples also are taken from Papers set
from
Many
by him
of
at the
University Examinations.
In connexion with various parts of the subject several

other
have
works
mentioned the
been
treatises
consulted,
among which may be
on Algebra by Serret, Meyer Hirsch,
and 'Rubini, and papers in the mathematical journals by Boole,

Cayley, Hermite, and Sylvester.
We
to
have added also in
what was contained
new Chapter on
Our aim has been
this
and the preceding
edition,
in the earlier editions of this work>
the Theory of Substitutions and Groups.

to give here, within as
narrow limits
as
possible, an account of the subject which may be found useful

by students as an introduction to those fuller and more
systematic works which are specially devoted to this depart-
ment
of Algebra.
in the
assistance
Cours
(PAlgebre
The works which have
preparation of this Chapter are
supMeure
Equations algebriques by
Netto's
Algebra
des
und
ihre
Serret's
Substitutions
(Paris,
Anwendung
et
des
1870);
auf
die
which there is an English

1882),
F.
N.
Cole
and
(Ann. Arbor, Mich., 1892)
by
(Leipzig,
Legons sur
Traitt
M. Camille Jordan
Substitutionentheorie
translation
afforded us most
of
la
Resolution algtbrique des Equations,
(Paris, 1895).
COLLEGE, DUBLIN,
May, 1904.
by M. H. Vogt
TABLE OF CONTENTS OF VOL
I.
INTRODUCTION.
A rt
Page
...
...........
1.
Definitions,
2.
Numerical and algebraical equations,
3.
Polynomials,
CHAPTER
I.
GENEKAL PROPERTIES OF POLYNOMIALS.

relating to polynomials when the variable receives large values,
when the variable receives small values,
4.
Theorem
5.
Similar theorem
6.
Change
of
...
......
......
............10
.......
form of a polynomial corresponding

Derived functions,
to
an increase or diminu-
tion of the variable.
Continuity of a rational integral function,

8. Form of the quotient and remainder when a polynomial
binomial,
9. Tabulation of functions,
.
.
.
10. Graphic representation of a polynomial, .
11. Maximum and minimum values of polynomials,
7.
5
6
CHAPTER
is
divided by a
,,
12
.13
.
17
II.
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF EQUATIONS.

.
14. Theorems relating to the real roots of equations,
Existtjnce of a root in the general equation.
Imaginary roots,
.
16. Theorem determining the number of roots of an equation,
12. 13,
15.
17.
18.
Equal roots,
Imaginary roots enter equations in
pairs,
19. DescRrtes' rule of signs for positive roots,
.19
.21
.22
.....
...
25
26
28
Table of Contents.
Art.
30
20. Descartes' rule of signs for negative roots,
of Descartes' rule in proving the existence of imaginary roots,
21.
Use
22.
Theorem
relating to
30
the substitution of two given numbers for the

31
variable,
32
Examples,
CHAPTER
III.
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE ROOTS AND COEFFICIENTS OF EQUATIONS, WITH

APPLICATIONS TO SYMMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF THE ROOTS.
23. Relations between the roots and coefficients.
Theorem,
.35
36
24. Applications of the theorem,

26. Depression of an equation
when
a relation exists between
two of
its roots,
"
42
26.
The cube
roots of unity,
43
27.
Symmetric functions of the roots,
46
48
Examples,
28.
Theorems
relating to symmetric functions,

.
Examples,
CHAPTER
...
53
54
1Y.
TRANSFORMATION OF EQUATIONS.
60
29. Transformation of equations
60
30. Roots with signs changed,
31. Roots multiplied
32. Reciprocal roots
by a given quantity,
and reciprocal equations,
33.
To
84.
Removal of terms,
increase or diminish the roots
......
by a given quantity,
37.
The
The
38.
Homographic transformation
.64
68
73
71
cubic,
76
by symmetric functions,
whose roots are any powers
40. Formation of the equation
proposed equation,
41. Trans foimation in general,
42.
biquadratic,
89. Transformation
76
of the roots of the
.........
......*.
Equation of squared differences of a cubic
43. Criterion of the nature of the roots of a cubic,

44. Equation of differences in general,
Examples,
62
67
35. Binomial coefficients,
36.
61
78
80
.81
84
84
86
xi
Table of Contents.
CHAPTER
V.
SOLUTION OF RECIPROCAL AND BINOMIAL EQUATIONS.

Page
90
Art.
45. Reciprocal equations,
Propositions embracing their leading general
46-52. Binomial equations.
92
properties,
53.
The
54.
Solution of binomial equations by circular functions,
special roots of the equation #>
....
0,
96
98
100
Examples,
CHAPTER
VI.
ALGEBRAIC SOLUTION OP THE CUBIC AND BIQUADRATIC.

55.
On
66.
The
105
the algebraic solution of equations,

algebraic solution of the cubic equation,
108
109
67. Application to numerical equations,

68. Expression of the cubic as the difference of
59. Solution of the cubic
two cubes,
by symmetric functions of the
....
Examples,
60.
Homographic
61. First solution
62.
relation
between two roots of a cubic,
by radicals
roots,
.111
.113
Euler's assumption,
of the biquadratic.
114
120
121
126
Examples,
Second solution by radicals of the biquadratic,
127
63. Resolution of the quartic into its quadratic factors.
Ferrari's solution,
64. Resolution of the quartic into its quadratic factors.
Descartes solution,
133
135
roots,
139
65. Transformation of the biquadratic into the reciprocal form,
129
66.
Solution of the biquadratic
67.
Equation of squared differences of a biquadratic,
142
68. Criterion of the nature of the roots of a biquadratic,
144
Examples,
....
............
146
CHAPTER YIL
PROPERTIES OF THE DERIVED FUNCTIONS.
69.
Graphic representation of the derived function,
70.
Theorem
71. Rolle's
relating to the
Theorem.
maxima and minima
154
of a polynomial,
.155
167
Corollary,
72.
Constitution of the derived functions,
73.
Theorem
relating to multiple roots,
167
.
.168
159
74. Determination of multiple roots,

75. 76.
Theorems relating
the equation,
Examples,
to the passage of the variable
through a root of
161, 162
163
Table of Contents.
xii
CHAPTER
VIII.
SYMMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF THE ROOTS.

Art.
77.
Newton's theorem on the sums of powers of
78.
Expression of a rational symmetric function of the roots in terms of the

coefficients.
roots.
I.,
in terms of the coefficients.
sums of powers of
roots
169
Prop. III.,
80. Expression of the coefficients in terms of
sums
powers of roots,
Definitions of order and weight of symmetric functions, and theorem
of
170
173
relating to the former,

82. Calculation of
symmetric functions of the
83.
products,
Homogeneous
Page
166
167
Prop. II.,
79. Further proposition relating to the expression of
81.
Prop.
CHAPTER
roots,
.174
178
IX.
LIMITS OF THE HOOTS OF EQUATIONS.

180
84. Definition of limits,
180
85. Limits of roots.
Prop.
86. Limits of roots.
Prop. II.,
I..
181
87. Practical applications,

88.
Newton's method
89. Inferior limits,
of finding limits.
Prop. III.,
and limits of the negative
....
186
roots,
187
90. Limiting equations,
188
Examples,
CHAPTER
SEPAIIATION OF
91. General explanation,
92.
THE
X.
iiOOTS OF EQUATIONS.
..........
Theorem of Fourier and Bu dan,

.
from the theorem
96. Sturm's theorem,
97. Sturm's theorem.
Equal
imaginary
roots,
of Fourier
and Budan,
197
198
.'
.203
roots,
206
99. Conditions for the reality of the roots of an equation,

100. Conditions for the reality of the roots of
-
.192
194
98. Application of Sturm's theorem,
Examples,
189
189
93. Application of the theorem,

94. Application of the theorem to
95. Corollaries
183
185
a biquadratic,
.210
.211
,212
Table of Contents.
xiii
CHAPTER XL
SOLUTION OF NUMERICAL EQUATIONS.
Art.
Paê
215
and numerical equations,

102. Theorem relating to commensurable roots,
101. Algebraical
103. Newton's
104. Application of tbe

106.
216
metbod of divisors,
Method of
method of
limiting tbe
217
218
divisors,
number
of trial-divisors,
221
106. Determination of multiple roots,
222
Newton's method of approximation,

108. Horner's method of solving numerical equations,
109. Principle of the trial-divisor in Homer's method,
107.
....
....
112.
Homer's process,
Application of Homer's method to cases
Lagnwge's method of approximation,
113.
Numerical solution of the biquadratic by Descartes' method,
227
231
235
110. Contraction of
111.
226
Mliere roots are nearly equal,
238
241
242
246
Miscellaneous examples,
CHAPTER
XII.
COMPLEX NUMBERS AND THE COMPLEX VA1UABLE.

114.
115.
Complex numbers
Complex numbers
116. Multiplication
and
Graphic representation,
Addition and subtraction,
division,
117. Other operations on
llS.
The complex
complex numbers,
249
260
.......
'261
....
25?
variable,
119. Continuity of a function of the
.....
complex variable,
252
266
120. Variation of the amplitude of the function corresponding to the descrip-
tion of a small closed curve
by the complex variable,

number of roots comprised within a
.
266
121. Cauchy's theorem relating to the
268
plane area,
122. Proof of the fundamental theorem relating to the
number
of roots of the
269
general equation,
123. Second proof of fundamental theorem,
124. Determination of complex numerical roots
260
:
solution of the cubic,
261
125. Solution of the biquadratic,
266
126. Solution of biquadratic continued,
267
xiv
Table of Contents.
NOTES.
A..
Algebraic solution of equations,
B.
Solution of numerical equations,
C.
Tta
....<
........
proposition that every equation has a root.
Pa*
271
27
278
THEORY OF EQUATIONS.
INTRODUCTION.
1.
Definitions.
We
Any
mathematical expression involving a
called a function, of that quantity.

shall be employed mainly with such algebraical func-
quantity
is
and integral. By a rational function of a

meant one which contains that quantity in a rational
form only that is, a form free from fractional indices or radical
signs.
By an integral innnfriftn of a quantity is meant one in
which the quantity enters in an integral form only that is,
never in the denominator of a fraction. The following exprestions as are rajôj^l
quantity
is
sion, for
and
example, in which n
is
a positive integer,
x
integral algebraical function of
ax* + bx"~ l
or"-
3
-i-
is
a rational
Jcx
/.
It is to be observed that this definition has reference to the

quantity x only, of which the expression is regarded as a function.
The several coefficients a, 6, c, &o., may be irrational or
fractional, and the function still remain rational and integral
in x.
function of x is represented for brevity by F(x), f(x) r (x),

or some such symbol.
The name polynomial is given to the algebraical function
to express the fact that it is constituted of * number of
<j>
Introduction.
containing different powers of x connected by the signs plus or

minus. For certain values of x regarded as variable one poly-
may become
equal to another differently constituted.

The algebraical expression of such a relation is called an equation; and any value of x which satisfies this equation is called a
nomial
The determination
root of the equation.
of all possible roots
constitutes the complete solution of the equation.
by bringing all the terms to one side, we

any
equation according to descending powers of x
may arrange
in the following manner
It
is
obvious that,
-f
w ~l
#i#
fl^tf"'
<in-\x
+ an
0.
The highest power of x in this equation being n, it is said- to

be an equation of the nth degree in x. For such an equation TVO
The suffix
ghall, in general, employ the form here written.
attached to the letter a indicates the power of x which each coefficient accompanies, the sum of the exponent of x and the suffix
An equation is not altered

of a being equal to n for each term.
if all its terms be divided by any quantity.
may thus, if
we please, dividing by Oo, make the coefficient of #* in the above
We
equation equal to unity.
make
this supposition
It will often be found convenient to
and in such
cases the equation will be
written in the form
*n + ptX*- + ptX"-* +
1
An
equation
is
+P*-\X
said to be complete
+pn *
when
it
0.
contains terms
involving x in all its powers from n to 0, and incomplete when

some of the terms are absent ; or, in other words, when some of
the coefficients p t9 p 2 &c., are equal to zero.
The term pn ,
which does not contain #, is called the absolute term. An equa,
tion is numerical or algebraical according as its coefficients are
number*, or algebraical symbols.
Vamerical and Algebraical Equations.
In many
and physical science the final
mathematical problem presents itself in the form of an equation
on whoe solution that of the problem depends. It is natural,
2.
researches in both mathematical
Numerical and Algebraical Equations.
therefore, that the attention of mathematicians should have
been
at an early stage in the history of the science directed towards

The science of the Theory of Equainquiries of this nature.
tions, as it now stands, has grown out of the successive attempts
of mathematicians to discover general methods for the solution
of equations of any degree. When the coefficients of an equation
are given numbers, the problem is to determine a numerical

value, or perhaps several different numerical values, which will
satisfy the equation.
progress has been
In
branch of the science very great

the best methods hitherto advanced
this
made and
;
for the discovery, either exactly or approximately, of the numerical values of the roots will be explained in their proper places
in this work.
Equal progress has not been made in the general solution of

The stuequations whose coefficients are algebraical symbols.
dent is aware that the root of an equation of the second degree,
whose coefficients are such symbols, may be expressed in terms
of these coefficients in a general formula and that the nume;
any particular numerical equation may be obtained

by substituting in this formula the particular numbers for the
symbols. It was natural to inquire whether it was possible to
rical roots of
any such formula for the solution of equations of higher

Such results have been attained in the case of equadegrees.
It will be shown that
tions of the third and fourth degrees.
discover
in certain cases these formulas fail to supply the solution of

substitution of the numerical coef-
a numerical equation by
ficients
for the general
symbols, and are, therefore, in this
respect inferior to the corresponding algebraical
solution of
the quadratic.
attempts have been

formulas for equations of the
Many
may now be regarded

analysts that
it is
made
fifth
as established
to arrive at similar general
and higher degrees
by
but
it
the researches of modern
not possible by means of radical signs, and
other signs of operation employed in common algebra, to ex'

press the root of an equation of the fifth or any higher degree
in terms of the coefficients.
Introduction.
3.
Polynomials.
From
the preceding observations
it is
plain that one important object of the science of the Theory of

Equations is the discovery of those values of the quantity x
regarded as variable which give to the polynomial /(a?) the

In attempting to discover such values of
particular value zero.
x we shall be led into many inquiries concerning the values
assumed by the polynomial for other values of the variable.
We shall, in fact,
a
see in the next chapter that, corresponding to

continuous series of values of x varying from an infinitely
great negative quantity (- oo ) to an infinitely great positive

quantity (+ oo ),/(#) will assume also values continuously varyThe study of such variations is a very important part of
ing.
the theory of polynomials.

The general solution of numerical
equations is, in fact, a tentative process ; and by examining the
values assumed
by the polynomial for certain
arbitrarily
assumed
values of the variable, we shall be led, if not to the root itself,

at least to an indication of the neighbourhood in which it exists,
and within which our further approximation must be
A polynomial is sometimes called a quantic.

to have distinct
degrees.
names
The terms
carried on.
It is convenient
for the quantics of various successive
quacfrgtic (or guadric), cujjic, biquadratic (or
are used to represent quantics of the

2nd, 3rd, 4th, 6th, oth, &c., degrees ; and the equations obtained
by equating these quantics to zero are called quadratic, cubic*.
quartic),
gum tic,
sextic, &c.,
tiquadratief &c., equations, respectively.
CHAPTER
I.
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF POLYNOMIALS.

IN tracing the changes
4.
of value of a polynomial correspond-
ing to changes in the variable, we shall

in the polynomial axe most important
first
inquire what terms

values very great
when
very small are assigned to
x.
This inquiry will form the
subject of the present and succeeding Articles.
Writing the polynomial in the form
or*
^
-- + ---+...+
_L
it is plain that its value tends to become

equal to a&P as x tends
towards QO
The following theorem will determine a quantity
such that the substitution of this, or of any greater quantity*
for x will have the effect of making the term a x" exceed the
.
sum
In what follows we suppose
of all the others.
to be
and
in general in the treatment of polynomials and

positive ;
the
equations
highest term is supposed to be written with the
positive sign.
Theorem.
the value
If in
1, or
a$
is
the polynomial
any greater
that one of the coefficients
a,,
value, be substituted for x, where
ak
whose numerical value
is
a,
a,,
greatest, irrespective of sign, the term containing the highest power

ofx will exceed the sum of all the terms which follow.
The
inequality
>
x*~ l
4-
a, of*-*
+ a^j x +
a*
General Properties of Polynomials.
by any value
is satisfied
of
x which makes
n ~l
a xn > a k (x
where #*
is
the greatest
without regard to sign.

the brackets, we have
<*
which
that
> a"
is satisfied if
-f
#""2
+x+
an ^, an
among the coefficients a #2
the
series
withip
Summing
geometric
ly
frp
or *" >
"
M^T) (x
a (x - 1) be > or = a k
x > or =
is
1),
1} '
1.
#0
The theorem here proved
is
useful in supplying,
when the
polynomial are given numbers, a number such

x receives values nearer to 4- oo the polynomial will
coefficients of the
that
when
If we change the sign of #,

preserve constantly a positive sign.
the first term will retain its sign if n be even, and will become
negative if n be odd ; so that the theorem also supplies a negative value of x, such that for any value nearer to - oo the
polynomial will retain constantly a positive sign if n be even,

and a negative sign if n be odd. The constitution of the poly-
nomial is, in general, such that limits much nearer to zero than
those here arrived at can be found beyond which the function
preserves the same sign ; for in the above proof we have taken
the most unfavourable case, viz. that in which all the coefficients
except the first are negative, and each equal to a& ; whereas in
general the coefficients may be positive, negative, or zero.
Several theorems, having for their object the discovery of such
closer limits, will be given in a subsequent chapter.
5. We now proceed to inquire what is the most important
term in a polynomial when the value of x is indefinitely diminished and to determine a quantity such that the substitution
of this, or of any smaller quantity, for x will have the effect of
;
giving such term the preponderance.
Theorem.
If in
the polynomial
Theorem.
-
the value
or any smaller value, be substituted for
where a*
a?,
the greatest coefficient exclusive of an , the term an will be
is
rically greater than the
sum of all
x =-
a*
the others.
To prove this, let

then by the theorem cf
being now the greatest among the coefficients a*, a^
;
without regard to sign, the value

an
y, will
*
^
that
nume-
1,
i-
or
Art. 4,
.
any greater value of
make
fl
is,
henee the value
> <V! - +
y
This proposition
follows:
is
or
f/ n _ 2
. .
any
less
tfo
-7.
0"
//
value
of,
x y will
jy
often stated in a different manner, as
Values so small
may
be assigned to
x as
to
make
the
polynomial
less
than any assigned quantity.

This statement of the theorem follows at once from the above
proof, since an may be taken to be the assigned quantity.

There is also another useful statement of the theorem, as
follows
When
the variable
receives a very small value, the sign
of the polynomial
is
the
same as the sign of its first term
This appears by writing the expression in the form
for
when a value
sufficiently small is
value of the term a n ^ exceeds the
sum
given to
^,
the numerical
of the other terms of the
expression within the brackets, and the sign of that expression

will consequently depend on the sign of
6. Change of Form of a Polynomial corresponding

an increase or diminution of the Variable. Derived
Functions. We shall now examine the form assumed by the
polynomial when x + h is substituted for x. If, in what follows,
to
h be supposed essentially positive, the resulting form will corre-
spond to an increase of the variable and the form corresponding

x will be obtained from this by changing the
;
to a diminution of
sign of h in the result.
When x is changed
+
a\ (x
to
h)""
x + h f(x) becomes /(a? +

y
+ # 2 (# +
n ~*
A)
. .
A), or
a*.i (x
h)
+ an
Let each term of this expression be expanded by the binomial

theorem, and the result arranged according to ascending powers
of h.
We then have
+
-f
(n
. .
1)
a^-*
-h
in.
n-1
...
+ #.2# +
(n
2) o
It will be observed that the part of this expression indepen(x) (a result obvious d priori), and that the succes-
dent of h is/
powers of h are functions of x of

degrees diminishing by unity. It will be further observed that
the coefficient of h may be derived from f(x) in the following
sive coefficients of the different
manner:
Let each term in f(x] be multiplied by the exponent

and let the exponent of x in the term be
diminished by unity, the sign being retained the sum of all
of x in that term,
the terms of f(x) treated in this
way will constitute a polynomial
This polyof dimensions one degree lower than those oif(x).

It is usual to
is called the first derived function oif(x).
nomial
represent this function
by the notation
(x).
The
coefficient
Derived Functions.
of
5 may be derived from/
by a
(x)
process the
same as that
(x) from /(#), or by the operation twice

employed in deriving
performed on/ (x). This coefficient is represented by/" (a?), and
is called the second derived function of /(#).
In like manner the
succeeding coefficients
tions of this character
indicated,
we may
may
;
be derived by successive opera*

employing the notation here
all
so that,
write the result as follows

f"(a\
f(* +
It
h)
may
-/(*)
+f (x) h +'L-
be observed that, since the interchange of x and h

^), the expansion may also be written in the
does not alter /(^ +

fortn
/(* +
K)
We
shall in general employ the notation here explained ;

but on certain occasions when it is necessary to deal with derived
functions beyond the
two or
first
be found more
three, it will
convenient to use suffixes instead of the accents here employed.

The expansion will then be written as follows :
hr
A2
f(* +
A) -/(*) +fi(x)h +/,(#)
y-H +
. . .
l.z
+/r()
j
1
<
o
o
~
. . .
'
EXAMPLE.
Find the result of substituting x
Here
+h
for
x
1
in the polynomial
7#
42s + 6s2
-7x + 4.
-h 4,
'-7,
>
and the remit
24
12,
is
1.2
The student may
verify this result
hy
4-
24
...
direct substitution.
Continuity of a Rational Integral Function of#.

If in a rational and integral function /(a?) the value of x be
7.
10
made
to vary, by indefinitely small increments, from one quana

to a greater quantity b, we proceed to prove that/(#) at
tity
the same time varies also by indefinitely small increments in
;
other words, that/ (a?) varies continuously with x.

Let x be increased from a to a + h. The corresponding incre-
ment
and
of f(x]
is
this is equal,
by Art.
G,
to
in which expression all the coefficients/' (#),/" (#), &c., are finite
Now, by the theorem of Art. 5, this latter expresquantities.
may, by taking h small enough, be made to assume a value

less than any assigned quantity
so that the difference between
f(a + h] and f(a) may be made as small as we please, and will
The same is true during all stages of
ultimately vanish with h.
the variation of x from a to b ; thus the continuity of the funcsion
tion/^)
is
established.
to be observed that
it is not here proved that / (x)

from /(a) to/ (b). It may either increase
or diminish, or at one time increase, and at another diminish
but the above proof shows that it cannot pass per saltum from
It
is
increases continuously
and
consequently, amongst the

values assumed by/(#) while x increases continuously from a to
The sign
b must be included all values between f(a) and /(>).
one value to another
that,
otf'(a) will determine whether/ (x) is increasing or diminishing

for it appears by Art. 5 that when h is small enough the sign of
"We thus
the total increment will depend on that of /'() h.
;
observe that when f(a)
when
8.
(a) is
is positive
negative f(x]
Form of
Polynomial
is
is
is
f(x)
increasing with x
diminishing as
the 4tuotit?nt and Remainder

divided by a Binomial. Let the
n ~l
n ~*
a<tx
-*
and
when
aîx
an
quotient,
*
when
ai%
increases.
Form of
is
Quotient
and Remainder.
11
divided by x - h, be
This
we shall represent by
and the remainder by R.
Q,
have then the following equation
We
- h]
/(*) - (x
tf.
The meaning of this equation is, that when Q is multiplied

by # - A, and jR added, the result must be identical, term for term,
with/ (x). In order to distinguish equations of the kind here
explained from equations which are not identities, it will often
be found convenient to use the symbol here employed in place
of the usual
identity
The right-hand
symbol of equality.
side of the
is
Equating the coefficients of x on both sides, we get the followiug series of equations to determine &<>, b l9 Aa . 6n_i, R
,
&0
bi
0,
bji
di 9
by
bji
rt a
bs
bji
-f
^3,
These equations supply a ready method of calculating in

succession the coefficients J
#i> &c. of the quotient, and the
,
For this purpose we write the

the following manner
remainder R.
in
series of operations
In the
first line
are written
down
the successive coefficients
12
The
term in the second line is obtained by multiis equal to it) by A.

which
The product b h is
&o,
to obtain the
order
placed under i, and then added to it in
term 61 in the third line. This term, when obtained, is multiThe product is
plied in its turn by A, and placed under 8
added to a9 to obtain the second figure bt in the third line. The
of f(x).
first
plying a (or
the coefrepetition of this process furnishes in succession all

ficients of the quotient, the last figure thus obtained being the
few examples will make this plain.
remainder.
EXAMPLES.
1
Find the quotient and remainder when 3*4
by x
5**
10** +
Ix - 61
U divided
3.
The
calculation is arranged as follows
3-6
10
11
-61.
12
66
231.
77
170.
22
Thus the quotient

-f 77,
+
+
2. Find the quotient and remainder when
is 3s8
4*a
and the remainder 170.
22#
2
3# + 2 is divided by *
-f 6#
22-11.
Ans. Q
a? + Qx + 9,
a?
-f-
1.
3. Find Q and JK when x6 - 4#* + 7s* - lla? - 13 is divided by x - 5.

N.B. When any term in a polynomial is ahsent, care must be taken to supply
the place of its coefficient by zero in writing down the coefficients of /(*). In this
exai0}le, therefore, the series in the first line will he
1-470
Ans.
4.
-11
-13.
# = #* + a^+12^ 2 -f 60* + 289; J?1432.
Q and R when x9 -- 3s7 - lo#2 -f 2 is divided by x - 2.

Q = a* 4- 22* + la? + Ux* + 28* 4 + 56^ + 112s2 + 209* + 418; 22 = 838.
2
Find Q and R when tf6
a? - lOa; + 113 is divided
hy x 4- 4.
= -855.
Ans. Q = x*-4z*+ 16* 2 -63a? + 242;
Find
îfc.
5.
9.
-I-
Tabulation of Functions.
The
operation explained
in the preceding Article affords a convenient practical method

of calculating the numerical value of a polynomial whose coef-
given numbers when any number

For, the equation
- h) Q -f R,
/(*) - (x
ficients are
since its
is
substituted for *.
two members are identically equal, must be
satisfied
13
Tabulation of Functions.
when any quantity whatever is substituted for

- h being = 0, and Q remaining
JB, #
x.
Let x
A,
Hence
the remainder when
then /(A)
finite.
the result of substituting h for x in f(x) is

- A, and can be calculated rapidly
f(x] is divided by x
process of the last Article.
by the
For example, the result of substituting 3 for x in the polynomial of Ex. 1, Art. 8, viz.,
3^4
_ 5^3 + 10^ + ii x _ 61,
170, this being the remainder after division by x

student can verify this* by actual substitution.
- 4 for x in
Again, the result of substituting
is
The
3.
* + 3*- 10^ + 113

is
- 855, as
appears from Ex.
5,
We saw in Art.
Art. 8.
as x receives a continuous series of values increasing
7 that
from -
oo to
* oo, /(a?) will pass through a corresponding continuous series.

If we substitute in succession for x, in a polynomial whose coefficients are
given numbers, a series of numbers such as
...-5,-4,-3,-2,-l,
0,
1,
2,
3,
4,
5,...,
and
calculate the corresponding values of /(#), the process

be called the tabulation of the function.
may
EXAMPLES.
1.
Tabulate the trinomial 2#2
+x
6, for
-4, -3, -2, -1,
0,
the following values of

1,
2,
3,
4.
a Polynomial.
In
on
any
investigating the changes of a f unotion/(a?) consequent
10.
Graphic Representation
of*
14
changes in the variable which it contains, it is plain

that great advantage will be derived from any mode of representation which renders possible a rapid comparison with one
.another of the different values which the function may assume.
series of
In the case where the function in question is a polynomial with

coefficients, to any assumed value of x will correspond
numerical
We
one definite value of /(#).
proceed to explain a
mode
of
graphic representation by which it is possible to exhibit to the

eye the several values of f(x] corresponding to the different
values of x.
Let two right

(fig.
1)
,angles,
lines
OX,
OY
cut one another at right
and be produced
nitely in both directions.

lines are called the axis ofx
indefi-
These
and axis
Lines, such as
measured on the axis of x at
of y, respectively.
OA,
"x
the right-hand side of O, are re*

garded as positive ; and those, such
OA', measured at the left-hand

Lines parallel
side, as negative.
.as
to
OF which are above
.and those below
it,
Pig.
XX', such as
such as
Tor
l.
AP or I?Q',
AP,
are positive;
These
are negative.
conventions are already familiar to the student acquainted with
Trigonometry.
Any arbitrary length may now be taken on OX as unity,

and any number positive or negative will be represented by a
line measured on XX'
the series of numbers increasing from
-to -f oo in the direction OX, and
diminishing from to oo in the
direction OX'.
Let any number m be represented by OA calculate f(m)
from A draw AP parallel to OF to represent f(m)
in magnitude on the same scale as that on which OA represents
m, and to represent by its position above or below the line OX
;
the sign of /(m).

.represented
by OA,
Corresponding to the different values of m

OB, OC, &c., we shall have a series cf points
JP, Q, It, &c. f which,
when we suppose the
series of values of
15
Graphic Representation.
indefinitely increased so as to include all numbers between

and 4- oo , will trace out a continuous curved line. This
oo
curve will, by the distances of its several points from the line
OX> exhibit to the eye the several values of the function /(a?).
The process here explained is also called tracing the function

f(x). The student acquainted with analytic geometry will observe
it is equivalent to tracing the plane curve whose equation
=
is y
/(#).
In the practical application of this method it is well to begin
by laying down the points on the curve corresponding to certain
that
small integral values of x positive and negative. It will then

general be possible to draw through these points a curve
9
in
which
will exhibit the progress of the function, and give a general

its character.
The accuracy of the representation will
idea of
number of points determined between

values
of
two
variable.
the
When any portion of the
any
given
curve between two proposed limits has to be examined with care,
of course increase with the
be necessary to substitute values of the variable

The following exseparated by smaller intervals than unity.
it
will often
amples will
illustrate these principles.
EXAMPLES.
1.
Trace the trinomial 2s*
The
the line
unit of length taken
OD in
In Ex.
1,
is
x -
6.
one-sixth of
fig. 2.
Art. 9, the values of f(x) are
given corresponding to the integral values

4 to + 4, inclusive.
of x from
By means
of these values
we
obtain
the positions of nine points on the curve;

seven of which, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, are
here represented, the other two corresponding to values of f(x) which lie out of the
limits of the figure.
The
it a useful exercise
more minutely between
and E in the figure, viz. by
student will find
to trace the curve
the points
calculating the values of f(x) corresponding
to all values of x between
$M
is
and
done in the following example.
separarod by
Fig. 2.
small intervals, say of one-tenth,.
16
Trace tho polynomial
2.
6.
17**
- 4 and 4.
already tabulated in Art. 9 for values of x between
Art.
that
this
function
retains positive
on
an
exercise
as
be
4,
observed,
may
values for all positive values of x greater
2*7, and negative values for all
This
is
It
values of x nearer to
curve
<xf
than
â
The
2-7.
will, then, if it cuts the axis of
x at
all,
a point (or points) corresponding to

some value (or values) of x between - 2*7 and
cut
it at
2*7
so that if our object is to determine, or
approximate
to,
the positions of the roots of the
= 0, the tabulation may be conequation f(x)

2*7 and 2*7.
fined to the interval between
This
is
a case in which the substitution of
only of x gives very little help

towards the tracing of the curve, and where,
consequently, smaller intervals have to be ex-
amined.
We
X'
give the tabulation of the func-
tion for intervals of one -tenth between the
integers
I,
0,
1;1,2.
From these values
the positions of the corresponding points on

the curve may be approximately ascertained,
and the curve traced as in fig. 3.
Values of x
-22
-9
-8 -7
Y'
Fig. 8.
--6 !--
-15-96 -10-8 -6-46 -2-88|
-1
-4
2-24
5-04
3-9
5-72
**
5-04
4-32
3-5
1-3
1-4
1-6
54
(a
1-62
2-64
1-8
1-6
1-7
5-04
7-7
42
1-04
1-8
1-9
11 -04 15-12
20
The curve traced in Ex. 1 cuts the axis of x in two points

number equal to the degree of the polynomial) in other
:
words, there are two values of x for which the value of the given
2
polynomial is zero ; these are the roots of the equation 2# + x
-6
2, and 1*5.
Similarly, the curve traced in Ex. 2
outs the axis in three points, viz. the points corresponding^ to the
0, viz.
roots of the cubic equation 10#*
- 17x* + x + 6
0.
The
curve
Maxima and Minima.
17
representing a given polynomial may not cut the axis of $ at

all, or may out it in a number of points less tlian the degree of
the polynomial.
Such oases correspond to the imaginary roots
of equations, as will appear
more
For
fully in the next chapter.
example, the curve which represents the polynomial 2tf + x + 2

will, when traced, lie entirely above the axis of x \ in fact, since
this function differs
from the function of Ex. 1 only by the ad-
dition of the constant quantity 8, each value of f(x) is obtained

by adding 8 to the previously calculated value, and the entire
curve can be obtained
by simply supposing the previously traced
moved up
parallel to the axis of y through a distance

equal to 8 of the units. It is evident, by the solution of the
curve to be
8
0, that the two values of x which render
equation 2# + x + 2
the polynomial zero are in this case imaginary. Whenever the
of points in which the curve cuts the axis of x falls

short of the degree of the polynomial, it is customary to speak
of the curve as cutting the line in imaginary points.
number
11.
It
is
Maximum and Minimum Values of Polynomials.

apparent from the considerations established in the pre-
ceding Articles, that as the variable x changes from
oo to
+ oo
the function f(x) may undergo many variations. It may go

on for a certain period increasing, and then, ceasing to increase,
may commence
to diminish
it
then cease to diminish and
may
which another period of
commence again
to increase
diminution
arrive, or the function
example
may
after
of the preceding Art.)
may
(as in the last
go on then continually
in-
At a
stage where the function ceases to increase

creasing.
and commences to diminish, it is said to have attained a
maximum value ; and when it ceases to diminish and commences to increase, it is said to have attained a minimum value.
polynomial
may
have
several
such values
the
number
depending in general on the degree of the function. Nothing

exhibits BO well as a graphic representation the occurrence
of
such a maximjun or
minimum
value
as
well
as
the
various fluctuations of which the values of a polynomial are

susceptible.
18
A knowledge of the maximum and minimum values of a function, giving the positions of the points
where the curve bends
often of great assistance in tracing

a given polynomial. It will be
to
the curve corresponding
shown in a subsequent chapter that the determination of these
with reference to the axis,
is
points depends on the solution of an equation one degree lower

than that of the given function.
easy to show that maxima and minima occur alternately for, as the variable increases from a value corresponding to one maximum to the value corresponding to a second,
the function begins by diminishing and ends by increasing,
It
is
;
and therefore attains a minimum at some intermediate stage.

like manner it appears that between two minima one maximum must exist.
In
CHAPTER
II.
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF EQUATIONS.

12.
THE process of tracing the

may be employed for the
function /(#)
explained in
Art. 10
purpose of ascertaining apthe

of
a
real roots
proximately
given numerical equation ; for
when the corresponding curve is accurately traced, the real roots
the equation f(x) can be obtained approximately by
measuring the distances from the origin of its points of intersection with the axis.
With a view to the more accurate numef
rical solution of this
problem, as well as the general discussion of
equations both numerical and algebraical, we proceed to establish

in the present chapter the most important general properties of
equations having reference to the existence and number of the
roots, and the distinction between real and imaginary roots.
By the aid of the following theorem the existence of a real
root in an equation
may
often be established
Theorem.
If two real quantities a and b be substituted for

the unknown quantity x in any polynomial f (x) and if they furnish
results having different signs, one plus and the other minus ; then
must have at least one real root intermediate
the equation f(x) =
in value between a and b.
This theorem is an immediate consequence of the property
of the continuity of the function/(#) established in Art. 7 for
since f(x) changes continuously from f(a] to/ (6), and therefore
passes through all the intermediate values, while x changes from
a to b and since one of these quantities, /(a) or /(), is positive,
and the other negative, it follows that for some value of x inter,
mediate between a and b f(x) must attain the value zero which
intermediate between f(a) and/ (6).
y
is
20
General Properties of Equations.
The student will assist Ms conception of this theorem by

reference to the graphic method of representation.
What ia
here proved, and what will appear obvious from the figure, is,
there exist two points of the curved line representing tha
polynomial on opposite sides of the axis OX, then the curve
that
if
It will
joining these points must jout that axis at least once.
from the figure that several values may exist
between a and b for which / (x)
0, t. e. for which the curve
also be evident
For example, in fig. 3, Art. 10, x - - 2 gives a

- 2
gives a positive value (20) r
negative value (- 144), and x
and between these points of the curve there exist three points of
cuts the axis.
section of the axis of x.
Corollary. If there exist no real quantity which, substituted

x
makes f(x) = 0, thenf(x] must be positive for every real value
for
9
of x.
For it is evident (Art. 4) that a? - oo makes / (x) positive

and no value of #, therefore, can make it negative for if there
were any such value, the equation would by the theorem of
this Article have a real root, which is contrary to our present
;.
With reference to the graphic mode of representahypothesis.

tion this theorem may be expressed by saying that when the
=
has no real root, the curve representing the

must
lie entirely above the axis of x.
polynomial/*^)
13. Theorem.
Every equation of an odd degree has at least
equation f(x)
me
real root of a sign opposite to that of
This
Article.
an immediate consequence of the theorem in the last

Substitute in succession - oo , 0, oo for a? in the poly-
for x
x =
x=
is
-i
term.
is
nomial/^).
If a n
its last
The
0,
-I-
GO
results are, n being
,/(#)
is
negative
sign of f(x)
oo
,/(#)
is
odd
(see Art. 4),
the same as that of a n
is positive.
positive, the equation must

A . .
Mrtrt i
An n f,' TO rAA f .
,
have a real root between:

an d
if
41
jg
negative, the>
21
Imaginary Roots.
equation must have a real root between
14.
term
and oo, i.e. a real

therefore proved.
Every equation of an even degree^ whose last
The theorem
positive root.
Theorem.
is
negative, has at least two real roots, one positive
is
and
the
other negative.
The
results of substituting
oo
- 00,
+,
0,
-,
+ oo,
hence there
is
0, oo
are in this case
+;
a real root between - oo and 0, and another beoo ; i. e. there exist at least one real negative, and
and
tween
one real positive root.
We have contented ourselves in both
-i-
this and the preceding

existence
the
of
with
Articles
roots, and for this purpose
proving
very large positive or negative values,

It is of course possible to narrow the
done, for x.
limits within which the roots lie by the aid of the theorem of
it is
as
sufficient to substitute
we have
Art. 4, and still more by the aid of the theorems respecting

the limits of the roots to be given in a subsequent chapter.
15.
Existence of a
Imaginary Roots.
real root
in
the
case
Roo%in
We
of
the General Equation^
have now proved the existence of a

every
equation except one of an even

degree whose last term is positive.
Such an equation may have no

It is necessary
real root at all.
then to examine whether, in the
absence of real values, there may
not be values involving the, ima-
ginary expression */-
when
1,
which,
substituted for x, reduce the
polynomial to zero or whether

there may not be in certain cases
;
both -real and imaginary values

of the variable which satisfy th?emiation.
Fig. 4.
We
take a simple
General Properties ofÊquations.
22
illustrate the occurrence of
example to
As
such imaginary roots.
already remarked (Art. 10), the curve corresponding to the
polynomial
above the axis of
lies entirely
has no real roots
f(x)
2^ + x
/(*) -
but
x,
it
+ 2
as in
fig. 4.
The equation
has the two imaginary roots
We
observe,
by the solution of the quadratic.
are in
there
that
in
of
values
the
absence
real
therefore,
any
this case two imaginary expressions which reduce the polynomial
as is evident
to zero.
The corresponding general
proposition
integral equation has a root of the form
a +
a and
that Every rational
v/=~l,
being real finite quantities.
/3
is,
This statement includes
both real and imaginary roots, the former corresponding to the

value j3 = 0. When a and
are numbers, such an expression
/3
called a complex
number ; and what
is asserted is that every

numerical equation has a numerical root either real or complex.
is
As
the proof of this proposition involves principles which

not
could
conveniently have been introduced hitherto, and
which will present themselves more naturally for discussion
in subsequent parts of the work, we defer the demonstration
For the present,
until these principles have been established.
therefore,
we assume
certain consequences
16.
Theorem.
the proposition, and proceed to derive
from
it.
Every equation of n dimensions has n
roots,
and no more.
We first
any quantity A is a root of the equaby x - h without a remainder.

evident from Art. 9; for if /(A) = 0, i.e. if h isa root
tion/^) This
is
nf ffa\
observe that
0,
then f(x]
72 miiflf.
if
is divisible
h =
23
Imaginary Roots.
Let, now, the given equation be
#* + j^tf"" 1
f(x)
-i-
p2 #"-* +
+ JE>_, a? + /> =
0.
This equation must have a root, real or imaginary (Art. 15),

which we shall denote by the symbol a
Let the quotient,
when f(x) is divided by x - ai, be fa (x) we have then the
t.
identical equation
/(*)-(*-i)$i(*).
- 1 dimensions,
Again, the equation î (x) = 0, which is of n
must have a root, which we represent by o a Let the quotient
obtained by dividing $\(x) by x - a 2 be fa(x). Hence
.
i>i
and
.-.
(#)
/(a?)
(a?
(x
- o s)
0a(),
- en) (a? - a a
0,(#)
where 2 (#) is of n - 2 dimensions.

Proceeding in this manner, we prove that f(x)
tf>
consists of the
product of n factors, each containing x in the first degree, and a

numerical factor $ n (x). Comparing the coefficients of #*, it is
plain that
f(x)
$ n (x)
(a?
1.
01) (x
Thus we prove the identical equation

- a a) (x - a 3) ..... (x- an-i)(#- a).
any one of the quantix\n the right-hand member of this equation

member to zero, and will therefore reduce f(x)
It is evident that the substitution of

ties ai,
n2 >
a n for
will reduce that

to zero
that
quantities
ai,
is to
aa
say, the equation /(a?)
03
-i>
n-
And
it
has for roots the n
can have no other roots
any quantity other than one of the quantities m, <* 2 . a*

be substituted in the right-hand member of the above equation,
the factors will be all different from zero, and therefore the profor if
duct cannot vanish.

each of the n th degree in x
cannot be equal to one another for more than n values of x without
Corollary.
Two polynomials
being completely identical.
difference be equated to zero, we obtain an equath

n
the
tion of
degree, which can be satisfied by n values only
of Xj unless each coefficient be separately equal to zero.
For if their
24
The theorem
solution of the equation /(#) -
the converse problem,
any n given
no assistance in the
of this Article, although of
i.e.
us to solve completely
0, enables
to find the equation
whose roots are
The
required equation is obtained by

n
the
simple factors formed by subtractmultiplying together
ing from x each of the given roots. By the aid of the present
quantities.
when any (one or more) of the roots of a given

are
known, the equation containing the remaining
equation
For this purpose it is only necessary
obtained.
roots may be
theorem
also,
to divide the given equation
mial
The
factors.
of the given binobe the required polynomial
by the product
quotient will
composed of the remaining
factors.
EXAMPLES.
1.
Find the equation whose
roots are
-1,
-3,
6.
4,
An*. **
2.
The equation
a*
has a root 5
-6** + 8**-
17a?-r 10
6*8 - 13s*
60
at
and
& - x* + 8* - 2 = 0.
16*8
+ 86* - 178* +
106
0,
7.
Ana. The other two roots are
Form
0.
division of Art. 8.
Solve the equation
roots heing 1
4.
=0
An9.
two
63*
find the equation containing the remaining roots.
Use the method of

3.
-I-
3, 6.
tke equation whose roots are
3
*'
~2'
f
Ant. 14** - 28** - 80* 4 9 m
6.
Solve the cubic equation
Here
it
is
evident that *
resulting quadratic.
6.
Form an
=* 1 satisfies
The two
0.
the equation.
roots are found to
Divide by *
1,
and solve tht
be
equation with rational coefficients which shall have for a nyrt the
irrational expression
Equal Roots.
This expression has four different values according to the different combinations
of the radical signs, viz.
The
(x
required equation
- </p - </g)
is,
therefore,
(*
or
2
(x
-p
or, finally,
must be observed that the n factors

of which a polynomial f(x) consists need not be all different
from one another. The factor x - a, for example, may occur in
17.
Equal Roots.
It
the second, or any higher power not superior to n. In this case

the equation /(a?) is still said to have n roots, two or more
being
now equal
to one another
tiple root of the equation
and the root a
is
called a
mul-
double, triple, &c., according to the
number
of times the factor is repeated.

reference to the graphic construction in Art. 10
will help to explain the occurrence of multiple roots.
(fig. 3)
We see
by an inspection of the figure that the two positive roots of the

8 2
17a? -f x + 6 =
and we may
are nearly
equation 10#
equal,
conceive that a slight addition to the absolute term of this polynomial, which is, as already explained, equivalent to a small
parallel movement upwards of the whole curve, would have the
effect of rendering equal the roots of the equation thus altered.
In that case the

distinct points,
curve
it is
line
OX would no longer
but would
touch
it.
out the curve in two
Now, when a
line touches a
properly said to meet the curve, not once, but in two

The student acquainted with the theory of
coincident points.
plane curves will have no difficulty in illustrating in a similar

manner the occurrence of a triple or higher multiple root.
form the connecting link between real and

We have just seen that a small change in the
imaginary
form of a polynomial may convert it from one having real roots
into another in which two of the real roots become equal.
A
further small change may convert it into a form in whioh the
Equal
roots
roots.
26
(General Properties of Equations.
Let us suppose that the above

by another small addition to the
then have a graphic representation in
two roots become imaginary.

polynomial
is
further altered
absolute term.
We shall
OX cuts the
curve in only one real point, viz.

that corresponding to the negative root, the two points of
section corresponding to the two positive roots having now dis-
which the axis
appeared.
3 17x* + x + 28,
Consider, for example, the polynomial 10^
which is obtained from that of Ex. 2, Art. 10, by the addition
The student can
of 22.
corresponding to
Divide by x
of x.
easily construct the figure ; the point

3 will now lie much above the axis
fig.
in
and obtain the trinomial l(Xr2 - 27o? + 28

which contains the remaining two roots. They are easily found
+
1,
to be
,_
391
We observe in this
27_ y/39l /-y

20
20^
example of Art. 15,

that when a change of form of the polynomial causes one real
root to disappear, a second also disappears at the same time, and
case, as well as in the
The reason
the two are replaced by a pair of imaginary roots.
of this will be apparent from the proposition of the following
Article.
Imaginary Roots enter Initiations in Pairs.

proposition to be now proved may be stated as follows
18.
The
If an equation f(x) = 0, whose coefficients are all real quantities?

have for a roof the imaginary expression a + j3 \/ 1, it must also
have for a root the conjugate imaginary expression a
have the following identity :
/3
*/
We
Let the polynomial f(x) be divided by the second member of

and if possible let there be a remainder lix + R\
this identity,
We
have then the identical equation

f(x)
where
is
(x
a)
/3
Q + Ex + ,R',
the quotient, of n - 2 dimensions in
x.
Substitute in
27
Imaginary Roots.
+ /3 \/- 1 for x. This, by hypothesis, causes f(x)

2
2
Hence
It also causes (x - a) + j3 to vanish.
this identity a
to vanish.
"!)
jR'
- Of
from which we obtain the two equations
Ba + jR' =
since the real
0,
JR/3
and imaginary parts cannot destroy one another
hence
o,
K=
0.
Thus the remainder Rx + R! vanishes

is divisible
0,
and, therefore, /
equationjhas, consequently, the root a
The
(a?)
without remainder by the product of the two factors
as the root a +
Thus the
j3
/3
v/-
1 a s well
<v/- 1-
total
number
with real coefficients
of imaginary roots in an equation
is always even
and every polynomial may
be regarded as composed of real factors, each pair of imaginary
roots producing a real quadratic factor, and each real root pro;
ducing a real simple factor. The actual resolution of the polynomial into these factors constitutes the complete solution of the
equation.
We
observed in Art. 17 that equal roots
may
be considered
between real and imaginary roots. This

statement may now be regarded from another point of view.
- 2 -f /, and
a}
Suppose a polynomial has the quadratic factor (x
let its form be altered by means of slight alterations in the
as the connecting link
value of
k.
When
pair of real roots;
when k
is
when
negative, the quadratic factor gives a

k = 0, this factor has two equal roots, a
;
the factor has two imaginary roots.

proof exactly similar to that above given shows that surd
roots, of the form a
v/y, enter equations whose coefficients are
is positive,
rational in pairs.
28

EXAMPLES.
Form a
1.
which
rational cubic equation
1,
have for roots
shall
+ 2\/~l.
Ans. x*
2.
Form
3.
Solve the equation
a rational equation which
*<
2a 3
shall
have
Ans.
a;
bx2
12# 3
0,
6* + 2
4-
two of
for
1x*
+ 19* -13 =
its
roots
72x 2
0.
- 312* + 676 =
0.
V-
1.
which has a root
V3.
Ans. The roots are - 2

4.
\/3,
Solve the equation
+
one root being
-f
v/
88
0,
7.
.4w*.
The
roots are 2
u
Descartes9 Rule of Signs Positive Roots. This

which enahles us, by the mere inspection of a given equalimit to the number of its positive
to assign a
superior^
19.
rule,
tion,
roots,
may
be enunciated as follows
No
equation can
have
more positive roots than

has changes of sign from + to -, ana
to -f, in the terms of its first member.
from
shall content ourselves for the present with the proof
which is usually given, and which is rather a verification than
it
We
a general demonstration of this celebrated theorem of Descartes.

It will be subsequently shown that the rule just enunciated, and
other similar rules which were discovered by early investigators

number of the positive, negative, and imaginary
relative to the
roots of equations, are immediate deductions

general theorems of Budan and Fourier.
Let the signs of a polynomial taken at

other in the following order
from the more
random succeed each
In
+_
+ _
--
+ +
this there are in all seven
changes from +
to -,
and from -
..f
<
changes of sign, Including
to +.
It
is
proposed to show
Deseartes* Rule of Signs.

that
29
polynomial be multiplied by a binomial whose signs,
if this
corresponding to a positive root, are + -, the resulting polynomial will have at least one more change of sign than the
original.
We write down
as follows
only the signs which occur in the operation
is placed
Here, in the third line, the ambiguous sign
wherever there are two terms with different signs to be added.
We
observe in this case, and it will readily appear also for

every other arrangement, that the effect of the process is to
introduce the ambiguous sign wherever the sign -f follows +, or

- follows -, in the
The number of variaoriginal polynomial.
tions of sign
is
never diminished.
one variation added at the end.

instance,
There
This
is
is, moreover, always

obvious in the above
where the original polynomial terminates with a varia-
terminate with a p^jrmnfinn of sign, it will equally

that
the corresponding ambiguity in the resulting polyappear
nomial must furnish one additional variation either with the
tion
if it
preceding or with the superadded sign.. Thus, in even the most

unfavourable case that, namely, in which the continuations of
sign in the original remain continuations in the resulting poly-
and we may conclude in

nomial, there is one variation added
of
the
the
effect
multiplication of a polynomial by
general that
a is to introduce at least one additional
a binomial factor x
;
change of
sign.
Suppose now a polynomial formed of the product of the

factors corresponding to the negative and imaginary roots of an
equation
x - a x ,
>
/3>
each
the effect of multiplying this

|3,
-y,
&c., is to introduce at least
so that
when
by each
of the factors
&c., corresponding to the positive roots
one change of sign for
the complete product
is
formed containing
30
all

the roots,
least as
we conclude
that the resulting polynomial has at
changes of sign as
many
it
has positive roots.
This
is
Descartes' proposition.
20.
Descartes 9 Rule of Signs
Negative Roots.
In
order to give the most advantageous statement to Descartes' rule

in the case of negative roots, we first prove that if - x be substituted for x in the equation f(x) = 0, the resulting equation will
have the same roots as the original except that their signs will
be changed.
This follows from the identical equation of Art. 16
f(x)
(x
a,) (x
- a a)
(x
a 9)
(x
a w ),
from which we derive
/(-
From
x)
- (- l) n
(x
a,)
(x
a a ) (x
e< 3
this it is evident that the roots of /(- x]

di,
cr 2 ,
,),
Hence the negative roots of f(x)

we may enunciate Descartes' rule
....
- an
(x
<*,,).
are
are positive roots of /(- a?), and

for negative roots as follows:
No
equation can hare a greater number of negative roots than there

are changes of sign in the terms of'the polynomial f(- or).
Use of" Ifescartes' Rule in proving the existence

of Imaginary Roots. It is often possible to detect the
21.
existence of imaginary roots in equations by the application of

Descartes' rule; for if* it should happen that the sum of the
greatest possible
number
of positive roots,
added
to the greatest
number of negative roots, is less than the degree of the

equation, we are sure of the existence of imaginary roots. Take,
possible
for example, the equation

x*
+ 10^ 3 + x - 4 =
0.
This equation, having only one variation, cannot have more than
one positive root. Now, changing x into - #, we get
-x-4 =
find since this has only one variation, the original equation cannot have more than one negative root. Hence, in the proposed
31
Theorem.
equation there cannot exist more than two real roots.
therefore, at least six
Descartes' rule
equations
for
imaginary
It has,
This application of
roots.
available only in the case of incomplete

is easily seen that the sum of the number of
is
it
variations in f(x) and /(- x) is exactly equal to the degree of

the equation when it is complete.
22.
Theorem.
If two numbers a and
substituted for
b,
the polynomial f(x), give results with contrary signs,
of real roots of the equation f(x] =

give results with the
same
ber of real roofs
beticeen them.
lies
lies betiveen
in
an odd number
them
sign, either no real root or
and
if they
an even num-
This proposition, of which the theorem in Art. 12 is a particular case, contains in the most general form the conclusions
which can be drawn as

signs furnished by
are substituted for
the proposition
its
to the roots of
an equation from the
member when two given numbers
first
We
x.
proceed to prove the first part of
the second part is proved in a precisely similar
manner.
Let the following

the equal i on J
(x)
a m and no others, of
01, a 2
between the quantities a and b, of
roots
lie
which, as usual, we take a to be the lesser.

Let (;r) be the quotient when ,/'(#) is divided by the product
</>
of the
factors
(.r
ai) (x
a 2)
We
(x- a m ).
have, then,
the identical equation
f(r) s
(x
a,) (x
a,)
Putting in this successively x

f(a) =
=
f(b)
Now
<f>(a)
(a
(6
a,} (a
,)
and $
different signs there
(b)
(i-
a.)
,)
....
(x
x =
- am
) $
b,
(x).
we obtain
.... (a- a m )
(a),
(i-a m )0(6).
</
....
have the same sign; for if they had

be, by Art. 12, one root at least of
would
the equation 0(#) =
between them. By hypothesis, f(a) and

have
different
hence the signs of the products
signs
f(b)
- 8
a,) (a
;
(a
(b
n,;
'/>
no)
(a
a*),
.... (6 - a m ),
32

but the sign of the second is positive, since all
;
are positive ; hence the sign of the first is negative ;
the factors of the first are negative ; therefore their
are different
its factors
but
all
number must be odd, which proves the

In
are counted a
number
proposition.
be understood that multiple roots
this proposition it is to
the degree of their
of times equal to
multiplicity.
It is instructive to apply the graphic method of treatment to
From this point of view it
the theorem of the present Article.
appears almost intuitively true ; for it is evident that when any

two points are connected by a curve, the portion of the curve
between these points must cut the axis an odd number of times
when the points are on opposite sides of the axis and an even
;
number
of times, or not at
all,
when
the points are on the same
side of the axis.
EXAMPLES.
1.
If the signs of the terms of
an equation be
all positive, it
cannot kave a
positive root.
2. If the signs of the terms of any complete equation be alternately positive
and negative, it cannot have a negative root.
3. If an equation consist of a number of terms connected by + signs followed
signs, it has one positive root and no more.
by a number of terms connected by
Apply Art. 12, substituting and oo and Art. 19.

4. If an equation involve only even powers of #, and
;
positive signs,
it
if all
the coefficients havr
cannot have a real loot.
Apply Arts. 19 and 20.

5. If an equation involve only odd powers of x, and if the coefficients have all
positive signs, it has the root zero and no other real root.
6. If an equation be complete, the number of continuations of sign in f (x) IB
the same as the
7.
When
number of variations
an equation
roots is equal to the

to the
8.
number
An
is
number
complete
of sign in
;
f(x).
if all its roots
of variations,
be
real,
the
number
and the number of negative
of positive
roots is equal
of continuations of sign.
equation having an even number of variations of sign must have
sign positive,
and one having an odd number
of variations
must have
its last
its last
sign
negative.
Take the highest power of a? with positive coefficient (see Art. 4).
Hence prove that if an equation have an even number of variations it must
have an equal or less even number of positive roots and if it have an od?t number of
9.
variations
it
must have an equal or
less
odd number of positive roots
in other
33
Examples.
when
words, the number of positive roots

from it by an even number.
less
than the number of variations must
differ
and
Substitute
Find an
10.
oo
and apply Art. 22.
inferior limit to the
a*
number
3*;*
of imaginary roots of the equation

1
0.
Ans. At
least
two imaginary
roots.
Find the nature of the roots of the equation
11.
x*
-\-7x-ll-0.
I5x~
-f
14, 19, 20.
Apply Arts.
Ans. One positive, one negative, two imaginary.
Show
12.
that the equation

a:
+ qx
-t
0,
where q awl r are essentially positive, has one negative and two imaginary roots.
13. Show that the equation
- qx +
x*
where
two
0,
q and r are essentially positive, has one negative root; and that the other
roots arc cither imaginary or both positive.
Show
14.
that the equation
$z
AX - a
where
a, b, c,
....
C2
.1-f
numbers
are
-f
T
....
4I
I?
=x
v ~-I
-m,
from one another, cannot have an
all different
imaginary root.
Substitute a
-f
$ V
and a
)8
in succession for x, and subtract.
get an expression which can vanish only on the supposition

a"
is
and -
when n is even, two real roots, 1

1, and no other real root; and,
odd, the real root 1, and no other real root.
has,
We
0.
when n
This and the next example follow zeadily from Arts. 19 and 20.
has,
when n
is
even, no real root
xn +
and,
when n
a 2
30 #
-f
is
odd, the real root
1,
and no
other real root.

17. Solve the equation
a:
This
is
-f
20 *r
r4
r4
Ans.
- q
=* 0.
equivalent to
(x
The
2qaP
+ qx
-f
2 2
)
0.
/--
different signs of the radicals give four

combinations,
here written involves the four roots.
02
+ vV +
r*.
and the expression
34
equation which has for roots the diffeient values of the expression
Form the
18.
where
+ v/11 + 0V7,
e \/~t
1.
made by the introduction of 0, this expression would

The \/7 must now be taken with the same sign where it occurs
If no restriction had teen
have 8 values.
under the second radical and free from

in
Form
\/34 -
v^ll^f-H
Am.
1.
Form an
20.
12u; 2
only four values

MX - 63 = 0.
the equation which has for roots the four values of
are, therefore,
# 4 - 8# 3 -
Am.
19.
where
There
it.
all.
x*
36x
20 Vlo7,
400 j; 2
3168* + 7744 -
equation with rational coefficients which shall have for roots
0.
all
the
values of the expression

0i
where
0i
\/p
= 1,
02 \/'y
-t
v r*
0- J
=1,
ft-
1.
Tl;ere are eight different values of this expression, viz.,
- %/J" - \/(? - y/r,
y/P + \/f -r V/^

'
Vp - V
- y/r,
'
<i
+ v^^
Assume
Squaring,
* =
0i
2 (02
y/p
4"
02
\/^ +
03
\/r.
we have
*2 = p + q +
-f
A/V +
e 3 *i
\/^ +
01 02
Transposing, and squaring again,

2
{a;
-p-^-
r)
4 (0r
rp
py)
H0j0a0s
Transposing, substituting x ibr 0i -v/^

obtain the final equation free from radicals
{*
This
written.
yp
is
is
- 2* 2 (p +
r)
4-
p2 +
02
r*
V/
?; l? r
-f 02
2j?r
(0i
\/P +
\/# +
03
2rp
02
V^ r
an<* squaring,
2joy}
we
= *lpqr&.
an equation of the eighth degree, whose
Since
\/q
0i, 02,
yr
is
roots are the values above

have disajjpeared, it is indifferent which of the eight roots
assumed equal to x in the first instance. The final equation
that which would have been obtained
if
from X9 and the continued product formed,
each of the 8 roots had been subtracted

as in Ex. G, Art. 16.
CHAPTER
III.
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE ROOTS AND COEFFICIENTS OF EQUATIONS, WITH APPLICATIONS TO SYMMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF THE
'"*'
HOOTS.
Relations between the Roots and Coefficients.
23.
Taking for simplicity the coefficient of the highest power of .r as

unit}', and representing, as in Art. 1C, the n roots of an equation
a M we have the following identity
by ai, tig, a 3
,
xn + yM-"**
When
-f
- a,)
(s
;>,.r"--
+...
--
(JP
,,)
(.r
04) ----
(JT
- un
)
(1)
member of this identity are

the
multiplied together,
highest power of x in the product is .r";
~
the coefficient of ^ n l is the sum of the n quantities a^ - a^ &c.,
the factors of the second
the roots with their signs changed the coefficient of M ~*

the sum of the products of these quantities taken two by
viz.
is
two
jt
the coefficient of
by three; and
;r
n ~3
sum
the
is
of their products taken
term being the product of

all the roots with their signs changed,
liquating, therefore,
the coefficients of x on each side of the identity (1), we have the
three
so on, the last
following series of equations

p\
pz
= =
(HI
ay
(ci
riv
(- 1)"
-\
a,
-f
4-
a 2 aj +
n ),
....+ a n .\
o w ),
36
Roots ond
of Equations.
Coefficients
which enable us to state the relations between the roots and

coefficients as follows
Theorem.
whose highest term
its
sign changed
The
In every algebraic equation,

is
coefficient
the coefficient of
unity , the coefficient p^ of the second term with
is
equal
of
to the
sum of
the roots.
the third term is equal to the
sum of the
products of the roots taken two by two.
The
coefficient
equal to the
and
so
o)i,
p* of the fourth term with
sum of
its
sign changed
is
the products of the roots taken three by three
the signs of the coefficients being taken alternately neyatin-
positive, and the number of roots multiplied together in each

term of the corresponding function of the roots increasing by unity,
till finally that function is reached which consists of the product of
and
the n roots.
When
the coefficient a
must divide each term
of
is
then equal to
to
equal
^
and
is
not unity (see Art.
of the equation
'
roots
;r
the
sum
by
it.
The sum
1),
we
of the
of their products in pairs is
so on.
tfo
Cor. 1.
Every root of an equatioil is a divisor of the absolute term of the equation.
If the roots of an equation be all positive, the
Cor. 2.
coefficients (including that of the highest power of JT, will be
and if the roots be all

alternately positive and negative
will
be
all
the
coefficients
This is obvious
positive.
negative,
from the equations (2) [cf. Arts. 19 and 20],
;
24.
Applications of the Theorem.
(2) of the preceding Article supply

the n roots and the coefficients, it
it
Since the equations
distinct relations
between
might perhaps be supposed

that some advantage is thereby gained in the general solution
of the equation.
Such, however, is not the case for suppose it
were attempted to determine by means of these equations a root,
;
of the original equation, this could be effected only by the

elimination of the other roots by means of the given equations,
and the consequent determination of a final equation of which
di,
37
Theorem.
01 is
one of the
Now,
roots.
in whatever
way
this final equation
obtained, it must have for solution not only <n, but each of
the other roots a 2 a 3 ,
an
for, since all the roots enter in the
is
same manner in the equations (2), if it had been proposed to

determine a 2 (or any other root) by the elimination of the rest,
our final equation could differ from that obtained for ai only by
the substitution of a 2 (or that other root) for m.
The final
equation arrived at, therefore, by the process of elimination
must have the n quantities <n, a2
a n for roots
and can,
than the given equation.

the original equation itself, with
not, consequently, be easier of solution
This
final
equation
in fact,
is,
we
are seeking substituted for x.

This we shall show
for the particular case of a cubic.
The process here employed
is general, and may be
applied to an equation of any degree.
the root
JLet a,
/3,
7 be the roots of the equation

r
We
3
;
j>^'~
l>*
= -
Multiplying the
and adding the
<^>r
IB
The
*-
ft
+ ay
r /;,
0.
7),
i
/3y,
of these equations
three,
jhiC
which
"P7'
first
>
afi
"
]>*
a,
p&
have, by Art. 23,

;>i
by
4-
/'V<
7>,* +
we
find
= -
/; 3
--
p.,a
;> 3
by
2
,
the second
0,
the given cubic with a in the place of x.

student can take as an exercise to prove the same result
an equation of the fourth degree. In the corretreatment

of the general case the successive equations
sponding
~
~
~
of Art. 23 are to be multiplied by a w
a n 2 a w 3 &c., and added.
in the case of
Although the equations (2) afford, as we have just seen, no

assistance in the general solution of the equation,
they are often
of use, in facilitating the solution of numerical
equations when
relations
the
roots are known to exist.
any particular
among
They may
also be
employed to establish the
relations
which
Roots and
38
must obtain among the
of Equations.
Coefficients
coefficients of algebraical equations cor-
responding to known relations
the roots.
among
EXAMPLES.
1.
Solve the equation

a;S_
the
sum
of
two of
its roots
Let the roots be
a,
5:r
We have
7.
Taldnc:
01
ft
third
Thus the throe

2.
y=
we
0,
we
80
IGrr -f
0,
being equal to xero.
second
-f
theu
7 =
-f
16,
a#7 = -
80.
have, from the
obtain
first of these,
We
16.
roots are 5, 4,
6,
7 -
a7 4
find for
ft
and from either the
and 7 the values
and -
4.
Solve the equation

.r
3r2
0,
two of
its roots being equal.

Let the three roots be a,
a,
We have
2a +
2
and j8 = -
1.
a
from whioh
3.
we
find a
2,
2a/3
3,
0,
The
roots are 2, 2,
i.
The equation
9*
4# 8 -2a:2
12.*
+9 =
has two pairs of equal roots ; find them.

Let the roots be a, a, /3, ft we have, therefore,
;
=-
4,
+ 4a = -
2,
2a +
2
-f /8
2/3
from which we obtain for a and 3 the values

4
a;3
two
of
and
3.
Solve the equation
whose
93.2
14a
24
0,
roots are in the ratio of 3 to 2.
Let the roots be
o,
j8,
7, with the relation 2o
easily obtain
3/3.
By
elimination of a
(
60 + 2y =
18,
28,
30' + 6/87
we
39
Examples.
from which
we have
the following quadratic for

19j8
14
The
The
1.
three roots are
ficance of the value
all
6, 4,
~
of
iy
j8
0.
The student
1.
and the same
56
will here ask
difficulty
It will he observed that in
the previous examples.
never require
-f
the former gives for a and 7 the values 6 and
and
roots of this are 4,
90
what
is
the signi-
may have
presented
examples
of this nature
itself in
we
the relations between the roots and coefficients in order to deter-
mine the required unknown quantities. The reason of this is, that the given conmore relations amongst the roots. Whenever the equations
dition establishes one or
employed appear to furnish more than one system of values for the roots, the actual
roots are easily determined by the condition that they must satisfy the equation (or
equations) between the roots and coefficients which we have not made use of in
= 4 gives a system
detei mining them. Thus, in the present example, the value
satislying the omitted equation
a&-y
while the value &

to
=-
24
gives a system not satisfying this equation, and
is
therefore
be rejected.
*
- 0^-f
23^-15-0,
whose roots are in arithmetical progression.

Let the roots be
a45; we have
a,
06,
3er
from which we obtain the three roots
5-
=-
at oru-o
9,
23,
1, 3, 5.
Solve the equation
6.
a-
whose
3a
-f 2a-
2 1* 3
- 22*
-f
40
0,
roots are in arithmetical progression.
Assume
for the roots
3$,
5,
5,
-f-
35.
'
Am.
7.
-6, -2,
1,
Solve the equation

27:r3
+ 42#2 -2S;r-8=*
0,
whose- roots are in geometric progression.
Assume
have a8
for p.
for the roots ap, a, -.
or a
From
the third of the equations
(2),
Art. 23,
we
2
-.
Either of the remaining two equations gives a quadratic
An,.
2-2
-_.
-2,-,
Roots and
40
8.
Solve the equation

Zx*
whose
- 40* s
-f
130*2
120a?
for the roots ^,

'
equations (2), Art. 23.
ap t
-,
3
a/>
0,
the second and fourth of the
Employ
^ ^ ^
^
3
Solve the equation
120s + G4
whose
27
-f
roots are in geometric progression.
Assume
9.
of Equations.
Coefficients
0,
Ans.
roots are in geometric progression.
8.
4,
2,
1,
whose roots are in harmonic progression.

We have here the
Take the roots to be o,
7.
relation
1-
?..
hence
By + 70+ aB = 3yal &c.
An
11
*
*'
2'

[
whose
roots are in
0,
harmonic progression.
22
"''
3'
9'
~3*
12. If the roots of the equation
xs -
i/x
-f
qx
be in harmonic progression, show that the mean root

13.
The equation
is
p-21 =
has two roots equal in magnitude and opposite in sign determine all the roots.
Take a-f = 0, and employ the first and third of equations (2), Art. 23.
;
Ans.
14.
v/3, - v/3,
V/ ^
vTi.
The equation
# 2 - 50# +12=0
has two roots whose product
is
find all the roots.

.
16.
One
of the roots of the cubic

a?
is
6,
double another ; show that
it
px z +
may
â?
be found from a quadratic equation.
41
Examples.
16.
Show
that all the roots of the equation
can be obtained
when they
Let the roots be
a,
gives
are in arithmetical progression.
$,
-pi = na
2&,
a + (n
+2+3+
-f { I
The
1) 8.
(n
first
of equations
(2)
1) } 5
Again, since the sum of the squares of any number of quantities is equal to the
square of their sum minus twice the sum of their products in pairs, we have the
equation
2
/?l
2j0 2
a2
(a f 8)
-f
(a
25)
IN
~, /
ft)**
1 \
-i
(2)
we find
Subtracting the square of (1) from n times the equation (2),

of p\ and j2We can then find a from equation (1). Thus
all
8 2 in terms
the roots can be
expressed in terms of the coefficients p\ and p*.

17. Find the condition which must be satisfied by the coefficients of the equation
re
when two
of its roots
a,
2
px + qx
$ are connected by a
r = 0,
relation a
& =
0.
Ana. pq
18.
r = 0.
Find the condition that the cubic

#3
px* +
</x
its roots in geometric progression.

Ans. p 9 r q* = 0.
Find the condition that the same cubic should have its roots in harmonic
Ans. 27r 2 - pqr + 20 3 a 0.
progression (see Ex. 12).
20. Find the condition that the equation
should have
19.
JT* -f
pa?
gx~
+ rx + s =
hould have two roots connected by the relation a
+3 = 0;
ease two quadratic equations which shall have for roots
Ans.
pqr-p^ - r8 = 0,
(1)
px*
and determine in that
(1) a,
+ r = 0,
(2)
and
xz
-t
(2) 7, 5.
P
px + - =
0.
21. Find the condition that the biquadratic of Ex. 20 should have its roots connected by the relation
Ans. j? 3 4pq + 8r = 0.
+ 7 = a 5.
22. Find the condition that the roots a, /8, 7, 8 of
I
should be tonneoted by the relation oj8 = 78.

23. Show that the condition obtained in Ex. 22
'
the biquadratic are in geometric progression.
Ans. p*t - ra =
is satisfied
when
0.
the roots ot
Roots and
42
of Equations.
Coefficients
Depreggion of an Equation when a relation

between two of its Roots. The examples given
25.
exists
in the preceding Article illustrate the use of the equations con-.

necting the roots and coefficients in determining the roots in
particular cases when known relations exist among them.
We
in general, that if a relation of the form /3 = </*(a)

exist between two of the root* of an equation f(x) = 0, the equation
may be depressed two dimensions.
now show
shall
Let $(x) be substituted
for
x in the identity
-f <7,.r
x
/(# = (<>#)'* +
We represent, for convenience,
then
identity
by
hence a
satisfies
j3,
the second
member
of this
we have
the equation Fix] = 0, and it also

hence the polynomials /'(.r) a,ud
;
satisfies the
1*'
common measure x
or
Substituting a for ^,
F(x).
equation. /"(a?)
0(ci)
n~
(x)
have a
thus a can be determined, and from it

and the given equation can be depressed two dimena
sions.
Ex
1.
\MT'LKS.
The equation
-
has two roots whose difference
3_5.^_4.r+ 203
find
them.
= 3-f-a; substitute x + 3 for x in the given polynomial f(x)

Heie )3-o = 3,
it becomes x* + 4x z
7x 10 the common measure of this and /(.*:) is x - 2 from
which o = 2, = 5 the third root is 2.
2. The equation
;
6-0
has two roots connected by the relation
2ft
+ 3o =
find all the roots.
Ans.
1,
2,
v/--~2-
It may be observed here, that when two polynomials /(#)

and F(x] have common factors, these factors may be obtained
by the ordinary process of finding the common measure. Thus,
43
The Cube Roots of Unity.
we know that two given equations have common roots, we

can obtain these roots by equating to zero the greatest common
if
measure of the given polynomials.
EXAMPLES.
1.
The equations
have two common roots

2.
The
- 6x-
4-
5r 2
3^ +
= 0,
-ll*-150
An*
find them.
3.
1,
equations
ir
:<
:r
have two common root?
-i
px~
p'x
-f
qx
#'#
-f r'
= 0,
=
whose roots are these two, and
find the quadratic
-f
find also
the third root of each.
p-p
26.
r-r
p-p
The Cube Roots of
Unity.
r-r'
Equations of the
forms
xn -
-=
0,
xn
-f
0,
consisting of the highest and absolute terms only, are called

The roots of the former are called the n n th
binomial equations.
A general discussion of these forms will be given

subsequent chapter. We confine ourselves at present to
roots of unity.
in a
the simple case of the binomial cubic, for which certain useful
It has been
properties of the roots can be easily established.
already shown (see Ex.
5,
Art. 16), that the roots of the cubic

a*
are
*'
- 1 =
11
11
*
^
'
~2~2^~~ 6
'
If either of the imaginary roots be represented by w, the

2
is easily seen to be u> , by actually squaring; or we may
other
see the
must
same thing
also
as follows
be a root
for,
since
If
oi
w be a root of the cubic, w*

1, we get, by squaring,
44
Roots and
w8 =
1,
or (w
8
)
We
# - 1 = 0.
3
Changing
thus showing that

have then the identity
we
tf
1 a
the cubic
get the following identity also
(a?
satisfies
o>
1,
into -a?,
a;
of Equations.
Coefficients
1) (#
-i
o>) (a?
a> ),
which furnishes the roots of
&
-f
0.
Whenever
in any product of quantities involving the imagiof unity any power higher than the second
cube
roots
nary
it
can be replaced by o>, or or, or by unity for
presents itself,
;
example,
The
first or second of equations (2), Art. 23, gives the

of the imaginary cube roots
property
lowing
1 -f u> + or = 0.
fol-
the aid of this equation any expression involving real

quantities and the imaginary cube roots can be written in any
f a>Q,
+ urQ, w
is
2.
Prove the following
or//) (o>
wri)
Ans. m" -
identities
m 3 -f
0,3 _ W 3 ss
3.
Show
(m -f n)((am -f
(
WJ
mn+
w,)(
ww
a>
w)(&r
-I-
wn),
'*) (or ;>*
/>).
that the product

(a-f
is
rational.
o))8-t
a>
7)(a
+ co 2
rational.
-4m.
4.
(a 46.
<r
I-
& 2 + 72 - 0y
- ya
Prove the identity

j8 -f
7)(a -f
j8 -f
7)(
2
)8
+ W 7) =
a3
-f )8
-f
3
7 - 80^7.
Prove the identity

(a +
Apply Ex.
j8
2,
7)
+ (a+
2
/8 4-
7)
(2a
- 3 - 7) (2/5 - w - a)(2-y ~ a
3).
n2
45
The Cube Roots of Unity.

6.
Prove the identity

(a
a>j8
7)
(a
a>
Apply Ex. 2, and substitute

7. Prove the identity
s
a' 4-
w~w
for
j8'
4 wy s -
7'*
its
*/~$ ($ - 7) (7 -
value
3a'Y a
(a
\/
8
a) (a
- 0).
3.
4 7* -
SajS?)
',
where
2
a' s a 4-
8.
Form
'
7'==7 +
0*427a,
207,
iw
o>m
n,
orw,
^ns.
9.
Form
2aj8.
the equation whose roots are
whose
the equation
I 4-
4-
a;
- 3mi* - (w8
4-
n3 ) =
0.
roots are
Ant. x*
aw.
4-
4-
tm 4
w ? w,
3te* 4- 3 (/-
4 w? w 4
- mn) x -
(/
4-
cuw.
m8 4
- S^mw) = 0.
th
important to observe that, corresponding to the n n
th
The roots
roots of unity, there are n n roots of any quantity.
It
is
of the equation
xn - a -
are the n n th roots of
The
a.
three cube roots, for example, of a are
V3/
0>
fl,
V3/~
0)~
V3/-
<7,
where vâ represents the real cube root according to the ordinary
Each of these values satisfies the
arithmetical interpretation.
It is to be observed that the three
cubic equation x* - a = 0.
cube roots
may
be obtained by multiplying any one of the three
above written by
1, <u,
wa
In addition, therefore,
to the real cube root there are
two
imaginary cube roots obtained by multiplying the real cube

root by the imaginary cube roots of unity.
Thus, besides the
ordinary cube root
cube roots
3,
the
number 27 has the two imaginary
,-
as the student can easily verify

10.
Form
by actual cubing.
a rational equation which shall have
wV
for a root
Vhere
Compare Ex.
o>
8.
Q 4\/Q2 + f* +
3
2
-V& + ^
Ans. x* 4 3Pz - 2Q
0.
46
Roots and
11.
Form an
for a root,
of Equations.
equation with rational coefficients which shall have
where
Cubing both
Coefficients
0i
and
1,
fa
1.
sides of the equation
x=
and substituting
a:
for
its
0!
v/p +
0,
value on the right-hand side,
we
get
Cubing again, we have
Since
Q\
and
may
0%
each have any one of the values
1,
u>,
w2 the nine roots of

,
this equation are
We see
also that, since 9i and 2 have disapperaed from the final equation, it is
which of these nine roots is assumed equal to x in the first instance.
The resulting equation is that which would have been obtained by multiplying
indifferent
together the nine factors of the form

above written.
x -<\/P
\/Q
obtained from the nine roots
12. Form separately the three cubic equations whose roots are the groups in
three (written in vertical columns in Ex. 11) of the roots of the equation of the
preceding example.
"We can write these down from Ex.

then equal to
cu
1\
&\/ Q,\
and
8,
taking
first
finally equal to
and n equal
to^/P /Q',
9
o*~\/P, <jj"\/Q.
Ans.
x*
l/TQx - P~ Q
- P- Q =
**
27.
0,
0,
Symmetric Functions of the Hoots.
Symmetric
functions of the roots of an equation are those functions in

which all the roots are alike involved, so that the expression is
unaltered in value when any two of the roots are interchanged.
For example, the functions of the roots (the sum, the sum of the
products in pairs, &c.) with which we^ were concerned in Art. 23
.are of this nature; for, as the student will readily perceive, if
,in
any
of these expressions the root a b let us say, be written in
Symmetric Functions of
47
the Boots.
every place where a 2 occurs, and a 2 in every place where en

occurs, the value of the expression will be unchanged.
The functions discussed in Art. 23 are the simplest sym.
metric functions of the roots, each root entering in the
first
any term of any one of them.

without
We can,
knowing the values of the roots separately
in terms of the coefficients, obtain by means of the equations (2)
of Art. 23 the values in terms of the coefficients of an infinite
degree only in
It will be shown
variety of symmetric functions of the roots.
in a subsequent chapter, when the discussion of this subject is
resumed, that any rational symmetric function whatever of the
The examples appended to this

so expressed.
most of which have reference to the simple cases of the
cubic and biquadratic, are sufficient for the present to illustrate
roots can be
Article,
the usual elementary methods of obtaining such expressions in

terms of the coefficients.
It
is
letter
pression
usual to represent a symmetric function by the Greek

attached to one term of it, from which the entire ex-
be written down.
may
Thus,
if a, /3,
y be the
roots of
a cubic, Su~/3 represents the symmetric function

2
cr/3
+ a? 7 2 +
/3Y,
possible products in pairs are taken, and all the

terms added after each is separately squared. Again, in the
where
same
all
case,
Sa 2 /3 represents the sum

a
where
4 a 2 y 4 fi*y 4
13
/3
4 y*a 4 y 2 /3,
permutations of the roots two by two are

taken, and the first root in each term then squared.
As an illustration in the case of a biquadratic we take 2a 2 /3 2
all possible
whose expanded form
By
among
is
as follows
the aid of the various symmetric functions which occur

the following examples the student will acquire a facility
in writing out in all similar cases the entire expression

the typical term is given.
when
Roots and
48
of Equations.
Coefficients
EXAMPLES.
1
Find the value of 2a5
of the roots of the cubic equation
4 px* 4
tf
qx
=s
0.
Multiplying together the equations

a
+ & 4 y=
0y 4 ya 4
we
2a2 /3
obtain
hence
2crj8
^.
3r
2.
Find for the same cubic the value of
3.
Find for the same cubic the value
a2
-f
4 y\
hence, by Ex.
47 +
-I-
1,
2a = 3
4.
Find
We
for the
jt?
= - ^3 +
Zpq
2^^
3r.
V+7
'W
easily obtain
2cr/3
(ft
is
7)
?'S
2pr.
7) (7
3).
equal to
2a$7
2a--
-f
Ans.
Find the value of the symmetric function

o2 /3y
47
a)8
4-
o2/85
2
47
o3
cryS
47
4 ^ 2 a7 4 # 2 a5 4
^35
5*a
82 a7
of the roots of the biquadratic equation

ar*
4 px* 4 qx 1 4
Multiplying together
obtain
ra;
0.
a44748 = -;>,
a/87
hence
Find for the same cubic the value of
This
we
)3
6.
p*
same cubic the value of
from which
6.
2a-)3
3
2a'J
+ 7s
we obtain
Multiplying the values of 2a and 2o
Ans.
of
a+0
o8
y,
- pq\
3 a#y
4-
-JP,
a)85
4 a7^ 4
2a
j87
^878
r,
4 4a075 = pr ;
2a 07 = .pr 2
=-
4t
49
Examples.
7.
Find for the same biquadratic the value of the symmetric function
o8
S2 .
+ 72 +
4-
Squaring 2a, we easily obtain
2a2 = p2 8.
Find
for the
a2
a2 7 2 + a 2 5 2 +
Squaring the equation
we
2?.
same biquadratic the value of the symmetric function

2
2a0 =
2
7 +
+ y-5 2
5-
f,
obtain
2a2
hence,
by Ex.
+ 22a 2 /3y
-f
6a0y$ =
8
;
6,
- 2pr +
2*.
Find for the same biquadratic the value of 2a3 /8.

To form this symmetric function we take the two permutations a# and j8a of
We have similarly two
the letters a, ft
these give two terms a3 and /8 3 a of 2.
so that the symmetric functerms from every other pair of the letters a,
7, 5
9.
tion consists of 12 terms in all.
Multiply together the two equations
2a/3
2a2 = JP - 2?
y,
and observe that
s 2a
2a 2a
3
j8
2o
4-
/87.
convenient to remark here, that results of tho kind expressed by this last
equation can be verified by the consideration that the number of terms in both
members of the equation must be the same. Thus, in the present instance, since
[It is
2a2
contains 4 terms, and 2a 6 terms, their product must contain 24 ; and these
3
2
tlie 12 terms which form 2a
together with the 12 which form 2a #7.]
Using the results of previous examples, we have, therefore,
are in fact
2a 3 /8 = p*q - 2? 2 - pr +
10.
Find
for the
same biquadratic the value

a4
+ 74
fr
-f
4*.
of
54 .
2
Squaring 2a , and employing results already obtained,
2a 4 = J3 4 - 4p~q
11.
Find the value, in terms of the
-f
2g-
+ 4pr ~
4*.
coefficients, of the
sum
of the squares of the
roots of the equation
Xn +p&n- 1 + p2X~2
Squaring 2ai,
we
-f
. .
+ 22aiaa
+p n = 0.
easily find
2
jPi
2ai 2
hence
2ar =
12.
Fiad the value,
pi* -
2p z .
in terms of the coefficients, of the
the roots of the equation in the preceding example.
sum
of the reciprocals of
Roots and
50
From
the second
CX203
last,
... On
01
and
tt3
of Equations.
Coefficients
last of
CUCC2
....
by
~r
"r
02
l)*- ^,,-
= (-l)"jp
<*
we have
the latter,
= (-
a,i-l
....
01 0303
dividing the former
we have
the equations of Art. 23,
.... On +....+
~~~
,
~r
~t~
On
03
In a similar manner the sum of the products in pairs, in threes, &c., of the
found by dividing the 3rd last, or 4th last, &c., co-
reciprocals of the roots can be

efficient
13.
by the last.
Find for the cubic equation
the value, in terms of the coefficients, of the following symmetric function of the
roots o, 8,
2
08-7) +(7-a) +(a-/3)
N.B. It will often be found convenient to write, as in the present example, an

equation with binomial coefficients, that is, numerical coefficients the same as those
which occur in the expansion by the binomial theorem, in addition to the literal
Here the equation being of the third degree, the successive
coefficients a
i, &c.
,
numerical coefficients are those which occur in the expansion to the third power,
viz. 1, 3, 3, 1.
We
easily obtain
3
14.
Express
in
{(ft
7)
(y
a)
(a
0)
18 (a?
terms of the cooffirients of the cubic in the preceding example
the successive coefficients of the quadiatic
where
a,
/3,
are the roots of the cubic.
we have
Here, in addition to the symmetric function of the preceding example,

to calculate also the
two following
7)
+ P~ (7 -
Ann. (o2 15.
-f
x~
(a
~ #) 2
+ (o3-oi2)a?-r
(tfis
Find for the cubic of Example 13 the value in terms of the

(2a
Since
2
)
JB
7) (2jB
-7-
2a-/3-7=3a-(o4
a) (2 7
/8^ 7)
- j8)
= 3a-h
3ai
= 0.
coefficients of
51
Examples.
the required value
30]
-4w. ao
16. Find, in
of
- 7)
(2a
--
obtained by substituting
is easily
+ 3aa# +
(2)8
03
- 7 - a)
o (#
(#
- a - /3)
(2 7
for
(*
ft)
-7).
- 27 (o2
>
in the identity
-3
+ 2ai 8 ).
terms of the coefficients of the biquadratic equation

OQX* f 4ai a? 4 6a z a?
+ 4 3# +
4 *= 0,
the value of the following symmetric function of the roots

(ft
- 7) a (a -)*' +
(7
3
)
08
5)
(a
*)* (7
2.
Here the equation is written with numerical coefficients corresponding to the

expansion of the binomial to the 4th power. The symmetric function in question
is easily seen to be identical with
Employing the
<,-{(
7)
2
(
*)
examples G and
results of
2
+ (7-
(0
a
)
8,
+ (a- jB)*
we
find
(7
8
)
= 24
- 40, *s
4 3^ 2 2 ).
17. Taking the six products in pairs of the four roots of the equation of Ex. 16,
and adding each product, e.y. oj8, to that which contains the remaining two roots,
78, we have the three sums in pairs
7 4
it
is
ya
a5,
-f
a/8 -f
5,
78
required to find the values in terms of the coefficients of the two following
symmetric functions of the loots

(70 T 35) ;a
-f
76;
is
the
(a
(7 -f a5)
The former of these
sum
+ 78)
(7 +
(ya
j85) (aj8 -f
5)
(7 +
a3) (ya
+ /38),
78).
of the pi oducts in pairs, and the latter the con-
tinued product, of the three expressions above îven.

As these throe 1 unctions of
tbe roots are important in the theory of the biquadratic, we shall represent them
uniformly by the
letters X,
of the coefficients for
The former
is
(j.v
"We have, therefore,

and A/tv.
v.
/x,
I/A
2a'~'7, and
i.s
easily expressed as follows (cl.
~
The
latter
is,
when
3
375(a +
and we obtain
to find expressions in terms
A/u,
ix.
(4ais -
multiplied out, oqual to
+ 7 +8- +
:i
/3-
>
>
a-
^-7 -5 -( \
\ a-
^-
-\ H -[:)
5-/
7-
after easy calculations the following:

a<p\p.v
8 (Zauaj- - S'/oOuty
K 2
-I-
2r ^4).
6)
Roots and
52
of Equations.
Coefficients
18. Find, in terms of the coefficients of the biquadratic of Ex. 16, the value of
^he following symmetric function of the roots
:
{(7
-)(-)-(-*) (7-*)}
l(a
This is also an important symmetric function in the theory of the biquadratic.

prevent any ambiguity in writing this, or corresponding functions iii which the
differences of the roots of the biquadratic enter, we explain the notation which will
To
be uniformly employed in this work.

7, we have the three differences
Taking in circular order the three roots a,
and subtracting 5 from each root in turn, we have the three
a, a
7, 7
,
other differences a
OB
The symmetric
5,
-7)
/3
5,
We
5.
(-),
(7
combine these in pairs as follows
-*)(*-*),
(a
-3) (7-).
function in question is the product of the differences of these
three taken as usual in circular order.
Employing the values of
A,
/A,
v,
in the preceding example,
-M + "03-7)(-*). -" + A=(7-)(/3.--
We have,
we have
5),
therefore, to find the value of
(2A
-^-
v]
- A)
(2ft- v
(2v- A -
,i),
or
2a)3),
in terms of the coefficients of the biquadratic.
Multiplying this out, substituting the value of 2o#, and attending to the results
of Ex. 17,
The
we
obtain the required expression as follows
function of the coefficients here arrived at, as well as those before obtained
in Examples 13, 16, and 16, will be found to be of great importance in the theory
of the cubic and biquadratic equations.
19. Find, in terms of the coefficients of the biquadratic of
Ex.
16, the value of
the symmetric function
This
may be
represented briefly
by 2
(a
2.
Ans.
20.
Prove the following relation between the roots and

Ex. 16
dratic of
-a-
S)
(7+ a-
-5)
(a-f
-7-8) =32
coefficient?
Theorems relating
53
Symmetric Functions.
to
Theorems
relating to Symmetric Functions.

The following two theorems, with which we close for the present
the discussion of this subject, will be found useful in many in28.
stances in verifying the results of the calculation of the values

of symmetric functions in terms of the coefficients.
(1).
The sum of the exponents ofall the
roots in
any term of any
symmetric function of the roots is equal to the sum of the suffixes in

each term of the corresponding value in terms of the coefficients.
The sum of the exponents is of course the same for every
term of the symmetric function, and
The
all the roots of that function.
may be
called the degree in
truth of the theorem will be
observed in the particular cases of the Examples 13, 15, 16, 17,
&c. of the last Article ; and that it must be true in general appears from the equations (2) of Art. 23, for the suffix of each
coefficient in those equations is equal to the
degree in the roots
of the corresponding function of the roots hence in any product

of any powers of the coefficients the sum of the suffixes must be
;
equal to the degree in

tion of the roots.
(2).
When an
all
equation
the roots of the corresponding funcwritten with binomial coefficients, the
is
expression in terms of the coefficients for
any symmetric function of
the roots, which is a function of their differences only,

the algebraic
equal
sum of the numerical factors of all
is
such that
the terms in
it
is
to zero.
The
truth of this proposition appears by supposing all the

#> #i> a, &o. to become equal to unity in the general
written
with binomial coefficients, viz.,
equation
coefficients
a Q xn + naixn
for the equation then
equal
~l
~
1
becomes
a^'^ +
Z
(a?
+ l) w =
0,
,...
i.
e. all
=();
the roots become
hence any function of the differences of the roots must
in that case vanish,
and therefore
also the function of the coeffi-
equal to it ; but this consists of the algebraic sum

of the numerical factors when in it all the coefficients a a t , a8 ,
cients
which
is
&c. art
made equal
to unity.
27 we have instances of
In Exs. 13, 15, 16, 18, 20 of Art.
this theorem.
Roots and
54
of Equations.
Coefficients
EXAMPLES.
1.
Find
in terms of p, q, r the value of the
J_
_i_
&y
where
a, 3,
symmetric function
_i_
a&
ya
are the roots of the cubic equation
Xs
2
px + qx +
4-
0.
Ans.
3.
r
2.
Find for the same equation the value of
^4w.
3.
Here
Calculate the value of 2a 3
2a2a
= 2a s /8 3
-4-
/8
of the roots of the
a72a'0
5a 6
is
Find
for the
easily obtained
3
by squaring 2a
same equation.
2
%pqr + 3r
Ex.
(see
-f
7*
fi
2;>
1 2yy
1 2j3
8;/ 02
Spqr
60
2
2
7 4 a
a2
4- j3
2
'
+7
7+0
+
2^

or
+ 7
a-f)
Am
7.
Art. 27)
3,

2
6.
same equation the value of the symmetric function
Ans.
5.
- jo 3
hence, &o.
Ans.
4.
24r
a3
27a -
&
2a/8
7*
*
4pr
20
55
Examples.
8.
Find the value of the symmetric function 5
--
\a +
for the
equation.
- 4?8 "
9.
Calculate in terms of p,
+ py?
x*
1
2aS a-2
Here
- 5-
4-
a/8
-f
qx*
+
1
and Sa2 -
S~
the value of
g, r, s
rx
+ 2
7-
Find the value of 5
~a
- 9r2
0.
gr
10.
2pqr
for the equation
-f
same cubic
Iq-s
~ pra f
of the roots of the equation
fl~
p n -i# + /> =
-f
11.
Find for the biquadratic of Ex. 9 the value of

(/3
Compare Ex.
12.
0.
7 -
a8)
7a -
5) (a/3
- 7 3).
^s.
22, Art. 24.
Find the value of 2 (oa
-f
i)
(j8
- 7) 2
in terms
cubic equation
tfo#
+ 3a 8 # +
3#i#-
0.
1
Find the value of the symmetric function 2
xn
-f
^la?"'
+ jt?2#n~2 --....
The given function may be written
in the form
W |I ,L +
+
12
(ai
1
(
2oi2
14.
Qear
!)_,
1
~ ,1
-f-~f"
03
ai
a;
a*
-f-a\
or
.. ..
Ill
- + - +
-f l^n-ia? 4- JP
<
hence, &c.
of radicals the equation

2
V/*~^~a~
-f
A/^-0
4 v/' - 72
5
ô*"
(a
2
i
)*-
of the roots of the
CC1A2
equation
of the coefficients of the
v4w.
13.
r2 ~jo2
0.
56
Roots and
and express the
of Equations.
Coefficients
coefficients of the resulting equation in
in terms of the coefficients
of the cuhic of Ex. 1.
Ans. 3* 2 - 2
15. If a,
2
(j
+ !)(* -f
(a
1)( 7
1)(5
+1) -
-p* +
2#)
7, 5 be the roots of the biquadratic of
Ex.
Substitute in turn each of the roots of the equation
a?
8jpr
0.
- r).
(p
prove
9,
- q +*) 2 4-
(1
4p*q
in the identity of
Art. 16, and multiply.

16. Prove the following relation between the roots and coefficients of the
th
general equation of the n degree
:
17.
Find the numerical value of
vhere
1) (a2
(ai
---- (a
1)
1)
(1
- p* + Pi -
. .
.)*
(p\
- P* +
)*
are the roots of the equation
a, 0, 7, 8
x*
Substitute in turn for
- 7s8 +
x each
8s2
6x
10
0.
root of the equation
x2 4 2 =
0,
and multiply.
Ana. 166.
If a, 0, 7, 5 be the roots of the equation
18.
0,
prove
o
(3
The
A/tv,
-f
7) (7
4-
+ W(a ^
)(
symmetric function in question
where
A,
/x,
equal to
is
have the values of Ex.
19. Calculate the value of the
Ex.
biquadratic equation of
Ifi
(Caâs
(/* 4-
v}(v -f A) (A
-f A*),
or
17, Art. 27.
symmetric function
2 (a -
#)
of the roots of the
9.
4
Ans.
Show
5)(/3 -f 5) (7 -f 5)
when
S;;
I6p~g
20?
-f
+ 4pr -
16*.
written with binomial coefficients, as in

tfee biquadratic
Ex. 18, the value of the symmetric function of the preceding example may be
20.
that
is
expressed in the following form

a
21.
The
(a
4
)
{48
(a
ff2
distances on a right line of
the line are the roots
(a,
ax 2
prove that
1C>
and
(a', /8')
Zbx 4
3
i
two
(a
%-
4rt]
from a fixed
two quadratic equations
pairs of points
of the
0,
a'x*
2b'x
-f c'
origin
on
when one
pair of the points are the harmonic conjugates of the other

pair, the following relation exists :
ac'
22.
The
-I-
a'c
2##'
distances of three points A, B,
on the line are the roots of the equation
C on
0.
a right line from a fixed origin
57
Examples.
find the condition that
one of the points A,
C should
bisect the distance
between
the other two.
Compare Ex.
Ans. a*d- Zabe + 25 s =0.
15, Art. 27.
23. Retaining the notation of the preceding question, find the condition that the
four points 0,
A,
C should form a harmonic
J?,
division.
Ans. adz
3bcd+
2c s
= 0.
This can be derived from the result of Ex. 22 by changing the roots into their
reciprocals, or it can be easily calculated independently.
24. If the roots (a, 0, 7, 5) of the equation
e
be so related that a
8,
yS are
5,
harmonic progression, prove the relation
in
the coefficients
among
ace+ 2bcd-ad z -b*e-&**Q.
Compare Ex.
18, Art. 27.
equation whose roots are
Foifli the
25.
By +
a
3
where
1,
and
a,
/8,
twya
-|-
c*>0 -f
a>
7 are the
26.
Express
sum
of
-f
ya-f a>a0
ar0
-f-
w*v
of the cubic
-f 34^'" -f 3r^r 4- rf
-7 ~
ajB) (2 7 a
= 0.
- 187) (20 - ^7 -
aj8
two cubes.
Ann. ($7
Compare Ex.
4- a>
14, Art. 27.
(20?
as the
a0
roots*
ax*
Compare Exs. 13 and
co*7
5,
-f-
o>7<x 4-
<w'
Art. 26.
27. Express
3
z)
in terms of
jc
4 y
-f
and
-1-
(a?
4-
\vheie
*yj5,
f/ -4
o>
w'J s) 3
+ (j;
w-
4-
//
1.
A**.
28. If
r'
find
-3T,
r,
^ in terms
Apply Jbixample
3 *' y' *')
H-
F8 4- ^s -
'
of #, y,
#', y',
4, Ail. 26.
Am.
29.
(a
-f
7)
a3y
(07
+ ya -f
a0)
into threefactors, each of the second degree in a, 0, 7.
Ans.
Compare Ex.
18, Art.
24
(cr
- 07)
(0
- 7)
(7*
aj8)
Roots and
58
of Equations.
Coefficients
30. Eesolve into simple factors each of the following expressions

(1).
(-
(2).
(J
8~
Ans.
31.
(1).
(2a-0-7)(2-7-a)(27-a-/8).
(2).
-90S-x)(7-a)(a-#.
Find the condition that the cubic equation
Xs
px 1 -\-qx-r-Q
should have a pair of roots of the form a

the roots in that case.
If the real root
roots,
p2
*2q
we
is b,
The
b~.
and show how to determine
hy forming the sum of the
easily find,
required condition
(P*
2?) (q*
sq uares of the
is
2pr)
r*
0.
a*
whose
roots are of the
7x*
form indicated
20#
in
24
0,
Ex. 31.
Ans.
33.
Roots
3,
and 2 + 2
V^l
Find the conditions that the biquadratic equation

x*
px*
among
rx
qx
aV
should have roots of the form a

conditions
1,
Here there must he two
1.
the coefficients, as there are only two independent quantities
involved in the roots.
Ans.
p*-
1q
r*
'Iqs
0.
84. Solve the biquadratic

x*
whose
roots are of the form in
4a- 3
Sx*
120s
4-
900
-f /3
0,
Ex. 33.
Ans.
35. If a
V^, -6 + 5 V~l.
be a root of the equation

x^
0s
0,
prove that 2a will be a root of the equation
Xs + g# - r =
36.
0.
Find the condition that the cubic equation

x9
should have two roots
a,
ft
-f
2
j# + ##
-f
connected by the relation
aft -f 1
Ana.
=
1 -f
0.
+ pr
4 r*
0.
59
Find the condition that the biquadratic
37.
#4 + px* + qx" 4 rx
-f
should hnve two roots connected by the relation aj8

The condition arranged according to powers of s
1
+ q + pr +
Find the value of 5
38.
xn
This
r1
+ (^ -f j?r - 2q 2
ao)
(ai
--
p\x
n'}
1) *
0.
is
(q
- 1) **-f * ^ o.
a3 04 .... cm of the roots of the
+pzz
n~2
equation
+pn = 0.
readily reducible to Ex. 13.
is
Am.
(-
39. If the roots of the

equation
'*
i
be in arithmetical progression, show that they can be obtained from the

expression
by giving to r
all
0, 2, 4, 6 ....
the values 1,3,5, ____

1,
when w
is
1,
when n
is
even
40. Representing the differences of three

quantities
follows
and
all
the values
odd.
a,
j8,
7 by
ai,
1,
71, a.
aiE=-7,
7isa-^3;
j8i-7-a,
prove the relations

3
oi
ai
ai
These
results
+
+
-f
-f
7i
-f
71*
3
/8i
4
)3i
fo*
-f
7i
3ai/3,7i,
2
2
J {ai + î
= f
can be derived by taking
* + qx is
2
/Si
01, 3i,
(where the second term
{ai
absent since the
-f
7r}%
4 71"
01/8171.
71 to be roots of the equation
sum
of the roots
= 0), and
calculating
the symmetric functions 2ai 8 , 2ai 4 , 2oi 5 in terms of and r.

The process can be
q
extended to form 2ai 6 , 2ai 7 , &c. The sums of the successive powers are, therefore,
capable of being expressed in terms of the product ai/3i7i and the sum of squares
2
-f
+ 71* ; the former being equal to r, and the latter to - 2 (fr 71 + 71 ai -f- a t 1),
i
or
2g. These sums can be calculated readily as follows :
By means of x* = r - qx,
all
oi
and the equations derived from this by squaring, cubing, &c., and multiplying by
x or ar2 any power of #, say xf, can be brought
by successive reductions to the form
A + Bx+ Cx*, where A B, C are functions of q and r. Substituting ai, 0i, 71, and
,
adding,
this
we
way
find 2ai*
7?
r,
= 3^t
5ai u
2^(7.
110r
The student can

3
(? -r*).
take as an exercise to prove in
CHAPTER
IV.
TRANSFORMATION OF EQUATIONS.
29.
We
Transformation of Equations.
instances, without
knowing
tion in terms of the coefficients, transform

substitutions, or
roots, into
can in
many
the values of the roots of an equait
by elementary
of the symmetric functions of the

equation whose roots shall have certain
by the aid
another
transformaassigned relations to the roots of the proposed.

tion of this nature often facilitates the discussion of the equation.
proceed to explain the most important elementary transfor-
We
mations of equations.
Hoots with Signs changed.
To transform an equabe equal to the roots of the

be the
given equation with contrary signs, let cu, a a a 3
30.
whose roots
tion into another
shall
3? +
We
JC
nr
p X
n ~*
-*rp 2 X
p n ^X + pn =
have then the identity

2
+ p n ^X + p n m ( X 'Vp.,0*- +
+ p^-
cliauging x into
//"
'
-Piy
n~ l
y^
8)
we have, whether n be even
+ p*y n ~* - ...
The polynomial
Ol ) (x
0.
pn^ y T
pn
(//
i)
(x
dn )
or odd,
(y + a 2 )
(//
n).
y equated to zero is, therefore, an equation

- a w and to effect the
- a2
required
transformation we have only to change the signs of every alternate
whose roots are -
in
ai,
term of the given equation beginning
ivith the second.
EXAMPLES.
1
Find the equation whose roots are the
&+
with their signs changed.
7* 4
7o?3
roots of
- 8# 2
Ans.
-f
xb
-f
7# 4
1x*
8x* +*x
=0.
To Multiply Roots by a Given Quantity.

2.
Change the signs
61

7
3# 6
-4
-f
8
it-
[Supply the missing terms with zero
x-
= 0.
Ix + 2
-f
coefficients.]
Am.
a7
4- 3.r
+ # 8 -f x* + 7x-
0.
To
Multiply the Roots by a (niven Quantity.

a
iiito anTo transform an equation whose roots are
a,,
31.
2,
i,
ma^ wa
other whose roots are
2,
many we change
the identity of the preceding Article.
x into
Multiplying by
in
in
n
,
we
have
n
n
y + mp\y
~l
m*p 2
n ~*
i/
+
-
(l/
mn p n ^y + mnpn
~l
men) (y
- ma-z ---)
(y
iwa n ).
to multiply the roots of an equation by a given quanwe

have only to multiply the successive coefficients, beginning
tity m,
Hence,
Kith the second, by m,
/;?.%
;w
3
,
mn
The present transformation is useful

moving the coefficient of the first term
for the
of
purpose of rean equation when it
not unity and generalty for removing fractional coefficients

from an equation. If there be a coefficient a of the first term,
we form the equation whose roots are aa\ tf 2,
the
oa n
transformed equation will be divisible by a and after such
division the coefficient of x n will be unity.
it is
When
there are fractional coefficients,
by multiplying the
roots
common
all
multiple of
by a quantity
we can
get rid of them

is the least
which
the denominators of the fractions.
In
many cases multiplication by a quantity less than the least

common multiple will be sufficient for this purpose, as will
appear in the following examples
EXAMPLES.
1.
Change the equation
into another the coefficient of whose highest term will be unity.

Am. x^ - 4.r + I2x~
multiply the roots hy 3.
We
2.
Remove
- 18*
-4-
27 =0.
the fractional coefficients from the equation
Multiply the roots hy
6.
dns
3?
3x~
+ 24#- 216 = 0.
62
Remove
3.
6,7
By noting the factors which occur in the denominators of these fractions, we

observe that a number much smaller than the least common multiple will suffice to
remove the fractions. If the required multiplier be m, we write the transformed
equation thus :
evident that
it is
have only
if
= 6,
be taken
to multiply the roots
by
each coefficient will become integral
Ann.
Remove
4.
The student must be

terms with zero
13
we
&-\i>x*- Ux +
0.
77
careful in examples of this kind to supply the missing
coefficients.
The required
multiplier
Ans.
Remove
hence

3
6.
6.
x*>
is
10.
30# 2
-f
520# 4-770
= 0.

.
JF*
--6 #3 +
,
5
;r
-- 18
o2
0.
900
12
Ans.
- 25^-f 375r2 - 11700 =
0.
32. Reciprocal Roots and Reciprocal Equations.

To .transform an equation into one whose roots are the reciprocals
of the roots of the proposed equation,

identity of Art. 30.
we change x
into - in the
This substitution gives, after certain easy
reductions,
1
Pi
P*
Pn~\
or
hence,
1
if
in the given equation
we
replace x
by
-,
and multiply
resulting polynomial in y equated to zero

for roots the reciprocals of a 1? a 2 .... a n
by
y'
the*
*rill
have
63
Reciprocal Equations.
There
when x
is
a certain class of equations which remain unaltered
is
changed into
The
equafions.
These are called
its reciprocal.
conditions which must obtain
among
reciprocal
the coef-
an equation in order that it should be one of this class

has been just proved, plainly the following
what
by
ficients of
are,
Pn~\
- ~
2J n
The
- PL
Pn-i
- P*
- - P- ~1 -
;?i
*<>
lj n
Pn
J'n
last of these conditions gives
*
pn =
or
1,
P~
pn =
l.
procal equations are divided into two classes, according as

equal to + 1, or to -1.
In the
(1).
which give
first
case
we have
Reci-
pn
is
the relations
rise to thejfov^ class of reciprocal equations, in which
the coefficients of the corresponding terms taken
the beginning
from
a if (I end are equal in magnitude and have the same signs.

In the second case, when p n = 1, we have
(2).
Pn-i
= -Pi,
pn-2
giving rise to the second
&c,
-I**,
class
pi = -p,,_i
of reciprocal equations, in which cor-
responding terms counting from the beginning and end are equal in
magnitude hut different in sign. It is to be observed that in this
ease when the degree of the equation is even, say n- 2ui, one of
the conditions becomes
p m = -p m
equations of the second class,

term is absent.
>
or p m =
If a be a root of a reciprocal equation,
equation
identical with the proposed
reciprocal equation occur in pairs,
degree
and
or +
is
it is
a,
/3,
also be a root,
and the transformed

hence the roots of a
odd there must be a root which

in fact obvious
even, the middle
is
- must
for it is a root of the transformed equation,

is
so that in reciprocal
whose degree
is its
&c.
own
When
the
reciprocal
from the form of the equation that -1,
then a root, according as the equation is of the first or

second of the above classes. In either case we can divide off by
I
is
64:
the
known
factor
(x+
1 or a?- 1),
equation of even degree
and
and what
of the
the second class of even degree a?

tion may be written in the form
n-2
is left is
is
- 1 +
a reciprocal
In equations
first class.
of
factor, since the equa-
0.
- 1, this also is reducible to a

dividing by x*
reciprocal
of
first
class
of even degree.
Heuce all reciprocal
the
equation
By
equations
even,
and
may be reduced to those of the first class whose degree is

may consequently be regarded as the standardform
this
of reciprocal equations.
EXAMPLES.
1.
Find the equation whose roots are the reciprocals of the roots of
**
- 3^ +
7* 2
6*
Am.
2.
Reduce
to a reciprocal equation of
a
6
* +
K
8
22
=
2y
0.
5//
even degree and of
22
T* +T*
Ans.
To Increase or Diminish
To
Quantity.
effect this
3y
-f
0.
first class
*-i-o.
x*
-f
- x* - -- x* + - x +
6
33.
7?/
0.
the Roots by a Given
transformation
we change
the vari-
polynomial/ (x) by the substitution x = y + h the

resulting equation in y will have roots each less or greater by h
than the given equation in x, according as h is positive or negaable in the
tive.
The
resulting equation
f(h) +/' (A)y +
There
is
mode
is (see
Art. 6)
^-V -Q^yH-
... -
o.
which for
of formation of this equation
practical purposes is much more convenient than the direct calculation of the derived functions, and the substitution in them
of the given quantity h.
This we proceed to explain.
proposed equation be
.
+ an - x + a n }
Let the
To Increase or Diminish
and suppose the transformed polynomial
y =
since
a?
h, this is
65
the Roots.
in
be
to
equivalent to
which must be identical with the given polynomial. We conclude

if the given polynomial be divided by x - A, the remainder
that
is
A ny
and the quotient
A
if this
(x
+ AI (x -
A)*"
again be divided by x
quotient
*Q. o
7jN**~"^
f/yt
I***
/fry
_i_
1~
A)**"
h,
A)
the remainder
is
/)\H~^
/*
J
( t*
>4
+ An_ 2 (x -
<<cjLl I***
"f"
Aî
An
-i,
and the
_i_
~T~
4-
-Cl^j_2
Proceeding in this way, we are able by a repetition of arithmetical operations, of the kind explained in Art. 8, to calculate
in succession the several coefficients
formed equation the

;
last, A
An
An.^ &c., of the trans-
being equal to a
It will appear
in a subsequent chapter that the best practical method of solving numerical equations is only an extension of the process
employed in the following examples.
EXAMPLES.
1.

si
each diminished by
The
roots are the roots of
5# 8
7# 2
llx
-f
11
0,
4.
calculation is best exhibited as follows
12
12
20
60
65
11
11
17
66
-
Here the first division of the given polynomial by x - 4 gives the remainder
and the quotient x z - x* -f 3#
5 (cf. Art. 8).
Dividing this aâin by
9 (= At) t
we get the remainder 55 (= A$), and the quotient x~ + 3# + 15. Dividing

we get the remainder 43 (= AZ), and quotient x + 7 and dividing this we get
A\=ll and AQ = 1 hence the required transformed equation is
x
4,
again,
55y - 9
2.
.#
each diminished by
4#
-#
0.
roots of
-f
11
0,
3.
15
The transformed equation

y
3.
-f
therefore,
is,
2
305y 4 507f/ + 353 =
3
15y + 94y
-f
0.
Find the equation whose roots are the roots of
4x*
each increased by
The
2# 3
multiplier in this operation
is,
by
7z
of course,
Am.
4. Increase
0,
2.
2.
303y-129 =
4i/s-4Qy*
7 the roots of the equation
0.
*
6.
Diminish by 23 the roots of the equation

6z 3
13# 2
- 12* +
0.
The operation may be conveniently performed by

20,
- 2876y -f 4058 = 0.
first
diminishing the roots by
and then diminishing the roots of the transformed

equation again by
3.
The
Removal of Terms.
calculation
may
67
be exhibited in two stages, as follows, the broken lines marking
the conclusion of each stage
332
Am.
Removal of Terms.
34.
-f
5//
One
7325?/
+ 53689 =
0.
of the chief uses of the
transformation of the preceding article
is
to
remove a
certain
Such a step often facilitates

specified term from an equation.
its solution.
Writing the transformed equation in descending
powers of
y,
we have
If h be such as to satisfy the equation naji + a =

l
formed
equation will
want the second term.
0,
the trans-
If h be either of
the values which satisfy the equation
5
JL
1)
0,
the transformed equation will want the third Jterm the removal
of the fourth term will require the solution of a cubic for h and
;
so on.
/(A)
To remove
0,
which
is
the last term
we must
the original equation
solve the equation
itself.
68
EXAMPLES.
1.
Transform the equation

3
ic
which
into one
shall
- 6^ + 4x -
naoh
a\
gives
2.
Ans. y* - 8y
Diminish the roots by 2.

2. Transform the equation
a^
which
into one
shall
65
= 0.
0.
+ Sa^-f #-5 =
Increase the roots

3.
15
-4s. y 4
2.
by
24^-
-f
65y
Transform the equation
which
into one
The
want the
shall
third term.
quadratic for h is
- 12A -
6/i 2
Thus there are two ways

Diminishing the roots by
Binomial
giving h
0,
=-
3r J
we obtain
y*+ 8// s - Illy- 196 =
we obtain
y*-fy4 17y-8 = 0.
1,
(2)
35.
I.
3,
(1)
Increasing the roots by
18
of effecting the trans formation.
Coefficients.
0.
In many algebraical pro-
found convenient to write the polynomial /(a?) in the

form
following
v (n - 1)
n(n - 1)
n"
-f
^-2^ + w^n-i^ + <*m
cesses it is
-*-
in
which each term
ficient,
*w
affected, in addition to the literal coef-
is
with the numerical
coefficient of the
corresponding term
w
expansion of (x + l) by the binomial theorem. The
student will find examples of equations written in this way on
in the
Examples 13 and
referring to Article 27,

to
The form
16.
is
one
which any given polynomial can be at once reduced.
We
now adopt
the following notation
Un = a&?
naiX
-f
n~ l
+
J.
#n
~2
+ na n . x + a n
}
/o
with the suffix n to represent the polynomial of

thus using
th>
the n degree written with binomial coefficients
Binomial
We have, therefore,
One advantage
69
Coefficients.
changing n into n
form
of the binomial
1, &o.,
that the derived
is,
The
functions can be immediately written down.
Un
function of
or n
Un
is,
first
derived
plainly,
so that the first derived function of a polynomial represented in this way can be formed by applying to the suffix
of
the rule given in Art. 6 with respect to the exponent of the
.i
variable.
Thus, for example, the
by multiplying the function by

unity
We
derived of U^
first
is
and diminishing the
4,
formed
suffix
by
4 Z73 as the student can easily verify.

to
now
proceed
prove that the substitution of y + h for
it is,
therefore,
x transforms the polynomial

n
n
#o# + nciix
~l
7W or
,
-:
flr
1 &
2 o?
n~ a
-f
na n
\x
into
A yn
Q
nAiif- +
1
-f
nin - 1)
n'2
+
\ >> - ^3//
^l-iy + -4,
where
-ôj -îj -4 2,
are the functions which result

*7
i.e.
A* =
0n,
-^
=
i
o^
CT,,
Z7,,
î,
by
.
-^2
-^-n-ly
-&n
substituting A for x in
.
Un- l9
o^
a
*
Un
',
2iA
+ aa , &o.
Representing the derived functions of /(A) by
suffixes,
as
70
explained in Art.
mation, viz. f(y +
/,
we may
6,
write the result of the transfor-
A), in the following form:
W,
Un
f (A) is the result of substituting h for # in

-4
its first
derived/i(A)
derived of this again

substitutions,
to write
is
we have
by
is,
n(n
A n_i\
1)
it
and
so on.
therefore,
is,
nA n.
above rule,
tlie
the
first
these
Making
the result above stated, which enables us
down without any
calculation the transformed equation.
EXAMPLES.
1.
Find the
Am.
The
<7
result of substituting
3 (onh
-f
i)
-I-
y+h
A2 +
x in the polynomial
for
2iA +
^2)
?/ -I-
ô^ 3
-f 3^!/<
stud(^nl will find it a useful exercise to verify this result
calculation explained in Art. 33,
-f
3^/t
<z s .
-f
hy the method of
which may often be employed with advantage
ii
the case of algebraical as well as numerical examples.

2. Remove the second term from the equation
3
3r/2#
-f
We
must diminish the
roots
o^
#3
0.
h obtained
by a quantity
-f
-f
from the equation
"i
= 0,
i.e. h
= --a,,
Substituting this value of
--
3 (a<ff2
h in A*, and A$, the resulting equation in y

2
r)
i*
o ^3
3. Find the condition that the second and third terms of the
equation Un should be capable of being removed by the same substitution.
Here A\ and A^ must vanish for the same value of A; and eliminating h
between them we find the required condition.
Ans.
4.
a^ci'i
Solve the equation

x*
its
fijr-
-4-
2r
second term.
by removing
The third term
is
removed by the same

y
substitution,
- 27 =
0.
which gives
- a{1 =
0.
The
The required
roots are obtained
71
Cubic.
subtracting 2 from each root of the latter
by
equation.
5. Find the condition that the second and fourth terms of the equation Un =
should be capable of being removed by the same transformation.
Here the coefficients A\ and A* must vanish for the same value of h ; eliminat-
ing h between the equations
=
we
ff
0,
/*
3#iA
Zctih
0,
obtain the required condition
3
i
0.
among the coefficients of a biquadratic equareducible to that of a quadratic for when the second term is
removed the resulting equation is a quadratic for y^ ; and from the values of y
N.B.
"When
this condition holds
tion its solution
those of
6.
oc
is
can be obtained.
Solve the equation

x*
by removing
its
-f
16s3 + 72s2
0.
in
is
y4_24y-
Solve in the same manner the equation
x + 20s 3
l
-I-
143s2
+ 430s
4-
Am. The
8.
and
129
second term.
The equation
7.
64s
462
0.
roots are
- 7, - 3, - 5
V'S.
Find the condition that the same transformation should remove the second
fifth
terms of the equation
Un =
0.
3#i
The
= 0.
account of their peculiar interest, we

shall consider in this and the next following Articles the equa36.
Cubic.
tions of the third
On
and fourth degrees, in connexion with the

When y + h is subarticle.
transformation of the preceding

stituted for x in the equation
we
0,
(1)
obtain
where AI,
0,
have the values of Art. 35.

If in the transformed equation the second term be absent,
-4 2 ,
^=
0,
or
A--^
72
Substituting this value for h in

Art. 35,
and A s we
find, as in
hence the transformed cubic, wanting the second term,

8
y +
3
2
(0 02
y+
01 )
00
The
T (00*03
3000102
20j
3
)
Ex.
2,
is
0.
00
functions of the coefficients here involved are of such
importance in the theory of algebraic equations, that

to represent
the notation
mary
them by single
2
0i
0o 08
-ff,
letters.
it is
custo-
We accordingly adopt
- 30Q0102 + 20j 8 =
and write the transformed equation in the form
If the roots of this equation be multiplied

s
3Hz + G =
by
it
becomes
(3)
a form which will be found convenient in the subsequent disThe variable, s, which occurs in the first
cussion of the cubic.
member of this equation, is equal to ,y or # + 0j ; the original
cubic multiplied
by
being in fact identical with
3H (a& +
as the student can easily verify.

If the roots of the original equation be
a,
transformed equation
(2) will
be
al
-i
cii
,
0o
i)
H-
-,
7 +
or, since
a + /3 + T1B
they
may
be written as follows
80!
-_
a
0j
J
p, y, those of the
73
The Biquadratic.
We
can write
down immediately by
the aid of the trans-
formed equation the values of the symmetric functions
S( 2a -j3-7)(2/3-7-a), (2a-/3- 7 )(2/3- T -a)(2 y --/3)

The
of the roots of the original cubic.
latter will be
found to
agree with the value already found in Ex. 15, Art. 27.
may here make with regard to the general equation an
We
important observation : that any symmetric function of the roots

a, j3, 7, S, &c., which is a function of their differences only, can
be expressed by the functions of the coefficients which occur in

the transformed equation wanting the second term.
This is
obvious, since the difference of
transformed equation
is
any two
roots
a',
/3'
of the
equal to the difference of the two corre-
sponding roots a, (3 of the original equation ; and any symmetric

7
function of the roots a', /3', 7', S , &c., can be expressed in terms
of the coefficients of the transformed equation. For example, in
the case of the cubic, all symmetric functions of the roots which
contain the differences only can be expressed as functions of
r/,,,
and G.
jET,
Illustrations of this principle will be
among
The Biquadratic.
37.
ing the second term,
is
r/o//
where
article
The transformed
.equation, want-
in this case
+ 6^4 2 // 2 + 4 A $ 4
-4 4
0.
and A z have the same values as in the preceding

z
and where A is given by the equation
641

//
found
the examples of Art. 27.
Hy*
'
-f
"
G'/ +
We
'
is,
therefore,
(a*a
^ 1 ^8 + 6a
2
(ti
a2 -
3rt x )
0.
might if we pleased represent the absolute term of this

and G, and have thus three
equation by a symbol like
functions of the coefficients, in terms of which all symmetric
functions of the differences of the roots of the biquadratic could
be expressed.
It is
more convenient, however,
to regard this
74
term as composed of // and another function of the coefficients

determined in the following manner
We have plainly the
:
identity
This involves #
>
H, and another
function of the coefficients,
viz.
4^3
which
is
3fl 2
2
,
of great importance in the theory of the biquadratic.
This function
is
represented
by the
letter /, giving
The transformed equation may now bo
written
6H 40 + *'/-- 3jEP = A
r+ -Tjy
^ + T**
171
^0
#0
^0
,
We
J)
can multiply the roots of this equation, as in the case
the cubic of Art. 36,

s
by
of
and obtain
+ 6 Hz + 4 Gz + a<~I - 3II 2 =
2
0.
(2)
This form will be found convenient in the treatment of the

algebraical solution of the biqp.ajrflf.in.
same as in the case of the cubic, viz.
quartic multiplied
(a^x
f/!)
-f
by
The
a&
-f
variable
ft
is
the
the original
being in fact identical with
QH(a& +
i)
4G
(a<& + ai]
+ a<?I- 3ID.
Any symmetric function of the roots of the original biquadratic equation which contains their differences only can therefore be expressed by r/ ZT, 6r, and /.
,
If the roots of the original equation be a,
j3,
7, 8, those of
the transformed (1) will be, as is easily seen,
7 -S-), |(3 7 -g--/3), |(38-a-/3- 7 ).
The sum
dg
j; the
of these =
sum
the
sum
of their products t in pairs
of their products in threes =
r#0
and
for their
75
HomograpJiic Transformation.
continued product
we have
the equation
7 -$-a)(3 7
There
is
-p) (3S-a-/3-y)
attention, as
it
will be
found to he of great im-
portance in the subsequent discussion of the biquadratic.

the function arrived at in Ex. 18, Art. 27, viz.
This
is
denoted by the letter J.
shows that
we
another function of the coefficients to which
now to call
wish
--<
it
is
The example
It is
referred to
a function of the differences of the roots.
It
must, therefore, be capable of being expressed in terms of

have, in fact, the identity
H, G, and /.
tf
0?
We
HI- G*-H\
a<?Jâ<?
which the student can easily
Or
this relation
verify.
can be derived as follows
Whenever a
a l9 a 2 &c. s is the expression of a

function of the differences of the roots, it must be unaltered by
the transformation which removes the second term of the equahence its value is unaltered when we change a^ into zero,
tion
function of the coefficients a
d 2 into
<7otf24
2,
# 3 into
+ 2<VWj -
z,
Thus
&c.
ffoffs
#i
<?2
s a*A ,A, - aÂ-i -
A?
their values in terms of H, G, /, we

2 , A^
substituting for
easily obtain the above identity, which will usually be written
in the form
38. l!oiiiograjjiic
.Transformation.
The transforma-
tion of a polynomial considered in Art. 33 is a particular case

of the following, in which x is connected with the new variable
y by the equation
If A
ft
= - ^, A' =
0, [/
Solving fqr x in terms of
y,
= 1 we have y = x we have
,
A*
h, as in Art. 33.
76
This value can be substituted for x in the given equation,

and the resulting equation of the n th degree in obtained.
Let a, j3, 7, 8, &e., be the roots of the original equation,
and a', j3', 7', 8', &o., the corresponding roots of the transformed
;//
From
equation.
the equations
we
Aa +
Aa +
ju
= T7
\(3
it
&->
P = v/T +
ju
.,
/>
/u
>>
Ap
easily derive the relation
a -
A'//) (a
(\1JL
j3)
j3'
with corresponding relations for the differences of any other

If we take any four roots, and the four correpair of roots.
sponding
roots,
(a
('
we
-
obtain the equation

ft) (j
/)
(#'
y) =
~
8')
(a
(a
j3j
(7
7)
(/3
8)
Sj"
the roots of the proposed equation represent the

distances of a number of points on a right line from a fixed origin
Thus,
if
on the
line, the roots of the transformed equation will represent

the distances of a corresponding system of points, so related to
the former that the anharmonic ratio of any four of one system
is
the same as that of
It is
four conjugates in the other system.

in consequence of this property that the transformation is
tlieir
called holographic.
It
important to observe that the transformation here conand y are connected by a relation
is
sidered, in which the variables x
of the
form
Axy + Ex + Cy +
0,
the most general transformation in which to one value of either

variable corresponds one, and only oue, value of the other.
is
39.
Transformation
l>y
Symmetric Functions.
Sup-
required to transform an equation into another whoso

roots shall be given rational functions of the roots of the propose
it is
posed.
Let the given function be
involve all the roots,
7
or any number of them.
</>
(a, /3,
.),
where
We form all
may
pos-
77
Transformation by Symmetric Functions.

sible
combinations
down
and write
When
(afiy),
<f>
of the roots of this type,
(a/38), &c.,
the transformed equation as follows
expanded, the successive coefficients of
this product is
y will be symmetric functions of the roots a, /3, 7, &c., of the

given equation ; and may therefore be expressed in terms of the
coefficients of that equation.
EXAMPLES.
1.
The
roots of
+ px* +
s*
qx
-f
find the equation whose roots are a

Suppose the transformed equation to be
are a,
R=
3
y + Py* + Qy 4
then
- r=
and we have
tion.
We
to
- p2 -
in the
2cTj8
= a2
72
a2 /3 2 7 2 , of the given equa-
<<J
n
~
^+
2q]
(q'
2pr) y
same case the equation whose

y
a2 ^ 3 7 2
2/?r,
r*
therefore,
(p
^*.
If a,
2a 2 ^ =
2,7,
is,
3
2/
3.
j8
Q=
easily ohtain
the transformed equation
Find
+ 72
form the symmetric functions 2cr, 2a
2o-
2.
a?
+ j0# 3
-f
(p
-f
r*
roots are a
3pg
3r) y*
qx*
r#
(q*
0.
n
s
.
H=
0.
0>
024 + 2ai*4) =
ft.
3j>qr
3r2 ) y
7, 5 be the roots of
a*
find the equation
whose
roots are or,
-I-
0,
Let the transformed equation be
jy +
4
y +
%+
Q /y 2 +
xS
0,
then
- P = 2a 2
Compare Exs.
-R
= 2a2/3 27 2
^=
a 2 /8 2 7 2 5 2 .
8, 17, Art. 27.
Jim.
4. If a,
Q = 2a 2^3 2
y*>
2
(2?
- 2?) y 3
(g
-1-
2;?r -f 2*)
(r
2qs)
y+
*2
7, 5 be the roots of
ao# 4
find the equation
whose
-f
4i# 3
-f 6rta^
roots are x,
4-
o5,
/*,
7a
+ 43^ +
a4
viz.,
aft -f
-f j85,
75.
See Ex. 17? Art. 27.

4
<
(40i #3
- ao4) y
--8
-,
<*
(2o33 -
30
78
Show
5.
when
that the transformed equation,
the roots of the resulting cubic of
Ex. 4 are multiplied by i#o, and the second term of the equation then removed,
*
- Iz + 2J =
is
0.
Formation of the Equation whose Roots are any

rowers of the Roots of the Proposed. The method of
40.
effecting this transformation by symmetric functions,

plained in the preceding article, is often laborious.
as ex-
much
simpler process, involving multiplication only, can be employed.

It depends on a knowledge of the solution of the binomial equaThis form of equation will be discussed in the
tion xn - 1 = 0.
next chapter. The general process will be sufficiently obvious

to the student from the application to the equations of the
2nd and 3rd degrees which

-examples
be found among the following
will
EXAMPLES.
Form
1.
the equation whose roots are the squares of the r>ot* of
xn
To
+ piX
n~ l
+ pzX"--
changing x into
ap-pix"multiplying,
n
#,
we
+2>zti*-
evident that the
-even
~l
pix"~'~
we have
4-
+ .... 4
pn-l-r
powers of x
The
+ pn -
0.
the identity
+ pn =
(x
Ui)(x
02)
(x
cr, 4
derive, as in Art. GO,
Pn-\x +jj n
.^-(pia"-
first
member
we may then
(x
01) (x
a2 )
(x f
a,,)
4- jya
of this identity contains,
2
replace x
by
2jyj^3-f 2j> 4 )y-*+
N.B.
Pn~\ x
we have
+ p 2 JC-~ + piX n -* +
it is
u
p\ x
effect this transformation,
X"
(x
-f
and obtain
y,
.
B (y - oi 2
when expanded, only

finally
(//- a 2 ~)
(//- a
2
)".
member of this equated to zero is the required transformed equation.

This transformation will often enable us to determine a limit to the num-
first
ber of real roots of the proposed equation.

For, the square of a real root must be
positive; and therefore the original equation cannot have more real roots than tho
transformed has positive roots.

2.
roots are the squares of the roots of
r3 -
x-
-f
8* -
0.
Ana. y*
Tho
latter equation,
^positive root
by
15#
-f
52y
36
0.
Descartes' rule of signs, cannot have more than one
hencL the former must huvc a pair of imaginary
roots.
79
Examples.
3.
roots are the squares of the roots of
**--
+ *2
+ 2# +
Am.
y* +
0.
2y
2
6y* f 3y
- 2y - 9 =
0.
from Descartes' rule of signs that the original equation must hato
It follows
four imaginary roots.
by the method of Ex.
4. Verifj5.
Form
tho Examples
and
3 of Art. 39.
the equation whose roots are tho cubes of tho roots of
X n + plX>^ + P2X--
+p
iX
pn
-I-
0.
Ex. 1 the process consists in multiplying together

tho given polynomial, and f(x] : the variables involved in these being those
1 = 0.
which are obtained by multiplying x by the two roots of the equation x*
It will bo observed that in
/"(#),
In the present case we must multiply together /(#), /( wa Oi /(^ 2 #) the variables
1 = 0.
involved being obtained by multiplying x by the roots of the equation a; 3
'
The transformation may be conveniently represented

"Write the polynomial f(x) in the
(pn+pH-*& +
which we ropiesent,
.)
+ f(p n -i
for brevity,
H-^,,-4*
We
jinil
P, Q,
have
nre
all
P
P4
-f
xQ
+ x*R
(x
+ X-(p
ti
}>n-^* r
.),
x*R,
and
wxQ.
a-VQ
w-Ji-R
4 a**li
--.
HH
(tax
02)
t*)
----
(*
- a n).
(I)
x successively, we obtain
ai)(a>JC
(w^ - ai)(V-
03)
03)
(wx
(u'JC
a M ),
(2)
- O H ),
(3)
we
1
(1), (2), (3),
and attending to the
results
obtain
.r
3
tf
+ *JP - Za*PQR B
ai )(a;
a 2 3)
..(*-
a,
3
).
member
of this identity contains x in powers which are multiples of 3

can, therefore, substitute y for x" and obtain the required transformed
first
We
- oi)(-
Multiplying together both members of
only.
and P, being functions of # 3 are unaltered.
since P, Q,
The
functions of x*.
Changing, in this identity, x into tax
P-
then.
P4
of Art. 26,
by
P-f xQ
whorr
as follows
form
equation.
6.

&
roots are the cubes of the roots of
- *3 +
2xz
0.
Ans. y*
+ 3x
4- 1
3
2
14y + 50y + 6y
0.
<* s
0.
Verify by the method of Ex. 5 the result of Ex. 2 of Art. 39.

8. Form the equation whose roots are the cubes of the roots of
7.
ax*
Ans.
-f
Zbx*
Sex
+d=
0.
V+ 3(flM+ 9A- 9*0)y* + 3(<r4*+
9<:
- 9^)y +
80
41. Transformation in General.

In the general problem of transformation we have to form a new equation in ?/,
=
with
whose roots are connected by a given relation
(#, y)
=
0.
The transformed
the roots of the proposed equation / (x)
</>
equation will then be obtained by substituting in the given

equation the value of x in terms of y derived from the given
relation ^ (x y) =*
or, in other words, by eliminating x
;
= 0. For
between the two equations / (x) = 0, and
(x, y}
example, suppose it were required to form the equation whose
roots are the sums of every two of the roots (a, /3, 7) of the
<f>
cubic
pa? + qx r = 0.
or*
We have here
The equation
(x,
y)
is in
his case
=p - x
for
when x
takes the value a, y takes one of the proposed values; and when
x takes the values /j and 7, // ta,k s tne other proposed values.
The transformed equation is theiviore obtained by

- y for x in the given equation.
\)
E\
1.
If a, 0,
7 be the
substituting
VMPLES.
roots of the cuhn
xz
px
-4-
qx
0,
form the equation whose roots are
#7 +
-,
70 4
ajS-f -
-,
j8
Here
a#7
and the given relation

1
lubstituting
4-
is
xy =
for # in f(x)
Form,
Substitute
for the
same
for x.
-j-
ay,
is
then obtained by
0.
cubic, the
a;8
+ r; the transformed equation
-4w. ry 2.
e
+ p (1 +
r)
q*)
r)
0.
- ^yr -
0.
(1
whose roots are

^87 4- ay.
Ana. y* - Zqy z + (pr
4-
-f
r1
Equation of Squared Differences of a Cubic.

Form, for the same cubic, the equation whose
Substitute
7 be the
a + 8
- 4pq +
-y
'
8r)y
-f
(JP
12r)^
(6r
roots of the cubic
a&
prove that the equation in y
3&r 2 + Zcx
-f
whose
7 -
-f <Z
0,
roots are
ya - &
y + a - 20'
or
+7 is
&'
for x.
Ans. (p*-4pq
4. If a,
a-
y +
roots are
_JL_ _
+7-a
81
2a
a& - yz
a +~j8
- 27
obtained by the homographic transformation
axy
42.
We
I (x
-f
-}-
y]
0.
Equation of Squared Differences of a CuMc.

now apply the transformation explained in the preced-
shall
an important problem, viz. the formation of the

whose
roots are the squares of the differences of every
equation
two of the roots of a given cubic. We shall do this in the first
ing
article to
instance for the cubic

a?
in which the second term
-f
qx
r = 0,
(1)
absent, and to which the general

Let the roots be a, /3, 7.
is
readily reducible.
equation
have to form the equation in y
is
We may
-f
We
whose roots are
here observe that the method of Art. 39 can be
applied to the solution of the general problem, viz. the formation of the equation whose roots are the squares of the
differences of every
when
two of the roots of a given equation
for
the product
{y-(a!-a 2 )
2
{
\y-(^-*tf\\y-(^-atf] ....
\y
(a a
a
ct 3
formed, the coefficients of the successive powers of y will be

symmetric functions of m, a 2 a*, 04, &c., and may, therefore, be
is
expressed in terms of the coefficients of the given equation.
In
82
the present instance, however, the method of Art. 41 leads more

This equation
readily to the required transformed equation.
"
may be called for brevity the equation of squared differences"
of the proposed equation.
Assuming y equal to any one of the
roots of the transformed equation,
y -
(]3
7)*
= a2 +
/3
e.
g. (j3
+ 72 -
7)
we have
-
a'"
also
2
a +
The equation
+ 72 =
/3
(#,
y)
cj3j
2<?,
r.
of Art. 41 becomes, therefore,

2;<
x
or
#3
4.
W +
- 2r =
20)3?
J /
(,,
;
r
we get
subtracting from this the proposed equation,
(?/ -f
q]y
^
x - or =
3r
x =
or
0,
2/
hence the transformed equation in
y
If
it
-f
6^///
9*/
y/
+ 4^ 3
//
is
4-
first
27 r2 =
0.
(2)
be proposed to form the equation whose roots are the
squares of the differences of tho roots
we
+^
remove the second term
(a, j3,
7) of the cubic
the resulting equation
is
the same as the equation of squared

differences of this latter, since the difference of any two roots
is unaltered by removing the second term.
can therefore
and the required equation
is
We
write
down
the required equation by putting
83
Equation of Squared Differences of a Cubic.
The
in the above.
result is
18-Zz
r^
a^
SljET 2
ô
#0
(to
which has
_~ (G*+ 4.ff
27
# +
,^V9
_.
0,
for roots
(4)
(-/3).
7 -a);
(/3- 7 ),
The equation
can be written in a form free from fractions
by multiplying the roots by a<?. It becomes then

& + 18Hu? + 81H*x + 27(G* + 4# 3 ) = 0,
whose roots are
2
We
(4)
can write
(/3-y)
a?(y-a)\
down from
(-/3)
(5)
2
.
an important function of the
this
roots of the cubic (3), viz. the product of the squares of the differences, in terms of the coefficients :
6
2
s
2
2
03-7) (7-) (-/3) = -27(G
-t4.H- 3 )-
evident from the identity of Art. 37 that

z
have in fact
as a factor.
a
contains
It
(6)
6r
is
477 3
We
G~
477 = a* {ftvds <5
-f
Tlie expression
cubic,
and
is
111
Grtutfi
brackets
represented by
&
-f
#2^3
+ 4^
^ 33
-f
4aâ 3 - 3a?aJ\.
called the discriminant of the
is
giving the identities
JW -
47P s rvA,
tfo,/-
A.
EXAMPLES.
1.
Form
the equation of squared differences of the cubic
s3
7*
0.
-4iw. x*
2.
Form
x 3 + 6x~
First
- 42# 2
-f
-f
7x
Form
0.
0.
0.
+ 6# 2 + 9x +
225s - 68
0.
^w.
What
-f
the equation of squared differences of

x*
4.
- 400 =
remove the second term.

Ans. x* - SO* 2
3.
441a;
the equation of squared differences of
iP
18a; 2
+ Six =
conclusion with respect to the roots of the given cubic can be
from the form of the resulting equation in the
last
example ?
0.
drawn
84
Criterion of the Nature of the Roots of a Cubic.
43.
We
can from the form of the equation of differences obtained

in Art. 42 derive criteria, in terms of the coefficients, of the
nature of the roots of the algebraical cubic. For, when the
equation (5) of Art. 42 has a negative root, the cubic (3) must
have a pair of imaginary roots, in order that the square of their

difference should be negative; and when (5) has no negative
root, the cubic (3) has all its roots real, since a pair of imagi-
nary roots of (3) would give rise to a negative root of (5).

In what follows it is assumed that the coefficients of the
equation are real quantities. Four cases may be distinguished
:
+ 4jff is negative, the roots of the cubic are all

(1). When G
real.
For, to make this negative II must be negative (and
4IP > (?") the signs of the equation (5) are then alternately
2
positive and negative, and, therefore (Art. 20), (5) has no negative root and consequently the given cubic has all its roots real.
is positive, the cubic has hco imaginary
(2). When G' + 4H*
For the equation (5) must then have a negative root.
roots.
z
+ 4ZP = 0, the cubic has two equal roots. For
(3). When G
In this case
the equation (5) has then one root equal to zero.
=
a
not
vanish.
that
does
We
assumed
it
A 0, being
may say,
;
therefore, that the vanishing of the discriminant (Art. 42) expresses

the condition for equal roots.
When
(4).
For the
tions
may
6r
0,
andH=Q,
the cubic has its three roots equal.
These equaroots of (5) are then all equal to zero.

as
can
in
the form
be
also be expressed,
easily seen,
#0
which relations among the
#2
'
al
a->
coefficients are therefore the condi-
tions that the cubic should be a perfect cube.
44.
Equation of Differences in General.
problem
The general
by the aid
of symmetric functions, of
roots are the differences, or the squares of the
of the formation,
the equation whose

differences, of the roots of a given equation,
Let the proposed equation be
follows:
f(x)
(0
i)
(x
(x
a,)
(a?
may
be treated
- an =
)
0.
as-
85
Equation of Differences in General.

Substituting x + a r for x
-
n, in succession,
/(.r +
(a?
aO - x (x +
+ a2)
3x
d!
and giving
r the values 1, 2, 3,
we have the equations

- a 2 ) (a? +
(x + a 2
cii
a 3)
(#+a!-a n ),
- a 3 ) ....
ai) (a? + a a
+ a a - a n ),
(x
(i)
Also, employing the expansion of Art. 6,

f(a r ) = 0, we find the equation
a r)
and observing that
-f (ar}
side of this equation by $ (x, a r ), and

of
the identities (1), we obtain
both
sides
multiplying
Denoting the second
tf>
(x, cii) ^>
(j?,
a a ) ----
<t>
(a?,
a w)
{#
(ai
a2)
2
}
{%*
(ai
a3)
2
.
}
To form
the equation of differences, therefore, we can mula 2 ), &c., and substitute

tiply together the n factors
(x, ai), ^ (a?,
for the symmetric functions of the roots which occur in the pro</>
duct their values in terms of the coefficients.
Or we may,
as
already explained in Art. 42, form directly the product of the

^n (n - 1) factors on the right-hand side of the above identity,
and express the symmetric functions involved in terms

coefficients.
degree in
a?
of the
of the resulting equation of the n(n - \) th

are equal in pairs with opposite signs.
Since in
The roots
x occurs in even power^ only, we may substitute

2
a
and
thus
obtain the equation of the \n (n - l) th degree
y
whose roots are the squared differences.
this equation
for
For equations beyond the third degree the formation
We
of the
shall give the

equation of differences becomes laborious.
'result in the case of the general algebraic equation of the fourth
degree in a subsequent chapter.
86
EXAMPLES.
1.
are a,
The
form the equation whose

02
+7
roots are
2
2
7 +
2
,
o-
32
-f
^w*. y
2.
The
o,
8
-f-
2#2
L + L.-L
^
JL
^T~^'
The
a, /?,
-f-
246y - 660 =
roots are
i_JL
^-07
^3
L-L
I +
^
y
12y
-f
/3'
172y
- 2072 =
+ &y + T2
ya
-f
-f
a2
a2 ,
-f a/3 -f
-4w. (y
4.
The
a,
+ pxz
qx
-f
a2
a2
(jt?
If a, 0,
7 be the
prove that
- y)(y -
(ft
0.
a2
4jP
-f
*.
8pr)
-f
8;>y -
(1
a) (a
+ + a 2 )* + 1 -f 3rt -f 3 2
- &} is a rational function
-}-
2fl
3 ==
Find the relation between

o#
its roots
and
3i^
are so related that
7, 5
0.
9(1
a-f a 2 ).
H of the cubic
+ 32^ +
7)
2
,
(7
o)
(a
#)
are in arithmetical
An*.
,
progression.
7. If a,
2
IGjo^r + 8r
of a.
Am.
when
roots of the cubic
#3 - 3
6.
qY

2
5.
-f
roots of the cubic
x9
being
0.
roots of the cubic
s3 + qx + r
are
28y
3tf -f 1
^s.
3.
roots of the cubic

a:
are
#2
-f
2jff 3
0.
be the roots of
;
0,
find the value of
(P - 7 2 ) 2 (' ~
52) 2
(7
- a2
2
)
(0
5 2) 2
-f
(a
- 0*)
(7*
- *2).
*.
0.
87
Examples.
Prove that,
8.
if
07 + 70 + 00
- 7)*( -
{(0
18
8)2
(0
(y
a) (0
8)
-*+ 8s
which has one root of the form
aV
other factors are
The roots
10.
(a?
and
1)
a,
3,
15
S)*}
(a
2 2
)
(7*
- $*)}
0,
for
we
find that
Hence the
2.
a must
factor
satisfy
x 2 - 2a? +
6,
3), as is evident.
(#
of the cubic
a G x*
are
8 2 )*
1.
Diminish the roots by 1 substitute a V

a4 - 3a2 - 4 = 0, and a* - 6o2 + 8 = ; hence a
The
0,
0)*( 7
a2 ) 2 (0 2
9*
78
-f
- 7*) 2 (a2 - V? +- ( 72 -
Solve the equation
9.
a& + 05
+-
30i a?
3a2 #
-f
+ 7,
-f a,
0.
We give here
This question has been already solved in Art. 41.
another solu-
the simplest, will be

Let the roots of the given equation be dimi-
tion which, although in this particular instance it is not
found convenient in many examples.
nished by A.
aoy* +
whose
roots are o
A,
3-4 iy2
7-
/*,
h.
is
(Art. 35)
t>A z y
should have two roots equal with opposite signs.

Art. 24)
z
This equation
0,
"We express the condition that
This condition
this equation
is (see
Ex.
17,
0.
a cubic in h whoso roots are
is
for the above condition is

(0
h)
27*
(7
h}
0,
or
-f
7,
From the equation in h

0, 7 represent indifferently any two of the roots.
the required cubic can be formed by multiplying the roots by 2.
where
11.
The
roots of the biquadratic
0o2
are o, 0, 7, 8
+ 4#i# 3
+-
6#2#2
4- 4tf 3
0i
form the sextic whose roots are
7,
7 +
a,
Employing the method of Ex.
+-
0,
+-
5,
5,
7+8.
10, the required equation can be obtained
from
the condition of Ex. 20, Art. 24.
The
condition
is
in this case
A\AiA* - A\*Ai - aoA*2 =
0.
a sextic in h whose roots are J (0 + 7), &c., from which the required
equation can be obtained as in the last example.
This
is
88
Form, for the cubic of Ex.
12.
fly
- a
+7-
jya
7 + 0-2/8'
2a'
whose
10, the equation
y*
- 2y
roots are
'
A, and express the condition that the resulting cubic

in geometric progression (see Ex. 18, Art. 24).
The con-
Diminish the roots by

should have
its roots
dition is
0.
This will be found to reduce to a cubic in h
whose roots are the values above
written, since
,
Form
13.
2/3 7
Dimmish
should hare
same cubic the equation whose
for the
- gy
qj3
-f
7 - 2a
2y a
'
'
- 7)8
- 2y
701
4- ft
We
_
~
+
JJTÂ
2/3 7
or
The equation
in h
7-
7 - 2a
found
is
^ 3 2 - SAiAzAa +
will be
A'
-a/3-7
/8 -f
The
*ci
the roots by A, and express the condition that the transformed cubic
roots in harmonic progression (see Ex. 19, Art. 24).
have
2
14.
its
a- A
which
2a
7
4-
T-
roots are
2Az*
0,
to reduce to a cubic.
roots of the biquadratic

(IQX* 4-
are
a,
7, 5
find the cubic
whose
ya ~ &$
0)8-7?
7-f a-jS-"5'
o-f/8-7-"
fry- aS
+ 7-0-^5'
condition
is
A,
roots are
and employ the condition of Ex.
A?At which reduces

16.
to a cubic in
Tne
also
= - =
/(a)
0,
+ qx
by
-f
ratios of the roots of the cubic
0.
elimination.
the ratio of two roots;
h whose roots are the values above written.
general problem can be solved
equation, and p
f (pci)
a Q A<?

a?
The
22, Art. 24.
in this case
and the required equation
Let /(*)
then since f(B)

in p is obtained
be the given
0,
we have
by eliminating
89
Examples.
between these two
For the cubic in the present example the
latter equations.
result is
16. If a, 0,
7 be
the roots of
a?Hp*2 +
#-f r
= 0,
Ans. ^-2(p*
17.
Form
for the
same cubic the equation whose
&
y
-d(*.
18. If a,
3
rZtf
- (pqr -
7 be the
3r2
)#
roots are
a"
7'
- bpqr -f 3r2 + #3
-f (pV
- (jp* ?2 - 2^V +
a?
4jt?^r
- 2? 3 - r2 =
)
0.
roots of the cubic
a?
+ qx +
= 0,

la
-4*.
19. If a,
j8,
t/
7 be the
m#7,
-f
#J
my a,
-f
- wyy2 + (i2 ^ -f
$lmr)y
ly
-f
mojS.
- Pm q 1 - Mm2 qr - m3 ra = 0.
l*r
roots of the cubic
o#
+ 30i#2 +
30 2 # +
0,
(a-/3)(- 7),
(3-7)
(r-)<7--
(3 -a),
Ans. y
,
3
+ -r-
y*
-- i
o*
20.
Form,
(/8
for the cubic of
_ 7 )3 (2a _0_ 7 )2,
Ex.
(
19, the equation
7 -a)
required equation can be obtained

differences of the cubic (4) of Art. 42, since
21.
Form,
of squared
7 -a) -(a-/3) 2 =OB- 7 )(2a-j8-7).
for the cubic of
Ex.
a()8-7)
2
,
16, the equation
0(7 -a)
2
,
Ans.
Form, for the same

a
M = 0.
Q = # 3 - 9pqr -f 27r3 + pV,

= - r(4^ 3 + 27r2 -f 4p*r-p* q 2 - ISpqr).
cubic, the equation
+ 207,
-f
roots are
a.
P = py-9r,
J2
22.
whose
7 (a-)
Let the transformed equation be # 3 4- Px* + Qx
0.
(-0-'(27-a-jS).
by forming the equation
whose roots are
(2j8- 7 -),
The
5
6
whose
roots are
CHAPTER
V.
SOLUTION OF RECIPROCAL AND BINOMIAL EQUATIONS.

It has been
Reciprocal Equations.
45.
shown
in Art. 32
reciprocal equations can be reduced to a standard form,

in which the degree is even, and the coefficients counting from
the beginning and end equal with the same sign.
now
a
that
to
the
standard
reciprocal equation of
form
proceed
prove
can always be depressed to another of half the dimensions.
that
all
We
Consider the equation

m~l +
a x* m +
ai&*
a m xm
4-
-f
a\x +
r?
0.
m
Dividing by # and uniting terms equally distant from the
extremes, we have
,
Assume # -f - =
s,
Vp
and
let
We have plainly the
xp +
a?
be denoted for brevity by
relation
Giving p in succession the values 1, 2,

s
F, = Fi s - Fo = c - 2,
= F2 s- FV=s 3 - 3s,
3
F
F
F
fi
and
so on.
=
=
F s- F
F s~F
3
=
=
3, &c.,
-4s
-5^-f
we have
-\
2,
5s;
Substituting these values in the above equation, we

m th degree in s; and from the* values of
get an equation of the
x those of x can be obtained
by solving a
quadratic.
91
Examples.
EXAMPLES.
1
Find the roots of the equation

**
Dividing by
x+ 1
za
-f
+ x9 + x +
= 0.
we have
(see Art. 32),
& + x* + 1 = 0.
This equation
may
be depressed to the form

*2
- 1 = 0,
x + --i
whence
giving
# + - = -!,
and the roots of these equations are
~1
/Tls
/~^B
2
2.
Find the
Dividing by
a?*
1,
which may be done
briefly as follows (see Art. 8),
1-3 6-6 3-1

1-2 3-2
-2
3-2
we have
the reciprocal equation

1
Substituting for Fi,
4s2
**
* -6z*
i
z2
whence
+2
+
and for
and
3,
(z
0,
2,
\/ 3,
/T:
roots of these equations are
y/^l
- \/3
Solve the equation

a:
Dividing by x
we
from which we obtain
have
y/
These roots are double roots of the equation
- 1=0.
(1)
we have
2
-3) =0,
y/3
3.
z2
V^
or
#+-
giving
and the
0,
(1).
the equation
92
and Binomial Equations.
Solution of Reciprocal
we have
Solving this equation,
the quadratics
~
0,
from which we ohtain
*
where
0*
= *{-
6</&
1 -f
(10
20
1.
This expression gives the four values of x.

4.
Find the quadratic factors of

x6
Transforming
this,
Z8
whence
The quadratic
0.
and
0,
32
=
z
0,
a?
0,
x -s/3
(!+*)
*(!+**),
0.
(l+*)* = a(
(2).
Reduce to an equation of the fourth degree in
-<**. (1
In
-f
Solve the equations

(1).
6.
factors of the given equation are, therefore,
x2
6.
we haye
46.
Binomial
this
and the following
<i)*
-f
(7
is
articles will
a =
thi
1,
and therefore
am
is,
The same
case
is
(4
a)= 0.
Properties.
be proved the leading

1
x*
0, then a
must
is
m =
(u
1, or (a
m
)
1;
a root of x - 1 = 0.
n
true of the equation %n + 1 = 0, except that in

be an odd integer.
47. PROP. II.
m - 1 =
equations x
unity.
a root,
that
3^)c
General
Ecjiiatioiis.
general properties of binomial equations.

PROF. I. // a be an imaginary root of
also will be a root, m being any integer.
Since a
-f
If
m
x n
0,
and n be pnmf^jQ, ftaeh other, the

1 =
have no common root except
.........
Binomial Equations.
To prove
numbers
and
we make
this
If m and n
is
use of the following property of
be integers
1.
turned into a continued fraction,
preceding the
r
Now,
equations
final restoration of
each other, integers a

For, in fact, when
is
r-
the approximation
._
be any
let a
if possible,
;
to
prime
mb - na -
b can be found such that
93
common
root of the given
then
a m = 1,
a mb =
therefore
and a w =
1,
a ('"*-'"*) = 1, or a
whence
and ana =
l
1,
or a = 1
only root common to the given equations.

48. PROP. III.
If k be the greatest common measure of two
and
m and the roots common to the
xm 1 -=
that
is,
1 is the
equations
n,
integers
xn -
0, are roots
To prove
0,
- 1 = 0.
of the equation #*
this, let
m = Aw',
n = kti.
and n are prime to each other, integers

may be found such that m'b - na = 1 hence
Now,
since m'
and a
mb
If, therefore, a
be a
- na =
k.
root of x m
common
-1 =
0,
and xn -
0,
which proves that a is a root of the equation #*-! = ().

49. PROP. IV.
When n is a prime number^ and a any
n
root
x
1 = 0, all the roots are included in the series
of
imaginary
For,
of
them be
by
sarily
11
'1
.
I., these quantities are all roots of the equaare

all different ; for, if possible, let any two
they
p
equal, a
= a?
whence
but,
by Prop.
And
tion.
a,
1,
p ~^
-=-
Prop. II., this equation is impossible, since
prime
to (p
q),
which
is
number
less
than
n
n.
is
neces-
94:
50.
PROP. V.
When n
a composite number formed of the

- 1 = 0, a^-l==0,
of
n =
the equation x
0.
1
0, &c., all satisfy
is
the equations #?
factors p, q, r, &c., the roots

of
For, consider a root a of the equation a?

from which we derive
then a p
which proves the proposition.

51. PROP. VI.
When n is a composite number formed of the
are
prime factors p, q, r, &c., the roots of the equation #" - 1 =
the n terms of the product
(l
+ a + a*+... +
where a
is
a?-
a root of x*>
We prove this
r- l
)(l+(3 + ... + &- )(I+y+...+y )... y

- 1 = 0,
= 0, y of of - 1=0, &c.
/3 oftf-1
for the case of three factors JP,
q, r.
similar
a b c
Any term, e.g. a fi y , of the product
n
bn =
is evidently a root of the equation x - 1 = 0, since a*" = 1, fi
1,
a b c n =
=
And no two terms of the
1.
1, and, therefore, (a fi y )
7*"
proof applies in general.
a b c
product can be equal for, if possible let a [3 y be equal to
b ~b
c-c
a '~ a =
b
a
c
another term a 'fi 'y '; then a
p 'y '. The first member
of this equation is a root of xp - 1 = 0, and the second member
is a root of aP" - 1 = 0.
Now these two equations cannot have a
;
common root since p and qr are prime to each other (Prop. II.);
hence aa fi b y c cannot be equal to a a 'fi b 'y c'.
52. PROP. VII.
The roots of the equations? -1 = 0, where
n = p a q b r c and p, q, r are the prime factors of n, are the n products
,
vf the form a/3y, where a

c
and y ofof = 1.
is
a root of xp
1, /3
a root of x q
1,
an extension of Prop. VI. to the case where the prime

more than once in n. The proof is exactly similar.
n
n
n
such
Any
product aj3y must be a root, since a = 1, /3 = 1, y = 1,
b
a
c
n being a multiple of p q r
and a proof similar to that of
Art. 51 shows that no two such products can be equal, since
This
is
factors occur
We
r* are prime to one another.

have, for convenience,
stated this proposition for three factors only of n.
similar
proof can be applied to the general case.
From this and the preceding propositions

to derive the following general conclusion :
we
are 'now able
The Special n th Roots of Unity.
95
The determination of the n th roots of unity is reduced to

where n is a prime number, or a power of a prime number.
The Special Roots of the Equation
53.
the case
^-1
0.
Every equation x" 1 = has certain roots which do not belong

Such roots
to any equation of similar form and lower degree.
th
n
roots
we call special roots* of that equation, or special
of unity.
If n be a prime number, all the imaginary roots are roots of this
th
If n =*p a , where p is a prime number, any n root of a
kind.
lower degree than n must belong to the equation #p

-1=0,
1
since every divisor of p a is a divisor of p"" (except n itself) ;
hence there are p a ( 1
If,
=
again, n
],
- 1 =
which belong
to
no lower degree.
where p and'g are prime to each
and? 6
p)
x*
roots
p)
V
a
special roots
other, there
ofa^ - 1 =
0,
and
q/
0, respectively.
Now,
if
a and
/3
be any two special
n
is a special root of x - 1 =
for if
;
m =
not, suppose (a/3)
1, where m is less than n; we have then
m is a root of
w but a m is a root of a* a - 1 =
am
0, and
roots of these equations, a/3
/3~
-1
/3"
and these equations cannot have a common root

other than 1 as their degrees are prime to each other
consen
is
a
m
than
and
cannot
less
be
root
of
f
a/3
special
quently
xn - 1 = 0. Also, as there are
xq
0,
PJ
such products, there are the same number of special n th roots.

This proof may be extended without difficulty to any form of n.
All the
roots
n
0/# - 1 =
are given by the series 1, a, a 2 ,
th
a*" 1
any special n root. For it is plain that a, a &c., are

And no two are equal for, if ap = a 9 a^~ = 1 and
all roots.
th
therefore a is not a special n root, since p - q is less than n.
where a
is
ff )
When
one special n th root a
is
given,
we may obtain
all the other
th
special n roots of unity.
* The term
"
"
'
is here used in preference to the usual term
primitive root," since the latter has a different signification in the theory of numbers.
special root
96
Since a
different
"1
a special root, all the roots 1, a, a 2 , ... a*

are
if
as
we
have
we
and
select
a
roots,
just proved
1
is
n th
root a? of this series,
where p
is
a?, a *,.
aC'-
to n, the roots
prime
a w^(=l)
)*,
are all different, since the exponents of a when divided by n give

different remainders in every case ; that is, the series of numbers
n - 1 in some order
0, 1, 2, 3, ...
whence
this series of roots is
the same as the former, except that the terms occur in a different
order.
To each number p 9 prime to n and less than it (1 inth
for a mp cannot
cluded), corresponds a special n root of unity
be equal to 1 when
is less than n, for if it were we should
;
have two roots in the
series
equal to
give all the roots in that case
and the
1,
therefore a?
is
series could not
not a root of any
binomial equation of a degree inferior to n that is, ap is a special

u th root of unity.
What is here proved agrees with the result
;
above established, since the number of integers
prime to
by a known property
it is,
when n=p
which
n
special roots of #
than n and
nil
as above proved, the
is also,
of numbers,
less
If
number
of
0.
EXAMPLES.
1.
To determine
Here, 6
it
the special roots of
= 2x3.
are roots of x*
and dividing x*
-f 1
by
the special roots of x 6
-c
0.
9
Consequently the roots of the equations x
-1
Now,
0.
or x
dividing x*
we have
1,
x~
0.
Solving this quadratic, the
oots are
also since
which may be
The
aai
ai
6
,
5
,
easily verified.
special roots are, therefore,

a,
a5
or ai 5 , 01
or a, -
by
-f 1
a?
0,
and
0,
which determines
we have
a:
97
Examples.
2.
To
discuss the special roots of
a?
M-
= 0.
12
Since 2 and 3 are the prime factors of 12, and -2
# -1 =
and s - 1 = 0,
12
12
~
8,
**
4,
the roots of
a -
12
1 by x*
1
are roots of x
1,
0,
;
now, dividing
and a? - 1, and equating the quotients to zero, we have the two equations
* 8 + xt + 1 = 0, and a* + 1 = 0, both of which must he satisfied hy the special
4
1
roots of # 12
1 =
therefore, taking the greatest common measure of oP + a;
and aft + 1, and equating it to zero, the special roots are the roots of the equation
4
-I-
x*
a?
The same
least
common
* 4 - x2 +
0.
would plainly have heen arrived at hy dividing a; 13 - 1 by the

4 - 1 and a?* - 1.
Now, solving the reciprocal equation
multiple of s
result
= 0, we have x 4- - =
V3
if
whence,
a and
ai
be two special roots
2
are the four special roots of * 12
We proceed now to express the

Since
+-
we
take aai
1 (as
ai
may
0, or (a -f ai)
ai
#8
0,
therefore be expressed
o8
by the
we have
a.
0,
assigned to a and ai)

8
1,
any one of them
aai/
consistent with the values
since a and ai are roots of
a, ai,
-f ai -f
= 0.
four special roots in terms of
and a
ai.
The
and
roots
series a,
a5, o7 , a11 , since o 12 *
1.
11
5
7
Further, replacing a by a a a , we have, including tbe series just determined,
the four following series, by omitting multiples of 12 in the exponents of a :
,
a5 ,
a,
a7 ,
a 11 ,
o,
a5 ,
a",
a7,
a6 ,
a,
a",
where the same roots are reproduced in every row and column, their order only
being changed. We have therefore proved that this property is not peculiar to any
one root of the four special roots and it will be noticed, in accordance with what
;
above proved in general, that

and less than it. "We may obtain
is
one of the four special roots
a,
1, 6, 7,
all
and 11 are
tbe roots of # 12
a 6 , a7 , a 11 , as follows
all
1
:
the numbers prime to 12,

=
by the powers of any
98
Prove that the special roots of #16 -
>.
Show
4.
obtained
5.
a;
21

=
are roots of the equation
that the eight roots of the equation in the preceding example may he
roots of a* +
+ 1 = by the four roots of
by multiplying the two
Form the equation

= 0, and reduce it
of the 12th degree whose roots are the special roots of

one of half the dimensions.
to
*-*-6*
Am.
+ 6*' + 8^-8*+l =
0.
54. Solution of Binomial Equations by Circular

Functions. We take the most general binomial equation
#" = a + b
where a and
ft
a~R cos a,
Let
x =
then
now,
J-
1,
are real quantities.
It (cos a
we
be a root of this equation,

rn (cos w0
+ J- 1
R sin a
+ J- 1 sin a)
+J-1
r (cos
if
sin 9)
have, by
sin nO)
De
Moivre's Theorem,
R (cos a + J- 1 sin a)
and, therefore,
rn cos nO =
r"
Squaring these two
sin nO =
equalities,
r8n =
2
,
R cos a,
R sin a.
and adding,
n =
giving r
where we take R and r both positive, since in expressions of the

kind here considered the factor containing the angle may always
be taken to involve the sign.
We have then
cos
nO = cos
a,
sin
nO =
sin a
and, consequently,
nO = a
-f 2/C7T,
k being any integer; whence the assumed n th root
is
of the
99
Solution by Circular Functions.

general type
a +
Jit cos
2/C7T
p^1
+ J-
a + 2for\
sin
this expression any n oonseoutive values in the

numbers between - oo and + oo we get all the n th roots
and no more than n, since the n values recur in periods.
Giving to k in
series of
We may
write the expression for the n th root under the
form
*\T>{
Jltl cos-
If
we now suppose
n
becomes # =
root of 1
J-
ir
cos
R=
and a =
1,
or unity,
n J
the equation 3? = a + 5
0,
J-
+ ^/- 1
lT
Sill
--n
definite value, for instance zero,

1-7-
Jit
^
/
{
a
cos /ii
+ l>
J- 1
a\
sin .
'
one n th root of
+ b J~ 1.
The preceding formula shows, therefore,
of any imaginary quantity may be obtained by
is
is
fTT
----
we give k any
1 sin
the general type, therefore, of an n th
COS
If
+J~
nj}\
J-
-f
/-;
J-l sm-
-f
of them by
Taking
multiplying any one
tu
the n
roots of unity.
in conjunction the binomial equations
xn - a +
we
that all the n th roots
n
J-l, and x = a
J-l,
see that the factors of the trinomial
x 2n - 21t cos a x"

.
are
a +
cos
where k has the values
----
rir
0, 1, 2,
ls
/- 1 sin
3 ... n -
H2
It
-f
1.
100
EXAMPLES.
1.
Solve the equation X 1 1, this is
Dividing by
Assuming
= x -f -, we
0.
reduced to the standard form of reciprocal equation.
obtain the cubic

*
z*
2z
0,
from whose solution that of the required equation

2.
Resolve (x
-f I)
-x -
obtained.
is
1 into factors.
Ans. 1x (x
3.
-4-
2 -f
1)(#
-f 1)*.
Find the quintic on whose solution that of the binomial equation x 11 -
depends.
Ans.
2*
- 4z3
- 3*2 + 3* -f 1 = 0.
4. When a binomial equation is reduced to the standard form of reciprocal

2 1, x -f 1, or x
equation (by division by x
1), show that the reduced equation
has all its roots imaginary.
(Of. Examples 15, 16, p. 33.)
6.
ss a:
When
+-
- 2 and
reduced reciprocal equation
this
show that the equation
is
transformed by the substitution
in z has all its roots real, and situated
For the roots of the equation in x are of the form cos a + V

Art. 54)
hence x
between - 2 and
6.
Show
+ -
is
of the form 2 cos
a,
and the value of
- x+
I)
is reciprocal,
- 27*2 (x -
a
l)
Am.
Exhibit
The
sin a (see
this is real
and
2.
that the following equation

4 (*2
7.
between
2.
all
the roots of the equation #9
and solve
it
0.
Roots:
2, 2,
J,
-I,
-K
= 0.
solution of tbis is reduced to the solution of the three cubios
where w, w2
are the imaginary cube roots of unity.
sented as follows
The nine
roots
may be
repre-
2
the other six roots are special roots of the given equation
Excluding 1, w, u>
and are the roots of the sextic
;
Xs
8.
0.
th
Reducing the equation of the B degree in Ex.
tion
= #+-, we
obtain
3, Art. 63,
by' the
substitu-
101
Examples.
prove that the roots of this equation are
Zcosii'.
2 cos?-*
2oosg,
2eo.jj,
Reduce the equation
9.
4# 4 - 85#3 4 357s2
to a reciprocal equation, and solve
340*
64
it.
= -+-.
Assume
Ans. Roots:
4,
1,
J,
16.
x*
4- wjfliC
4 w 2 ##2
m*px
-f
4-
m = 0.
4
Dividing the roots by m, this reduces to a reciprocal equation.
an imaginary root of the equation x

prove the relation
11. If a be
number
(1
Show
12.
a)(l
a2 )(l - a n
(1
a"- 1 )
0,
where n
a prime
is
n.
that a cubic equation can be reduced immediately to the reciprocal

relation of Ex. 18, Art. 24, exists amongst its coefficients.
form when the
Show that a biquadratic can be reduced immediately to the reciprocal form

the relation of Ex. 22, Art. 24, exists amongst its coefficients.
13.
when
Form
14.
the cubic whose roots are
where a
is
an imaginary root of
a6
a3 4 a 4
x 1
o2 4 a5 ,
Ans. x* 4 x z - 2#
0.
0.
the roots of this cubic are known, the solution of the equation x 1
1 =
be completed by means of quadratics. For, suppose the three roots to be
When
may
#2, #3
a?i,
then a and a* are the roots of xz
and a 2 and o 6 of xz
x$x
are all real, and they
41 =
may be
0.
x\x
41 = 0;
a 3 and a 4 of x2
41 = 0,
x^x
It is easy to see that the roots of the cubic
readily found approximately
by the methods
of
Chap. X.
15.
Form
the cubic whose roots are
where a
As
are
is
a8
je
a2 4 a s
in the preceding example,
known, the
4-
an imaginary root of x n
o12 and
x*x
x\
o8
-*
a 11
0.
when
a 10
4-
0,
Let x\ y
#2, #s
a*
4-
x'6
a 9 and a8
x*
a9
4 a7
- 4x
4- 1
0.
the roots of the cubic (which are
# 13
may be
be the roots of the cubic.
a8 are the roots of xz
and
a6
a4
Ans.
solution of the binomial equation
solving quadratics.
4 a 12 4 o6
- x\x
4-
a7 of x1
x&
aa
-f
12
6
quadratics are solved, each pair of roots a, a ; a8 , a , &o.,
volution of another quadratic, as in the preceding example.
all real)
completed by
It is easily seen that
a11 and o3
= 0.
may be
#j
When
a10 of
these
found by the
102
1 = 0.
to quadratics the solution of # 17
form
we
the
of
the
one
a
roots,
quadratic whose roots are
imaginary
Calling
16.
We
Reduce
ai
= a +
02
aiaz = 4 (ai
easily find
10
a 13
o+
15
-f
o 13 -f a 15
+ a 16
11
14
-f
-f
-f 02) =
and may he found by solving

1
a*
-f
-f
hence
ai
this quadratic.
a l6
a
a4
4-
4 a
and
-f-
-f
a4
a
12
+ a2
a6
-f
az are the roots of x*
~ a3
a
72
a8
-f
x-4
= 0,
Assuming, again,
71
-f
-I-
11
10
-f
a5
11
a 14
+ a 12
-f
a6 ,
1 = 0, and
0.
1
seen that 1, &-z are the roots of x
a\x
c^'
71, 72 of xSeparating again each of these into two parts, and forming the quadratic whose
roots are, for example, a + a 16 and a 13 -f a 4 the sums of the roots in pairs are
1
it is
obtained
and
finally the roots themselves,
by the
solution of quadratics, as in the
preceding examples.
This and the preceding two are examples of Gauss's method of solving alge- 1 = when n is a prime number. The solution
braically the binomial equation
of such an equation can be made to depend on the solution of equations of degree
1. When n= 13,
not higher than thw greatest prime number which is a factor in n
1 being = 3*2 2 in that case ; and
e.g. the solution depends on that of a cubic, n
4
1
when n
17, the solution is reducible to quadratics, n
being then = 2 . For
the application of Gauss's method it is necessary to arrange the n - 1 imaginary
roots in a suitable order in each case according to the powers of any one of them.
'J
number n
primitive root" of a prime
possesses the property that
when
raised
to n
2 inclusive, and divided in each case by
powers from
remainders are all different.
(See Serret's Cours d'Algelê Superieure,
to successive
the n
There are several such primitive roots of any prime number

Gauss arranges
13, and 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 14 of 17.
the imaginary roots so that the successive indices of any one of them, a, are the
2 of any primitive root of n.
successive powers from
to n
Taking, for example,
vol. n. sect. 3.)
e.g.
2, 6, 7,
and 11 of
the lowest primitive root of 13, and dividing the successive powers of 2
get the following series of remainders
and
12
11
10
by
13,
we
7;
powers of a in order when the indices
these, therefore, are the successive
which exceed 13 are reduced by the equation a13 = 1. If the lowest primitive
same way, we get the following series of remainders
root of 17 be treated in the

1
On comparing
10
13
5-
15
16
11
14
12
these series with the assumptions above made,
that in the former case, viz.
n=
13, the
it
6.
will be observed
twelve roots were divided into three sums
two sums of eight each. The method of

1
and it is not
any case depends on the nature of the factors of n
difficult to show in general that the product of any two such groups is equal to the
sum of two or more, as the student will have observed in the particular applications
of four each,
partition in
given above.
and in the
latter case into
103
Examples.
The lowest primitive root in any particular case is the only one necessary to be
known for the application of Gauss's method and this can usually he found with;
out difficulty hy
may
It
trial.
be observed that one or other of the three simplest
prime numbers 2, 3, 6, is a primitive root in the case of every prime number less
than 100, with the exception of 41 and 71, whose lowest primitive roots are
Methods of finding all the primitive roots are given in
6 and 7 respectively.
work above
the section of Serret's

17.
Find by
the equation # 19
trial
referred
to.
how
the lowest primitive root of 19, and hence show
to solve-
0.
It is readily found that 2 is a primitive root, and the remainders after division
19
are given in the process of trial.
Since 18 = 3 2 .2, the solution will be
by
effected by cubics and quadratics.
The first cubic is found by forming the
Show
+
+ au +
o8
-f
16
13 4
-f a
a 18
a1
a9
17
15
-f
a 11
4-
-f
a 12 ,
4-
a 5,
4-
a 10 .
whose degree is a prime number the

whose solution depends on quadratics .is 2* 57 -1=0.
The next prime number after 257 which satisfies the condition that n
1 is a
power of 2 is 65537. We have therefore the series 3, 6, 17, 257, 65537, &c.
and Gauss remarks (Disquisitiones Arithmetics, Art. 366) that the division of a
circle into n equal parts, or the description of a regular polygon of n sides, can be
effected by geometrical constructions when n has any of these values.
18.
that of binomial equations
lowest after # 17
19. If 01, 02, 03
...
4-
<*
pix~
4-
jt)
a^-2
-f
p n~\x
4-
4-
pn -
0,
roots are
--1
ai H
1
,
as
4-
ai
We
be the roots of the equation
an
have here the identity

4-
and changing x into x
...
+ pn-\X
-f
pn s
(x
a\)(x
...(*-
+ jt?2*2 + Pi* +
Pn (*
\
--
(*
01 /
right-hand side take the
form x
-\
---
a+ -
--
a;**,
the factors on the
and assuming x
4-
2,
the
left-
by means of the
Art 45
Fimi the value of the symmetric function 2aa
equation
side can be expressed as a polynomial of the n th degree in *
20.
2/
Multiplying together these identities, and dividing by
relations of
On )
(see Art. 32),
hand
O2)
(7
0.
&)
of the roots of the
104
This can be derived from the result of Ex. 19, p. 52, by changing the roots into
2
1 \
-
of the transformed equation, and multiplying
(1a
2
2
by a j8 V* which
equal to
is
p/
~
Ans
From
<7
2a 2 /8 2 (7~
5)
48 (a8 2
the values of the symmetric functions given in Chapter III. several others
can be obtained by the process here indicated.

2
Find the value of the symmetric function 5(ai
21.
a2) as 04
2
.
a,
of the
oox*
naix*-
2#"1
We easily obtain
into their reciprocals
Show
- a.*f =
5(oi
- l)(i 2
a
(
na n -\x
oa)
-I-
an
0.
and changing the roots
we have
22.
"
aa)
ajW
2
.
a,,
fi
2
(
that the five roots of the equation

3
#5
v^
are
+ j/b,
Sjpjr
et/a
a4
-f
bp*x
2y
-f
-f
^v7 ^,
^2
-f
B %/!>,
& y~a +
%/a '+
^ yj,
0-
i,
where v^ a ^ = P> a 4 i = - 2^, and 6 is an imaginary fifth root of unity.

N.B. A quintic reducible to this form can consequently be immediately solved.
23.
Write down trigonometrical expressions for the roots in the preceding
example; and,
(1)
(2)
(3)
being supposed essentially positive, prove
when p b < q\
when p* > g 2
when p* = g*
the roots are one real and four imaginary
the roots are
there
is
all real
+ ft 4 7) ( +
--
a square quadratic factor.
24. Find the following product, where 6

(a
f4?) (a -I- *fi
an imaginary
is
+ &y)
(a
Form th* biquadratic

a
where a
if
2a*,
a6
Ant.
26.
fifth root
7)
(o -f
of unity
+ fry).
47*-&ay(a*-0y).

a2
an imaginary root of x*
2a8 ,
1
a8
2
,
a*
+ 2a,
0.
Ans.
*+3
3*
11
0.
CHAPTER
VI.
ALGEBRAIC SOLUTION OF THE CUBIC AND BIQUADRATIC.
On
the Algebraic Solution of Equations. Before

proceeding to the solution of cubic and biquadratic equations
we make some introductory remarks, with a view of putting
clearly before the student the general principles on which the
55.
algebraic solution of these equations depends. With this object

give in the present Article three methods of solution of the
we
and state as we proceed how these methods may be

extended to cubic and biquadratic equations, leaving to subsequent Articles the complete development of the principles
quadratic,
involved.
(1). First
form
method of solution
by assuming for a root a general
involving radicals.
Since the expression p + Jq has two, and only two, values

root involved is taken with the double sign,
when the square
this is a natural
Assuming,
form to take for the root of a quadratic.

= p -f Jq, and rationalizing, we have
therefore, x
x* ~ 2px
Now,
if this
4-
z
p -
q = 0.
be identical with a given quadratic equation

+ Px + Q = 0,
&
2p = - P,
we have
giving
-=
r=
+ Jq
p*
= Q,
-P
which is the solution of the quadratic.

In the case of the cubic equation we shall find that
Algebraic Solution of the Cubic and Biquadratic.
106
are both proper forms to represent a root, these expressions

having each three, and only three, values when the cube roots
involved are taken in
all generality.
In the case of the biquadratic equation we
Jp+Jq
are forms which
+ 7=r-p,
shall find that
Jqjr
represent a root, these expressions each

when the square roots
may
giving four, and only four, values of x

receive their double signs.
(2).
Let
its
Second method of solution by resolving into factors.

be required to resolve the quadratic #2 + Px + Q into
it
For
simple factors.
this
s?
and determine
PX + Q
+ e-
it
under the form
0,
so that
a?
may
purpose we put
be a perfect square,
i. e.
Px + Q
we make
4-
+-, or-whence, putting for 6
its
2
the quadratic to the form w -
Thus we have reduced

its
we have
value,
simple factors are n + v, and u v.

we
shall
reduce
the
cubic to the
Subsequently
+ m) 8
(fo
and obtain
its
(I'x
+ ;')%
or
u*
&
and
form
v\
from the simple equations

u - (t)V = 0, w - o> 2 # = 0.
0,
solution
u-v=
be shown also that the biquadratic

to either of the forms
It will
(lx*+
2
(x +
mx +
px
ri)*
(Fx*
2
-f-
q) (x
-i-
may
+ m'x + n')%
p'x +
(?'),
be reduced
107
Algebraic Solution of Equations.
by solving a cubic equation and, consequently, the solution of

the biquadratic completed by solving two quadratics, viz. in the
first case, Ix + mx + n=*
and in the second case,
n'}
(I'x* + mx
=
=
9? +px + q
0.
0, and x* + p'x + q
;
-t-
Third method of solution
(3).
roots.
Consider the quadratic equation # 2 + Px +

the roots are a, /3.
have the relations
Q,
0, of
which
We
- - P,
Q.
a/3-
we attempt to determine a and j3 by these equations, we

back on the original equation (see Art. 24)
but if we
If
fall
could obtain a second equation between the roots and coefficients,

of the form la + w)3 = /(P, Q), we could easily find a and /3 by
means
of this equation and the equation a +

in the case of the quadratic there
j3
Now
finding the required equation;
(a-0)
=P
-4Q;
for,
is
no
difficulty in
obviously,
2
and, therefore, a -/3 = JP - 4Q.
In the case of the cubic equation x* + Px*

require two simple equations of the form
/a
= - P.
fW/3
y=/(P,
Qx
0,
we
Q, R),
in addition to the equation a + /3 + 7 =

P, to determine the
roots a, /3, 7. It will subsequently be proved that the functions
(a
may
+ wj3 +
cu
7)
(a
-K
w 2 j3 + wjY
be expressed in terms of the coefficients by solving a quad-
equation and when their values are

the cubic <ây be easily found.
In the case of the biquadratic equation
ratic
X*
we
+ p#3 + Qff +
Rx +
known
S=
require three simple equations of the form

la
w$ + nj
-f
rS = /(P, Q, P, S),
the roots of
108
in addition to the equation
to determine the roots a,
/3,
It will be proved in Art. 66,
7, 8.
that the three functions
be expressed in terms of the coefficients by solving a cubic

equation; and when their values are known the roots of the
biquadratic equation may be immediately obtained.
may
56.
The Algebraic
Solution of the Cubic Equation.
Let the general cubic equation
be put under the form

s3 +
3Hz + G =
0,-
where
s
= ax +
To
6,
H<*ac-b*,
<?d - 3abc
2b* (Art. 36).
solve this equation, assume*
hence, cubing,
f~
therefore
*8
Now, comparing
coefficients,
*Jp*J<l=-ff,
we have
p + q=
from which equations we obtain
Thi solution is usually called Cardan's solution of th* eubie.

the end of the volume.
See Note
A at
109
Algebraic Solution of the Cubic.

-
and, substituting for
JOT
*Jq its
value
we have
=r,
IIP
as the algebraic solution of the equation

s
+ 3//s
It should be noted that
+6 = 0.
p be
if
replaced
by
q this value of *
unchanged, as the terms are then simply interchanged ; also,

since *Jp has the three values *Jp, wjj/?, <*>*l]p, obtained by
is
multiplying any one of its values by the three cube roots of

unity, we obtain three, and only three, values for s, namely,
HP +
pp=>
Jp
w HP + w ';r=>
^ HP +
J;>
<>
rr
J/>
the order of these values only changing according to the cube

root of /? selected.
Now,
if z
be replaced by
value ax +
its
ax + b =
,;
Jp
6,
we
have, finally,
H=
(where jo has the value previously determined in terms of the

coefficients) as the complete algebraic solution
ax*
the square root
-f
3bx*
and cube
-f
3c# +
tf
of the cubic equation
0,
root involved being taken in their
entire generality.
57.
Application to Numerical Equations.
tion of the cubic
The
solu-
which has been obtained, unlike the solution
of the quadratic, is of little practical value when the coefficients

of the equation are given numbers ; although as an algebraic
solution
it is
complete.
the roots of the cubic are all real, 6? 2 + 4jET s = -K* Y
an essentially negative number (see Art. 43) ; and, substituting
For,
for
when
and! q their values
110
in the
formula *Jp + *Jq
a root of the cubic
we have
the following expression for
Now there is no general arithmetical process for extracting

the cube root of such
and consequently this
complex numbers,
formula is useless for purposes of arithmetical calculation.
But when the
rical value
may
cubic has a pair of imaginary roots, a
nume-
be obtained from the formula
-f 47P is
As a practical method,
positive in this case.
however, of obtaining the real root of a numerical cubic, this
since
process
of little value.
is
In the
can make
namely, where the roots are all real, we

Trigonometry to obtain the numerical values
first case,
use of
manner
of the roots in the following
272 cos $ = - G, and 2 It sin
Assuming
d> V
7
- lie
~, and
-,
>
we nave
and
p
=tan d>
T
also
finally, since
01
q =
= i (G 2
J-
= cos
YV
d>
>
ue
=
<j)
7f,
1
;
!T*)-= (- 7/)
-f
1 sin
the three roots of the cubic equation

s
viz.
jjj?
-i-
<?,
01
+ 377s +
y^
cu
Jj
<7,
0,
'"
?J/?
-f
(t
jjy,
become
2
(- JT) J cos
|,
o
-2
(- JT)i cos
^4^
o
from which formulas we obtain the numerical values of the roots
Expression of the Cubic as Difference of two Cubes. Ill
and cosines. This process

and
in
not convenient in practice
general, for purposes of
arithmetical calculation of real roots, the methods of solution of
of the cubic
by
aid of a table of sines
is
numerical equations to be hereafter explained (Chap. X.) should

be employed.
Expression of the Cubic as the Difference of two
58.
Cubes.
Let the given cubic

ax* + 3bx*
3cx + d s
4-
(x)
be put under the form

s
where
= ax +
3Hz
G,
4-
b.
Now, assuming
s
where
-f
--
and v are quantities
fj.
[ft
-v(
i,)
+ M ) 3 },
(1)
to be determined, the second side
when reduced,
of this identity becomes,
fiif
Comparing
(z
(IUL
v).
coefficients,
Hv = - H,
fzv
(/LL
v}
=-
therefore
+
where
a*A
<?
2
4-
G
*=-,
4^%
=-aJK
-,
.
,- v
//
42
as in Art.
--
(z
Whence, putting
for z its value, ax
also
ju)
(s
-f
v)
-f
-i-
~
6,
~ H.
(2)
we have from
(1)
which
is
the required expression for
two cubes.
By
(x}
as the difference of
the aid of
the*
identity just proved the cubic can be
112
resolved into
its
We
simple factors, and the solution of the equation

proceed to obtain expressions for the roots of
completed.
the equation ^ (a?) =
in terms of
mial cubic the equation
(fJL
we
V) C?$ (X)
ju
(z
-f
p and
vY -
now
selected
Solving as a bino-
V (2 + fdY = 0,
find the three following values for z
If
v.
ax + b
and jjv be replaced by any pair

one from each of the two series
*Jn
of cube roots
will be seen that we shall get the same three values of , the
order only of these values changing according to the cube roots
selected.
It follows that the expression
it
has three, and only three, values when the cube roots therein are
taken in all generality. This form therefore is, in addition to
that obtained in the last Article, a form proper to represent a
root of a cubic equation (see (1), Art. 55).
The function (2) given

becomes, as
may
above,
when transformed and reduced,
be easily seen,
d- bc)x+
(bd-<*)}.
This quadratic, therefore, contains as factors the two binomials

ax -f b + n, ax + b + v, which occur in the above expression of ^ (x)
as the difference of two cubes.
113
Solution of the Cubic by Symmetric Functions.

59.
Solution of the Cubic by Symmetric Functions
of the Roots.
{a
when
/3
Since the three values of the expression
+ y + 0(a +
takes the values
w/3-f
a>
1,
o>, o>
are
y) +
(a
o> /3
it is
a, /3, y,
017)
plain that
if
the functions
9 (a + wfi +
w 2 y),
were expressed in terms of ^he
(a
a/*/3
o>y)
coefficients of the cuhic,
we
could,
by substituting their values in the formula given above, arrive

this
at an algebraical solution of the cubic equation.
Now
cannot be done directly by solving a quadratic equation

although the product of the two functions above written
for,
is
It
rational symmetric function of a, /3, y, their sum is not so.
will be found, however, that the sum of the cubes of the two
functions in question
is
a symmetric function of the roots,
and
can, therefore, be expressed by the coefficients, as we proceed to

show. For convenience we adopt the notation
We
-a
-f
oi/3
oTy,
-I
M= a
w 2 /3 +
-f
ojy.
have then
(OL)*
A Bu + <?or,
-f
(0W)
A + B<
+ Cu,
where
^=a
+/3 -fy +6a)3y, J?=3(a
/3
2
2
2
+ /3 y + y 8 a), <7=3(a/3 + /3y -f ya 2 J
from which we obtain
U M
-f
(Of.
Ex.
5, p.
2S
44; Ex. 15,
- 3Sa 2 +
= - 27
)3
12a/3y
p. 50.)
Again,
*~
whence
(a
r"
+ w/3 + o/y)
3
,
f-' i
(a +
/3
/*
+ wy)
are the roots of the quadratic equation
a3
Denoting the roots
a6
of this equation, viz.
"f-'
s
114
by
ti
and
2,
the original formula expressed in terms of the
coefficients of the cubic gives for the three roots
It will be seen that the values of a,
/3,
7 here arrived at are
of the same form as those already obtained in Art. 56.

It is important to observe that the functions
-f
(a
w[5
o>
y)
(a
>
-f
c*r/3
tuy)
are remarkable as being the simplest functions of three quantities which have but two values when these quantities are interchanged in every way. It is owing to this property that the
solution of a cubic equation can be reduced to that of a quadand
Several functions of a, )3, 7 of this nature exist
ratic.
it will be proved in a subsequent chapter that any two such
;
functions are connected
by a
rational linear relation in terms of
the coefficients.
Having now completed
the discussion of the different
of algebraical solution of
the cubic,
we
modes
give some examples
involving the principles contained in the preceding Articles.
EXAMPLES.
1.
Resolve into simple factors the expression

(0
Let
-7
2
)
(x
a) -f (7
F= 08 -?)(*-),
- a)* (x - 0) +
- *)
(ZT +
Prove that the several equations of the system

()3~ 7 )3(^-a)3=( 7
have two factors common-
-a)
(x
- if.
W= (a- 8) (*- 7
F= (7 -)(*-,
Am.
2.
(a
(^-^ 3 -(a
).
115
Examples.
Example, we have
in the last
Making use of the notation

whence
i7
since
therefore
is
the
(ft
7)* (*
a)
+ F-f TFsO;
- a) 2 (* - jS) 2 +
(7
- j8)
(a
(*
7)'
common
quadratic factor required.

Resolve into factors the expressions
3.
These
(1).
(ft-
(2).
(/8
(3).
()8
(x
- 7 s (* ~
- 7 )7 (x -
a)
by
)
7
4-
a)
4.
(7
5
)
ZUVW\
f (Z7
(2)
(*
a)' (x
3
ft)
0)
(a
(
(a
/8)
(*
j3)'
(*
-7
0) (*
- yf
- 7) 5
7
)
at once from the results established in Ex. 40,

and replacing ai, $1, 71, in the example referred
1,
W, we obtain the following
F,
(1)
(x
a)
down
factors can be written
Z7,
Ans.
(7
+ (7 -
Using the notation of Ex.
p. 59.
to,
+F
W*)UVW\
(3)
i(Z7
V^+
-f
Express
-)(*-
(*-<*)(*
as the difference of
7)
two cubes.
Assume
- *V;
î 3
(*-a)(*-(*- 7 )=
whence
Z7i
w [7,
we have
arid, therefore,
\
but AM*'
A +
/i -f
- 7 ),
(ft
- taTi
Z7j
Adding,
- Fi = A (x "
Fi = ft (a: -
/u
/8),
v (x
Aa
0,
a),
p (7
-f-
7).
/xy8 -f
a),
1^7
i>
=
^>
(a
ft)
whence
Substituting these values of A,
/x,
and using the notation of Ex.
r;
1,
whence
and
Z7i
5.
and Fi are completely determined.

are functions of the differences of the
L and
Prove that
We
L = a -f
have
for all values of A, since

cession,
we
aj8
-f
w-7 = a
o> 4- or*
obtain three forms for
-Similarly for
A + w
(/8
and giving
/*)
to
+ w2
(7
h the values
in terms of the differences
M.
17
roots.
h]
/3
a,
j8,
7, in suc-
- 7, 7 - a, a - ft.
116

To
6.
express the product of the squares of the differences of the roots in terma
of the coefficients.
We have
Z4- Jf=2a--7, Z +
agam
and,
L- J/=
(ft
- 7)(w-
orZ- wJf =
2
),
Z3
- a2
(7 -a)(a>
eoL-tfM =
),
(a
- w 2 ),
)(
= - 3 <~Z (ft - 7)( 7 - a) (a - ft)
since
- Jlf s) 2 == (Z 3 4- 3/ 3
(Z
Z 3 + M8
have, suhstituting the values of

.
fl6 (
(Cl
= (27- a-/8)ar;
26,
we
-\-wHf
from which we obtain, as in Art.
and
3Jf=(2-7-a)a>,
7 )2 ( 7
. a (a
j2
2
)
and
- 4Z-W 3
27
0)2=
Z Jf obtained
in Art. 59,
Art. 42.)
7.
Prove the following
+ Jf3
Z8 These are
Jf 3
identities
_
i{ (2a ^_ 7
E V/^JOS -
easily obtained
).>
+
+
7)
^ 7 _ a )3
(2j8
(7
3
)
(a
:i
^8)
by cubing and adding the values of
&c.
M,
4-
Z-
Jf, &c.,
in the preceding example.
2
To obtain expressions for Z 2
&c., in terms of the differences
The following forms for Z 2 and 3/ 2 are obtained by subtracting
8.
(a
+ 7 2 )(l4 cy + w 2 )^ from (a+ <w)8+

- Z 2 = (ft - 7 2 + w2 (7 - a)'
- Jlf 2 = (j8 - 7) 2 + (7 - a) 2
In a similar manner, we
(7
2
(
difficulty,
2Z1T =
9.
There are
(ft
we have
-7
2
)
4-
4-
to form the equation
(aft
+ w
<*>'*& 4-
whose
and
(a
(a
2
4-
(a
)3)
+ ury) 2
y
/8)
- 7 - ) 2 + ^(a - J8) 2
- a) 2 -f w (a - j3) 2
(2^8- 7
)M2)8
3
7 - o)
the following forms for

(7
a)
(a
six functions of the type of
a +
7)
from these expressions
find
- Z 4 == (j8 - 7)M2 ~ 3 - 7) 2 +
- Jlf*= 03-7) 2 (2a-/8- 7 2 4
Also, without
of o, 0, 7.
7,
W7,
wa
4- )3 4-
or Jf, viz.,
7,
w2 a
4-
ft 4-
7,
wâ
4-
cu8
roots are these six quantities.
(2 7
Z Jlf and L 2 M 2
2
)
t*ft
wa +
(2 7
a7,
4-
7,
117
Examples.
These functions
be expressed as follows
may
X,
X,
M,
<*M,
hence they are the roots of the equation

(0
- X)(<J> - wZ)(f -
or
0>'
Substituting for
we have
and
jfcf
o>
- Jf )(<J> - a>M )(<j, - W2jf ) =
X)(<J>
(1,3 -f
&M* =
^+
If 3)
0,
0.
from the equations
this equation expressed in terms of the coefficients as follows
10. To form, in terms of L and H, the equation whose roots are the
squares of
the differences of the roots of the general culic equation.
Let
* =
(a
fi?
hence, by former results,
Rationalizing this,
we
obtain
27
which
the required equation.

In a similar manner, by the
is
aid
of
the results
of Ex. 8, the equation of
squared differences of this equation, or the equation whose roots are
is
obtained by substituting
- X 2 and ~
for
M and X,
respectively, in the last
equation ; and this process may be repeated any number of times.

Finally,
these equations may be easily expressed in terms of the coefficients of the cubic
means of the
relations
LM=-9~,
For instance, the
first
equation
*(*
<Cf. Art. 42.)
is
4P
and
T*
'
"
""
all
by
118
11. If a,
y and
a',
',
y' be the roots of the cubic equations
ax*
a's'-f-
to
+ 3c
3baP
rf
-I-
0,
+ Zc'x + d' =
3'a?
form the equation which has for roots the six values of the function
$a
oa'
/3j8'
+ yy.
The easiest mode of procedure is first to form the corresponding equation for
the cubics deprived of their second terms, viz.,
**
+ 32Ts + Q =
s3
0,
+ 31T* +
and thence deduce the equation in the general case

transformed the corresponding function
4,0
s;
(aa
6?'
0,
for in the case of the cubics so
+ *)(V
Substituting for the roots of the transformed equations their values expressed
by
radicals,
we have
which reduces to
Cubing
this,
we
find
0.
Now,
substituting for
8
a?
we have
and
q,
p' and
+ Gx - jET3 =
a;
0,
their values given
#',
'#
-f
JB"'
by
the equations
0,
the six values of ô given by the two cubic equations
aa'-v/^
((?^'
0,
where
and
Finally, substituting for
we have
be 8 - 1 e
^>
its
value
aa'<f>
together,
the required equation.
cubics
0,
sidered in Ex. 9.
<f>
-f
wj8
,
2
-f-
7,
It
&c.,
and multiplying these cubics

be noticed that if one of the
3*^',
may
which case has been already con-
Mr. M. Roberts, Dublin Exam. Papers, 1855.
119
Examples.
12.
Form the
equation whose roots are the several values of
where
p,
a-7
and
Since
/>
a,
are the roots of the equation <M? 3 + 3bx* + 3<a? + d ** 0.

involves only the differences, and the ratios of a,
,
7, the result
will he the
*
-f
32&
same
-f (7
if a,
whence, eliminating
S>
the required equation
i,
(p
!)(,,
2)(2p
Find the relation between the
roots
i,
z2)
1)
*s
of the equation
1)
is
3i'ir' 2
Q* (?
0.
coefficients of the cuhios
+ Ux* +Zcx
ay*
when
by the
replaced
have, therefore,
H=-
nd similarly
13.
7 be
j8,
We
0.
3e?V
4-
0,
d'
0,
the roots are connected by the equation
a ('
Multiplying by
w2
ot
7')
(7'
LM
Cubing, and introducing the
0.
becomes
this equation
+ 7 (a' -
a')
'
i'JIf.
we
coefficients,
find
the required relation.

14.
Determine the condition in terms of the roots and
coefficients
that the
cubics of Ex. 13 should become identical by the linear transformation
In
Eliminating p and
= pa +
-px-\-
g,
is
g,
q.
ft'
= p&
qt
-f
y*spy +
q.
we have
7'
which
x'
this case
fry + yof
7'a
aft'
a']8
0,
the function of the roots considered in the last example.
moreover,
is
unchanged
if for o, 0,
la
m,
Ift
JV
-I-
m',
l'&
a', 0', 7',
+ m,
4-
m',
we
ly
substitute
+ m,
/V +
w'
This relation,
120
whence we may consider the cubics

2s
+ ZHz +
in the last
G=
0,
example under the simple forms
+ 3HV
z'*
G'
4-
0,
obtained by the linear transformations z = ax + b, z = ax' + V ; for if the condition

holds for the roots of the former equations, it must hold for the roots of the latter.
Now
putting z
= kz,
these equations become identical if
G'm&G;
H'eztfH,
whence, eliminating
is
&,
G^H* = Gfi H?
the required condition, the same as that obtained in Ex. 13.
become
that the reducing quadratics of the cubics necessarily
It
may
identical
be observed
by the same
transformation, viz.,
jy
77"'
(a'x'
b')
=-
(ax
b).
Homographic Relation between two Roots of a
60.
Cubic.
Before proceeding to the discussion of the biquadratic
we prove
cubic
the following important proposition relative to the
The
roots of the cubic are connected in pairs by a
relation in terms of
tJie
we have
Referring to Exs. 13, 14, Art. 27,

2
O - y)
flo
<?
(a (/3
\
(ft
y)
jY
+
-f
(7
(y
/3
2
/3
homographic
coefficients.
(y
a)
2
+ y
a)
2
a)
(a
+7
(a
2
(a
/3)
/3)
/3)
the relations
= 18 (a? - flofl,),
= 9 (aa z - a,a^ 9
- 18
a.a,).
Using the notation
multiplying the above equations by
and adding since

2
a - a (a -f ft) +
aj3,
- (a +
/3), 1,
respectively,
a/3
0,
we have
ft
ft
(a
|3)
aft
but
(see Art. 42)
whence
V ~f ("4^)
H $ + JTi(a + ^) +
0,
121
First Solution by Radicals of the Biquadratic.

and, therefore,
It is to be obis the required homographic relation.

served that the coefficients in this equation involve one irrational quantity, the second sign of which will give the relation
which
between a different pair of the roots.

61. First Solution by Radicals of the Biquadratic.
Euler's Assumption. Let the biquadratic equation
=
be put under the form (Art. 37)

s
where
= ax +
+ 6//s* + 4Gz + cfl -
3H
0,
b,
H - ac - b\
I=
ae
- 4bd
3c
4-
(7
= a 2 ^ - Sabc + 2^ s
To
solve this equation (a biquadratic wanting the second

Euler
assumes as the general expression for a root
term)
*
= Jy> +
J?
J>*-
Squaring,
^~P-g-r = 2(J,j Jr
+ J^J7)-
Jr Jp
Squaring again, and reducing, we obtain the equation

x*
-2(p +
q +
r)z*-8zjp Jq Jr+ (p + q
Comparing
p+
q + r
this equation
= - 3H,
q,
~4(qr+ rp+pq) = 0.
r}
we have
with the former,
qr+rp+pq =
and consequently jo,
3H
Jp Jq J r = -
r are the roots of the equation

(1)
v 7
\
or, since
6?
4 J? 3 - a2 J27 + <fj,
(Art 37),
.
where
t7 s ^r^
+ 2bcd
ad z
eb*
s
,
122 Algebraic Solution of

this equation
and
finally,
may
and Biquadratic.
be written in the form
putting
4r*
This
the Cubic
H*
we
0*0,
- laO +
obtain the equation
J=
0.
(2)
called the reducing cubic of the

biquadratic equation
will in what follows be referred to
by that name.
is
necessary to
we
make a
between equations
distinction
and
When
it is
and
(2),
(1)
shall refer to the
former as Euler's cubic.

- ac + a 2 6 if 13 2 3 be the roots of the
tm
V
since
Also,
reducing cubic, we have
2
b - ac + 2 2
r^b*
p ^ b* - ac + a*9 l9
;
and, therefore,
If this formula be taken to

represent a root of the biquadramust be observed that the radicals involved have not
tic in 2, it
complete generality for if they had, eight values of z in place

would be given by the formula. The proper limitation
;
of four
is
imposed by the relation
which
sight of in squaring to obtain the value of pqr]

requires such signs to be attached to each of the quantities
(lost
JP> J$>
r/*%
that their product
mined by the above equation
may
maintain the sign deter-
thus
(- J7>)
are
all
the possible
combinations of Jp, J#,
this condition, provided that
Jp,
throughout, whatever those signs
remove
all
(-J7) J^
Jg
may
Jr
fulfilling
same signs
may, however,
J~r retain the

be.
We
ambiguity as regards sign, and express in a single
First Solution by Radicals of the Biquadratic.

algebraic formula the four values of
by eliminating one
s,
123
of the
quantities J/>, Jq, Jr from the assumed value of z by means

of the relation given above, and leaving the other two quanti-
The
ties unrestricted in sign.
a formula free from
all
expression for z becomes therefore
ambiguity, since
it
gives four,
and only
four, values of z when Jp and Jq receive their double signs

the sign given to each of these in the two first terms determining that which must be attached to it in the denominator of
:
the third term.
given before,
And finally,
restoring to
q,
and
z their
values
we have
ax + b = J b* - ac + a*Q l + J #* - ac + az f) 2
G
as the complete algebraic solution
0i
and 9 2 being
of the
biquadratic
equation
- laO +
J=
0.
To assist the student in justifying Euler's apparently arbitrary assumption as to the form of solution of the biquadratic,
we remark that, the second term of the equation in z
being
absent, the sum of the four roots is zero, or Sj + s 2 + s 3 + s 4 =
;
and consequently the functions

in o-eneral
are in this
which there are

six (the combinations of four
quantities two and two),
case reduced to three
so that we may assume
s2)
&c., of
Si)
from wbjch we have
(*i
==
s,, s 3 , s s ,
2 4 , included in the
Jp +Jq + J' 7
formula
124
We
and
now
proceed to express the roots of Euler's cubic (1),

reducing cubic (2), in terms of the roots
also those of the
Attending to the
remarks above made with reference to the signs of the radicals,
we may write the four values of z = ax + b as follows
>
j3>
S of the given biquadratic in x.
7>
ay +
from which
sions for
7;,
may
#,
= -
be immediately derived the following expres-
r the roots of Euler's cubic
(T +
'
f3
(4
8)',
)*-
Subtracting in pairs the equations (3), and making use of

the relations above written between p g, r and 6/1, 6., 6/
we
y
;j
the following useful relations connecting the

differences of the roots of the cubics (1) and (2) with the diffe-
easily establish
rences of the roots of the biquadratic
4
4
(q
_
_
(,-
4 (;>-
Oi
r)
;;)
y)
4 ,/a
= 4
2
r/
= 4a*
(0,
(9,
0,)
= ~
rr (/3-
viz.,
- rr
00 =
(7
a) (/3
= - ^ 2 (a -/3)( 7 ft)
-
Finally, from these equations, by

= 0, we derive the values of
2 + ft
a, |3, 7, S,
7 )(a
aid
ft, ft,
of
8),
S)
(5)
S).
the
relation
ft in terms of
125
Examples.
EXAMPLES.
1
roots,
"When the biquadratic has two equal
reducing cuhic has two equal
oots, the
and conversely.
2. "When the biquadratic has three roots equal,

0.
cuhic vanish, and consequently
0,
J=
all
the roots of the reducing
/=
3. When the biquadratic has two distinct pairs of equal roots,

12H~ = 0.
of Euler's cubic vanish, and consequently G = 0, a-I
two
of the roots
'
4.
Prove the following relations between the biquadratic and Euler's cubic with
respect to the nature of the roots

(1).
are
all real
(2).
cubic are
When
and
the roots of the biquadratic are
all real,
tho roots of Euler's cubic
positive.
When
the roots of the biquadratic aie
all
imaginary, tho roots of Eulei's
two being negative and one positive
nil real,
When the biquadratic has two real and two imaginary roots, Euler's
(.").
cubic has two imaginary loots and one real positive root.
These results follow readily from equations (4) when the proper forms are subIt is to be observed that all possible
7, S in the values of;;, g, r.
1
stituted for a,
cases arc heie comprised, the biquadratic being supposed not to have equal roots.
It follows that the converse of each of these propositions is true.
Hence, when
Euler's cubic has
all its roots real
and
positive,
we may
conclude that
all
the roots
when Euler's cubic has negative roots, we conclude

of the biquadratic are real
that all the loots of the biquadratic are imaginary; and when Euler's cubic has
;
imaginary
roots,
we
conclude that the biquadratic has two real and two imaginary
roots.
5.
Prove that the roots of the biquadratic and the roots of the reducing cubic
are connected
by the following
relations
When
the roots of the biquadratic are either all real, or all imaginary,
(1).
the roots of the reducing cubic are all real ; and, conversely, when the roots of
the reducing cubic are all real, the roots of the biquadratic are either all real or all
imaginary.
(2). When the biquadratic has two real, and two imaginary roots, the reducing cubic has two imaginary roots and, conversely, when the reducing cubic has
two imaginary roots, the biquadratic has two real and two imaginary roots.
;
These results follow readily from the preceding example, since the roots of the
(1) and (2) are connected by a real linear relation.
two cubics
6.
When If is
For
7.
positive, the biquadratic has
imaginary
roots.
in that case the roots of Euler's cubic cannot be all positive.
When / is
negative, the biquadratic has two, real and
For the reducing cubic has in that
case
two imaginary
two imaginary
roots.
roots (Ex. 12, p. 33).
126 Algebraic Solution of the Cubic and Biquadratic.
H and
When
8.
are both positive, all the roots of the
are
biquadratic
imaginary.
J is
For, since
has a real negative root
positive, the reducing cubic
fore also Euler's cubic has a real negative root, since

tive
and
Ex.
this is case (2) of
Show
that the
H, and
a*Q
there-
is
posi-
It is implied in this proof that the

l^&djpg
substituted for /in the statement of the proposi-
4.
coefficient a is positive ; if a/be

tion no restriction as to the sign of a
9.
is
necessary.
two biquadratic equations
A X*
Q
4.A& + ^4 =
SAiX*
4-
have the same reducing cubic.

10. Find the reducing cubic of the two biquadratic equations
m3 + w 3
Sim* + 3 (\mn
Ans.
11.
2
)
0.
- 3mnO - (m*
Prove that the eight roots of the equation
{x*
are given
6lx*
(4ww
)}
64 (^
+ w3 +
nz
- Mum) x 2
by the formula
n +
''Compare Ex. 20,
v*
+ u~n
-f tarn
\/ 1
-f
4-
p. 34.)
12. If the expression
be a root of the equation

z4
determine H,
J in
I,
-f-
62Zir 2
terms of
13.
-f-
a zl
- 2H'Z =
0,
n.
m,
/,
Ans.
4^
JT= -
oo
/,
J=
12ww,
/=
- 4 (w 3 +
3
).
Write down the formulas which express the root of a biquadratic in the parwhen /= 0, and /= 0.
ticular cases
by the aid of the reducing
14. Express,
of the roots a,
15.
I and / in terms of the
differences
Express the product of the squares of the differences of the roots
in terms of
I and
By means
a* (3
of the equations (5) above given,
_ yy y -
What
is
a,
7, 5
/.
tain the result as follows
16.
cubic,
(See Exs. 16, 18, Art. 27.)
7, 5.
and the equation
(2), p.
82,
we ob-
a )2 ( a
)2
8 )2
_ 5)2 7 _ 5 yz =
(
2 56 (/*
- 27/2 ).
the quantity under the final square root (viz., that which occurs
under the cube root in the solution of the reducing cubic) in the formula expressing
a root?
Ans. 27J*-I*.
17.
Prove that the
coefficients of the equation of
4
biquadratic equation a #
jterms
o>
J7) /,
and
4ai# 3
-f
62#2 +
4^3 x
squared differences of the

=
may be expressed in
Second Solution by Radicals of

the second term from the equation,
Removing
^+
^+^
6JET
and changing the signs of the
4G
127
the Biquadratic.
we
obtain
we have
roots,
These transformations leave the functions
(a
#)
2
,
0.
&c.,
unaltered
hut
becomes
G, the other coefficients of the latter equation remaining unchanged;

thei ef ore G can enter the coefficients of the equation of squared differences in even
And by
powers puly.
ducing
aid of the identity of Art. 37, G"1
In a similar manner we
II, I, J.
of the differences of the roots a,
the function
7, 5
)3,
may
be eliminated, intro-
may
prove that every even function

be expressed in terms of a JZ", /, /,
may
of odd degree not entering.
Second Solution by Radicals of tbe Biqua-
02.
Let the biquadratic equation
dratic.
ax*
-f
+ ^dx +
6cx?
4-
4/>.f'
be put, as before, under the form

s
where
We
rt,r
4 CJZs 2 +
46% +
/ - 3// =
0,
^.
now assume
as the general expression for a root of this
equation
^
J> +
J?
J r Jy
+ J/ ; J?>
a formula involving three independent radicals,

Squaring twice, and reducing, we have
-
(z
- rp - pq)' = 4pqr (2z + p +
J/;,
J^, Jr.
qr
-f
r)
or
s
-2
(yr
-f-
rjt?
-f
j^g) s
Comparing
Spqrz
-f
this equation
(^r
=-
^,
^7^
+pq}
-4(p + q+
<tI
r are the roots of the equation

2
4-
(12//
r)pqr =
with the former equation in
easily find
whence, p,
-I-
a !)
f - 6//*
-f
0.
s,
0.
we
128
This equation
or
making
may be readily
transformed into Euler's cubic,
directly the substitution
H- iftf
and putting
reduce
it
for 6r its value in terms of
4fl
JET,
- laQ +
J=
and
/,
form of the reducing
to the standard
J,
we may
cubic, viz.,
0.
important to observe that in the present method of

solution we meet with no ambiguity corresponding to that of
Art. 61 for the expression here assumed as the value of z has, in
It
is
virtue of the double signs of the ladicals contained in it, only

four values, while the form assumed for z in the preceding Article
This appears from the identical equation
has eight values.
which shows that the number
of distinct values of the radical
number
expression of the present Article is the same as the

2
values of (Jp + Jq + Jr) namely four.
of
In order
to express p,
the biquadratic,
we
q,
have, giving to x the four value?
Jq Jr - Jr Jp - Jp
*!
- aa +
z2
*ap
z,ây +
= -
*4
r in terms of the roots a,
aS + b =
The student may
-Jq Jr
-\
Jq,
Jq Jr + Jr Jp
Jq.
0(/3
a z (fly - aS) + ab
((3
Jp
easily satisfy himself that
Si
y-a-g)
+ y - a -
8)
of
Jq,
Jq Jr - Jr Jp + Jp
the values of z 2 + s 3 -
y,
Jr Jp - Jp Jq,
of the signs of the radicals can lead to

these four.
From
/3,
a, /3, y, o,
s4 ,
any value
and
sa s3
= - 4jq Jr,
= 4
no combination
-z
different from
z^
we
obtain
Resolution of the Quartic into
From
tion
its
Quadratic Factors. 129
and similar equations we have, employing the rela= - 2pqr, the following modes of expressing p, q, r in
these
terms of the roots
a, /3, 7,
/3y-aS
'
8#
a* ( 7
- r = a
- 78
--- -
a/3
a +
~:
=:
/:>
- 3 /
"
86?
=
a* (a
4-
/3
Resolution of the Ciuartie into
63.
Factors.
8)
its
Let the quartio
be supposed to be expressed as the difference of two squares* in

the form
(ax?
and comparing it with

Multiplying the given quartic by
we have the following equations to determine
,
this expression,
M, N, and
M* = b - ac
2
Eliminating
4a
which
is
MN= be - ad + 2abO, N
+ art,
(ae
(c
+ 2a0) 2 -
ae.
M and N from these equations, we find
- 4bd +
3c'
aO + ace + 2bcd-ad* - eb~ -
the reducing cubic before obtained.

this equation we have three values of
From
(0,,
0,
2,
3 ),
2
with three corresponding values of J/ 2 MN,
and thus all
the coefficients of the assumed form for the quartic are deter,
* The reduction of the

quartic
to the diif erenre of
two squares was the method
employed for the solution of the equation of the fourth degree. This mode of
solution is due to Ferrari, although by some writers ascribed to Simpson (see note A).
first
The method explained
in the following Article, in
directly to the product of
two quadratic
factors, is
which the quartic
due to Descarte*.
is
equated
130 Algebraic Solution of the Cubic and Biquadratic.

mined in three
distinct
that to each value of
ways
it
moreover,
M corresponds a
should be noticed
single value of
N>
since
MN = bc-ad
The
quartio
+ 2a6)* -
may
plainly be resolved into the two quadratic factors
When
receives the three values
2,
1?
#3,
we
pairs of quadratic factors of the original quartic,

is completely solved.
obtain the three
aud the problem
In order to make clear the connexion between the present

and the solution by radicals, let us suppose that the
solution
roots of the quadratic factors iu the order above written are

and that the roots of the remaining pairs of
(3, 7 and a, 3
;
and
quadratic factors are similarly y> a
"We have,
j3,
a,
and
7, S.
therefore,
where
2
J/!
Jl>
-ac+(fO
l9
M* m Jtf
Jtf-ac+a^,
Subtracting the last equations in pairs, we find

/3
+7 _ a _S=4
and
'
since
obtain
'
..
a +
we
_S-8_4
7 +
..
^+7
+ S =
aa
= - J/
aft
ay +
ft
jl/!
J/!
- -
J/l
-f
a + 'fl-7-8-4
-4-,
M> +
- J/ 2
-t-
4-
J/"3 ,
1T3 ,
M-i
- J/3 ,
J/,
J/3
131
Resolution of the Quartic.
It appears, therefore, that the roots of the biquadratic are here

expressed separately by formulas analogous to those of Art. 61.
2
values of M'\ viz. Jfi , Mf^ M*> are in fact identical with
the roots of Euler's cubic in the preceding Article.
There
The
with regard to the signs of the radicals involved in

J/3 a restriction similar to that of Art. 61
since, in
exists also
J/2,
l9
virtue of the assumptions above made with respect to the roots

of the quadratic factors, we have the equation
a* (ft
+ 7 - a - S) (7 + a -
j3
S) (a
which implies the following relation
and by means
stricted in the
/3
S)
64Jtfi Jfa
Ex. 20,
(see
p. 52)
#3,
of this relation the signs of

19 Jf2 , Jfs are rein the previous Article.
manner explained
aid of the equation last written we can eliminate

3
from the expressions for the roots, and thus obtain, as in Art. 61,
all the roots of the biquadratic in a single formula, viz.,
By
which the radicals
iii
-are
/r
uc
and JT2 -
a~t) l9
b'
ao
-t-
a2
taken in complete generality.

EXAMPLES.
1.
Form
the equation whose roots are A,
7 4
Adding the
where
0i,
70
a5,
-1-
/*,
Exs.
viz.,
78.
last coefficients of the quadratic factors of the quartic,
07 + aS =
40!
2 -,
a
05=
402
2 -,
4^ +
2-,
7a
-f
0)8
+ 78=
62,*^ are the roots of the reducing cubic
An*, (ax
(Cf.
v,
a0
35,
4, 5, Art. 39.)
K2
we have
hence the required equation.

3
2o)
- 41 (ax -
2c)
+ 16J=
0.
132
2. Express, by means of the equations of the preceding example, the roots of

the reducing cubic in terms of the roots of the biquadratic.
2c
Substituting for
its
value in terms of
1201
= 2\ -
120 2
2/i
120a
2r
fji
(7
-Xs
- \ - fi s
a,
a) (3
0) (7
8)
7) (a
5)
we
7, 5,
ft,
5)
(a
find
0) (7
OB
5),
7) (a
(7
immediately
),
a) (0
5).
(Cf. (6), Art. 61.)

3.
Ex.
Verify, by
5, Art. 61,
means of the expressions
and reducing cubic are

4.
a3)(j8
From
1,
the conclusions of
oi'
the biquadratic
related.
the equation whose roots are the functions
Form
(37
Ex.
for 0\, 02, 03 in
with respect to the manner in which the roots
+ 7 - a - 5),
7 a - 05)
+a-
(7
we
the quadratic factors of the quartic

4,l/i
5),
(a/8
a5
78) (a
+0 - 7
3)
find
r
2J\
7-a-5,
)8
also
JfiJVi
Ic
- ad + 2ab6\ =
the roots of the required cubic being represented
We
obtain, therefore, the required equation
reducing cubic.
Ans.
6.
Form
+ bc-
(a*<l>
ad)
az
<f>i,
by <i, </>2, ^3.

by a linear transformation of the
z
b'
l(a~(^
be
ad]
2W= 0.
the equation whoso roots are
ya - 35
7 - a5
7 +
7-0-5'
a-0-5'
a -T"0
- 78
-7-
denote any one of these functions indifferently, and

<f>
of the reducing cubic, we have, employing former results,
If
__
MN _
^~_
- ad + labe
Ic
r-ac +
Jf- ~~b'
5*
the corresponding root
'
a~ti
and thus we obtain the required equation by a homographic transformation of the

reducing cubic. This formula may be put under the more convenient form
by means of which we obtain the required cubic in the following form
26
(0<J> -f
3
)
+ (a-I-
12^2)
which, expanded and divided by
W^ +
(Cf.
Ex.
(a*e -f
3
,
(<ty
14, p. 88.)
-f b)
G*
0,
becomes
6^ - 9ac- 2W) ^ +
-f
+ bf - HG(a<l>
2 (afo
+ 2^2 rf - Zacd) t + Pe- ad* =
0.
133
Resolution of the Quartic.

Form
6.
the equation whose roots are

2
?-
These are the three values of
(ya
^03y-a8)
?5)-',
- 7 5) 2
(a
in the foregoing Article.
Representing, as
by <, we find that the required equation may be obtained

from the reducing cubic by means of the homographic transformation
before, one of these values
- ad~-
2bcd
Form
7.
<
labdd
the equation whoso roots are
07 -a5
- (a +
y) aS
7'
is
(7
a)
a&
#8
ya
5)
The required equation

rmqûn
tr an s f
eb 2
08 - (0
-f
8)
ya
(a
-f
78
78
"
(7
+ 5)
obtained from the reducing cubic by the homographic
--
cd
be
+ 2dO
20
r = d 2 -ce
+ ae8
may be derived from Ex. 5 by changing the roots into their reciproand making the corresponding changes ia the coefficients.
This result
cals,
64.
The Resolution of
Second
Factors.
the (fcuartic into Quadratic

Let the quartic
M ethod
<:\r
-I-
-f
cfo
be supposed to be resolved into the quadratic factors

a
We
p
have,
(a?
4 2px
by comparing
p'=2-
q) (#
these
we
fifth
could eliminate^, p',

the several values of 0.
fiftji
q,
%px
+ q).
pq'+p'g = 2
ti>
now we had any
The
two forms, the equations
+ q+ typ'= 6
Cl
If
and
-,
Cl
^=U
^.
fl)
equation of the form
q\
and thus find an equation giving
equation might be assumed to be jt?;/= 0, or q -f q'- $ ;

would be determined by a cubic equation,
in each case
<
since each of these functions,
when
expressed in terms of the
134
roots of the biquadratic, has three values only.
venient, however, to
If
the two functions of p, p'9

second of equations (I).
q, q'
We
equations,
,
pq + pq .
and eliminating p,
It
is
more con-
assume
p', q, q',
2c
here involved being equal by the

easily find, by the aid of those
--
4abc - 2a*d
by means
8bd>
_;
of the identical relation
there results the equation
J
which
the reducing cubic obtained
is
0,
by the previous methods
of solution.
pp' 9 or q + q', we may complete the

the
resolution of
quartic by means of the equations (1).
The reason for the assumption above made with regard to
Having thus found
From a comparison
the form of the fifth equation is obvious.
of the assumed values of
with the equations of Ex. 1, Art. 63,
it
in the preceding Article and

foresee that the elimination of p, ;/, g, <?', must lead
appears that
therefore
we
is
the same as
identical with the reducing cubic before

to an equation in
In general, if represent any[function of the differobtained.
ences of A, /x, v, and consequently an even function of the differ<f>
<
Ex. 18, Art. 27), the equation whose

cannot involve any functions
roots are the different values of
of the coefficients except a, H, J, and J.
ences of
If
a, /3, 7, 8
(see
be assumed equal to any of the expressions in the second
of the following examples, the equation in

whose roots are the
different values of this expression is formed as in the above
instance
by the elimination
of
jp, jp',
g,
q.
Transformation of Biquadratic into Reciprocal Form. 135

EXAMPLES.
1
Resolve into quadratic factors
i*
Comparing
this
+ 4Gz
a 2/- 3.H*.
-f
form with the product

(*
we
6Ift 2
2p*
find the following equation for
$)(
2j>* -f ?'),
^""12") ^"^
(2r\
2==
and putting
this equation,
when
3
by a becomes
divided
4a s
2.
3
<f>
- lap
If a quartic be resolved into the
/=
-f-
0.
two quadratic
x + px 4 gt
x + p'x
factors
q',
determined by a cubic equation when

corresponding to each of the following types
prove that
is
<f>
has
it
all
possible values
(p
- p')\
(P
'
'
Pq
~P
and by an equation of the sixth degree when

PI
q,
P-P',
q-q'*
~p
q-q'
'
it
'
pq>
p-p'
p-p'
- p'} (q - <?'), (q -
has
- p'q?
(pq'
all
values corresponding to
p*-4q.
or
pq'-p'q*
Expressing these functions in terms of the roots, the number of possible values of
each function becomes apparent.
Transformation of the Biquadratic into the

Reciprocal Form. To effect this transformation we make
65.
the linear substitution x = ky + p in the equation
ax 4 + 4bz 3 + 6c# 2 + 4r/# +
0,
which then assumes the form

fl&y +
4&Vry +
6 z72 /t-y + 4ty;//
-f
u, =
o,
where
Z/i
* ap +
C^ =
J,
+ 2bp +
c,
Z73
tfp
+ 35p 2 +
S^jo
rf,
&c.
If this equation be reciprocal, we have two

determine k and /o, viz.,
(See Art. 35.)
equations .to
2
/o
Algebraic Solution of the Gubic and Biquadratic.
136
eliminating
and
we have
7r,
the following equation for p
since
there are two values of
/;,
equal with opposite signs, correspond-
ing to each value of p.
The equation
when reduced by
the substitutions (Arts. 36, 37)
a- IT*
*
- Z7? +
3J5TZ7;
6//^
/-
12// 2 )
4
i
+ G,
2
4G Z7
+ a 2 /-
becomes
2
which
is
is
J7,
(a
US -
6GHU
- G* =
0,
a cubic equation determining Ui = ap + b\ and
(1)
if
we put
determined by the standard reducing cubic

4rf
This transformation*
jfr/0-f
,7=0.
be employed to solve the biquadratic ; and it is important to observe that the cubic (1) which
here presents itself differs from the cubic of Art. 62 only in
may
having roots with contrary
signs.
We proceed now to
express k and p in terms of a, j3, 7, 8,

Since the equation in y y
the roots of the biquadratic equation.
obtained by putting x = ky + p, is reciprocal, its roots are of the
form y l9 y^
y*
o = *yi +
hence we
y
p,
/3
- kfo +
p,
may
7
write
ft
- + />,
2/2
8 =A
-+p
y\
* This method of
solving the biquadratic by transforming it to the reciprocal
S. S. Greatheed in the Camb. Math. Journ*, vol. i.
form was given by Mr.
Transformation of Biquadratic into Reciprocal Form.
137
and, therefore,
-O-^Cy-p)-*
(a-p) (-/>)
1
,
from which we find
/3y-a8
/
+7 _a~
-/3
r -g)_.
-_
_ ( 7 -a)(/3-S)(a-/3)(
-a Sr
(P + 7
An
important geometrical interpretation may be given to

the quantities k and p which enter into this transformation.
Let the distances OA, ()B, OC, OD, of four points A, B, C, D,

on a right line from a fixed origin
on the line be determined
the
of
roots
the
a, /3, 7, S,
by
equation
air
also let Oj, 0,,

tlie
4-
4fcp
y)
= 0;
l9
F{
F F
2,
'
;
J^, J^',
quadratics:^
(*-)
0,
(-)(a--/3j-0
We have
4r/^
systems of involution determined by the
three following pairs of
+ 6 co? 2 +
be the centres; and
foci of the three
(.f
(*
(*- 7 )(*-S) =
>
0.
then the equations
0,B. 0,C = 0^4
OiD =
O^
2
,
&o.,
which, transformed and compared with the equations

(/3
p) (y
- p) =
(o
p) (S
prove that the three values of p are

of the three centres of involution
p)
/r,
&c,,
00 00 00
2,
1?
3,
the distances
from the fixed origin
0.
Also
z
since OiFi = k* 9 k has six values represented geometrically
by
the distances
0,F,, 0,^,';
whore OiFi + OiFi =

opposite directions.
0, &o.,
8,
0,F,';
3,
as the distances are
3',
measured in
138
We can
from geometrical considerations alone find the positions of the centres and foci of involution in terms of a, )3, 7,
and thus confirm the results just established, as follows
Since the systems [FiBFi'G] and [FiAFi'D] are harmonic,
,
and
0,
if
F or FI
x represent the distance of
from the fixed origin
we have
1
d?
j3
Solving this equation, we find
x = p
or
,
whence
p =
7f,
--+- OFS
OK-OFS =
-^
A =
EXAMPLE.
Transform the cubic
ax*
3#2 +
%cx
-f *?
to the reciprocal form.
The assumption x - ky
- G Z7i 3 +
The
values of
/>
p leads to the equation
-f
3 Jf 2
2
Z7i
+ H*
==
0,
where
U\
a$
ap
J.
are easily seen to be
)8
&y
4- 7
a2
ya
2a*
$2
7-fa-
2^*
-f
^ - 2y
The geometrical interpretation in this case is, that if three points ', J5', C" be
with respect to
is the harmonic conjugate of
taken on the axis such that
B and C, B' of .# with respect to C and y and C of C with respect to -4 and 2?
then
we have
the following values of p and k
_ 6U
4-
OA-
OA
For the values of OA', OB', OC'
in terms of a,
OA'
7, see
Ex.
13, p, 88.
Solution of the Biquadratic by Symmetric Functions.
39
Solution of the Biquadratic by Symmetric Func-
66.
tions of the Roots.
The
possibility of reducing the solution
of the biquadratic to that of a cubic by the present method

depends on the possibility of forming functions of the four
roots a, j3, y, 8, which admit of only three values when these
It will be seen on referroots are interchanged in every way.
ring to Ex. 2, Art. 64, that several functions of this nature
exist.
These, like the analogous functions of Art. 59, possess
an important property to be proved hereafter, viz., any two

such sets of three are so related that any one function of either
set is connected with some one function of the other set by a
relation in terms of the coefficients.
rational
homographic
For the purposes
of the present solution we employ the

functions already referred to in Art. 55, since they lead in the
most direct manner to the expressions for the roots of the bi-
We
proceed accordingly
quadratic in terms of the coefficients.
to form the equation whose roots are the three values of
"**
/a + 0/3 + 0*7 +
the roots are interchanged in every way, and

These values are
when
and
since
S
we
(a
]3)
- 3Sa 2 - 2X -
find the following values of ^, t^
12
whence
a2
'
2fji
t*
- 2v = - 48
~,
1.
140
Again, since
Sfc -
and
i/)*
= 24-,,
we have
also
t}
Hence
equation whose roots are t^ t^
tlie
(rr/)
or,
3H(a
2
substituting for (?
which
is
(<tt
ty +
its
(zH*
t:i
becomes
-
value from Art. 37,
+ //) 3 - a 8 / (a 8 * + IT) + a 8 JT=
0,
transformed into the standard reducing cubic by the

z
eft + If = a &.
substitution
To determine
a, /3, 7, S
we have
-4 7 -
the following equations

=
2,
a+/3-fy-fS = -4-;
along with
tt
from which we
find
-i
Solution of Biquadratic by Symmetric functions.
We
Lave
also
from the above values
of Jtfi,
J^, Jt z
the
equation
which one radical can be expressed in terms of the

other two, and the general formula for a root shown to be the
same as those previously given.
by means
of
It is convenient, in connexion with the subject of this Article,

to give some account of two functions of the roots of the biquadratic which possess properties analogous to those established
in Art. 59 for corresponding functions of the roots of a cubic.
Adopting a notation similar
we may
to that of the Article referred to,
write these functions in terms of A,
ing form
/u,
v in the follow-
S (07 + nS) +
01
(70 + |3S) +
a,
(a/3
+ 78),
-f
ai
(a/3
+ 78).
By means of the equations of Ex. 1, Art. 63, these functions

can be expressed in terms of the roots of the reducing cubic in
the form
j-
L=
0!
OJ0 2
0>
S,
-J-
5f =
01
+ CU0a +
0.6/3.
also be expressed, by aid of the equation of the

present Article connecting t and 0, in terms of the values of
t 2> t 3 , as follows
tfi,
They may
The functions L and Jf are as important in the theory of

the biquadratic as the functions of Art. 59 in the theory of the
cubic.
The cubes of these expressions are the simplest functions
of four quantities which have but two values when these quantities are interchanged in every way ; they are the roots of the
reducing quadratic of the reducing cubic above written, and

underlie every solution of the biquadratic which has been given,
142
EXAMPLES.
1
Show
that L and
Increasing
2.
To
a,
by
A,
a, 3, 7, 8.
and Jf remain unaltered, since
a,
7, 8.
)3,
the values of
1202 =
and
120!=
2
M in terms of
L-
M,
X+
2
jtf,
we
0i, 02, 0s,
0.
find easily
2
Jif=08-7)(a-S)(a> -
X-
Jf = (7
(3-
a)
8)
Again, from these equations, multiplying the terms on both

remembering that 0i, 02, 03 are the roots of
4
we
find in terms of the coefficients the product of the squares of the differ-
ences of the roots
From
M are functions of the differences of
7, 8
w),
a>),
sides together,
and
- J*0 + /=0,
find
- JIP -
VT3
()8
- 7)
(7
- a)
adding the squares of the same terms,
also,
= 24
^ = (3 - 7)
~
8
)
(a
0) (a
2
JP) ^
^ (7
(T?
5)
(3
8) (y
S)
we have
-
2
)
and, since
(X
3 2
)
(3
5)
- 4Z 3 Jlf
substituting for these quantities their values derived
(a
2
j3)
(7
from former equations, we
have finally
6
3.
(&
- 7? (7 ~
2
)
(a
Show by a comparison
- 3) 2
8) (0
- S) 2 (7 -
8)
- 256
(7
- 27,7*).
of the equations of Art. 59 with those of the present

may be extended to the biquadratic by changing
Article that the results of the former
-7, 7-0, a-/B

respectively
67.
dratic.
into
-05-7)(a-8), -(y-a)(3-), -
and, at the same time, If into
-- 1, and G into
(a
- ft)
(7
~ 5),
167.
Equation of Squared PifferenceL of a BiquaIn a previous chapter (Art. 44) an account was given
of the general problem of the formation of the equation of difIt was proposed by Lagrange to employ this equaferences.
tion in practice for the purpose of separating the roots of a
given numerical equation ; and with a view to such application
Equation of Squared Differences of a Biquadratic. 143

he calculated the general forms of the equation of squared differences in the oases of equations of the fourth and fifth degrees
wanting the second term (see Traiti de la Resolution de$ Equations
Numdriques, 3rd
ed., ch. v.,
and note
Although
in.).
for
practical purposes the methods of separation of the roots to be

hereafter explained are to be preferred yet, in connexion with
;
the subjects of the present chapter, the equation of squared

differences of the biquadratic is of sufficient interest to be given
We
proceed accordingly to calculate this equation for a

It will appear,
biquadratic written in the most general form.
Ex.
was
in
with
what
in accordance
17, Art. 61, that
proved
here.
the coefficients of the resulting equation can all be expressed in
terms of
and
a, If, /,
The problem
J.
equivalent to expressing the following product in terms of the
is
coefficients of the biquadratic

2
2
2
{>- (3- 7) }{4>-(7-) }{4>-("-0) {<*>-(- 5)^} {*-03}
The most convenient mode
of procedure is to
5)
{0-( 7 -5)'}
group these six factors in pairs,
to expiess the three products (which we denote by n

ITo, n 3 ) separately in terms
of the roots of the reducing cubic, and finally to express the product HI IIz Ila in
tt'irus of a, II, I, J.
and
s <p -
IIi
-7 2+
{ (ft
7)
(a
a
)
- 5)
we
and, by aid of the results of Art. 61

OB
(a
easily derive the following expressions for
:-
hence, without difficulty,

IIi
Introducing
now
16 JT
Oi becomes
-f
(801
<1>~+
4J
P,
- 480 2
Reducing the product ni
V 8 -f 3Q
^4Q</> +
2
pressed in terms of P, Q,
f* +
3P</>
-f
H\
4
--J $>+
4S0203.
Ila IIs
18 J2^)
(3P
J?,
167 B s^,
Q,
$*
P</>
+ Qe
^F,
3.
Finally, restoring the value of
16
for brevity the notation

2
80i
by the
V-
4
</>
(8720
we have
as follows
2 Q)
result of
-J-
Example
+ 12<22
2
<J>
18,
page 89,
we
the equation of squared differences ex-
(P
-f
obtain
+ 36Q2fy -f 27^ 2 = 0.
8PQ -
267?)
8
<f>
0.
144
Algebraic Solution of the Cubic* and Biquadratic.
The following
is
the final equation in terms of
(96JT
It should
+a
/)
4
<
/ 2 - 288*27)
a, JET, /,
J*
+ 32 (1281T + 160 IZJ- 13aV)

8
+1152 (2JZZ- 37)
Jty
he observed that the value ahove obtained for
III
quadratic function of Q\
calculation
by
<
aid of the equation 02 #3
= #i 2
might have been conducted by eliminating
0i
--
8
<f>
256 (I 3
- 27/ 2 = 0.
)
can be expressed as a
;,,
and the subsequent
between
this quadratic
and
the reducing cubic.
68.
Criterion of the Nature of the Roots of the
Biquadratic*.
Before proceeding with this investigation
it is
stated (Art. 43), that when

to
the
nature of the roots of an
condition
with
any
respect
algebraic equation is expressed by the sign of a function of the
necessary to repeat
coefficients,
what was before
are
these coefficients
numerical quantities.
It is
supposed to represent real
assumed
also,
as in the Article re-
ferred to, that the leading coefficient does not vanish.

Using as before A to represent that function of the coef-
the discriminant] which is, when multiplied by a

-numerical
factor, equal to the product of the squares of
positive
the differences of the roots, we have, from the results established
ficients (called
in preceding Articles, the equation
where
It will be
/ - 27 J\
3
found convenient in what follows to arrange the
discussion of the nature of the roots under three heads, accord-
A vanishes, or (2) is negative, or (3) is positive.

(1) When A vanishes, the equation has equal roots. This is evident
from the value of A above written. Four distinct cases may be
noticed
(a) when two roots only are equal, in which case / and J
ing as
(1)
do not vanish separately (]3) when three roots are equal, in which
case / = 0, and J = 0, separately (see Ex. 2, Art. 61)
(y] when
;
* The
equation of squared differences was first given in this form by Mr.
Roberts in the Nouvelles Annales de Mathematiques, vol. xvi.
M.
145
Criterion of Nature of Roots of Biquadratic.
two distinct pairs of roots are equal, in which case we have the
= 0, aU - 12H 2
It can be
(Ex. 3, Art. 61).
conditions
readily proved by means of the identity of Art. 37 that these

hence these two equations,
conditions imply the equation A =
;
along with the equation A = 0, are equivalent to two independent conditions only. Finally, we may have (8) all the roots
equal ; in which case may be derived
= 0, 7=0,
independent conditions
from Art. 61 the three

and J"= 0. These may
be written in a form analogous to the corresponding conditions

in case (4) of Art. 43.
When A
(2)
ginary
negative, the equation has two real
is
This follows from the value of
roots.
and
two ima-
in terms of the
for when all the roots are real A is plainly positive and
f
k J- 1,
k J 1,
the proper imaginary forms, viz., h
are substituted for a, |3, y, S, it readily appears that A is positive
roots
when
also
when all the roots are imaginary.

When A is positive, the roots of the
(3)
equation are either all
This follows also from the value of A, for

can show by substituting for u, /3 the forms h k J - 1 that
real or all imaginary.
we
is
when two roots are real and two imaginary.

therefore, when A is positive, this function of the
negative
In the
case,
coefficients is
not by
determine completely the

remains still doubtful whether the
itself sufficient to
nature of the roots, for
it
roots are all real or all imaginary.

necessary to discriminate between these
The
two
further conditions
cases
may, however,
In order
be obtained from Euler's cubic (Art. 61) as follows
that the roots of this cubic should be all real and positive, it is
:
necessary that the signs should be alternately positive and

negative ; and when the signs are of this nature the cubic cannot
have a real negative root. We can, therefore, derive, by the

aid of Ex. 4, Art. 61, the following general conclusion applicable to this case
When A
is
positive the roots of the biquadratic
are all imaginary in every case except when the following conditions
are fulfilled,
viz.,
negative,
case the rdots are all real.
and a2! - 12H* negative
in which
146
and Biquadratic.
Algebraic Solution of the Cubic

EXAMPLES.
Show
1.
that if
H be positive, or H~
if
& not
(and
a pair of imaginary roots.

be negative, the cubic will have
2. Show that if
unequal,
(2)
0),
its
two imaginary, according

- 4H*.
greater than
two equal, or
(2)
roots
as
(3)
the cubic will bave
G2
(1)
is
all real
and
(1) less than,
equal to, or (3)

3. If the cubic equation
ao*3
have two
o2 -
where
roots equal to
2
i
-I-
i2
2JETi,
3a 2x
s =*
prove
s &>
os
+
<w
4. If
Sai*
3te
Sex
is -
rf
(x
-Z
*
r)
be a perfect cube, prove

(ae
5.
to)r
(W -
-f
- 0.
c2 )
Find the condition that the cubic
may be
3ia:2 -f
aa?
3c# +
rf
capable of being written under the form

I
where
$2 ) r2 -f (ad
ai, î,
(x
+ m (x -
ai)
n (x - 7 i) 8,
71 are the roots of the cubic

cnx*
3M
2
-r
$cix
rfi
0.
Comparing the forms we have

as=
Also
ai ai*
-f
/ai
<f
/ai
33i ai
m;3i
4-
zj3
-f 3<?i
4-
01+^1 =
Whence, multiplying these equations by d it
we
0,
<S:c.
Zc\, 3bi t ai, respectively,
find the required condition

(adi
6.
If
7 be
3 (bc\
a\d)
0.
the roots of the cubic equation
4
rationalize the equation
4
. ......... .
V'a:
and express the
l\e)
4
~
- o4 v/^
result in terms of the coefficients

^4ff.
126^*4
* ~ 7 =
o,
i,
^2,
s.
and adding,
147
Examples.
If ai,
7.
and
/8i,
a\x*
HI 3
Let
4-
whose
find the equation
ai GI
fa be the roots of the quadratic equations
aj,
fa
2bix
0i
4-
2 a? 4-
roots are the four values of ai 02.
Hi m
2
,
a^c*
Ans.
N.B.
a 2# 8
0,
(ai 02<J>
- 2&i i 2
This and the two following Examples
may
<j>
4- ci cj)
- Hi BzQ*
0.
be solved by expressing
<j>
by
radicals involving the coefficients.
of Ex. 7,
Employing the notation
8.
_
four values of
Let
2^Tia
a\c^
a^c\
In
this
9.
In the same case,
Example the
several values of
roots are the
2b\ b z .
-f
Am.
Let
ai 4 02
(2ai a 2
4-
2(i* 2 4is
resulting biquadratic
if $>
(ai
az)
2*i)0
such that
JT^)
-I-
G=
- JTi J5T2 =
0.
0.
form the equation whose roots are the
^>.
s= rt!/> 2
^lj.
2.?7i 2
2 *i,
(ia 2
-f
a^-j
i/ J2 ) 2
2jtf
2 ci
2
<j>
-f
10. Show that when the biquadratic has a double root, the cubic whose
roots
are the values of p (Art. 65) has the same double root ; and find what this
cubic
becomes when the biquadratic has three roots equal.
/be
11. If
and
both positive, prove directly (without the aid of Euler's
cubic) that the roots of the biquadratic are all imaginary.
It appears from the expression for
in terms of the roots (Ex.
19, p. 62) that
is positive there must be at least one
when
roots h
pair of
k
V^T
imaginary
diminishing all the roots by A, and dividing them by k (which transformations
will not alter the character of the other
pair of roots 7, 5, nor the signs of
and J }
the biquadratic may be put under the form
Now
1),
*
or
whence
-f
4j0#
/ =
^c
-f
p*t
4-
6cx~
%p*c
4jy#
-I-
q,
_ 4^2 +
q
- jo 2
(^ 4- 1)
where 6c = ^
-f 1
3^
<
<
(q
4^2
_ ^y
and therefore
proving that
7 and
5 are imaginary
when JSTand /are

I
positive
(of.
Ex.
8, Art. 61).
148
and Biquadratic.
12. If the biquadratic has
two
distinct pairs of equal roots, prove directly the
relations
In
this case the biquadratic divided
where
by
assumes the form
OQ
a&c
a\,
a -
- =
and
whence, comparing the forms
we
3J?
find
from which the above

lish the identity
=-
A2 ,
0,
/ - 3 H* =
relations immediately follow.
ThejiUident will easily estabArt. 61.

Also it should be
of these relations with those of Ex.
noticed that in this case only one square root
is
3,
involved in the solution of the
biquadratic (coming from the solution of the quadratic (x
a) (x
/8)
Find the condition that the biquadratic may be capable of being put under
13.
the form
/
In
(#
this case the second
2px 4
#)
and fourth
4m
(x
4 2px
coefficients are
q)
n.
removed by the same trans-
formation, and the general solution involves only two square roots.
Am.
14.
Prove that
0.
vanishes for the biquadratic
m (x
w)
n (x
w)
15. If the roots of a biquadratic, o,

,
7, 5 represent the distances of four
points from an origin on a right line ; prove that when these points form a harmonic division on the line the roots of Euler's cubic are in arithmetic progression,
and the roots of the cubic of Art. G2 in harmonic progression.
16.
Form
the equation whose roots are the six anharmonic functions of four
by the equation
points in a right line determined
= 0.
The
six
anharmonic
ratios are
1
149
Examples.
\
5)
7)
'
-A
-\
(a-j8)(7~5)
(y
*8 ~
also the equation
is
whose
a)
01-02
fl
=
23
S)
02-0i'
3
*-,*
OS-'yXa-S)
01
-0 3 '
roots are
one of the cubics
aft*
I2a lt
16 v//
- 277 2 =
0.
The equation whose roots are the ratios, with sign changed, of the roots of either
of these cubics is
4A
2
fa>
<f>
- 27/V>(4> -
I)
A e J3 - 27/ 2
where
The
I)
(see
Ex.
16, p. 88),
are the six anharmonic ratios.
roots of the equation in

This equation
can be written in a more expressive form, as will appear from the following propo'itions
<
The
(a).
as follows
six
anharmonic
*'
From
may
be expressed in terms of any one of them,
"
*'
n~?
î
-^r*
'
the identical equation

03
we have
ratios
- 7)
_
(
+ 7 - a
5)
(^
5)
3)
7 -
5)
the relations
01
02
1,
-f
03
03
1,
-f
-=
1,
0^
rf>l
which determine
(b).
w and
If
all the anharmonic ratios in terms of any one of them.

two of the anharmonic ratios become equal, the six values of
2
o>
each occurring three times and in this ease J = 0.
For suppose 0i =
are
we have then from

0i*
whence
0!
-I-
w, or
0i
and substituting either of these values
the second of the above relations
0,
o>
in (a),
for
2
;
we
find all the
Also, since
iT^V
A
'""
F^
A
'
or
2
5(M--) =
fA
we have
1
#004
4i3 + 32 = 0.
2
o,
anharmonic
ratios.
150 Algebraic Solution of

(e).
When
one of the ratios
occurring twice
and in
4>j
(<J).
These
this case
m_
/ (see
one of the factors of
<f>
harmonic, the six values of
/=
_H^
if
Show
are
1, 2, -,
each
for if
-u-
or 2\
if
0,
Ex. 18,
p. 62).
under the following form
-P{(* + I)(f-)(f 17.
<p
as well as the converse propositions,
results,
writing the sextic in
is
and Biquadratic.
the Cubic
(see
Ex.
= nf*{ <* + )(+
he proved by
may
12, p. 119)
*)}.
that the equation

2
/t?
14s
1\
_ *(*-
I)
\p*
b satisfied by
the solutions which follow
18. Express
5(
(7
- 8) 2
as a rational function of 0i, 62, 0s
and ultimately
in terms of the coefficients of the quartic.
96
Bi+
C2H\
19.
Express
(^
- 72
2
)
(a
- 52
4-
2
2
7 -a
2
)
()8
~ 52
2
-f-
(a
as a rational function of 0i, 62? 0s-
This symmetric function
20.
Form
is
equivalent to
the equation whose roots are the several products in pairs of the
roots of a biquadratic.
The
required equation
is
the product of three factors of the type
2 -
0,.
tt
- 47$> 2 (a^2 - 2c^> -f e) +
the equation whose roots are the several
are the
+- -
values of
16/<J>
~-
= 0.
,
where
roots of a biquadratic.
The required equation
is
the product of three factors of the type
--?-')(-)
-":+*?"*:+;-
Ant. 4 (a^1
-f
2$> -f
c)*
-I(a
+ e) + J =
0.
151
Examples.
22. Prove
-
From
_\2
7-
2 \
the expressions for a, 3, 7, 8 in terms of

1
(
a 2 0i 4 2JT
which may be expressed in terms of
we have
0i, 02, 03,
2 -f
a, JT, /, /, as
2JI
above.
if
24.
0,
and
form
of the
Here
sum
or
3j>
0,
being a positive integer.
1, JP
or difference of
/ ==
ace
4 2bcd
aU ss
(ax
and
or
SJP
Prove that
can be resolved into the
is
*'"*
23. Prove
by
(ac
a perfect square
eb 2
ad*
czf-
i2)
two squares
c3
0.
2
F)y 4
(00
2
y 4 2 (ad
be)
if
yz
(a<
(ae
fo)yz
4-
(o^
3
)J
c2 ) a2
if
7=0.
25. If a, #, 7, 8 be the roots of the equation
solve, in terms of the coefficients ao,
V#When
Va 4
is rationalized,
Now,
a 4 Var-
and the
i,
j8
N//3
&c., the equation
4 Vir - 7 4 Vi~T=
+ V^ +
\/5
0.
coefficients substituted, for a, 3, 7, 5,
nibstituting CT0| Ui, Ut,
3)
Ut for a
03, 04*
we have
and reducing, we find
152
and Biquadratic.
26. To obtain the equation of differences of a biquadratic, the equation of

semi-sums (Ex. 21, p. 150), and to solve the biquadratic by one and the same
transformation.
Substituting
x'
p for x, and using the notation of Art. 65,
ax'*
We can suppose x
x'
it
4 Vix' 3
-f
Z72#' a 4-
4 U&'
and p to have suoh values as
ax' 4
from which
+ 6 Uix' 2
Ui
-t-
(Tix"
0,
Z7<
satisfy the
Z/3
we have
0.
two equations
any value of p there are two values of

is eliminated we find an equation of the
appears that correiponding to
2
equal with opposite signs, and when x'
To obtain the values of p and sf in terms of the roots
5, of the biquadratic, assume
, 7,
sixth degree for p.

a,
pi
x'i
The equation
a,
in
*',
#'i
pi
whence
0,
therefore, obtained
2pi=a +
by eliminating
2#'i
p, is
jS.
the equation of
and the sextic in p the equation of semi-sums. By the mode of

reduction of Art. 65 the latter equation can be readily expressed in the form
semi-differences,
4(72 3
To
we have from
solve the biquadratic,
root of the reducing cubic
- IUz + /=
the last equation
17*
where
00,
6 is a
hence
Uâp + b^y/M-X;
from which,
(Compare Ex. 21.)
0.
x'*
Z7i*
+ 3JT+
finally,
2
/-a 0-2J2"
an expression with only four values, in which the root of the biquadratic is expressed in terms of a single root of the reducing cubic.
27. Prove that every rational algebraic function of a root B of a given cubic
equation can in general be reduced to the form
Co
-f
C\e
Do + DI$'
.
Let the given function be

tions of $ of
these
may
any degree.
By
/\
~-A where
and
$> (0)
ty (9)
successive substitutions
be reduced to a quadratic.
are rational integral func-
from the given cubic each of
Hence the given function
is
reducible to the
form
1
CQ -f ciO -f ezff
Equating this to the form written above, and reducing by the given cubic, we
obtain an identical equation, viz. LQ + Ltf -f ZzO 2 m 0,
where Q, L\, L\. are
L\ =
0,
Xs
as
0, to
We
D\.
<7i, D
have, therefore, the three equaVions
determine the ratios of C O\ t 2>o, DI.
linear functions of Co,
Zo* O t
153
Examples.
28. Prove that the solution of the biquadratic does not involve the extraction
when any relation among the roots a,

7, 5 exists which can be
by the vanishing of a rational function of a root $ of the reducing cubic.
of a cuhe root
expressed
Any
rational function of 9 can always be depressed to the second degree, as in
Hence the determination of will not involve the extracthe preceding example.
tion of a cube root
and the formula of Ex. 26 shows that the expression for the
;
root of the biquadratic will not then involve
29.
when
by any
(2U
(l),
30.
(4)-',
_J =
(8)07-a5 = 0,
(5)
(5
+7=
(2)
may
0,
(3) (y
a) (0
8)
(7-a)08-5)-a>(a-j8)(7-5) =
be proved as follows
it
Putting
(a
0,
j8)
(7
(6), (7)
5)
0,
3- 7 = 0.
= in the values of /and /, and

A independent of a\ may be thrown
a\
readily appears that the part of
form
o#4 (#o#4
922 +
)'~
270<) #3" (2a
24
os 2
2a2
3
)-
A^
and substituting for the latter quantireplacing a z , 3 , en by At, A$,

the values of Art. 37, we obtain the result.
Mr. M. ROBEIITS.
Now,
ties
Prove the identity
expanding,
into the
of the following values of p
(3)0,
+7_
(1)
(4),
This
root.
the equation
is satisfied
Am.
any cube
Find in each case the relation which connects the roots of the biquadratic
31. When a biquadratic has two equal roots, prove that Euler's cubic has two
equal roots whose common value is
21
and hence show that the remaining two roots of the biquadratic in
real, equal, or
imaginary, according as
2HI
3aJ
is
this case are
negative, zero, or positive.
Prove that when a biquadratic has (1) two distinct pairs of equal roots the
two terms of the equation of squared differences (Art. 67) vanish, giving the
conditions A= 0, ZHI
3o7"=
and when it has (2) three roots equal, the last
three terms of this equation vanish, giving the conditions 1=0, J
and show
32.
last
the equivalence of the conditions in the former case with those already obtained in
Ex. 3, Art. 61,f and Ex. 12, p. 148. Prove also that the equation of squared differences reduces in the former case to < 2 (a z <p + 12JT) 4 , and in the latter case tx*
CHAPTER
VII.
PROPERTIES OF THE DERIVED FUNCTIONS.

69.
tion.
Graphic Representation of the Derived Func-
APB
Let
be the
curve representing the pothe

/(#), and
lynomial
point on
to
it
any value
ble x =
OM.
corresponding
of the varia-
We
determine the
proceed to
mode
of re-
presenting the value of f'(x)

at the point P.
Take a
second point
Q on the curve,
corresponding to a value of
x which exceeds
by a small quantity
OM
OM =
ar,
MN =
//,
The expansion
Thus
h.
ON = x +
PM = /(#), QN =f(x +
also
5.
Fig.
/*).
of Art. 6 gives
f(*+h) =
f(x)
+/'
(x)
h +
-^ h*+
or
But
Now, when h
(1)
_
"
is indefinitely
_
~
_ ton
~
^ *
_
~
diminished, the point Q approaches,

the chord PQ, becomes the
;
and ultimately coincides with,
Maximum and Minimum
PT
155
Values.
PEN
to the curve at P
the angle
becomes PTM<
tangent
Also all terms of the right-hand member of equation (1) except
the first diminish indefinitely, and ultimately vanish when h- 0.
;
The equation
becomes therefore
(1)
tan P2VJ/
from which we
function/'
=/(#)
conclude that the value assumed by the derived
on the substitution of any value of x is represented by

made with the axis
by the tangent at
(x)
OX
the tangent of the angle
the corresponding point to the curve representing the function
Maximum and minimum
70.
mial.
Theorem.
mum
minimum
f (x)
Values of a Polyno-
Any value of x which renders f(x) a maxi= 0.

a root of the derived^yuation
(x)
Let a be a value of x which renders f(x) a minimum.
or
is
We
proceed to
ment
prove that/'
or decrement of
(x)
h)
/(a),
0.
We
x.
/(a) </(a +
hence f(a +
/>),
Let h represent a small
have, since f(a)

also /(a)
and f(a -
h}
</(a
is
h)
~ f(a) are both
the following two expressions are positive
incre-
minimum,
positive, i.e.
is very small, we know (Art. 5) that the signs

of these expressions are the same as the signs of their first
terms hence, in order that both should be positive, /' (a) must
Now, when h
;
vanish
and, moreover,
similar proof shows that
andf"
(a) is negative.
minimum
tion
(x)
furnish a
/" (a) must

when / (a)
f"
when
An
maximum
Thus, in order to find the
exactly
(a)
0,
maximum and
values of a polynomial /(a?), we must solve the equaEach root will

0, and substitute the roots in /(#).
maximum or minimum,
these being the sign of /"

it
be positive.
is
(x)
(x) is positive,
is
(x)
the criterion to decide between
when
negative, the value
the value is
the root
is
a minimum.
is
substituted in
a maximum ; and when
Properties of the Derived Functions.
156
The theorem
of this
Ar-
follows at onoe from
ticle
the construction of Art. 69

for
it is
value of ./(#)
at
as
minimum,
is
P, P'
when the
plain that
maximum,
or
6),
(fig.
as at p, p'
the
tangent to the curve will

be parallel to the axis OX,
Fig. 6.
and, consequently,
Pig. 6 represents a polynomial of the 5th degree. Corresponding to the four roots of/' (x) = (supposed all real in this case),
viz. OM, Om, OM', Om', there are two maxima, MP, M'P' ; and
two minima, mp,
m'p'.
EXAMPLES.
1.
Find the max. or min. value of

f(x)
= ** +
/
1
= - - makes
4
(See
!,
,,
f(x)
/"(*) =
4.
-49
a minimum.
-,
fig. 2, p. 16.)
2.
Find the max. and min. values of
/ (x) /'
(at)
x
3.
makes f(x)
makes
68, a
./(#)
6 (2x
I).
maximum.
67, a
minimum.

f(x)
Here
=-
4.
- 3#2 - 36* + 14.

- x - 6), /" (x) =
(ac*
2# 3
- 6
f(x)
W + x-6.
(x)
3#4
16s
4- 6.r
has only one real root,
48.r
and
7.
it
gives a
minimum
value,
345.

/(*)
The
roots of
maximum
(x)
10#3
17# 2
are, approximately,
value, the latter a
minimum.
-f a: -f
6.
-0302, 1-1031.
(See
fig. 3, p. 16.)
The former
gives a
157
Rollers Theorem.
Between two consecutive real roots

71. Molle's Theorem.
there lies at least one real root of
a and b of the equation f(x) =
the equation
(x)
0.
For as x increases from a to J, /(#), varying continuously

from f(a) tof(b), must begin by increasing and then dimmish,
It must,
or must begin by diminishing and then increase.
or
minimum
maximum
at
least
one
therefore, pass through
This value (./'(a),
value during the passage from f(a) tof(b).
suppose) corresponds to some value a of x between a and b,
which by the theorem of Art. 70

=
a root of the equation
is
o.
The
figure in the preceding Article illustrates this theorem.

and
observe that between the two points of section
We
maximum or minimum values, and between the

B and C there is one such value. It appears also
there are three
two points
from the figure that the number
of such values
consecutive points of section of the axis
Two
is
between two
always odd.
consecutive roots of the derived equation
may
not comprise between them any root of the original equation,
and
Corollary.
never can comprise more than one.
The first part of this proposition merely asserts that between

two adjacent zero values of a polynomial there may be several
maxima and minima and the second part follows at once
from the above theorem for if two consecutive roots of f'(x) =
;
comprised between them more than one root of / (x) = 0, we

should then have two consecutive roots of this latter equation
comprising between them no root of
dictory to the theorem.
(x)
0,
which
Constitution of the Derived Functions.

of the equation f(x) be a lf a 2 a 3
an
72.
roots
f(x)
In
(x
<n) (x
a*) (x
Q 3)
this identical equation substitute
...
(x
y + x
a n ).
for x\
is
contra-
Let the
have
We
158
where
e#
ql
qt
ai
(a?
+#
ai)
+#
aa
(a?
a2)
= (#-a 2 )(#-a s)
Oa
**
ai) (x
(a?
(0-a,,)
+ #
a 3)
a,) (#
We
- a2
(a
...
a,)
(0
-/(*) +/'
(*)
/'
(a?)
=
=
a)
(x
.
(x
(x
n)
- aj,
a w _i),
a w ).
y+
Equating the two expressions

(a?)
01) (X
8)
_i)
have, again,
a-)
(- a n
+ ... +
ni)(#-
(a?
+ (*
**n>
(x
(#
(ir
- a2
)
a*) (#
- a)
ai)
'-
for
(x
- a n ),
(a?
- an +
)
y>
f (y
4-
we
#),
+ y.
obtain
as above written,
"
(^)
1.2
= the similar value of q n ,* in terms of x and the roots,
The value of/'
(x)
may be conveniently written as follows
X
73.
carder
ai
equation /(#) =
of the
1 of the first derived equation
is
**oot
a multiple
(x]
an
Theorem.
Multiple Roots.
a^
of
thi
ihe ordef
0.
This follows immediately from the expression given for/'
(x)
for if the factor (x - ai) m occurs in

in the preceding Article
= az =
= a m we have
/(#), i.e. if en
;
/
Each term
first,
?^
in this will
which
is a factor in
will
(x).
have
X-
a m+1
x - aw
have (x - a^ m as a factor, except

m " as a
- ai) m ~
ai)
factor; hence (x
still
(x
159
Determination of Multiple Roots.
COB. 1. Any root which occurs m times in the equation

occurs in degrees of multiplicity diminishing by unity in
f(x) =
m-1
the first
is
derived equations.
Since/''
(x) is
from/(#),
it is
derived from/' (x) in the same manner as/" (x)

evident by the theorem just proved that j* (x)
m"2 as a factor. The next derived

function,
m~s and so on.
ai)
/"'(#), will contain (x
C OR 2. Iff(x) and Us first m-1 derived functions all vanish
m
a
value a of x, then (x-a) is a factor inf(x).
for
This, which is the converse of the preceding corollary, is
will contain (x
ai)
most readily established directly as follows

Eepresenting the
derived functions by/! (#)>/* (#)>
-/m-i (x ) ( see Art. *>)> an <l
- a for #, we find that/(#) may be expanded
substituting a +
in the form
:
from which the proposition
Determination
is
manifest.
multiple Roots. It is easily

inferred from the preceding Article that if f(x) and /'(#) have
"
- m will be a factor in
a common factor (x - a)"
a]
(x
74.
of*
f(x]
for,
by Cor. 1, the m 2 next succeeding derived functions vanish

as well as f(x] and/' (a?) when x =* a
hence, by Cor. 2, a is a
In the same way it appears that
root of f(x] of multiplicity w.
;
if
f(x) and f(x) have other
common
(s-r)'the equation /(a?) =

will have
to 7, r roots equal to 8, &c.
In
1
,
factors
(*-)",
&o.,
roots equal to
/3,
g roots equal
whether any proposed equation

has equal roots, and to determine such roots when they exist,
order, therefore, to find
we must
Let
common measure of f(x) and f (x).

The determination of the equal roots will
find the greatest
this be* 0(o?).
depend on the solution of the equation
(x}
0.
160
EXAMPLES.
1
Find the multiple roots of the equation

20
The G.
C.
factor in /(#).
M. of /(a?) and/' (a?) is easily found

The other factor is # + 5.
after
Whenever,
remaining factors,
it
0.
to
be x
hence
(a?
2)
is
determining the multiple factors of /(a?), we wish to obtain the

will be found convenient to apply by repeated operations the
method of division of Art.
divide twice by x - 2, the
we
Here, for example,
8.
calculation being represented as follows
Thus
and
5 being the
two
coefficients left, the third factor is
5.
-f
This
operation verifies the previous result, the remainders after each division vanishing
as they ought.
2.
Find the multiple
and the remaining
roots,
x5
The G.
a factor in
C.
M.
f (x}.
of f(x) and /'
10#2
(x) is
factor, of the equation
found to be #
0.
2
- 2x +
(x
-I) 3 (a + 3* +
Hence
1.
1,
we
(x
I)* is
obtain
6).

x*
Dividing three times in succession by x
/(*)=
3.
15*
-f
The G. C. M.
Hence
3.
_ 2# 3 - 11#2 4 12x + 36 =
of /(#) and /' (x)
is
a;
- x - 6.
The
0.
factors of this are
-f
2 and
/(.).( + 2)(*-3).
4.
Find
all
the factors of the polynomial

5
f(x) msc*- 5z
6**
+ 9#3 - Ux~ - 4x +
Am.
f(x)
(x
8.
1) (x -f I)' (x
2)5.
The ordinary process of finding the greatest common measure of a polynomial and its first derived function may become
very laborious as the degree of the function increases. It is
wrong, therefore, to speak, as
is
customary in works on the
Theorem.
161
of Equations, of the determination in this way of the

multiple roots of numerical equations as a simple process, and
Theory
one preliminary to further investigations relative to the roots.

is chiefly in connexion with Sturm's theorem that the
opera-
It
any practical value. The further consideration of

roots
is deferred to Chap. X., where this theorem
multiple
will be discussed.
It will be shown also in Chap. XI. that the
tion is of
multiple roots of equations of degrees inferior to the sixth can,

in any particular instance, be determined from simple considerations not involving the process of finding the greatest
common
measure.
75. This and the succeeding Article will be occupied with
theorems which will be found of great importance in the sub-
sequent discussion of methods of separating the roots of equations.
Theorem.
In passing continuously from a value a-hofx

to a value
than a real root a of the equation f(x]
a + h a little greater, the polynomials f(x) and f'(%) have unlike
little less
signs immediately "before the passage through th$ root,
and
like signs
immediately after.
Substituting
a-
A in f(x) and/'
(a?),
and expanding, we
have
/(a
A)
Tôw, since /(a) =
=/() -/'
(a)
+-
A'
- ....
the signs of these expressions, depending

When the sign of h is
terms, are unlike.
the same. The
the
become
of
the
changed,
signs
expressions
theorem is therefore proved.
on those of their
Corollary.
0,
first
The theorem remains true when a
root of any order of the equation
(oi)
Let the root be repeated r times.
a multiple
0.
The following functions
(using suffixes in place of accents) all vanish

/(a),/i(a),/,(a)
is
A. (a).
162
In the
series for /(a
do not vanish
h)
and/'
(a
h) the first
terms which
are, respectively,
These clearly have unlike signs but when the sign of h is

changed the signs of the terms will become the same. Hence
;
the proposition
is
established.
76. Extending the reasoning of the last Article to every

consecutive pair of the series
we may
state the proposition generally as follows
Theorem.
root a, a value a
When any
little
little
f (x)
has an r-multiple
inferior to a gives to this series of r functions
signs alternately positive
and a value a
equation
and
negative, or negative
and
positive
superior to it gives to all these functions
the
moreover, the same as the sign offr (a) 9

the first derived function which does not vanish when a is substituted for x.
same sign; and
this sign is,
In order to give a precise idea of the use of this theorem,

let us suppose that/5 (a) is the first function which does not
vanish when a is substituted, and let its sign be negative
;
the conclusion which

for a value a
/3 ,/4,/*>
-h
of
may
be drawn from the theorem
x the signs of the
is,
series of functions/,
that
/i,/2,
are
+-+-+-;
and
for a value a
+ h
of x they are
for before the passage through the root the sign of /4 must be
from that of 6 ; the sign of /8 must be different from
different
that of /4, and so on;
and
after the passage the signs of all

It is of course assumed here
the functions must be the same.

that h
is
so small that
interval through
no root of /6
which x
travels.
(a?)
is
included within the
Examples.
63
EXAMPLES.
1.
xi
f(x)
12# 3
-f
32#2
-f
- 24#
AT
^*.
Show
2.
0.
(*
/(*)
4 6*
2)*.
that the hinomial equation
z* - a
cannot have equal roots.

3.
Show
that the equation
x - nqx
will
have a pair of equal roots
4.
= r-
if q n
(n
1)
4-
Prove that the equation
x6
Apply the method of
bpi? +
-f
has a pair of equal roots when q 9

roots it mast have a second pair.
6.
5
4jt?
5j0
and that
if it
have one pair of equal
Art. 74 to determine the condition that the cubic

**
3 IIz
+ G=
should have a pair of equal roots.
The
last
remainder in the process of finding the greatest
6.
common measure must

Ans. G~
vanish.
Apply the same method
to
show that both O and
H vanish
-\
4 1/ 3 =- 0.
when
the cubic
has three equal roots.

7.
If o,
7, 5 be the roots of the
/'()+/'
<;au
biquadratic/^)
08)
0,
prove that
+/'(?) +/'($)
be expressed as a product of three factors.
Am.
8.
If
a, 0, 7, 5,
(a+ 3
-7-
&c., be the roots of/(j?)
5) (a -f
0,
and
7-
J8
5)(a
a', 0', 7',
-f
j3
&c., of/'
7).
(x]
0,
prove
and that each is equal to the absolute term in the equation whose roots are the
squares of the diil'ereuces.
9. If the equation
& + pi
have a double joot
a,
3C
n- 1
-f
p2 X"~
prove that a
is
-I-
....
-f-
p n -l X + pH
SB
164
Show
10.
that the
max. and miu. values of the cubic
ax*
3bx*
3cx
+d
Vwhere
is
2fir P
+ A =
0,
the discriminant.
If the curve representing the polynomial f(x) be moved parallel to the axis of y
(see Art. 10) through a distance equal to a max. or min. value p, the axii of x wiU
will have equal roots.
Hence
become a tangent to it, i.e. the equation/ (x)
p =
the max. and min. values are obtained by forming the discriminant of f(x)
p, or
'
by putting d - p for d in G* + 111 = 0.
11.
Prove similarly that the max. and min. values of

ax*
4fcc* -f 6<?*2
4dz
ay where
is
3(a
J- 9^2
3 (a/ 2
-f
p*
- l&HJ)
- A=
0,
the discriminant of the quartic.
12 Apply the theorem of Art. 76 to the function
f(x) s
x*
~-
7a-
-f
Ibx* - 13;r
-f
4.
"We have
-f
2 (6**
/<(*)
Here /a
is
(sr)
the
first
30ar
- 21* +
13,
16),
24.
function which does not vanish
when ^ =
and/a
(1) is
What
the theorem proves is, that for a value a little less than 1 the signs
-f -, and for a value a little greater than 1 they are all
of/, /j, /2, /a are +
are able from this series of signs to trace the functions/, /i, &c., in
negative.
the neighbourhood of the point x = 1. Thus the curve representing/^) is above
negative.
We
the axis before reaching the multiple point x = 1, and is below the axis immediately
and the axis must be regarded as cutting the curve in three
after reaching the point,
3
coincident points, since (x
I) is a factor in /(#).
Again, the curve corresponding
below the axis both before and after the passage through the point x = 1.
The curve representing fi(x] is above the axis
It touches the axis at that point.
to /i (x) is
before,
and below the axis
after,
the passage, and cuts the axis at the point.
CHAPTER
VIII.
SYMMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF THE ROOTS.

77.
IVewtou's
Theorem on the Sums of the
We
of the Roots.
I* o were
now resume
the discussion of symmetric

functions of the roots of an equation, of which a short account
has been previously given (see Art. 27)
and proceed
to prove
certain general propositions relating to these functions

PROP. I. The sums of the similar powers of the roots of an
:
equation can be expressed rationally in terms of the coefficients.
Let the equation he

xn 4
f(x)
x -
af^ 1 +
jW
ai) (x
aj,)
"'
(f
We
2
proceed to calculate Sa
the usual notation, *,, s s > . . s m
3)
Sa
We
+ ...+;?
.
3
,
(x
Sa m
a*)
;
or,
0.
adopting
have, by Art. 72,
x
(w
we
/()
x - a
find, dividing
= xn - 1 +
+ Pi
by
-f
the
a
4-
method
of Art. 8,
-f
3
(I
j0^,
166
If, in this
cii,
a2
we
f(x]
we
by adding
= nvn -1 4
Xn
np
all
*
-r
replace a
and put sp
n in succession,
have,
equation,
the Roots.
by each of the quantities

a wp
Sa p = a\ p -a/ +
.
-\
these results, the following value for
S2
whence, ooniparing this value of f'(x) with the former, we

obtain the following relations
=
i
0,
4 4;7 4
... 4
The
first
the second
We
(n
0.
in terms of p\, p*>

pn \
equation determines
the third 8 and so on, until n_j is determined*
6'
way
p\
4 2p 2 * -
64
= - Pi 6
Having shown how

terms of the
find in this
- Pi,
0,
coefficients,
2,
4/> 4 ,
(tf-p^pi
*3>
-i
we proceed now
-f
-jp
) ;
&o.
can be calculated in
to extend our results
167
Newton's Theorem.
to the
For
sums of
this
powers of the
all positive
roots, viz. s w , s n +i,
sm ,
purpose we have
'
Xm n f(x) a Xm
Keplaciug, in this identity, x by the roots a ly a 3 ,

sion,
a n , in succes-
and adding, we have
+ J0l*ro-i +
*m
Now, giving
and observing that
JVro-a
0.
the values n, n + 1, w + 2, &c., successively,

= w> we obtain from the last equation
jP a s-a
+ P^n-i +
+ JpiSn+i +
n+2
JV'in-n
Hence the sums
/>2*n
+ wp
0,
0, &C.
f;r$i
+ ^n
.S'
0,
of all positive powers of the roots may be

of the coefficients.
And by
expressed by integral functions
transforming the equation into one whose roots are the recia n and applying the above formulas,
procals of ai, aj, a 8
,
we may
PROP.
78.
root* of
of the
express similarly all negative powers of the roots.

II.
Every rational symmetric Junction of the
an algebraic equation can be expressed rationally in terms
coefficients.
theorem for integral functions

symmetric functions can be reduced to a
It is sufficient to prove this
only, since fractional
whose numerator and denominator are
single fraction
both
Every integral function of ai,

number of terms of the form
a numerical constant and if this
integral symmetric functions.

a a a 3 . . . a n is the sum of a
,
j^W
a-/ a s
r
.
where
is
symmetrical we can write it under the form

all the terms being of the same type.
ThereJ!VSa/ a/ a/
be
that
this
can
if
we
fore,
expressed rationally
prove
quantity
function be
in terms of the coefficients, the theorem will be demonstrated.

shall first establish the following value of the symmetric
We
function
fiai
p a a9
Saf a 2 q =
sp s
(1)
168
To prove
we multiply
this,
8P
sq
= af
-f
+ a 2*
cu
the Roots.
together sp and
a? +
+
a-f
/ +
sq ,
where
a,/,
<in
9
;
whence
or
which expresses the double function 2cti p a 2? in terms of the

single functions sp s q sp + q in the form above written.
,
We
proceed
now
to prove a similar expression for the triple
function, viz.,
f
Multiplying togetlier
we
âi p a 2 9 and
sr ,
(2)
where
a fa!
obtain an expression consisting of three different parts,

Snâ/, and Ea/a, 9 a3r
terms of the form
Sa^W,
viz.
Honoe
a formula connecting double and triple symmetric functions.

But, by (1),
Substituting these
Sa/a 2
the series
values,
we
find
the
triple
function
expressed as above in terms of single functions in

i,
$3 , ss>
&c.
In the same manner the quadruple function l&afafiai'a*
169
Newton?* Theorem.
can be
made
depend on the
$
&c.
and
a
to
ultimately on
s i9
*afa<paf 9 and
triple function
so on.
Whence,
finally,
rational symmetric function of the roots may be

in terms of the coefficients, since, by Prop. I., i,
can be so expressed.
The formulas (1) and (2) require to be modified
of the exponents become equal.
p=
if
Thus,
*$,
&o.,
when any
and the terms in (1) become

therefore Saâ^ = ^Sa/a/; whence
- |
Zafaf
if
8,
a fa-? - a/<u*,
equal two and two
Similarly,
every
expressed
**q
-s
2ai'Wa
r in
by interchanging the roots in
ai
770
* o
(V
W8
2p ).
r
3
the six terms obtained
become
all
equal
hence
in general,
And,
repeated 1
exponents become equal, each term
if t
I
is
times.
EXAMPLES.
1.
Prove
2iPa2a3 r a4* =
2.
SpSgSr*,
- 2sp sqt>
+a
22^,^>r 4
-f
Prove
79. PROP. III.

P\>P*y
jn>
The
value
of
sr ,
in
expressed
terms
powers ofy, of -r log y
J\-\
Since
an +^?
putting
^"
for
4 p&P~* +
a?
4-
jt?
(a?
- m) (a?
in this identical equation,

*
of
coefficient of <f in the expansion, by ascending
-I-...
+ pnyn -
(1
we
a,)
find
(^
- a n ),
170
Symmetric Functions of the Roots.

the Napierian logarithms of both sides,
Now, taking
&c.
P^y+p%
1
...
-Pip*
1
-PIP*
Therefore, equating eoeiiioieiits of
whc re
j
Pr
is
in both expansions,
^/
the coefficient of y r in log
w
//
From
the above identical equation

than ^) involves the coeflicients
6> (r les.s
J.
it
p^
may
be seen that
.
f> 2 , jt> 3 ,
;> r
only
and, therefore, pr+i, p r **y

pn may be made to vanish without
nif noting the form of tiie expression of &y in terms of the coetficionts.
To express the
80.
powers
coefficients
in terms
of the sums of the
of the roots.
Sin oe
1 + piy
+ ^ 2 y2 +
. . .
+ p^T a
(1
ojy) (1
atf/)
... (1
- an
//),
we have
log (1 +jpjy +
and, therefore,
..
+p H t/)
- - yi -
*8
---- y
*r
- . ;
(1)
171
Newton's Theorem.
which becomes by expansion
1
"a*
r-
obtain values for
and we
see that
pr
the coefficients of the different powers of y,

p i9 p^ p^ . . . p n in terms of $,, s29
Now, comparing
we
...;
involves no
Bum
of powers
beyond
sr .
If the identity (1) be differentiated with regard to y, the
equations of Art. 77 connecting the coefficients and sums of

powers may be derived immediately from the resulting identity.
important to observe that the problem to express any

symmetric function of the roots in terms of the coefficients, or
It
is
terms of the sums of the powers of the roots, is

perfectly definite, there being only one solution in each case.
General expressions, due to Waring, for s m in terms of the
any
coefficient in
coefficients,
and
p m in terms of the sums of the powers of
for
the roots, will be given in a subsequent chapter.

EXAMPLES.
1.
Determine the value of

<f>
where
ai,
a2
as
...
(ai)
<J>
(n-z) -f
arc the roots off(x)
a,,
-h
0,
a ><)
and
is
integral function of x.
We haye
fM
ft
1
"
"T"
f(x)
and
"
"/>"J
J (X)
0,1
X-
X~
an
any
rational
and
172
Performing the division, and retaining only the remainders on both sides of thii
we have
equation,
"
'
_.
x -
f(x)
on
4>
(an)
whence
IiV'-
+ -flu"' 2 +
-!
and, comparing the coefficients of
x n~ l
2<J>
on both
Ho 2.
3.
Prove that syp
is
(ai) (s
02)
(a;
...
03)
- o)
(a
sides of this equation,
5<p (ai).
in the quotient of the division of f(x)

the coefficient of --1'- 1
arranged according to negative powers of x.

Prove that *-pis the coefficient (with sign changed) of
ad'~
in the
same quo-
tient
arranged according to positive powers ot x.

4. If the degree of
(x) does not exceed n
<f>
where
sum obtained by giving
denotes the
2,
prove
values from
all
to
inclusive.
r=l
We
have, by partial fractions,

<J>
A\
(a;)
/,
f(x)
and, multiplying across by f(sc)

<>
(F)
<^>
:
^(ar)
.--
-p
^'(^2)
x - a*
01, 03,
_ (2J
<
^_
ai
4?
a>2
and putting x
(ai)
(ai)
a\
in succession,
1
(<*)
^_ B ^
.f.
f\o-n}
&n
whence
When
^> (a;) is
function of -,
We
it
of the degree
n - 2
expressing the
readily appears that there
is
first side
of the equation as
no term without x
as a multiplier.
have, therefore, comparing coefficients,
As f may be any
we have
rational
and integral function of degree not higher than

which are worthy of special notice
the following particular oases
-2
n-3
-
/^__^
(a)
0,,
(a)
a
... 3 ^rpr
(a)
0,,
2 JTJ/
(a)
0.
- 2f
Order and Weight of Symmetric Functions.

Given the following n
*.
2 *r =
0,
r-1
* .
rn
rn
r/
express the
2 equations between n variables #1, #2,
173
0*
Xr =
----
2a ^=
"
M" 3
0,
r-1
r-1
variables in terms of
two ntw variables X\, Xz.
Xl
-f <Xr
^2
.
81. Order and Weight of Symmetric Functions.

The degree in all the roots of any term of a symmetric function
of the roots [see Art. 28] is called the weight of the function.
highest degree in which each root enters the function is
The
The
2 8
weight, for example, of Sa/3 7 is six, and
It has been proved (Art. 28) that in the value
called its order.

its
order three.
in terms of the coefficients of

roots the
sum
We
of the function.
to
to the
pn
of
term
is
equal to the
of the
weight
now prove another
symmetric functions,
ficients pi y pt,
any symmetric function
of the suffixes in each
proposition relating
The degree in terms of the coef-
viz.
the value of
any symmetric function
is
equal
order of the symmetric function.
This can be readily inferred from the equations of Art. 23,

since the value of each coefficient in terms of the roots contains
any
power only, and therefore the highest

the coefficients will be the same as the degree of the
root in the
degree in
first
corresponding symmetric function in any individual root. The

value of Su 2 j3 2 , for example, is p^ - %pip* + 2p^
The degree
of this function of the coefficients is two,
which
is also
the order
of the symmetric function.
As the proposition just stated is of importance, we add

another proof, in which the symmetric function multiplied by a
suitable power of a is expressed as a homogeneous and integral
function of the coefficients
>
a*
#i> #2>
^ ae f
rm i n which
the result will usually appear in subsequent applications.

Replace the coefficients
Pn
a\
by
-,
ff a
,....
174
Now,
if
a2 ,
(cti,
a n ) denote any rational and integral
the Roots.
symmetric function of the
we have
roots,
where A is the degree, in the coefficients, of F(a^ a , a^ . . # n ),

a homogeneous and integral function of the coefficients, not
.
divisible
by
We require
now
show that h
to
For
the order of $.
is
this
purpose change the roots into their reciprocals, and, therefore,

a l9
a n into a n a n -i,
Whence
= F(a
(,,...)
fl/
0fA/>
n,
a^,
(1)
) ;
Cl 2
also
/I 1
7 T'
~
1
'
(oi, a.,
a3
the order of </>, and

an integral function not diviall
of
the
the
a n p being the
roots; (aia 2 a, .
by
product
lowest common denominator of all the terms.
Substituting in
where p
is
<//
sible
(1),
we have
af $
From
(ai, a,,
ficients
F(a n
a n _^
iu a
F(a n
h, ip
and
*>
,
# M _i,
(a h a 2
if it
)
).
p is equal to h for if p
a M ) would be divisible by the
this equation it follows that
wore greater than

product
a t P~ h
...
were
would be
less,
the function of the coef-
divisible
by
a n> both of
which
suppositions are contrary to hypothesis.

82.
Roots.
Calculation of Symmetric Functions of the
Any
rational symmetric function can be calculated
by aid of the proposition of Art. 78. In practice, however,

other methods are usually more convenient, as will appear from
We
shall show
the examples which follow the present Article.
also, when this subject is resumed in the second volume of this
work, that use
may
be
made
of
methods founded on the prin-
ciples there explained to facilitate in

^calculation of symmetric functions.
many
instances
the
175
Calculation of Symmetric Functions.
The number
is
of terms in
any symmetric function of the roots

For example, the number of terms in
- 2), this
is n
of the n th
(n
easily determined.
2!
a* a 3 of the equation
degree
(n
1)
number
of permutations of n things taken three

If the exponents of the roots in any term be not all
being the
together.
different, the
number
terms will be reduced.
of
for a biquadratic consists of twelve terms only (see
and not of twenty-four,
Thus Sa 2 /3y
Ex.
two permutations
since the
6, p. 48),
a/3y, ayj3
2
2
The student
give only one distinct term, viz., a /3y, in 2a /3y.
acquainted with the theory of permutations will have no diffi-
these
reductions in
culty
in
When
two exponents of roots are equal, the number obtained
effecting
any
case.
particular
all unequal is to be divided by

1.2; when three become equal this number is to be divided
by 1 2 3 and so on. In general, the number of terms in
of the equation of the n th degree, each term conSo? a 2 ? 3r
on the supposition that they are
taining
roots,
and
i/
of the indices being equal,
n(n-l)(n-2)
i
(n
w+
is
1)
.2. a ...v
When the highest power iu whiuh any one root enters into
the symmetric function of the roots is small, i.e. when the order
of
the function
Art.
(see
81) is low, the methods already

be employed with advantage for the
illustrated in Art.
27
calculation of the
symmetric function.
It
is
may
important to observe that when any symmetric function,
whose degree in all the roots (i.e.

in terms of the coefficients p h p^
its
weight)
is n, is
calculated
equation of the
n th degree, its value for an equation of any higher degree (the
numerical coefficients being all equal to unity) is precisely the
same
for it is clear that
no
p n for the
beyond p n can ei t u into

this value, and the equations of Art. 77, by means of which
the calculation can be supposed to be made, have precisely the
same form for an equation of the nth degree as for equations of
all
higher degrees.
It
is
coefficient
also evident that the value of the
symmetric function for an equation of a degree
same
m (lower than n)
176
obtained by putting p m +\, j0 m , .

p n all equal to zero in the
calculated value for an equation of the nth degree, since the
is
th
equation of lower degree can be derived from that of the n by
putting the coefficients beyond p m equal to zero ; and the corre-
sponding symmetric function reduces similarly by putting the

a n each equal to zero.
roots crn-m
EXAMPLES.
1.
Calculate
2j 2 0203
l
pi x"~
a?" 4-
4-
pi x-*
4-
. .
4-
p n ,\x
pn =
0.
M ultiply together the equations
In the product the term a\ 2 02 as occurs only once

from the product of ai by a? as 04, of
times, arising
and
of 04
by
the term 01 02 as a* occurs four
by ai3i)
0.1
of
0.3
by
ai
Hence
oia-jos.
2a>~ 02
a.i 4-
4âi
therefore
2ai
aa ag
^îy'a
(Compare Ex.
4pi.
If the calculation were conducted by the method of Art. 78,
2ar
which
leads,
03
a-i
= i2 s^ -
*i $3
J*2
4-
we
6,
Art. 27.)
should have
4,
on substituting the values of Art. 77, to the same result; but it is

much more simple, since the values of
clear that in this case the former process is

*i, 8 2 ,
2.
&o., introduce a
Calculate
number
2Sara2
of terms which destroy one another.
for the gem'ial equation.
Squaring
2ai as - pz,
we have
2oi
In squaring
a2
2
4-
22ai~ a2 03
4-
62aj ag as
= pz*
a-2 as ai will arise from the product of

0104 by 02 as; hence the coefficient of
ai 02 03 04 iii the result is 6, since each of these occurs twice in the square.
The
result differs from the similar equation of Ex. 8, Art. 27, only in having 2 before
the term ai 03 as 04* Hence, finally,
ai 02
by
as a $,
it is
evident that the term ai
or of 0103
by
as a*, or of
177
Examples.
3. Calculate
We have,
2ai 8a2 for the general equation.
as in
Ex.
9, Art. 27,
Hence, employing previous
results,
2ai a2
= p\ *pt
2
2/?2
- pi pa
-f
4/?4.
Calculate 2ai 2 02 2 <x3 for the general equation.
4.
The result will be the same as if the calculation were made for the equation of
the fifth degree.
To obtain the symmetric function we multiply together 20102 and 2010203 ; and
consider what types of terms, involving the five roots 01,02, an, en, as, can result.
The term ai 2 02 2 as will occur only once- in the product, since it can only arise by
multiplying 0102 by aitwas. Terms of the type 01-020304 will occur, each three
since ai 2 oj084 will arise
from the product of aia2 by 010304, of 0103 by

it cannot arise in any other
The term
way.
10203014 as will occur ten times in the product, since it will arise from the product
of any pair by the other three roots, and there are ten combinations in pairs of the
times
ia204, or of aiom
010203;
by
We have,
five roots.
and
then, for the general equation,
2ai022aia203
2ai 2 02 2 O3
-f
32ai 2 O203a4 + 102ai 02030405.
[We can verify this equation when n = 5, just as in Ex. 9, Art. 27 for the
product of two factors, each consisting of 10 terms, will contain 100 terms. These
2
are made up of the 30 terms contained in 2oi 2 a2 03 along with the 20 terms con;
tained in 2o) 2 a20304, each
taken three
tiniefc ?
and the term 0102030105 taken 10
times.]
Thus the
;
calculation
for
which we
of the required
2oi 201020304
Henee,
The
symmetric function involves that of
easily find
-Soi 02ai04 -f
620102030405.
finally, \ve obtain
process of Art. 78 would involve the calculation of *&; and
would be introduced through the values of
ti,
j a , Ace.,
many
terms
which disappear in the
result.
6.
Find the value of 2oi 2 a2 8 oso4 for the general equation.

multiply together 20102 and 201020304, and consider what types of terms
We
can arise involving the six roots
01, 02, 03, 04, 05,
Terms
a.
Theteiniai 2 ai; 2 a304 can occur
of the type oâgasoias will each occur four

times, this term
arising from fte product of oio 3 by 01030405, or of aio by 01020405, or of aia*
by
only once.
178
by 01020304. The term 01020*040608 will occur fifteen

number of combinations in pairs of the six roots. Hence
or of 0105
ttieâsas,
this being the
2oi02 ^01020304
We have again,
2ai 2 02 2 a304
for the calculation of
2ai 20102030405
Hence,
finally,
2oi 2 a22 a3 04
2
Find the value of
6.
4-
42ai 2 a2a304O5
times,
6201030*040600.
5ai 02030405,
2ai 2 020s04a5
62ai 0208040500.
2oi o2 03
in terms of the coefficients of the general
equation.
2010203 2ai0203
from which
we have
2010203,
Squaring
we
2at
O2 os
4-
202010203040504,
find
2
2
2
2ai a2 o 3
83.
22ai 2 O22 0304 + 62ara20304a5
-*-
Homogeneous Products.
There
in
are,
general,
a n which
several symmetric functions of n quantities m, a 2
have the same weight, and amongst these may be included two
,
more which have the same order as well as weight. Of any

n letters there are, for example, the following symmetric
functions whose weight is four
or
The sum of all such symmetric functions of weight r is called

the " sum of the homogeneous products of r dimensions" of the
It is easy to see that
n letters. This sum we denote by Tl r
.
II r is
(1
the coefficient of xr in the following product of n factors
+ aiX -f
aiV + ...)(!
2^ + a a
The examples which
V + ...)...(!+ a x + a V +
n
.).
follow include the most fundamental
propositions connecting the sums of the homogeneous products

with the coefficients of the equation whose roots are ai, a 2 , . a,-.
.
EXAMPLES.
1.
Prove
n^
-"^Tw*
,__!
a"**" 1
We have
*
__
"
f(x)
(1
aiy)(l
'
(1
iV+.-.)( l
2
W eW
,
o 2 y) ...
4-
...
-I-
179
Examples.
Also
v> ^1
^/'M
whence
/(a:)
from which the
?L- m
/(*)
result follows
-'
y ^!L.
^f'(a)
a" 4^ 1
J
-.
^ /'(a)
^9
-ay
by comparing
coefficients of
y.
Express the sums of the homogeneous products of the roots in terms of the
coefficients of an equation, and vice versd.
2.
Since
we have
immediately, from the preceding example,

(1
+ Piy 4 Jfejf 2
...
4-
4 JW H )(1 4
Hi?/
U2y* + ...)!,
-4
whence
l>i -f
ni
=B
These equations
determine pi pi, .
.
By means
tric functions
pz 4 Uz 4 jîOi
0,
which p\
(in
may be found
n r by
Representing by
ing,
we
the
du
n2
&c.
and
n,
7>)'
j2ni
are
0,
&c.
interchangeable)
vic^ versd.
aiy)(l
a" 4 1
/R
sums of the powers of the
a
= 2 --1
w =
also
We have,
(1 -f
&0>
roots.
a*y)
(1 -a,,y),
aSd
differentiat-
1 4-
Da,
*=
*2y
4-
...
*33r
ay
Oiy
-t-
H2 y2
therefore,
Uiy 4
n zy 2 4
.) (*i
Now, comparing the several

number of equations by means
,
jt?iH 2 4-
find
udy
n2
H2
an
- the product (1
III,
-f
a"
Express
+ Hs
jp a
and the preceding example the values of the following

symme-
of this
*7w'
5.
jt> 2 ,
0,
&c. and HI,
in terms of HI,
pn
4 *sy 2 4-
HI
+ 2n2y 4 3n3 y2 4
coefficients of the different
of
powers of
y,
..
we have
which the sums of the homogeneous products
... may be expressed in terms of
*i, *2,
&,
&c.
Prove the following formula for calculating the sums of the

homogeneoui
products in terms of the coefficients
4.
Differentiate both sides of

equation (1) in Art. 80,
the equation of Ex.
2.
and introduce Hi,
na
&c.,
by
CHAPTER
IX.
THE ROOTS OF EQUATIONS.
LIMITS OF
Definition of limits.
In attempting to discover the

numerical equations, it is in the first place advantageous to narrow the region within which they must be sought.
~We here take up the inquiry referred to in the observation at
84.
real roots of
the end of Art. 4, and proceed to prove certain propositions

relative to the limits of the real roots of equations.
superior limit of the positive roots is any greater positive
number than the greatest of these roots ; an inferior limit of the
positive roots is any smaller positive number than the smallest

of them.
superior limit of the negative roots is any greater
negative number than the greatest of them an inferior limit

of the negative roots is any smaller negative number than the
the greatest negative number meaning here the
smallest
;
number
nearest to - oo
When we
have found limits within which all the real roots

of an equation lie, the next step towards the solution of the
equation is to discover the intervals in which the separate roots
The
principal methods in use for this latter purpose will form the subject of the next chapter.
The following Propositions all relate to the superior limits
are situated.
of the positive roots
to which, as will be subsequently proved,

and limits of the negative
the determination of inferior limits

roots can be immediately reduced.
85.
Proposition
JL
In any equation
^x + pn
if the first negative term be
- p r %n~*', and
0,
if the greatest negative
181
Propositions.
coefficient be
jpk +
p*, then
a superior
1 ia
limit
of ike positive
roots.
Any
value of x which makes

Pk
a fortiori, make f(x) positive.

Now, taking a? greater than unity,
will,
this inequality is satisfied

*"""
by
the following
or
or
af
which inequality again
"J
(x
1)
is satisfied
by the following :
(a-lr'C*-!)-^*
since plainly
of"
We have, therefore,
>
(x
I)'"
finally
r
(a?- l)
= or>jf?
x - or >
or
jfe
4-
jpk*
Proposition II.
86.
ficient be taken positively,

coefficient*
If in any equation each negative coefand divided by the sum of all the positive
which precede it, the greatest quotient thus formed inis a superior limit of the positive root*.
creased by unity
Let the equation be
aX
a^' + fljtf"-1 - fl3#"~* + ....- a^^ +

1
in which, in order to fix our ideas,

ficient as negative,
general,
viz.
Let each
means
- ar
and we consider
. . . .
+ an
we regard the fourth
0,
coef-
also a negative coefficient in
positive
of the formula
- am
(x
term in
this equation
be transformed by
182
which
Limits of the Roots of Equations.

derived at once from
is
#"x
1
x
the negative terms remaining unchanged.

The polynomial f(x) becomes then, the horizontal lines of
the following corresponding to the successive terms off(x)
a?-
We
now regard
the vertical columns of this expression as

successive terms in the polynomial ; the successive coefficients
of
&-\
tf-\ &c., being

(x
Any
value of # greater than unity
is
1)
&o.
sufficient to
make
positive every term in which no negative coefficient #, ar , &o.

To make the latter terms positive, we must have
occurs.
(00
4-
0t
. . .
flr-i) (a?
1)
>
flr,
&0.
Hence
-.a
-f
00
And
to ensure every
term being made
positive,
1, dbo.
we must take
the value of the greatest of the quantities found in this way.

Such a value of x, therefore, is a superior limit of the positive
roots.
183
Practical Applications.
Practical Applications.
87.
The
propositions in the
two preceding Articles furnish the most convenient general

methods of finding in practice tolerably close limits of the
roots.
Sometimes one of the propositions will give the closer
limit; sometimes the other.
It is well, therefore, to apply
both methods, and take the smaller limit. Prop. I. will usually
be found the more advantageous when the first negative coefficient is
coefficients, so that r is
preceded by several positive
and Prop.
large ;
before the
first
when
II.
large positive coefficients occur
In general, Prop.
large negative coefficient.
We
will give the closer limit.
the numerical value givon
II.
speak of the integer next above
either proposition as the limit.
by
EXAMPLES.
1.
Find a superior
limit of the positive roots of the equation
x*
Prop.
I.
8+1,
gives
Prop. II. gives

2.
Find a superior
I.
40^2
3x- 4
Hence
or 6.
1,
6 is a superior limit.
a:
8# 2 - 5l#
and 6
f-
+ 34-1
1,
is,
and 12
this case Prop. I. gives the closer limit.
3.
Find a superior limit of the positive roots of

1
4x*
3.r
9x*
4.
+ 5# 4 -
0.
is
a limit,
0.
6*
4 fa - 8
lla: 2
fractions
1+4*
the third
18
therefore, a limit.
In
o.
or 9, as limit.
\/51 +
gives
Prop. II. gives
Of the
8r + 23
limit of the positive roots of the equation
#5 +
Prop.
5^3
is
11
6'
+ 4+5'
the greatest, and Prop. II. gives the limit 3.
Find a superior
#8
Prop.
I.
gives 5.
limit of the positive roots of
20*7
4^6
_ Ha^ _
120^*
13z
25
0.
An*. Both methods give the limit

6.
6.
Find a superior limit of the positive roots of

4s 5
8#*
22;e 3
98# 2
73# 4
Ans. Prop.
5=0.
I. trives
20.
ProD. II. gives
3.
184
It is usually possible to determine by inspection a limit

closer than that given by either of the preceding propositions.
This method consists in arranging the terms of an equation in

groups having a positive term first, and then observing what is
the lowest integer value of x which will have the effect of
The form
rendering each group positive.
of the equation will
suggest the arrangement in any particular case.

6.
The equation
of Ex. 2 can be arranged as follows

a-
a?
(#
8)
x (3* 3
+ a? +
61)
18
0.
any greater number, renders each group positive
3, or
hence 3
is
a superior
limit.
The equation
7.
x6
x
or
3,
of Ex. 4
(ar
may be
11)
-I-
arranged thus
20#* (x 5
6)
4# 6
any greater number, renders each group
+ 13# - 26 =
positive
0.
hence 3
if
a limit.
Find a superior limit of the roots of the equation
8.
* 4 - 4*3 +
33a:2
"2x
18
0.
This can be arranged in the form
xz (x* ~ 4x
Now
the trinomial x
4x
Hence x =
of x (Art. 12).
The
-f
5)
-f 5,
-f
28r (x
- &) +
having imaginary
18
0.
roots, is positive for all values
a superior limit.
way of a quadratic whose roots are imaginary, or of one
1 is
introduction in this
with equal roots, will often be found useful.
9.
bx*
7^4 - 10# 3 - 23#2 - 90s
In examples of this kind
among
7)
+ x9
(x*
317 =
- 10) -f x*
(*
methods give a very high
In
this case the general'
limit.
10.
#*
When
- x3 -
2x*
- 4x -
24
0.
there are several negative terms, and the coefficient of the highest term
convenient to multiply the whole equation by such a number as will
it is
enable us to distribute the highest term among the negative terms.

we can write the equation as follows :
plying by 4,
a? ( x
and 4
power of
- 23) + x (** - 90) + & - 317 - 0,
00 that 7 is evidently a superior limit of the roots.
unity,
0.
Here the equation may be written
the negative terms.

x* (x
it is convenient to distribute the highest
is
4)
a superior limit.
32 (s
8)
-f
(x
The general methods
16)
-f
give 26.
96
0,
Here, multi-
185
Propositions.
88.
Proposition III.
Any number
which renders positive
and all its derived functions fi(x\ /(#),

a superior limit of the positive roots of the equation f(x]
the polynomial f(x]

is
. .
/(#)
0.
This method of finding limits is due to Newton. It is much

more laborious in its application than either of the preceding
methods but it has the advantage of giving always very close
limits
and in the case of an equation all whose roots are real
;
the limit found in this
way is, as will be subsequently proved,

the next integer above the greatest positive root.
To prove the proposition, let the roots of the equation
be diminished by h ; then x - h = y, and
f(x) =
f(y +
A)
./(A) +/,(*) y +
If
now h be such
as to
make
<6
all
_L
ft
'
the coefficients
y cannot have a positive root that

x has no root greater than h hence h
positive, the equation in
to say, the equation in
is
is
a superior limit of the positive roots.

EXAMPLE.
/(*)
#*
2* s
3# 2
16*
3.
limits to any example the general mode

Take the smallest integer number which renders
and proceeding upwards in order to f\ (x), try the effect of substif*-i ( x) positive
When any function
tuting this number for x in the other functions of the series.
is reached which becomes negative for the
in
question, increase the integer
integer
successively by units, till it makes that function positive arid then proceed with
In applying Newton's method of finding
of procedure
IB
as follows:
the
new
integer as before, increasing
it
again
if
another function in the series
hould become negative ; and so on, till an integer is reached which renders all the
functions in the series positive.
In the present example the series of funt tions is
f(x)
/i
Ibx
4s - 6* 2 - 6* -
1$,
= x*
22?
2
3:r
(x)
*/(*)
6*2
*/s(*)
4* -2,
-6* -3.
3,
186
makes /a (x) positive. "We try then the effect of the substitution x = 1
makes ft (x) negative. Increase by 1 and x = 2 makes /2(#) positive.
Try the effect of x = 2 in J\ (x) it gives a negative result. Increase by 1 and
K = 3 makes f\ (x} positive. Proceeding upwards, the substitution x = 3 makes
Here x
It
in/a().
f (x) negative
and increasing again by unity, we find that x
Hence
4 makes /(a?) posi-
the superior limit required.

It is assumed in this mode of applying Newton's rule, that when any
makes all the derived functions up to a certain stage positive, any higher
tive.
is
number
number
make them positive so that there is no occasion to try the effect of the
on the functions lower down in the series. This is evident from the
number
higher
will also
equation
t>
(taking
<f>
(a+
(a)
$>

(a
-f
h}
must be
A2
+ </>"(
any function in the
to represent
(x)
h)
<f>
series,
and using the common notation
(a), ^>'(), <>"( a )
are
all positive,
positive.
observed that one advantage of Newton's method is that often, as in

it gives us a knowledge of the two successive integers between
the present instance,
which the highest root

x
3, and positive
f or
lies
between
and
Roots.
To
4,
in the present example, since f(z) is negative
we know
that the greatest root of the equation
find an inferior limit of the positive roots,

first
The
the
transformed by the substitution x =
-.
Find then a superior
4.
must be
equation
*
limit
Inferior Limits, and Limits of the Negative
89.
in y.
Thus
lies.
for
limit h of the positive roots of the equation
reciprocal of this, viz. -, will be the required inferior
for since
y <
.11.
h,
~ >
7,
h
y
i.e.
x>
1
-r.
To find limits of the negative roots, we have only to transform the equation by the substitution x - - y. This transforLet the
mation changes the negative into positive roots.
Superior and inferior limits of the positive roots of the equation
Then - h and - A' are the limits of he negain y be h and A'.
tive roots of the proposed equation.
187
Limiting Equations.
90.
Limiting liquations.
f
equation f(x)
the
could be found,
number of real
If
it
all
real roots of the
the
would be possible
roots of the equation f(x]
to
determine
0.
To prove this, let the real roots of /'(a?)

be, in ascending
order of magnitude, a', /3', 7', ... X' ; and let the following
series of values be substituted for x in/(#) :
-oo,
When any
a', /3', </,
successive
with different signs there
and by the
A', 4
oo.
two of these quantities give results

is a root of /(#) =
between them
;
Cor., Art. 71, there is only one
give results with the
same
root between them.
Thus each change
sign, there
is,
by
and when they
the same Cor., no
of sign in the results of
the successive substitutions proves the existence of one real root

of the proposed equation.
If all the roots of f(x)
are real, it is evident, by the
theorem of Art. 71, that all the roots of f(x) =
are also real,
and that they lie one by one between each adjacent pair of the
and by the same theorem,

=
it follows that the roots of /"(#)
0, and of all the successive
derived functions, are real also and the roots of any function
roots of f(x)
0.
In the same
case,
lie
severally between each adjacent pair of the roots
function from which
Equations of
degree of
it is
this
of the
immediately derived.
kind, which are one degree below the
any proposed equation, and whose,
roots lie severally
between each adjacent pair of the roots of the proposed, are

called limiting equations.
It
is
evident that in the application of Newton's method

when the roots of /(#) = are
of finding limits of the roots,
proceeding according to the method explained in

Art. 88, the function f(x) is itself the last which will be renall real, in
dered positive, and therefore the superior limit arrived at

integer next above the greatest root.
is
the
188
Examples.
EXAMPLES.
Prove that any derived equation ft*
1.
(x)
cannot have more imaginary roots,
may have more real roots, than the equation f(x) = from which it is derived.
From this it follows that, if any of the derived functions be found to have
imaginary roots, the same number at least of imaginary roots must enter the
but
original equation.
2.
Apply the method of Art. 90

3
jf
should have
3.
qx + r
When
q
>
When
q
- nqx +
<
or
=*
two
0.
real roots or none, according as
r"- 1 .
or
(x
<
r"- 1 .
1)
lias all its roots real
hence show, by forming
derived function, that the following equation has all
unequal, and situated between
and
n (n
1)
*-"&^' + -T^
Show
similarly
and
2^1) *"*""
n (n
1)
by forming the n th derived of (#* - 1)" that the following

and unequal, and situated between - 1 and 1
fi(n-l)L ~n-t.
X* - n
.
root* real
its
lias all its roots real
equation
__
_-
(*-!)' __ __J(w- l)(ff-2)(ft-3)

'_
L>
LJ
1.2 2(2n- 1) (2*- 2) (2n - 3)
v
.1.
2(2-l)
6.
l)
odd, the equation has three real root* or one, according at
is
>
(a
even, the equation has
is
The equation xn
*
6.
=B
Determine by the same method the nature
An&.
4.
all its roots real.
&>
the
to determine the conditions that the equation
-*
&C.
0.
If any two of the quantities I, w, i in the following equation be put equal

sho* that the quadiatic to which the equation than reduces is a limiting
to zero,
aquation
and hence prove that the
(x
7.
-a) (x~l)
roots of the proposed are all real
(*-)- P {* - a) - iw2 (*- *)
'
(*- e) - Wmn
Discuss the nature of the roots of the equation

**
to?
2**
12* 4 p
0,
according to the different values of j.
Apply Art. 90. "When p

when p lies between - 7 and
is less
than -
7,
two roots
are real
and two imaginary ;
and when
p is greater than 9,
the roots are all imaginary. The equation has two equal roots when, p = - 7, and
two pairs of equal roots when p - 9.
9, all
the roots are real
CHAPTER
X.
SEPARATION OF THE ROOTS OF EQUATIONS.
lie.
equation
to
methods of the preceding chapter we are enabled

between which all the real roots of any numerical
Before proceeding to the actual approximation
By the
91.
to find limits
any particular
which
it is
roots.
root, it is necessary to separate the interval in
from the intervals which contain the remainpresent chapter will be occupied with certain
situated
The
ing
theorems whose object is to determine the number of real roots
between any two arbitrarily assumed values of the variable. It
plain that if this object can be effected, it will then be possible
to tell not only the total number of real roots, but also the limits
within which the roots separately lie.
is
The theorems given
for this purpose
by Fourier and Budan,
although different in statement, are identical in principle. For

purposes of exposition Fourier's statement is the more convenient, while with a view to practical* application the statement
Budan will be found superior. The theorem of Sturm, although
of
more laborious
that
it is
number
tities
in practice, has the advantage over the preceding

unfailing in its application, giving always the exact
of real roots situated
between any two proposed quan-
whereas the theorem of Fourier and
certain limit which the
number
Budan
gives only a
of real roots in the proposed
interval cannot exceed.

92.
a and
Theorem of Fourier and Budan.
b,
f(x) and
of which a
is
it$ successive
the
less,
Let two numbers
be substituted in the series formed by
derived functions,
viz.,
'(*),/.()./(*),.../.(*);
Separation of the Hoots of Equations.
190
the number of real roots which lie between a and b cannot le greater
than the excess of the number of changes of sign in the series when
a is substituted for x, over the number of changes when b is substituted for
x ; and when
This
number of
the
falls short of that difference,
it
will be by
real roots in the interval
an even number.
the form in which Fourier states the theorem.
is
It is to be understood here, as elsewhere, that,
speak of two numbers a and 6, of which a is the

both of them may be negative, and what is meant
nearer than b to - oo
when we
less,
is
one or
that a
is
We proceed to examine the changes which may occur among

the signs of the functions in the above series, the value of x
being supposed to increase continuously from a to b. The
following different cases can arise

(1). The value of x may pass through a single root of the
:
=
equation f(x)
0.
(3).
may pass through a root occurring r times in /(a?) = 0.

It may pass through a root of one of the auxiliary
(4).
functions/m (#) = 0, this root not occurring in either

m+1 (:r)=0.
/m
It may pass through a root occurring r times infm (x) = 0,
(2). It
_^=0or/
and not occurring in fm.

In what follows the symbol x
(x]
is
0.
omitted after
for con-
venience.
In the
(1).
first
case
it
is
evident,
from Art. 75, that in
= 0, one
passing through a root of the equation f(x)
change
for / and /\ have unlike signs immediately
of sign is lost
;
before,
and
like signs
immediately
after, the
passage through
the root.
(2).
In the second case, in passing through an r-multiple

= 0, it is evident that r changes of
are lost ;
root of f(x]
for,
by Art.
sign
76, immediately before the passage the series of
functions
J\\ fi> f*9
yr-i>
fr
have signs alternately + and -, or - and

after the passage have all the same sign
+,
and
iriimediately
Theorem of Fourier and Budan.
19/
third case, the root of /m (#) = must give to/m_i

and/m4>1 either like signs or unlike signs. Suppose it to give like
signs ; then in passing through the root two changes of sign are
In the
(3).
for before the passage the sign of m is different from these

like signs, and after the passage it is the same (Art. 76).
Supfor
is
of
no
then
it
to
unlike
lost,
;
sign
change
pose
give
signs
lost,
before the passage the signs of m -i fm> fm+i must be either

+ + -, or - - +, and after the passage these become
+ +. On the whole, therefore, we conand

,
clude that no variation of sign can be gained, but two variations may be lost, on the passage through a root of fm {} = 0.
(4).
In the fourth case x passes through a value
(let
us say
a)
to vanish.
which causes not only /m but also fm +i fm+*i
., /m+r-i
It is evident from the theorem of Art. 76 that during the passage
a number of changes of sign will always be lost. The definite
9
number may be
collected
The following
(a).
by considering the
series of functions
results are easily established
When fm-t (a) and/wm-(a)
have like signs:
If r be even, r changes are lost.

+ 1 changes are lost.
If r be odd, r
(b).
When/m_i(a) and/m+r (a)
have unlike signs:
If r be even, r changes are lost.

If r be odd, r - 1 changes are lost.
We
conclude, therefore, on the whole, that an even number

is lost during the
passage through an r-multiple root
of changes
of/m (4
It will be observed that (1) is a particular case of (2), and
= 1. Since, however, the cases (1) and (3)
of
(3)
(4), i.e. when r
are those of ordinary occurrence, it is well to give them a separate classification,
Reviewing the above proof, we conclude that as x increases

from a to b no change of sign can be gained; that for each
192
Separation of the Roots of Equations.
one change is lost; and

passage through a single root of f(x)
a
that under no circumstances except
passage through a root of
=
of
number
be lost. Hence the
an
odd
can
changes
/(#)
number of changes lost during the whole variation of x from
a to b must be either equal to the number of real roots of
in the interval, or must exceed it by an even number.
f(x) =
The theorem is therefore proved,

93. Application of the Theorem.
the theorem has been stated by Budan is,
The form
in
which
as has been already

observed, more convenient for practical purposes than that just
Let the roots of an equation f(x) =
It is as-follows
given.
be diminished, first by a and then by b, where a and b are an// two
:
numbers of which a is
between a and b cannot
number of
real roots
be greater than the excess of the
number of
number in
the less
then
the
changes of sign in the first transformed equation over the

the second.
This
is
evidently included in Fourier's statement, for the

(see Art. 33)
two transformed equations are

-
f(b) +/,(*) y +'
y*
from which, assuming the results of the

proposition is manifest.
The reason why the
in practice
is,
that
theorem in
we can apply
last Article, the
this
form
is
the expeditious
above
convenient
method
of
diminishing the roots given in Art. 33.

EXAMPLES.
1.
Find the
situations of the roots of the equation
x6
- 3^ -
24# 3 4 95# 2
- 46s -
101
0.
We shall examine this function for values of x between the intervals

-10,
-1,
0,
I,
10;
t
these numbers being assumed
on account of the facility
of calculation.
Diminution
193
Examples.
of the roots
equation
by
gives the following series of coefficients of the transformed
1,
-26,
2,
In diminishing the roots hy
-78.
65,
16,
10, it is apparent at the
lation that the signs of the coefficients of
very outset of the calcuequation will he all
the transformed
so that there is no occasion to complete the calculation in this case.

In diminishing the roots by - 10 and - 1, it is convenient to change the alternate signs of the equation, and diminish the roots by 4- 10 and -f 1
and then in
positive
the result change the alternate signs again.

equation when the roots are diminished by -
-8,
1,
In diminishing by
that the signs will be
-2,
- 10 we
coefficients of the transformed
are
60.
-291,
139,
observe in the course of the operation, as before,

in the result, i. e. when the alternate signs ar
all positive
will be
alternately positive
changed they
The
Hence we have the following scheme
and negative.
:
(-1)
+- +
+ --
(0)
-f
(1)
_,
(10)
+.
(-10)
+
-
_,
+,
the eqtutiioa
-,
-f-
itself,
These signs are the signs taken by/(#) and the several derived f unctions /i,/2,
on the substitution of the proposed numbers but it is to be observed that
/>> fi> ft
they are here written, not in the order of Art. 92, but in the reverse order, viz.
From
between
of sign
BO
we draw
these
10 and
is lost
between
between
is at least
the other two roots

roots
10
the following conclusions:
one real root
one real root
real root lies
are lost, there
-f
and
lies
and
lies
between ;
and
and between
one real root
All the real roots
10 and
between
0, since
and
but we are
1,
must
lie
since one change
one change of sign
is lost
changes of sign
in doubt as to the nature of
10, since three
left
whether they are imaginary, or whether there are three
real
10.
We might proceed to examine, by further transformations, the interval between

and 10 more closely, in order to determine the nature of the two doubtful roots
;
evident that the calculations for this purpose might, if the roots were nearly
This is the weak side of the theorem of Fourier and
equal, become very laborious.
Budan. Both writers have attempted to supply this defect, and have given methods
but
it is
of determining the nature of the roots in doubtful intervals ; but as these methods
we do not stop to explain them the more especially as the theorem
are complicated,
of Sturm effects fully the purposes for which the supplementary methods of Fourier
and Budan were invented.
194
2.
Separation of the Roots of Equation*.

Analyse the equation of Ex.
The
and
roots of this are all real,
lie
100, viz.,
1, p.
* + **
2*
between
0.
2 and 2 (see Ex. 5, p.
ICfu).
jkVhen-
ever the roots of an equation are all real, the signs of Fourier's function^&ffermine
the exact nuraher of real roots hetween any two proposed integers. We" obtjin thd
following result
The
roots lie in the intervals
(-2,-!);
3.
Analyse the equation of Ex.
Ans.
Two
(-1,0);
3, p.
(1,2).
100, viz.,
roots in the interval (- 2,
of the intervals (- 1, 0)
4.
1),
(0, 1)
and one root in each

;
(1, 2).
Analyse the equation
+ 1998** - 14937s + 5000 =
0.
The equation can have no negative roots. Diminish the roots hy 10 several times
obtain the
in succession till the signs of the coefficients become all positive.
We
following result
+ - + -+,
+ _ + + _,
- + +,
+
+ + + - +,
+ + + 4- +.
(0)
(10)
(20)
(30)
(40)
Thus, there
is
one root between
hetween 20 and 30.
and
10,
Between SO and 40
and one between 10 and 20; no root
two real roots, or there is

an indication of a pair of imaginary roots. That the former is the case will appear
by diminishing the roots of the thud transfoimed equation by units. This process
will separate the roots, w hich will be found to lie between (2, 3) and (4, 5) so that
cither there are
the proposed equation has a third real root in the interval (32, 33), and a fourth in
%e
interval (34, 35).
94.
Application
of the
Theorem
to
Imaginary
Roots.
Since there exist only n changes of sign to be lost in

oo to + oo , if we have any reason for
the passage of x from
that a pair of changes is lost during the passage of x
through an interval which includes no real root of the equation,
we may be assured of the existence of a pair of imaginary roots.
knowing
Circumstances of this nature will arise in the application of

Fourier's theorem when any of the transformed equations con-
For we can assign by the principle

of Art. 76 the proper sign to this coefficient, corresponding to
tain vanishing coefficients.
195
Example*.
values of x immediately before and immediately after that value

which causes the coefficient to vanish the whole interval being
;
so small that
equation /(a?)
be supposed not to include any root of the
may
it
0.
EXAMPLES.
1.
f(x)
We
shall
examine
z*
- 4#3 -
this function
3#
23
0.
between the intervals
0, 1, 10.
The
trans-
formed equations are
A/4 (0)
the
first
*'
+ */
(0) **
+ i/i (0) * + /i (0) x + / (0) =
0,
(10)z+/(10) =
0,
of these being the proposed equation itself.
Making the
by the method of the preceding Article, we find that

and we have the following scheme :
calculations
the coefficient /i (1)
= 0,
(0)
- +,
(1)
- - +,
+ + + +
(10)
+.
We may now
first
replace each of the rows containing a zero coefficient by two, the

corresponding to a value a little less, and the second to a value a little greater,
than that which gives the zero coefficients, the signs being determined by the
It must be remembered that in the above scheme
principle established in Art. 76.
the signs representing the derived functions are written in the reverse order to that
The scheme will then stand as follows, h being used to
of the Article referred to.
represent a very small positive quantity:
{-h
(0)
(
(1)
(10)
hi
\\~\
(l + A
+ - + -
+,
_ _ _ +
+ +
'
__+,
+ +
+,
h are determined by the condition that

where the signs corresponding to - h and
- h, be difthe sign of the coefficient which is zero when x =
must, when x
ferent from that next to it on the left-band side
and when x = 4- h these signs
h and 1 4- h are determined in
must be the*same. The signs corresponding to 1
-I-
similar
manner
O 9
196
Now since a pair of changes is lost in the interval (- A, + A), and since the
h and -I- A, we have proved the existence of s
equation has no real root between
Two changes of sign are lost between 1 + h and 10, so
pair of imaginary roots.
that this interval either includes a pair of real roots, or presents an indication of a
Which
pair of imaginary roots.
of these
still
doubtful.
be able to establish the existence of
This will appear from the following example
several pairs of imaginary roots.
*6
The
the case remains
is
we may
2. If several coefficients vanish,
h and
signs corresponding to
0.
-f
are,
-f
by the theorem
--
(_A)
(+ h)
+ + + + + + -.
-f
of Art. 76,
h and 4- A, and since 4 changes of sign

Hence, since no root exists between
to one very little greater, we
are lost in passing from a value very little less than
The other two roots
are assured of the existence of two pairs of imaginary roots.
are in this case plainly real (see Art. 14).
The number
of imaginary roots in
any binomial equation can be dete/fmined
in
this
way.
3. Find the character of the roots of the equation
x?
10.r 3 -f
-f
0.
In passing from a small negative to a small positive value of

following series of signs
x we
obtain the
(-A)
+ - +
-f
-f
-,
'
(0)
+ -,
The
Since six changes of sign are here lost, there are six imaginary roots.
remaining two roots are, by Art. 14, real One positive, and the other negative.
and 1.
The negative root lies between 2 and
1, and the positive between
:
4.
Analyse completely the equation
#8-3*2-*'+
There are two imaginary
In
this
way we
Whenever,
roots.
are comprised within small limits,
0.
as in the present instance, the roots
convenient to diminish by successive units.

find here a root between
and 1, and another between 1 and 2.
Proceeding to negative roots,
we
it is
find on diminishing
by -
that
1 is itself
a root,
and writing down the signs corresponding to a value a little greater than
observe an indication of a second negative root between - 1 and 0.
6.
1,
wo

x*
at
+ ** -
25*
36
0.
c
There are two imaginary roots
two
one
reai!
real negative roots in the intervals (- 3,
positive root
2), (- 2,
between 2 and 3
1).
and
Corollaries
95.
from
the
Corollaries
Budau.
Theorem of Fourier and Sudan.
197
from the Theorem of Fourier and
The method
of detecting the existence of
imaginary
roots explained in the preceding Article is called The Rule of

the Double Sign.
similar rule, due to De Gua> was in
This rule and

use before the discovery of Fourier's theorem.
Descartes' Rule of Signs are immediate corollaries from the
theorem, as
Cor. 1.
The
eessire
roots
rule
we proceed to show.
De Gua's Rule for finding Imaginary
may he stated
generally as follows
Roots.
When 2m
suo-
term* of an equation are absent, the equation has 2m imaginary

and when 2m + 1 successive terms are absent, the equation
2m +
2, or 2m imaginary roots, according as the two terms between which the deficiency occurs have like or unlike xigns.
This
follows as in case (4j, Art. 92, by examining the number of
has
changes of sign lost during the passage of # from a small negative value - h to a small
value h.
positive
Cor. 2.
Descarte* Rule of Signs.
When
is
substituted
for
x in
the
series
of
functions
fn (),fn-i (#),
/(#)> /i (#)/(#), the signs are the same as the
rt w-1
of
the
a n of the proposed
coefficients
a , a\, a t
signs
-
equation
arid
when +
number
that
is
This
oo is substituted
Fourier's theorem asserts that the

these limits, viz. the
number
the signs are
number
of positive roots, cannot exc<wl the
of variations lost during the passage
the
number
all positive.
of roots between
from
of changes of sign in the series a Q9
Descartes' rule for positive roots

for negative roots follows in the usual
is
a,,
to
a3
oc,
an
and the similar rule
way by changing
the
negative into positive roots.

Cor. 3.
When
Newton's Method of finding Limits.

a number A has been found which renders positive
the functions /(#), /-i(a),

/*(*)> fi(*) 9 /(#) ; since
also renders each of them positive, it follows from Fourier's
eacli of
oc
theorem that there can be no root between h and + oo , that is to

say, A is* a superior limit of the positive roots ; and this i
Newton's proposition (Art. 88).
198
96.
that
We have already shown (Art. 74)

by performing the common algebraical opera-
Sturm's Theorem.
it is
possible
tion of finding the greatest
f(x] and
common measure
of a polynomial
derived polynomial to find the equal roots ol

the equation f(x)
0.
Sturm has employed the same operation
its first
for the formation of the auxiliary functions which enter into

his method of
separating the roots of an equation.
Let the process of finding the greatest common measure oi

f(x) and its first derived be performed. The successive remainders will go on diminishing in degree till we reach finally
either one which divides that immediately
preceding without
remainder, or one which does not contain the variable at all,
i. e. which is numerical.
The former is, as we have already
seen, the case of equal roots.
equal roots exist.
It
is
The
latter is the case
where no
convenient to divide the discussion of
Sturm's theorem into these two
We
cases.
shall in the present
Article consider the case where no

equal roots exist
ceed in the next Article to the case of equal roots.
and proThe per-
formance of the operation itself will of course disclose the

which any particular example is to be referred.
class
to
The
by Sturm are not the

remainders as they present themselves in the calculation, but
the remainders with their signs changed.
In finding the greatest
auxiliary functions employed
common measure
of two expressions it is indifferent whether the

of
the
remainders
are changed or not : in the formation
signs
of Sturm's auxiliary functions the
is essential.
We
change
what follows that the sign of each
remainder is changed before it becomes the next divisor.
Confining our attention for the present to the case where no
shall suppose therefore in
equal roots exist, Sturm's theorem
Theorem.
for x
in the series
may
be stated as follows
Let any two real quantities a and b
ofn +
be substituted
1 functions
/(*). /(*)> /(*), /(*),
/-i(*), /.(*),
consisting of the given polynomial f(x), its first derived

/(#),
and
199
Sturm's Theorem.
the successive remainders (with their signs changed) in the proces*
offinding the greatest common measure of f(x) andfi(x)
then the
number of changes of sign in the series when

and the number when b is substituted for x
number of real roots of the equation f(x) =
difference between the
is
substituted for x
expresses exactly the

beticeen
a and
b.
The mode
of formation of Sturm's functions supplies the
following series of equations, in
which
<?,,
the successive quotients in the operation
ja,
qn-\
represent
(1)
These equations involve the theory of the method of finding

the greatest common measure ; for it follows from the first equation that if f(x] and fjx) have a common factor, this must be
and from the second equation it follows, by

like reasoning, that the same factor must occur in/3 (#)
and so
on, till we come finally to the last remainder, which, when/(#)
and fi (x) have common factors, will be a polynomial consisting
In the present Article, where we suppose the
of these factors.
given polynomial and its first derived to have no common
a factor in f*(x)
factor, the last
remainder /(#)
is
numerical.
It
is essential
for
the proof of the theorem to observe also, that in the case now
under consideration no two consecutive functions in the series
can have a
common factor
for if they
had we
could,
by reason-
ing similar to the above, show from the equations that this factor must exist also in f(x) and/t (o?) ; and such, according to our
In examining, therefore, what

hypothesis, is not here the case.
the series during the passage
can
in
of
take
place
sign
changes
of x fronf a to ft, we may exclude the case of two consecutive
functions vanishing for the same value of the variable
and the
200
Separation of the 'Roots of Equations.
different cases in
the following
when x
(1).
which any change of sign can take place are
/()
(2).
when x
(3).
when x
passes through a root of the proposed equation
o,
passes through a value which causes one of the

.
.fn-.i to vanish,
auxiliary functions /i,/2
.
passes through a value which causes two or more

of the series/, /,, . /n_i to vanish together, no two of
.
the vanishing functions, however, being consecutive.
When x passes through a root
(1).
of /(a?) = 0,
it
follows from
Art. 75 that one change of sign is lost, since immediately before

the passage f(x) and /(#) have unlike signs, and immediately
they have like signs.

x
Suppose to take a value a which
after the passage

(2).
fr (x)
0.
From
/r-i'tf)
we have
satisfies
the equation
the equation
/r-i(a)
= qrfr(%)
= -/r +i('
~/r+i(#),
,
which proves that this value of x gives to fr-\{x\ and /r+i(#) the
same numerical value with different signs. In passing from a
value a little less than a to one a little greater, we can suppose
the interval so small that it contains no root of /r-i(#) or/ (a*) ;
hence, throughout the interval under consideration, these
two
If the sign of fr (x) does not change

functions retain their signs.
will
in
the
(as
happen
exceptional case when the root a is re-
peated an even number of times) there

series of signs.
In general the sign
of
no alteration in the
is
r (x)
changes, but no
variation of sign is either lost or gained thereby in the group of

three ; because, on account of the difference of signs of the two
extremes /r-i(#) and
/r+
(a?),
there will exist both before
and
after
the passage one variation and one permanency of sign, whatever

be the sign of the middle function. If, for example, before the
after the passage they become
;
passage the signs were +
a variation and a permanency are changed into a
i. e.
permanency and a variation but no variation of sigrf is lost or
+ + -,
gained on the whole.
201
Sturm's Theorem.
Since the reasoning in the preceding oases is founded

on the relations of the function to those adjacent to it only
and since these relations remain unaltered in the present case,
(3).
because no two adjacent functions vanish together, we conclude

that if f(x) is one of the vanishing functions, one change of sign
is lost,
We
and if not,
hav
is
either lost or gained.
fore, that
when x
passes through a
no other
of sign is lost, and under

of sign either lost or gained.
root
Hence
sign lost during the variation of x

the number of roots of the equation
'.of
from
flTto b
\&j*fc&/m
Betwee
Befclfe pogy^Siiig to\he case of equal roots, we add a few
theorem.
sijnjple eSiwwfiTes to illustrate the application of Sturm's
It
is
convenient in practice to substitute
first
oo
0,
oo in
Sturm's functions, so as to obtain the whole number of negative
and of positive roots. To separate the negative roots, the inte- 1, - 2, - 3, &o., are to be substituted in succession till we
gers
reach the
of -
oo
&c.,
till
same series of signs as results from the substitution

and to separate the positive roots we substitute 1, 2, 3,
the signs furnished by + oo are reached.
EXAMPLES,
1.
Find the number and
situation of the real roots of the equation
f(x)
We find
fi(x)
3r>
Corresponding to the values
(-00)
(0)
Hence there
is
a;
- 2* -
fz (r) =
2,
oo
4* +
-f oo
of x y
- +
- -
0,
16,
/,(*)
=-
643.
we have
-,
+ -,
+ + + -
(+ 00 )
only one real root, and
it is
positive.
The
student often finds a difficulty in perceiving in what way a record is preferred in Sturm's series of the number of changes of sign lost, since the only loss takes
place between the
two functions, f(x) aud/i(#). It may tend to remove this

x increases from one root a of f(x) = to a second
although no alteration takes place in the number of changes of sign, the distribution
of the signs among f\(x] and the following functions alters in such a way that the
signs of /(*) and /i(tf), which were the same immediately after the passage of
first
difficulty to observe,
through
a,
that as
become again
different before the passage
through &.
202
Separation of the
Again, corresponding to values 1,
->-
(3)
+ + + -
real root, therefore, lies between* 2
2.
we hare
or,
(2)
(1)
The
3 of
2,
- + +
- + +
and
-,
3.
Find the number and situation of the

tc*
We easily obtain
/, (x)
/a
1x
3*
real roots of the equation
0.
7,
(*)** -3,
whence
(-00)
- + -
(0)
+
oo
(+
Hence
all
the roots are real
We have,
+,
+ + +
+.
one negative, and two positive*
-f
(-2)
- + + + + + -
(-1)
+ - -
+,
(1)
+,
(2)
+ +
(-3)
4 and
+,
further, the following results
(-4)
Here
+,
f,
-f,
+.
2 give the same series of signs as - oo and +

hence we stop at
;
root lies between
4 and - 3 ; and the two positive roots
The negative
between 1 and 2.
these.
This example illustrates the superiority of Sturm's method over that of Fourier.
The substitution of 1 and 2 in Fourier's functions gives, as can be immediately
yerified, the following series of signs :
From
Fourier's theorem
(1)
- +
(2)
+ +
+.
we
more than two roots between
two
roots
between
must, of course,
3.
and
make
2.
are authorised to conclude only that there tannot b*

and 2. From Sturm's we conclude that there art
If
we have
occasion to separate these
two
further substitutions iuf(x)

**
2s8
3#8
-f
lOx
-4 =
0.
roots,
we
Sturm? s'Theorem.
We
obtain,
removing the factor 2 from the derived,
= -8* -3,
/,(*)
1433.
In forming Sturm's functions it is allowable, as is evident from the

introduce or suppress numerical factors just as in the process of
[N.B.
equations
203
Equal Roots.
(1), to
finding the o. o. M. ; taking care, however, that these are positive, so that the signs
of the remainders are not thereby altered.]
We have the
following series of signs
- 4
(0)
(4
Hence
roots.
there are
To
two
GO
--
real roots,
--.
+ + +
one positive, and one negative, and two imaginary
find the positions of the real roots,
it is
sufficient to substitute positive
and negative integers successively in/(#) alone, since there
is
only one positive and
We
ne negative root.
easily find in this way that the negative root
2 and - 3, and the positive root between
and 1.
97.
Sturm's Theorem.
Equal Roots.
lies
between
Let the opera-
tion for finding the greatest common measure of /(#) and f(x]
be performed, the signs of the successive remainders being
changed as before. The last of Sturm's functions will not now

be numerical, for since f(x) and f(x) are here supposed to contain a common measure involving #, this will now be the last
function arrived at
by the
process.
Let the
series of functions
be:
/(#) /i(*)
/i(#)>
......
MX).
During the passage of x through any value except a multiple root

of /(a?) - 0, the conclusions of the last Article are still true with
respect to the present series, since no value except such a root
can cause any consecutive pair of the series to vanish. When x
passes through a multiple root of /(a?) - 0, there is,

Art. 75, one change of sign lost bet ween /and/! ;
ceed to prove that no change of sign

of the series,
viz.
/ /
t,
t,
tiple root a of /(*). It is
is lost
by the Oor.,
and we pro-
or gained in the rest
r
Suppose there exists an in-mulevident from the equations (i) of Art. 96,
.
204
that (# - a) w ^ is a factor in each of the f unctions f\if*>

fr*
Let the remaining factors in these functions be, respectively,
î,
(y
....
^2,
*" 1
a)
By dividing each of the equations (1) by

a
series of equations which establish, by the
get
$r-
we
reasoning of the. last Article, that, owing to a passage through a,

no change of sign is lost or gained in the series $ 19 2
fa*
<f>
Neither, therefore,
/i>/2>
/;
is
lost or
any change
for tXe effect of the factor (x
of x from a value a - h to a value a + h
is
gained in the
- a)" in the
series
1 "" 1
passage
either to
change the
m - 1 is odd)
- 1 is even)
or of none (when
of the functions
2
1?
$ r and changing the signs of all
these functions cannot increase or diminish the number of
signs of all (when
variations.
We
have therefore proved that when x passes through a

multiple root of f(x) = one change of sign is lost between / and
/i, and none either lost or gained in any other part of the series.
It remains true, of course, that
when x
passes through a single

lost as before.
may thus
a change of sign is
We
theorem as follows for the case of equal roots
The difference between the number of changes of sign when a and b
root of /(a?)
state the
are substituted in the series

fy f\9
the
lad of
/r>
./
these being the greatest
common measure of f and f^
equal to the number of real roots between a and
6,
is
each multiple root
counting only once.
EXAMPLES.
1.

a?*
We easily obtain
/i
- 6^ +
9#2 - 7*
= 4s 3
(x)
15#
/ (*)-*- 2*+
/a (x) divides f\ (x) without remainder
-f
18$
0.
1;
hence in this cffiPSturm's
/*(*), thus establishing the existence of equal roots.
series stops at
205
Examples.
To
number
find the
The
4,
(4
+.
2.
real distinct roots
from the form of /2
which
(x),
substitute
oo
and 4
oo
result is
(-00)
Hence the equation has only two

root, as is evident
we
of real roots of the equation,
for x in the series of functions /, /i, /2.
but one of these
equal to (x
is
I)
is
a triple
* - 6*
- 12* +
13*2
0.
Here
/! (*)
is
the last Sturmian function
18*2 4 26* - 12,
-3*4
*2
/2 (*)
4* 8
(_co)
co
(+
There are only two

the roots
3.
1,
is
2;
so that the equation has equal root*.
-I-
4,
444.
real distinct roots.
In
fact, since /a (a;)
(x
1) (*
2),
each of
a double root.
find the nature of the
Here
a*
2.r*
/,
4 *3 -
5* 4
8.r
x*
- 2* 2
4 3*
/ = 2a; 4 7^ 2 4 12z
/3 = - # - Ca; - 5.
3
2x
7,
0.
2,
Since
y*s
\Ve have
0,
a;
is
/4
=-*-
/6
1,
0.
common measure oif and/i,
and/(ar) hai a double root
1.
also
_-+,
(-00)
_ +
(4 oo
+ + +
__.
Hence there are two real distinct roots. The equation has, therefore, beside the.
double root, one other real root, and two imaginary roots.
4.

x*
Hwe
- 7#8 4
/i (x)
/a (#)
/s(s)
15**
- 40* 4 48* -
16
=* 0.
- 35* 4 4 60* 3 - 80* 448,
=r
6* 5
13**
5
ic
- 84a?3 4 192*- -
76* 4 48,
- 6* 4 12*- 8 n (*-2} ?
2
Ans. There are three real distinct
roots,
one of them being quadruple.
206
Application of Sturm's Theorem.
98.
In the case
oi
equations of high degrees the calculation of Sturm's auxiliary

It is important there.functions becomes often very laborious.
pay attention
fore to
what
to certain observations
which tend some-
to diminish this labour.
the final remainder when it is numerical,

(1). In calculating
since its sign is all we are concerned with, the labour of the last
operation of division can be avoided by the consideration that
fn,
must give opposite

general possible to tell without any
the value of x which causes
to vanish
It is in
signs to/n_2 and/*.
calculation what would be the sign of the result if the root of
Thus in Ex. 3, Art. 96, if
substituted in /-*(#).
A-i (a?) = were
o
the value - 5, which is the root of /(#) = 0, be substituted for
o
x in 9x* - 27% 4-11, the result
sign of
/n (x)
- 1433
given
is -,
for
and there
fn (x)
When it is possible
(2).
roots of
any one
is
in the
evidently positive; hence the

no occasion to calculate the value
is
example referred
in
any way
to.
to recognize that all the
of Sturm's functions are imaginary,
we need
not proceed to the calculation of any function beyond that one ;

for since such a function retains constantly the same sign for all
values of the variable (Cor. Art. 12), no alteration in the
number
of changes of sign presented by it and the following functions

can ever take place, so that the difference in the number of
changes when two quantities a and b are substituted is independent of whatever variations of sign may exist in that part of
the series which consists of the function in question and those
With a view to the application of this observation
following it.
it
is
(ax*
always well, when we arrive at the quadratic function

4- bx + c,
suppose), to examine, in case the term containing
and the absolute term have the same sign (otherwise the roots
could not be imaginary), whether the condition 4ac > b* is fulfilled ; if so, we know that the roots are imaginary, and tha
x*
need not proceed farther.

Similar observations apply to the case where tone
functions is a perfect square, since such a function cannot
calculation
change
its
sign for real values of x.
207
Examples.
EXAMPLES.
1
s*4 3*8 +
We find
/2 (*) = /8 (*) = -
29*'
+ 1*0,
78*
from -
makes
ft (x)
and two imaginary
roots.
real,
f-8. -1},
{-1, 0).
little
J,
14,
* given by the equation /$ (x) = 0,

hence /* (x) is negative.
see immediately that the value of
which differs
There are two
2.
10*
1086* -481,
N /*(*)-
Here we
7**
positive;
The
real roots lie in the intervals
- 4*
**
We
3*
23
0.
find
/ (*)= 12** + 9* -89,

/3 (*) =-491*+ 1371,
2
/<(*)=
Here
/,(*)
*=
gives
>
>
2-74
-j^-^j/* (*) positive hence the root of /s (*) makes it positive

There are two real and two imaginary roots.
;
The
3.
real roots lie in the intervals
{2, 3},
>
-,
and
=
|
makes
also.
(3, 4}.

2* 4
13*2 +
10*-
19
0.
Hero
/!W =
fi(x)
Sinoe
>
4 x 13 x 38
15 2 ,
4* -13*-|-6,
IS*2
15*
38.
the roots of fz(x) are imaginary, and
further with the calculation of Sturm's remainders.
Substituting
oo
we
+00,
0,
(-00)
(0)
+
-
+,
+,
+.
(+00)
There are two
4.
Here
real roots,
obtain
one positive, the other negative*
5**
+ *s - 4*2 - 3* -6 - 0.
+ 8*8 + 3*2 - Sx
/a(*)
6**
/8 (*)
/(*)
m ae6 +
/i (*)
2ar*
66**
116*2
+ 44* +
57*
110,
223.
we
proceed no
208
Sinee
>
4 x 116 x 223
substituting
oo
we may
(-OD)
(0)
(+
00
There are four imaginary

6.
stop the calculation here.
We find,
4.
and one
roots,

x*
- 2# 3 - 7*2
-f
Ans. The roots are
-,.
-,
real positive root.
10*+
10
= 0.
and are situated in the intervals
all real,
{-3, -2}, {-1, 0}, and two between

6.
{2, 3}.
xs
It will be
3*4
4.
2*s
3a .a
2*
0.
found that the calculation may cease with the quadratic remainder.
Ans. There
7.
or
+00,
0,
57 2 ,
is
only one real root
in the interval
{ 1
2}
=0.
181
We find
f*(x)
= 854* -
2751,
In some examples, of which the present is an instance, it is not easy to tell

immediately what sign the root of the penultimate function gives to the preceding
We have here calculated /af*), and it turns out to be a much smaller
function.
numoer than might have been expected from the magnitude of the coefficients in/s(#).
In fact when the root of ft (x) is substituted in/i (a?) the positive part is nearly equal
This is always an indication that two roots of th* proposed
to the negative part.
There are injthe present instance two positive roots beequation are nearly equal.
tween 3 and 4. Subdividing the internals, we find the two roots still to lie between
3*2 and 3'3
"We have here another
so that they are very close together.
tion of the continuity
which
illustra-
between real and imaginary roots (cf. Arts. 17,

the two roots would be equal; and if it were a small
exists
If fz(x) were zero,

18).
negative number, they would be imaginary.
8.
The
quadratic function
is
found to have imaginary
Ans. One
real root
between
{0,
0.
roots.
1
four imaginary roots.
209
Examples.
9.
& - 6*
We find
- 30* + 12* -
/(*) and as
this
has clearly
all
20**
0.
4-
roots, the calculation
imaginary
An s. Two
6**
real roots
may
in the intervals
stop here.
1
2,
{6,7}.
0),
{5, 6).
10.
2*
18**
60**
-I-
120*'
We find
- 30* 2 +
2
/2(*)-6**-f 220* +
and the calculation
may
--
0.
stop.
Two
Ana.
Examine how the
11.
18*
real roots
in the intervals
{-
1,
2**+ 16* 8 -84*- 190 =

are situated in the several intervals between the
Here
The
/i(*)
x1
-
-f
bx -
numbers -
oo
7, 6,
-f
oo
14,
substitution of the above quantities gives
(_oo)
+,
(-7)
(6)
+,
-f
+.
(-f 00
Whenever,
as in this example,
-f,
any quantity makes one

the zero
of the auxiliary functions
be disregarded in counting the

number of changes of sign in the corresponding row for, since the signs on each
ranish (here
7 satisfies f\ (x)
0),
may
no
alteration in the
number
of changes of sign in the row

could take place, whatever sign be supposed attached to the vanishing quantity.
eide of it are different,
The
roots are all real.
tween 12.
and
There
is
one root between
oo
and
and two be-
6.

3**
- 6*3 -
8*
0.
We find
As/f#)
is
a perfect square the calculation
Am. Two real
may
cease.
roots; in the intervals
{-1, 0},
{1, 2).
210
Conditions for the Reality of tbe Roots of an

Equation. The number of Sturm's functions, including
- 1 remainders, will in
f(x) f(x) and tbe n
general be n + 1.
99.
In certain
cases,
function, some
owing
to tbe absence of terms in tbe proposed
be wanting. Tins can

occur only wben the proposed equation has imaginary roots for
it is clear that, in order to insure a loss of n changes of sign in
the series of functions during the passage of x from - oo to + oo
(namely, in order that the equation should have all its roots
of tbe remainders will
real), all
must
all
the functions must be present.

And, moreover, they
and alternating
take the same sign when x = + oo
;
when x - -
Since the leading term of an equation is

signs
a
positive sign, we may state the condition
always taken with
for the reality of all the roots of any equation (supposed not to
oo
have equal roots) as follows
In order that
all the roots
of an
th
degree should be real, the leading coefficients of
equation of the n
all
StUrm's remainders, in number n -
1,
must
be positive.
EXAMPLES.
1.
Find the condition that the roots of the equation

ax- + Ibx
=
Ans.
should be real and unequal.

2.
uc
>
0.
Find the conditions that the roots of the cuhic

^-t-Sflz-f
should be
When
which
bz
all real
<?
and unequal.
this cubic has its roots all real, it is evident that the general cubic
from
derived (Art. 36) has also its roots all real ; so that in investigating the
conditions for the reality of the roots of a cubic in general, it is sufficient to discui/
the form here written.
it is
We find
/iW =
22
4-
//,
[In calculating these, before dividing f\
(z)
by/2(z), multiply the former by the
2
positive factor 2.Zr .]
Hence the required conditions
are, J5~ negative
These can be expressed as one condition,

implies the former (cf. Art. 43).
and GP +
viz.,
G2
-f
4J5T 3 negative.
4IT 8 negative, since this
Conditions for Reality of Roots of a Biquadratic.

3.
211
Calculate Sturm's remainders for the biquadratic

**
We find
0.
GHz* 4- 4Gz + a 2 / - 35" 2
= - ZHz* -ZGz- (a2 / - 3JT 1 ),
= - (2J7J- 3a/)z - GI,
-I-
2 (z)
f (z)
/ (*)-/-27/
s
2
.
These are obtained without much
by
difficulty
aid of the identity of Art. 37.
Before dividing /i by/z, multiply by the positive factor 3.S" 2 and when the remainder is found, remove the positive factor a 2 . Before dividing^ by^g, multiply
;
by the positive factor

2
2
positive factor a j2" .
(2HI
3aJ)
2
;
and when the remainder
is
found, remove the
Conditions for the Reality of the Roots of a

Biquadratic. In order to arrive at criteria of the nature of
100.
the roots of the general algebraic equation of the fourth degree

by Sturm's method, it is sufficient to consider the equation of
Ex. 3 of the preceding Article. By aid of the forms of the

leading coefficients of Sturm's remainders there calculated, we
down
can write
the conditions that all the roots of a biquadratic
should be real and unequal in the form
negative,
2III - 3aJ
negative,
J 3 - 27 J
positive.
It will be observed that the second of these conditions
is
form from the corresponding condition of Art. 68.

To show the equivalence of the two forms it is necessary to
different in
when
is negative and A positive, the further con2HI 3aJ negative implies the condition 3Jr -12J9r2
prove that
dition
From the identity of Art. 37,

negative, and conversely.
2
- 12H 2 s a 2
written in the form (a-I
(2H1 - 3aJ) - 3<? ,
it
readily appears that
a 2! - 12 H~
we
H and
when
necessarily negative.
observe that when aj is positive
I is
when aj
since
positive
is
2HI - 3aJ are
And
is
2HI -
on account of the condition
2HI
3aJ
is still
negative
to prove the converse
3a J
is
negative,
positive ; and
negative, since the
negative
2HI exceeds the positive part - 3aJ, as may be
2
2
shown
readily
by the aid of the inequalities 12H > a / and
8
>
/
27J*.
negative part
The student will have no difficulty in verifying, by means

of Sturm's functions, the remaining conclusions arrived at in
the different cases of Art. 68.
p
212
EXAMPLES.
1.
Apply Budan's method
to separate the roots of the equation
**
16*3
69* a
70*
42
0.
Ant. Boots in intervals {-1, 0}, {2, 3}, {4, 6), {9, 10}.
2.
Apply Sturm's theorem to the analysis of the equation
6*
0.
In analysing a biquadratic of this nature which has clearly two real roots, when
a Sturmian remainder is reached whose leading coefficient is negative, the calculation
may
may
must then be imaginary, and the positions

be readily found by substitution in the given equation.
Two
roots imaginary
cease, since the other pair of roots
of the real roots
Ans.
3.
real roots in intervals
Two
Ans.
roots imaginary
Apply Sturm's theorem

**
21
2,
real roots in intervals
{-1, 0}, {3,4}.
to the analysis of the equation
+ 3* 3
-&-
3*
11
0.
all
imaginary.
Find, by Sturm's method, the number and positions of the real roots of the
equation
x*
Ant. Boots
all real
{1,
6.
0.
Ans. Boots
5.
0},
Analyse in a similar manner the equation
- 6* -
4.
{1,
0}
10*3
one
63
o.
m the interval {4,
3}; two in the interval
and positive roots in the intervals
{0,
},
3,
Calculate Sturm* s functions for the following equation, and show that
4}.
all
the
loots are real:
-5x-l - 0.
7.
Calculate Sturm's functions for the following equation, and
roots are imaginary
show that
four'
5*3
0.
This and the preceding example are instances in which, as the student will
common to two f Sturm's remainders which are not
easily see, there is a factor
consecutive.
8. Calculate
clusioni of
Ex.
Sturm's functions for the following equation, and verify the

with regard to the character of the roots :
23, p. 104,
x6
bpx*
+ 6>2* -f
1q
= 0.
213
Examples.
Prove that, if *
I.
lias
any value except

a?*-2c2 a;8
3
<?
unity, the equation
2*
-f
has a pair of imaginary roots.
Prove that the roots of the equation
10.
ip3
are
and solve
all real,
it
a2
when two
02)
2flfo
of the quantities
a, b, c
become equal.
Prove that when the biquadratic
II.
/(*)
has a triple factor,
it
may
a 3/(ar)3
12. Verify,
filled
when the
by means
ax*
4bx*
6<?s*
+ idx 4
be expressed in the form

{
ax
+ V^lf} 3
b- 3V^lf}.
{ax +
of Sturm's remainders, the conditions
biquadratic of the preceding
example
which mustbe
ful-
a perfect square, and prove
is
in that case
a\f(x)= {{ax
b)
+3H}
2
.
'
are present, the number of changes o

Prove that,
terms
is equal to the number of pairs of
of
the
the
coefficients
leading
among
igu
when all Sturm's functions
1 3.
imaginary roots of the equation.

14. If the signs of the leading coefficients of the first two of Sturm's remainder*,
for a quintic be
h, prove that the number of real roots is determined.
Am. One real root only.
15. If JJTand
imaginary
ooufficients
/ are
both positive, prove that
all
the 'roots of the biquadratic are
and that under the same conditions the quintic written with binomial
has only one real root.
(MR. M. ROBERTS, Dublin Exam. Papers, 1862.)
16. In the application of Sturm's theoiem, if any function be reached whose

signs are all positive or all negative, the number and situations of the positive
roota of the
original
Stunnians; and
if
equation
can be examined without the aid of the lower
a function be reached
whose signs are alternately positive and
.negative, the negative roots of the original equation
may be
discussed in a similar
manner.
are real, prove that all the roots of
17. If all the roots of any equation f(x] =
every one of Sturm's auxiliary functions aie also real.
This can be established by reasoning similar to that of Art. 96. Consider the
jfef* remainder
This and the m functions which follow
jfo, and let its degree be m.
constitute
series of
which no adjacent two can vanish together.

and negative, and when a? =
their signs are alternately positive

positive.
There
are, therefore,
m changes
of sign to be lost as
oo
=-
oo
they are all
x passes from -
+ oo and no change of sign can be lost except on the passage

fa = 0, which equation must consequently have m real roots.
to
When
-f-
oo
through a root of
Since a value of x which causes any of the functions to vanish gives opposite
signs to thje two adjacent functions, it is easily inferred that any equation of the
series is
a limiting equation with regard to the function which precedes
it.
214
18. If the real roots of any one, /(), of the Sturmian auxiliary functions be
known, prove that the number and positions of the roots of the original equation
may be determined without the aid of the functions below fm(x}Let the real roots, in order of magnitude, of/m (#) =
the
.
be a,
TJ, 9
,
oo to a value a little less

remaining roots being imaginary. As x varies from
than a, the function fm (x) cannot change its sign; and therefore in examining
the roots of f(x) =
which lie between these limits, the Sturmians which follow
fm (x) may be
disregarded.
greater than
to one a
The same
little less
than
holds true as x passes from a value a
iy
and similarly
for the
little
remaining intervals.
we examine separately the intervals { co 0}, {0, ij}, . .. {&, a},

the number of roots of the original equation which lie in each of these
legions can be determined without the aid of the lower Sturmian functions.
If therefore
{a, -f oo },
19. If any one of Sturm's auxiliary functions has imaginary roots, the original
(Mil. F. PURSER.)
equation has at least an equal number of imaginary roots.
This can be inferred from the preceding example by examining the greatest
possible number of changes which can be lost in the series terminating with fm (x),
oo to -f oo
remembering that, so far as the limited
during the passage of x from
series is concerned, a change of sign may be gained on the passage through each
;
rcul root of
fm (x) =
0.
Apply the method of Ex. 18 to the equation of Ex. 1, Art,

Disregarding the two lowest Sturmian remniiulers, we have
20.
/(a-)
aar'-f
/*(*)
7?i
The
and
E-
(0, 1).
of x- in
8.1
-f
4 14*
Ox*
29/-
7*- ^
78jf
10*+
-f
1,
10,
14.
lie in the intervals (- 3, - 2)

has
two
imaginary roots, since the coefficient
f(x)
The real roots, if any, must be negative. The three
roots of the equation ll\
The equation
4a-
98.
=
=
are easily seen to
E\ is negative.
functions above written are sufficient to determine the existence and situations of
roots in the intervals (-00,
3)
and (-2,
0).
It is at once seen that
roots of the original equation are situated in the latter interval.

It will be found possible in many examples to avoid in this
of the last
sary to
two Sturmian remainders
know
and
it
way the
will be observed that
it is
two
real
calculation
not neces-
the actual roots of the quadratic function, but only the intervals in
which they are
situated.
CHAPTER XL
SOLUTION OF NUMERICAL KQUATIONS.
There
Algebraical and Numerical liquations.
an essential distinction between the solutions of algebraical
and numerical equations. In the former the result is a general
formula of a purely symbolical character, which, being the general
101.
is
expression for a root, must represent all the roots indifferently.

must be such that, when for the functions of the coefficients
involved in it the corresponding symmetric functions of the
It
roots are substituted, the operations represented
signs J,
roots of
by the radical
become practicable and when the square and cube
these symmetric functions are extracted, the whole
*J
expression in terms of the roots will reduce down to one rc&t

the different roots resulting from the different combinations
2
J f square roots, and *J, w*J, o> Jj of cube root*. For a
:
simple illustration of what is here stated, we rel'er to the case

of the quadratic in Art. 55.
In Articles 59 and 66 we have
similar illustrations for the cubic and biquadratic.
It is to be
observed also that the formula which represents the root of an

algebraic equation holds good even when the coefficients are
imaginary quantities.
In the case of numerical equations the roots are determined
separately by the methods we are about to explain and, before
;
attempting the approximation to any individual root, it is in

general necessary that it should be situated in a known interval
which contains no other real
The
root.
real roots of numerical equations
mensurajble or inoompiawirable
integers, fractions,
may
be either cpwr
the former class including
and terminating or repeating decimals, which
216
Solution of Numerical Equations.

the latter consisting of interminable
;
roots of the former class can be found exactly,
are reducible to fractions
The
decimals.
and those of the latter approximated to with any degree of

accuracy, by the methods we are about to explain.
We shall commence by establishing a theorem which reduces
the determination of the former class of roots to that of integer
roots alone.
Theorem.
102.
term
first
is
unity,
An
and
equation in which the coefficient of the
the coefficients of the other terms whole
numbers, cannot have a commensurable root which

number.
if possible, let
j,
For,
a fraction in
its
is
not a whole
lowest terms, be

#* + j^tf"- 1 +
n ~*
+ ....+
p x
2
p^x
+ pn -
we have then
from which, multiplying by
Now
an
not divisible by
is
side of the equation
is
an
b,
w~l
we
obtain
and each term on the right-hand
integer.
tion in its lowest terms equal to
Hence
We have,
therefore, a frac-
an integer, which
- cannot be a root of the

equation.
The
is
impossible.
real roots of
the equation, therefore, are either integers or incommensurable

quantities.
Every equation whose
coefficients are finite numbers, fraccan

tional or not,
be reduced to the form in which the coefficient
of the first term is unity and those of the other terms whole
numbers
(Art. 31)
so that in this
way, by the aid of a simple

commensurable roots
transformation, the determination of the
in general can be reduced to that of integer roots,
Newton's Method of Divisors.
217
We proceed to
explain Newton's process, called the Method

of Divisors, of obtaining the integer roots of an equation whose
coefficients are all integers.
Newton's Method of Divisors.
103.
Suppose h
an
to be
integer root of the equation
+ .... + an .ix + a n =
Let the quotient, when the polynomial
in which J
0.
(1)
divided by x -
is
&c., are clearly all integers.

as
in Art. 8, we obtain the following equations
Proceeding
,
#1,
flo
fln-2
be
A,
b 0y
bi
cii
= b n _ t - A6 n _3,
fl
- hb
n _!
a-i
b2
- hb l9 ....
= &_! - A^ n -,
= - hb n-i*
The last of these equations proves that a n is divisible by h,

the quotient being - J^. The second last, which is the same as
proves that the
sum
oond last coefficient

- iâ and so on.
of the quotient thus obtained

is
again divisible
by
A,
and the
se-
the quotient being
Continuing the process, the last quotient obtained in this

way will be - & which is equal to - a Q
.
we perform
the process here indicated with all the divia

sors of n which lie within the limits of the roots, those which
If
satisfy the
step,
and a
equation.
above conditions, giving integer quotients at each

final quotient
Those which
-a
equal to
at
any
are roots of the proposed
stage of the process give a frac-
tional quotient are to be rejected.
When
the coefficient a
1,
we know by the theorem of

determined in this way
last Artiple that the integer roots

all
the commensurable roots of the proposed equation.
the
are
If a be
218
not =

the process will still give the integer roots of the equastands ; but to be sure of determining in this way all
1,
tion as
it
we must first transform the equation

one which shall have the coefficient of the highest term equal
the commensurable roots,

to
to unity.
104. Application of the Method of Divisors.

With a
view to the most convenient mode of applying the Method oi
we
write the series of operations as follows, in a

analogous to Art. 8
Divisors,
manner
~/^n-2
The
first
-//^-3
~//i,
'hi,
figure in the second line (-
b^}
is
obtained
by
This is to be added to a n_i to obtain the first

dividing a n by h.
in
the
line
third
(-hh^. This is to be divided by h to
figure
this to be
obtain the second figure in the second line (- & n _ 2 )
added to a^ and so on. If h be a root, the last figure in the
;
second line thus obtained will be - a
When we succeed in
proving in this manner that any integer

h is a root, the next operation with any divisor may be performed,
hut on those of the
not on the original coefficients a n > n-i>
>
second line with their signs changed, for these are the coefficients
of the quotient when the original polynomial is divided by x - h.
When any divisor gives at any stage a fractional result it is to

be rejected at once, and the operation so far as it is concerned
stopped.
The numbers
divisors of #m
and -
1, which are always of course integer

need not be included in the number of trial divisors.
more convenient before applying the Method of Divisors to

determine by direct substitution whether either of thesq numbers
It is
is
a root.
219
Examples.
EXAMPLES.
1.
Find the integer roots of the equation

Z*
By grouping
roots lie
and
-f
5.
commence with
The operation
we
a root
24
-2,
2,
is
a root
all
the
4.
3,
-2
38
-13
-6
32
-5
number
is
not divisible by 4, 4 cannot be a root.
38
-13
-2
-8
10
-1
-1
30
-3
-3
0;
coefficients of the
integer, 2,
we make
use, as
second line with signs changed:
8-10
-3
-1
-6-2
hence 2 also
0.
observe without difficulty that
and in proceeding with the next
above explained, of the
following divisors are possible roots
- 5
stops here, for since
proceed then with the
is
+ 38* -
13*'
-24
hence 3
The
-3,
-24
We
the terms (see Art. 87)
between
-4,
WQ
2*3
0;
-431
and we proceed with
6;
hence - 2
is
not a root, for
does not divide
it
does not divide 5.
is
plainly not a root, for
it
4.
[We might at once have struck out 3 as not being a divisor of the absolute
term 8 of the, reduced polynomial. This remark will often be of use in ^^înhing
the
number
of divisors.]
220
We proceed now to the last divisor,

-4
4.
-1
Thus - 4 is a root.
The equation has, therefore, the integer
roots 3, 2,
and the
last stage of
the operation shows that when the original polynomial is divided by the binomials,
x - 3, x
Hence the original
1 ; so that 1 is also a root.
2, x + 4, the result is a?
is
polynomial
2.
equivalent to
Find the integer
roots of
3**
The
- 23* 3
roots lie between
-1-
and
35**
+ 31* -
30
0.
we have
hence
only to test the divisow
2, 3, 5, 6.
"We find immediately that 6

For 5 we have
is
-30
hence 3
The
is
is
For
a root.
a root
quotient,
35-23
31
hence 6
not a root.
25
40
-16
we have
-6
-8
-1
-3
-3
-9
and we easily find that 2
when
8-3
0;
0;
is
not a root.
the original polynomial
divided by (x
is
5) (x
3), is,
from
the last operation,
3*2
of this 1 is not a root,
posed equation are
The
1 is
+ *-2;
a root.
Hence
all
the integer roots of the pro-
1, 3, 5.
other root of the equation
an integer,
3.
and -
is
Find
is -.
It is a
commensurable root
but, not being
not given in the above operation.
all
the roots of the equation

x*
Limits of the roots are
+ * - 2*2 + 4* -
24
0.
4, 3.
^^
Ant. Rooti
- S,
2,
V-f.
Method of Limiting
4.
Find
all
roots lie
- 2* -
between - 6 and
We find that
is
Number of Divisors.
221
the rooti of the equation

*
The
the
hence 2
2, 3,
is
19*2 + 68* - 60
0.
6.
5 are roots,
a douhle root.
and that the factor
The polynomial
(*-2)(- 3) (* +
is
left after
the final division
therefore equivalent to
).
In Art. 106 the case of multiple roots will be further considered.
105.
It
is
Method of Limiting the Number of Divisors.
possible of course to
determine by direct substitution
whether any of the divisors of a n are roots of the proposed equation ; but Newton's method has the advantage, as the aboveexamples show, that some of the divisors are rejected after very
little labour.
It has a further advantage which will now be
the number of divisors of a n within the limits
When
explained.
is important to be able, before proceeding
with the application of the method in detail, to diminish the
number of these divisors which need be tested. This can be
of the roots is large, it
done as follows
If h
and the
is
an integer root of f(x) =
0,
f(x)
by x- h,
was above
divisible
is
coefficients of the quotient are integers, as
If therefore we assign to a? any integer value, the

explained.
of
the
quotient
corresponding value of /(#) by the correspond-
We
h must be an integer.
take, for convenience,
the simplest integers 1 and - 1 ; and, before testing any divisor h,
we subject it to the condition that /(I) must be divisible by
ing value of x
1 - h (or, changing the sign, by h - 1) ; and that /(- 1)

be divisible by - 1 - h (or, changing the sign, by 1 + A).
must
In applying this observation it will be found convenient to

if either of thesa
Calculate /(I) and/(- 1) in the first instance
vanishes, the corresponding integer is a root, and we proceed
with the operation on the reduced polynomial whose coefficients
:
have been ascertained in the process of finding the result o

substituting the integer in question.
222
EXAMPLES.
**
1.
The
between
roots lie
We have the
4,
281a?2
257*
440 -
0.
and 24.
10,
8,
6,
11,
22.
20,
easily find
=-840,
/(I)
We
+ 160*8 -
following divisors
2,
We
23ar*
/(-I) =-648.
and
therefore exclude all the above divisors, which,
when diminished by
1,
do
The first
not divide 840; and which, when increased by 1, do not divide 648.
condition excludes 10 and 20, and the second 4 and 22.
Applying the Method of
Divisois to the remaining integers 2, 6, 8, 11, we find that 5, 8, and 11 are roots,
Hence the given polynomial is equiand that the resulting quotient is x 2 + x + 1
.
valent to
(*
J3 -
2.
The
/(I)
f(
=0;
i)
We
as
- 2,
so
124
1 is
(*-
6)
29.i-
between
roots lie
Divisors
8)
(*-
11) (*
+ *+!).
- 31* 3 + 31* 2 - 32* + 60 =
0.
and 32.
2, 3, 4, 6, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30.
a root.
and the above condition excludes
easily find that
The given polynomial
is
and 30 are
equivalent to
roots,
(x
all
the divisors except
and that the

1)
(x
2
30) (x + 2) (# -f
106.
2, 3, 30.
final quotient is
t2 +
1.
1).
The Method
of Divisors determines multiple roots when they are commensurable.

In applying the method, when any divisor of a n which
found to be a root is a divisor of the absolute term of the reduced polynomial, we must proceed to try whether it is also a
root of the latter, in which case it will be a double root of the
is
proposed equation. If it be found to be a root of the next

reduced polynomial, it will be a triple root of the proposed ; and
Whenever in an equation of any degree
so on.
there exists only
*
one multiple root, r times repeated, it can be found in this
way
for the common measure of f(x) and f(x) will then be of the
form
(x
1*" 1
a)
mensurable
if
and the
coefficients of this could
a were incommensurable.
not be con*
223
Multiple roots of equations of the third, fourth, and fifth

degrees can be completely determined without the use of the
process of finding the greatest common measure, as will appear
from the following observations

(1).
The Cubic.
In
must he comnot high enough to allow of two
this case multiple roots
mensurable, since the degree
is
distinct roots being repeated.

(2).
In
The Biquadratic.
this case either the multiple roots
are commensurable or the function
is
For the
a perfect square.
only form of biquadratic which admits of two distinct roots
being repeated
is
(x
a)'- (,r
/3,.',
The roots of the quadratic may

the square of a quadratic.
be incommensurable. If we find, therefore, that a biquadratic
has no commensurable roots, we mubt try whether it is a perviz.
i'ect
square iu order to determine further whether
incommensurable
The
it
has equa^
roots.
In this case, either the multiple roots are

the
function consists of a linear commenor
commensurable,
surable factor multiplied by the square of a quadratic factor.
For, in order that two distinct roots may be repeated, the
(3).
Qidntic.
function must take one or other of the forms
In the
latter case the roots
cannot be incommensurable
but the
correspond to the case of a commensurable factor

multiplied by the square of a quadratic whose roots are incommensurable. If then a quintio be found to have no commen-
former
may
surable roots,
it
can have no multiple roots.
If
it
be found to
have one commensurable root only, we must examine whether

the remaining factor is a perfect square.
If it have more than
one commensurable root, the multiple roots will be found
the commensurable roots.
among
224
EXAMPLES.
Find
1.
all
the commensurable roots of
-31*2 +
2*3
The
roots lie
between the
therefore a root.
is
The
1, 16.
Proceed
0.
divisors are 2, 4, 8.
31
15
-2
120
-16
112
64
limits
112* + 64
now with
-8
0;
the reduced equation.
-16
-2
- 16
8
is
a root again, and the remaining factor
is
2#
-f 1
Am. /(*).(2*+l)(*-8)'.
Find the commensurable and multiple roots of
2.
xi
The
roots lie
30^2
limits,
-6,
12.
between the
x*
76a
56
0.
(Apply method of Ex. 10, Art. 87.)
Ant.
f(x)
(x
2}^ (x
7).
3.
40*
10
-f
0.
The roots lie between the limits

2, 5.
The equation as it stands is found to have no
but it may slil]
ii^teggyroot
have a commensurable root. To test this we multiply me roots by 3 in order tc
;
get rid of the coefficient of x*.

x*
Limits
We
to (x~
12#
-x*- llx
120a?
-f
-f
15.
4 to be a double root of this,
find
following
4.
6,
"We find then
9) (x
4)
The
and the function to be equivalent
original equation is therefore identical with tin

s*
12*
-f
32* - 24s
m 0.
225
Newton's Method of Approximation.

between - 12 and
1.
The only divisors to he tested are, therefore,
has no commensurable root.
the
proequation
2,
4,
This can be done by
ceed to try whether the given function is a perfect square.
find
extracting the square root, or by applying the conditions of Ex. 3, p. 125.
The
roots lie
We
We find that
1.
We
that
it is
has two
Find the commensurable and multiple
6.
roots of
8* 2 +
The
limits of the roots are
We find
that
-3
is
and that there
The only
is
4, 4.
4* 3 + 8*
no other commensurable
-f
(x*
/(*)
8**
~2*
-2)*(* +
An*.
The following equation has only two

**
In general
The
it
is
13**
-f
obvious that
h- as a factor,
67**
if
here
800**
this
f(x)m
18
(*-
0.
+ l)(*-2) (*-3) a
find
+ 210* - 108 =
them
0.
an integer root h occurs twice, the last coefficient

if the root occurs three times,
last A
22
33 .
Hence,
and h
if
-x+
102**
of the third last coef-
neither
That these are the roots
3.
The equation
has ecfual roots
In
+ 21* -
factor of the last, A z of the second last,

last coefficient
this
3).
different roots
171*'
and the second
the required roots must be 2 and

8.
when
roots of
22* 3 - 26*-
-f
therefore,
is,
found to be a perfect square, and we have
It is
/(*)
ficient.
0,
root.
Find the commensurable and multiple
must contain
h 3 must be a
case of possible occurrence of multiple roots
latter function is a perfect equaie.
7.
12=0.
282:
a root, and that the reduced equation 10
&
6.
Hence the given equation
2 (cf. Ex. 1, p. 163).

the square of *2 -f 8*
incommensurable.
both
of
equal roots,
pairs
is
nor
1 is
a root,
easily verified.
find all the roots.
example
it
i*w5aikyenient to
change the roots into their reciprocals before
applying the Method of Divisors.
Ant.
/(*)(10*-8)(6-l)(4*+l).
Newton's Method of Approximation. Having

shown how the commensurable roots of equations may be obtained, we proceed to give an account of certain methods of
107.
obtaining approximate values of the incommensurable roots,
The method
of approximation,
commonly
ascribed to Newton,*
which forms the subject of the present Article,

* See Note
at the
end of the volume.
is
valuable as
226
being applicable to numerical equations involving transcendental
which involve algebraical functions
functions, as well as those
Although when applied to the latter class of functions

Newton's method is, for practical purposes, inferior in form to
Homer's, which will be explained in the following Articles, yet
in principle both methods are to a great extent identical.
In all methods of approximation the root we are seeking is
supposed to be separated from the other roots, and to be situated
only.
in a
known
interval between close limits.
be a given equation, and suppose a value a to

Let/(#) =
be known, differing by a small quantity h from a root of the
We have then, since a + h is a root of the equation,
equation.
/ (a +
h)
or
*+
A +
Neglecting now, since h

the first, we have
giving, as a
first
is
small, all powers of h higher than
approximation to the root, the value
Representing this value by &, and applying the same process

second time, we find as a closer approximation
By
t6
any
/w
repeating this process the
approximation can be carried
degree of accuracy required.

EXAMPLE.
Find an approximate value of the positive root of the equation

x* - 2# - 5 = 0.
The
root lies between 2
found to
cannot
lie
and 3 (Ex.
between 2 and
differ
2'2.
1,
Art. 96).
We take 2'1
from the true value a
-f
Narrowing the
h of the root by more than
easily
.
f'(a)
f'(2-l)
limits,
the root
as the quantity represented
11-23
00543
0*1.
by a.
We
if
It
find
Homer's Solution of Numerical Equations.

A
flrtt
approximation
is,
therefore,
2-
Taking
this as 4,
227
1-0-00643 -2-0946.
we obtain
and calculating the
fraction"^-,
--r = 2-09466148'
/
for a second approximation
and
I*)
so on.
The approximation in Newton's method

When, however, the root we are seeking
another nearly equal to
it,
the fraction
is,
in general, rapid.
is
accompanied by
-r- is
not necessarily
small, since the value of either of the nearly equal roots reduces
case of this kind requires special
f(x) to a small quantity.
We do not enter into any further discussion of

precautions.
the method, since for practical purposes it may be regarded as
entirely superseded by Horner's method, which will now be
explained.
108. Homer's
tions.
By
this
Method of Solving Numerical Equamethod both the commensurable and incom-
mensurable roots can be obtained.
The
root
is
evolved figure
the integer part (if any), and then the decimal

by figure :
part, till the root terminates if it be commensurable, or to any
first
number of places required if it be incommensurable. The process is similar to the known processes of extraction of the square
and cube
which
are, indeed, only particular cases of the

general solution by the present method of quadratic and cubic
root,
equations.
The main
principle involved in Horner's method

oessive diminution of the roots of the given equation
is
the suo-
by known
manner explained in Art. 33.
The great
the method is, that the successive transformations
quantities, in the
advantage of
are exhibited in a compact arithmetical form, and the root

obtained by one continuous process oorrect to any number of
places of decimals required.
This principle of the diminution of the

illustrated in the present Article
roots
by simple examples.
will
be
In the
228
Solution of Numerical Equation*.
some additional
principles which tend

to facilitate the practical application of the method will be
Articles which follow,
explained.
1.
Find the positive root of the equation

2* 8
The
first step,
flrtt figure of
- 85s 2 - 85* -
87
0.
when any numerical equation
is proposed for solution, if to find th*

This can usually be done by a few trials although in cei>
the root.
methods of separation of the roots explained in Chap. X. may have

to he employed.
In the present example there can he only one positive root and
it is found by trial to lie between 40 and 60.
Thus the first figure of the root is 4.
tain cases the
We now
diminish the roots by 40.
and 10.
between
It is
found by
trial to lie
between 3 and
4.
will
We
have one root
now
diminish
the roots of the transformed equation by 3 ; so that the roots of the proposed equation will be diminished by 43.
The second transformed equation will have one xoot
and
between
that
its
1.
On
absolute term
diminishing the roots of this latter equation by -6, we find

reduced to zero, i. e the diminution of the roots of the pro-
IB
posed equation by 43*6 reduces

a root of the given equation.
as follows
is
its
absolute term to zero.
The
We
conclude that 43*6
series of arithmetical operations is represented
(43*
173
1
174
The broken lines mark the conclusion of eacri transformation, and the figures in
dark type are the coefficients of the successive transformed equations (see Art. 33).
Thus
2* 8 + 165* 2
+ 2716* - 11487
229
Example*.
b the equation whose roots are each less by 40 than the roots of the given equation,
and whose positive root is found to lie between 3 and 4. If the second transformed
equation had not an exact root *5 but one, we shall suppose, between '6 and -6, the
;
three figures of the root of the proposed

equation would be 43-5 ; and to find
the next figure we should proceed to a further transformation, diminishing the roots
first
-5
by
and so on.
2.
31*
276
0.
We first write down the arithmetical work, and proceed to make certain observation*
On
it
-31
-276
66
210
35
24
35
210
-65
61-392
245
13-608
13-608
11-96
256-96
12-12
26908
3-08
272*16
614
2
61-6
We find by trial that the proposed equation has its positive

The
first
figure of the root is therefore 6.
g*
has therefore a root between
The
two
Dimmish
root
the roots
by
between 6 and
6.
1.
The equation
+ 59s + 246* - 66
and
1.
It is
found by
trial to lie
between
*2
and -3.
the root of the proposed equation are therefore 6*2.

Diminish the roots again by *2. The transformed equation is found to have the
root -06.
Hence 6*26 is a root of the proposed equation.
first
figures
of
This can
It is convenient in practice to avoid the use of the decimal points.
When
the decimal part of the root (suppose 'at* . . .)

Ks about to appear, multiply the roots of the corresponding transformed equation by
the right
10, i.e. annex one lero to the right of the figure in the first column, two to
easily be effected as follows
of the figure in the second column, three to the right of that in the third and so on,
Lf there be more columns (as there will of course be in equations of a degree higher
;
than the third).

n-kc
The
root of the transformed equation is then, not 'abt . . . , but

4.
The transformed equation has a root ***...
Multiply the roots of this equation again by 10.
The
root becomes
*..., and
230
the process
is
To
continued as before.
In
omitting the decimal points.
all
illustrate this
we
repeat the above operation,
subsequent examples this simplification will b
adopted:
(6-26
6160
3.
20z
The
7
ab
'
root is easily found to lie
equation
When
- 121* - HI =
121*'
between
the roots are diminished by
and
7,
8.
0.
It
is,
therefore, of the
and multiplied by
form
10, the resulting
is
20*8 + 2990** + 112500* _ 67000
0.
The positive root of this is a I . . and aR the root clearly lies between and 1,
therefore place zero as the first figure in the decimal part of
we have a = 0.
the root, and multiply the roots again by 10, before proceeding to the second trans.
We
formation.
6 is easily seen to be a root of the equation thus transformed.
Am.
7-06.
In the examples here considered the root terminates at an
When
the calculation
is of greater
length, if it
the
successive
were necessary to find
figures by substitution, the
labour of the process would be very great. This, however, is
early stage.
not necessary, as will appear in the next Article ; and one of

the most valuable practical advantages of Homer's method is,
that after the second, or third (sometimes even after the
figure of the root
is
found, the transformed equation
by mere inspection the next figure of the root.

this simplification will
now be
explained.
The
first)
itself suggests
principle of
231
Principle of the Trial-divisor.
Principle of the Trial-divisor.
109.
We have seen
in
Art. 107 thatwhen an equation is transformed by the substitution

of a 4 h for #, a being a number differing from the true root by
a quantity h small in proportion to a, an approximate numeri-
Now
the
h is obtained by dividing /(a) by f(a}.
successive transformed equations in Uorner's process are the
results of transformations of this kind, the last coefficient being
cal value of
f(a),
and the second
last
(see Art. 33).
f(a)
Hence, after two
or three steps have been completed, so that the part of the root
remaining bears a small ratio to the part already evolved, we
may expect to be furnished with two or three more figures of the
root correctly
by mere division of the
by the second last

We might thereHomer's operations, apply
fore, if
we
Newton's
last
transformed equation.
coefficient oi the final
pleased, at any stage o;

method to get a further approximation to the root.
In liorner's method
this principle is employed to suggest the

next following figure of the root after the figures already
obtained.
The second last coefficient of each transformed equation is called the trial-divisor.
Thus, in the second example of
the last Article, the

trial-divisor
number
In
2690800.
is
this
correctly suggested
by the
example, indeed, the second
figure of the root is correctly suggested by the trial-divisor

of the first transformed equation
although, in general, such
In practice the student will have to estimate
is not the case.
;
the probable effect of the leading coefficients of the transformed

he will find, however, that the influence of these
equation
;
terms becomes
less
and
less
as
the
evolution
of
the root
proceeds.
EXAMPLES.
1.

x3
-I-
a;
4-
x - 100
correct to four decimal places.

It is easily seen that* the root lies
and proceed
to
make
observations on
between 4 and
it
6.
We write
down the work,
232
(4-2644
13792
First diminish the roots
by
As the decimal
4.
part is
now
about to appear,
attach ciphers to the coefficients of the transformed equation as explained in Ex. 2,

Since the coefficient 130 is small in proportion to 6700, we may expect
Art. 108.
The figure to
that the trial -divisor will give a good indication of the next figure.
he adopted in every case as part of the root is that highett number which in th* pro-
cm
Here 2
of transformation will not change the sign if the absolute Urm.
In diminishing by 2 the roots of the transformed equation
if
tilt
proper figure.
**
ISO*2
the absolute term retains
its
absolute term would have
become
gone beyond the root.
+ 6700* -
sign (- 4072).
positive, the
We must take
16000 -
0,
we had
adopted the figure *, the

change of sign showing that we had
II
care that, after the
first
transformation (the
reason of this restriction will appear in the next example), the absolute term preserves its sign throughout the operation.
If we were to take by mistake a number
would show itself, just as in ordinary division or evolution, by

number being greater than 9. Such a mistake, however, will
The error which is most common if to take the number too large,
too small, the error
the next suggested

rarely be made.
233
Examples.
and
this will
show
In the above work
itself in
it is
the work
the corresponding tigure of the root

places is 4*2644.
2.
The equation
has one root between
10644
**
by the change
of sign in the absolute term.
evident, without performing the fifth transformation, that

is 4,
so that the correct root to four decimal
+ 4#3 - 4*8 - 11* + 4
and 2
find its value correct to four decimal places.
234
We see without completing the

The
the root.
The
fifth
transformation that 9
is
the next figure of
root is therefore 1'6369 correct to four decimal places.
trial-divisor
becomes effective after the second transformation, suggesting

and all subsequent numbers. The first transformed equation
correctly the number 3,
We
its last two terms negative.

may expect, therefore, that the influence of
the preceding coefEueients is greater than that ol the trial -divisor, as in fact is here
The number 6, the second figure of the root, must be found by substituthe case.
has
We have to
tion.
determine what
the equation
few
& + 80*3 4
show that
trials
root lies between 6 and 7
subsequent
trials
we
is
the situation between
HOD* 2 - 3000*
- 60000
and 10 of the root
of
0.
Hence the
number of which we are in search. In the
numbers 3, 6, 9, in succession, which allow
6 gives a negative, aiid 7 a positive result.
and 6
is
the
take those greatest
In the first transformation, diminishing

its negative sign.
a change of sign in the absolute term.
The meaning of this
have parsed over a root lying between and 1, for gives a positive
the absolute term to retain

the roots by
is,
we
that
result, 4
1,
and
there
is
gives a negative result,
6.
In
all
subsequent transfonnations,
we keep helow
the root, the sign of the absolute term must be the same
This supposes of course that no
as the sign resulting from the substitution of 1.
This supposition we have
rout lies between 1 and that of which we are in search.
so long as
already
made
in the statement of the question.
have only two positive roots

one between 1 and 2.
When two
roots exist
one of them
lies
In fact the proposed equation can

and 1, and therefore only
between
between the limits employed in Homer's method,
i.e.
when
the equation has a pair of roots nearly equal, certain precautions must be observed
which will form the subject of a subsequent Article.
3.
Find the root of the preceding equation between
places.
Commence by multiplying by
1,
40,
400,
The
10.
and
to
four decimal
coefficient are then
11000,
40000;
the trial-divisor beoomec effective at once in consequence of the comparative small-
The positive sign of the absolute term must be

ness of the leading coefficients.
An*. -3373.
preserved throughout.
4. Find to three places ol decimals the root situated between 9 and 10 of the
equation
[Supply the zero
**-3*3 + 76*coefficient of #*.]
10000
0,
Ans. 9'886.
In the examples hitherto considered the root has been found

to a few decimal places only.
We proceed now to explain a
method by which, after three or four places of decimals have
been evolved as above, several more may be correctly obtained

with great facility by a contracted process.
110.
Contraction of
235
Hornets Process.
Contraction of
Homer s
Process.
In the
ordi-
nary process of contracted Division, when the given figures are

exhausted, in place of appending ciphers to the successive dividends, we cut off figures successively from the right of the
the divisor itself becomes exhausted after a
divisor, so that
number
depending on the number of figures it conresulting quotient will differ from the true quotient
In
figure only, or at most in the last two figures.
of steps
The
tains.
in the last
liorner's contracted
method the principle
retain those figures only
which are
is
the same.
We
effective in contributing to
the result to the degree of approximation desired.

When the
contracted process commences, in place of appending ciphers to
the successive coefficients of the transformed equation in the
before explained, we cut off one figure from the right

of the last coefficient but one, two from the right of the last
coefficient but two, three from the right of the last coefficient
way
but three; and so on.
The
effect of this is to retain in their
proper places the important figures in the work, and to banish

altogether those which are of little importance.
The student will do well to compare the first transformation
by the contracted process in the
first of the following examples

with the corresponding step in the second example of the last
He will
Article, where the transformation is exhibited in full.
how the leading figures (those which are most

in
important
contributing to the result) coincide in both cases,
and retain their relative flaces ; while the figures of little
then observe
importance are entirely dispensed with.
In addition
to the contraction
now
explained, other abbre-
viations of Horner's process are sometimes recommended ; but

as the advantage to be derived from them is small, and as they
we do not tiiink it necessary

The contraction here explained
increase the chances of error,
give any account of them.

of so
much importance
method
to
is
in the practical application of Horner's

of approximation that no account of this method is
complete without
it.
Solution of Numerical Equation.*.
236
EXAMPLES.
Find the root between
1.
and 2 of the equation in Ex. 2 of the
last Artiolk
correct to seven or eight decimal places.

result of the
Assuming the
Example
referred to,
we
commence the conThe subsequent
shall
tracted process after the third transformation hat bean completed.
work stands
as follows
26165788
18936
17649439
16213090
(1
-63691367ft
3156
3162
6
255733
285
-9161
2560181
76SO
1471
12SO
191
179
12
Here the
effect of the first cutting off of figures,
last coefficient, 14
altogether the
by 6 as
if
from the third
first coefficient
the coefficients
of a cubic equation.
1,
last,
namely, 8 from the second

last, ia to banish
and 062 from the fourth
of the biquadratic.
We proceed to
- 17649439 which
3150, 2516578,
diminish the roots
are left were thos
In multiplying by the corresponding figure of the root the

and account taken of the^jiujulijatJX)
figures cut off should be multiplied mentally,

t>e
carried, just as in contracted division.
After the diminution by 6 has been completed, we cut off again in the transformed
cubic 7 from the last coefficient but one, 68 from the last but two, and the- first
The work then proceeds as if we were dealing

with the coefficients 31, 255448, - 2336349 of a quadratic. The effect of the next
The subpiocess of cutting off is to banish altogether the leading coefficient 31.
sequent work coincides with that of contracted division. When the operation tercoefficient disappears altogether.
minates, the
two
QJ^
number
to
figures.
carried before the contracted process is
places required
*A th* 1nft
may be depended p" "p
which the evolution of the root must b*
of decimals in the quotient
The extent
three
commenced depends on the number of decimal

commences we shall be furnished, in
already evolved, with as many more as there are figures in
for after the contraction
addition to the figures

the trial -divisor, le&s one.
2.
Find
to
seven or eight decimal places the root of the equation
- 12*
which
lies
between 2 and
3.
237
Examples.
ThJ* equation can have only two positive roots - one lies between
and 1, and
For the evolution of the latter we have the following
the other between 2 and 3.
:
223180
BUJS
On
this
we remark,
that after diminishing the roots
by
2,
and multiplying the roots
we find that the trial-divisor 20000 will not

term 10000 we put, therefore, zero in the quotient, and
of the transformed equation by 10,
"go
into'' the absolute
multiply again by 10, and then proceed as before.

3.
Find the root of the same equation which
lies
between
nod
1.
Ans. -693685829.
4.

a
- 67-613*- 3761*2758=0.
When the coefficients of the proposed equation contain decimal points, it will
be found that they soon disappear in the work in consequence of the successive
multiplications by 10 after the decimal part of the root begin* to apponr.
Ann. 11-1973222.
6.
Find the negative root of the equation
**-12* 2 +12'
-8 =
to aeven places of decimals.
When
And
a negative root has to be found,
it is
convenient to change the sign of x
find the 'corresponding positive root of the transformed equation.
Ant.
3-9073735.
238
Application of Homer's Method to Cases where

Roots are nearly Equal. We have seen in Art. 107 that
the method of approximation there explained fails when the
111.
proposed equation has two roots nearly equal. Examples of

this nature are those which present most difficulties, both in
Ex.
their analysis (see
Horner's method
it
Art. 98) and in their solution.
7,
possible, with very little
is
By
more labour
necessary in other oases, to effect the solution of such

So long as the leading figures of the two roots are
equations.
than
is
the same, certain precautions must be observed, which will be

After the two roots
illustrated by the following examples.
the
have been separated,
subsequent calculation proceeds for
each root separately, just as in the examples of the previous

It is evident, from the explanation of the trialArticles.
divisor given in Art. 109, that for the same reason as that
which explains the failure of Newton's method in the case

(see Art. 107), it will not become effective
under consideration
the
till
first
or second stage after the roots
have been separated.
EXAMPLES.
I
The equation
*3
has two roots between
and 2
lx + 7
(see Ex.
Art. 96)
2,
find
each of them to eight
decimal places.
Diminishing the roots by

roots are multiplied
by
we
1,
find that the transformed equation (after its
10), viz.
x * + 30*2 _ 400*
must have two
3
and
4,
roots
between
and
and the other between 6 and
1000
0,
"We find that these roots
10.
7.
The
roots are
now
lie,
one between
separated,
and we
proceed with each separately in the manner already explained. If the roots were
not separated at this stage, we should find the leading figure common to the two,
and, having diminished the roots by it, find in what intervals the roots of the
resulting equation were situated
2.
and so on.
Am.
1-35689584,
1-69202147.
Find the two roots of the equation
& _ 49^2 +658*-! 379

which
lie
We
between 20 and 30.

complete work of approximation to the smaller of the two
and then make some observations which will )>e a guide to
shall exhibit the
roots to seven places
the student in all cases of the kind
239
Examples.
f
(23-2131277
206^91
The diminution
is
sent concerned.
by 20 changes the sign of the absolute term. This

between and 20, with which we are not at preof the first ti ausf ormed equation
of the roots
an indication that a root
The
roots
exists
a^ 1U
~ 102*+
181
are not yet separated, lying both between 3 and 4.
these numbers gives a positive result, so that
we have
The
substitution of each of
not here the same criterion
to guide usîn our search for the proper figure as in former cases, viz. a change of
have, however, a different criterion which enables
sign in the absolute term.
We
240

by mere
us to find
substitution the interval within which the
diminish the roots of **
4 23a
x*
lie
-f
34a?4
between
and
Hence the two
we
we
If
4.
diminish
root* lie
by
4,
of sign.
two
4.
They are, therefore, not
The next transformed equation
200s*
found in the same way to have both
If
tie.
we
by 3, the resulting equation (as in

of changes of sign as the equation itself.
between 3 and
4-
root
the resulting equation if

Hence the two roots must
roots
its
number
proceed to diminish by 3.
&
is
181
13*0, which has no change
the above work) has the same
ind
102*
11**
yet separated;
- 900# 4 1000
roots
its
between 2 and 3
the diminution by
2 leaving two changes of sign in the coefficients of the transformed equation (as in
So far, then,
the above work), and the diminution by 3 giving all positive signs.
diminish again by 2.
the two roots agree in their first three figures, viz. 23*2.
We
The resulting aquation # 3 4

1
and 2
and 3
2060jr2
- 8800* 4 1261000 =
giving a positive, and 2 a negative result
The
3 giving a positive result.
roots are
now
has one root only between
its
other root lies between 2
We
proceed, as
the above work, to approximate to the lesser root, by diminishing the roots of this
To approxithe trial divisor becoming effective at the next step.
equation by 1
mate to the greater root, we must diminish by 2 the roots of the same equation,
;
separated.
in
taking care that in the subsequent operations the negative sign, to which the preThe second
viously positive sign of the absolute term now changes, is preserved.
root will be found to be 23-2295212.
So long
as the
two
may be obtained by
roots remain together, a guide to the proper figure of the root

dividing twice the last coefficient by the second last, or the
The reason of this is, that the proposed equation

lecond last by twice the third last.
approximates now to the quadratic formed by the last three terms in each transformed
equation just as in previous cases, and in Newton's method, it approximated to the
simple equation formed by the last two terms, this quadratic having the two nearly
and when the two roots of the equation ax 2 4 bx 4 c =
equal roots foi its roots
;
2e
are nearly equal, either of

i
them
o
above example, the number 3
is
given approximately by -^-
2x
is
suggested by
181
;
10 'Z
or.b
Thus, in the
lrt ,2x
and the number 2 by
1000
.
900
In this way we can generally, at the first attempt, find the two integers between
which the pair of roots lies. We shall have also an indication of the separation of
the roots by observing when the numbers suggested in this way by the last three
coefficients
3.
become
different,
i.e.
when
2c
suggests a different
number from
Calculate to three decimal places eacli of the loots lying between 4 and 6 of
the equation
at 4 8# 3
70x*
144*
4 936 =
0.
Am.
4.
2a
4*242
4-246.
Find the two roots between 2 and 3 of the equation
692s 2
4 649*
.
1446
Am. The
0.
roots are both
2-125.
Lagrangds Method of Approximation.
241
Here we
find that the two roots are not separated at the third decimal place.
diminish by 5, the absolute term vanishes, showing that 2*125 is a
and proceeding with this diminution the second last coefficient also vanishes.
When we
root
Hence 2-125
is
a double root.
When
an equation contains more than two nearly equal

roots, they can all be found by Horner's process in a manner
Such cases are, however, of
similar to that now explained.
The principles already laid down

rare occurrence in practice.
will be a sufficient guide to the student in all cases of the kind.
112. Lagraiige's Method ofApproximation.
Lagrange
has given a method of expressing the root of a numerical equaAs this method is, for
tion in the form of a continued fraction.
practical purposes,
much
inferior to that of
content ourselves with a brief account of
Homer, we
shall
it.
Let the equation f(x) = have one root, and only one root,
between the two consecutive integers a and a + 1. Substitute
a + - for x in the proposed equation.
in y has one positive root.
Let this be determined by trial to

and 6 + 1. Transform the equation
lie
between the integers
in
y by the substitution y -
The
-.
positive root of the
found by trial to lie between c and c+ 1. Continuing this process, an approximation to the root is obtained
in the form of a continued fraction, as follows
equation in
z is
a + r1
EXAMPLES.
1.
Find
in the
form of a continued fraction the positive root of the equation
* - 2* - 6 =
The
between 2 and
3.
the transformation
root lies
To make
We
-,
we
then find
diminishing jthe roots by 2.
reciprocals of the roots of the transformed.
0.
first
employ the process of Art. 33,
the equation whose roots are the
242
The equation
in
is
way found
in this
10v
to
be
- 6y -
0.
This has a root between 10 and 11.
Make now
the substitution
The equation
in z
y=
This has a root between

in
and
which has a root between
94*'-
20*
Take
2.
0.
-.
-f-
+ 25w 2 - 89w -
and 2
61
0,
and so on.
have, therefore, the following expression for the root
10
2.
-.
is
54
We
is
61* 3
The equation
10
Find in the form of a continued fraction the positive root of

*
6a?
13
0.
Ant. 3
113.
Numerical Solution of the
II i quadra tie.
It is
proper, before closing the subject of the solution of numerical

equations, to illustrate the practical uses which may be made of
the methods of solution of Chap. VI.
Although, as before
observed, the numerical solution of equations is in general best
by the methods of the present chapter, there are cerwhich it is convenient to employ the methods
When a
of Chap. VI. for the resolution of the biquadratic.
leads
a
^cubic
to
which
has a
reducing
biquadratic equation
effected
tain cases in
can be readily found, and the

We proceed to solve a
solution of the biquadratic completed.
few examples of this kind, using Descartes' method (Art. 64),
commensurable
which
root, this root
will usually be
found the most convenient in practice.
243
Examples.
EXAMPLES.
Resolve the quartio
I.
a*
6**
3* 2
4-
+ 22* - 6
into quadratic factors.
we
easily obtain
p+p'-S, q+4+lpp'=Z,
pq'+p'q =
Making
the assumption of Art. 64,
also
/ and
/,
the equation for
q qf
6,
+ <f-l)\
*=\-pp'^\(q
and, calculating
\\,

have,
'
2,
- -
j/
1,
hence
5.
we
get
= -
6.
combined with the preceding equations,
p - -
1,
?'
Whn
the values of q and #'are found, the equation giving the value of p<f -I- p'q
determines which value of q goes with p 9 and which with p\ in the quadratic
The
factors.
quartic
is
resolved, therefore, into the factors
(x*-x+ !)(*- 2* -6).

By means
factors
in
of the other
we caa resolve
we can do the same
two values of
two other ways
or
the quartic into quadratic
<f>
ining by solving the two
quadratics already obtained.

2.
Kesolve into factors the quartic

f(x)
The equation
for
<f>
x*
is
12* 2
+ 60* +
63.
is
4^ which
8a^
found to have a root
195<j>
- 475 -
0,
6.
Ans. f(x)
R2
(*
- 2* -
2
3)(a;
6*
21).
244
3.
Resolve into factors
-20*-fl.
The reducing cubic
found to be
is
217
_
or, multiplying the roots
by
8186
6,
-661* +3186 m
4* 3
0,
This has a root
hence
<t>
s
o
^4n*.
ss
./"(a?)
(r
4* 4
2)(ar
4ar
3).
Eesolve into factors

f(x)
The reducing cubic
m x4 -
6ar
- $x z + 66* - 22.
is
40 _
___
^_
hence
=
~2*
^w*. f(x)
(jr
- 11)(^ - 6* +
2).
6. Resolve into factors
f(x)
x*
- 8s8 + 2U-2
- 26* + 14.
4w*. f(x)
6.
ss
2*
(a?
-|-
2)(**
- 6* +
7)
Resolve into factors

3.
^*.
7.
(*
a;V6
+ 3+
V<J)(*
+ 3
- V6).
- J5) -
3\/7}.
*\/6
Find the quadratic factors of

4**
- 8z 3 -
and solve the equation completely
Ans. {*
12#
(see
+ 84* - 63 *
Ex.
0,
18, p. 34),
2#(2 + V/7)
-f
3 v/7}
{ic
2dr(2
245
Miscellaneous Examples
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
1.
Find the positive root of
- 6* -
x*
13
0.
^lw. 3-176814393.
2.
Find the positive root of
- 2* -
-4J. 2-094561483.
correct to eight or nine places.

8.
The equation
2* - 660-8*3 + 6* - 1627
has a root between 300 and 400
find
it.
Ant. Commensurable root, 326

4.
4.
Find the root between 20 and 30 of the equation
+ 1896* - 457 =
4J 3 - 180# 2
0.
Ans. 28-62127738.
6.
Find
to six places the root
x*
between 2 and
+ ess* _
49*2
3 of the equation
1379 ^0.
Ans. 2-557351.
6.
Find to
six places the root
between 2 and 3 of the equation
-3 =
** - 12.r 2 ^ 12*
0.
Ans. 2*868053.
7.
Find the positive root
of the
equation
^ + 2#2 - 23* - 70 Ans. 6*13467872628.
correct to about ten decimal places.

8.
Ans. 8766.
Find the cube root of 673373097125.
Ant. 14.
9. Find the fifth root of 637824.
10.
Find
all

3
JF
The equation
x*
x*
0,
3*
-I-
0.
of Ex. 7, p. 100, reduces to thia.
Am. The
sphere whose radius

11.
1-87988,
smaller positive root gives the solution of the problem
Find
all
is
1, 0.
To
1-6320*.
divide a hemi-
unity into two equal parti by a plane parallel to the bos*.
the roots of the cubic

x?
(See Ex.
0-34729,
100.)
**
- 2* -
- 0.
Ans. - 1*80194,
0*44604,
1*24698.
246
12.
Find
to five decimal places the negative root
between
and
(see
Ex.
3,
p. 100) of the equation
a*
#*
- 4*8 - 3*2 4 3*
-I-
0.
Am. 3.
0*28468.
Solve the equation
- 316*' - 19684* 4 2977260
**
We find
that there
is
a root here between 70 and 80.
The deprt-M
found to be 78.
0.
By
two
d equation furnishes
Horner'a process
it IB
roots, \thich, increased
by
78, are the remaining roots of the cubic.
Am.
14
Find the two
78,
347,
11727*4 40386 =
0.
An*. 3-46692,
is
110.
x* -
This equation
given by
Mr
21-4S067.
G. H. Darwin in a Papei On the Preceîm of*
riseom Spheroid, and on the Remote History of the Earth. Phil. Trans., Part ii.
The roots are " the two values of the cube root of the earth's rota1879, p. 608.
T
tion for
1
which the earth and moon move round as a

Find
all
rigid
body."
20** - 24*' + 3
Am.
0.
-0-31469,
0-44608,
1*06866.
This equation occurs in the solution by Professor Ball of a problem of Professor

in the Educational Times of Dec., 1878, to determine the deflection of
Towneend'e
beam unifoimly loaded and supported

16.
al its
two ends and point* of trisecion.

14* s 4 12**
- 9* -
10
0.
An*. 0-86906.
The equations
17.
and the following example occui

beams supported by props.
in the investigation of
of this
questions relative to
Find the punitive root of the equation

7**
4 20*8 4 3*2 - 16* -
0.
Am.
18.
0-91*36.
Find to tec decimal places the positive root of the equation
& + 12** 4 69*
4 160* 1 + 201* - 207 -
0.
Am.
0-6486068038.
247
Miscellaneous Examples.
19.
Find
all
the commensurable roots of
x6
/(*)
2.r
- 149s 2 - 232* - 336 =
0,
and solve the equation completely.
Ant. f(x)
(x*
+ x+
3) (*
4)
(*
7).
20. Solve similarly the equation
f(x]
mx*~
32.t*
116s 8
<4fi.
21.
Find the condition
should have
its roots
16* 2
115a?
/(*)
(a;
1) (*
84
be positive,
When
when
Tand /are both
the biquadratic has two- roots equal to
23. If the equation f(x)

r'(x)
has
[f(x)Y
3) (9
HI +
ZaJ
3,
28).
Art. 99.
positive.
(since then
/ must
It is therefore easily inferred that the

positive (cf. Ex. 15, 5. 213).
a,
prove
-Gl
a *^
f(x)
(*
1)
and Jare both positive
JET
4
identity o Art. 37).
by the
biquadratic has no real roots

22.
when
is fulfilled
0.
the quadratic Sturmian remainder of Ex.
thai,
imaginary.
Ant.
This condition
has
all its
all
roots real, prove that the equation
its
roots imaginary.
24. If an equation of any degiee, arranged according to powers of x, have three

consecutive terms in geometric progression, prove that it roots cannot be all real.
These three terms must be of the form

be multiplied by x
absent, and
a.
The
A-J?
A'a.**"
-f
aV- 2
resulting equation will have
must therefoie have
two imaginary
at least
two
roots
Let the equation

terms
consc-t utive
but
aH the
roots of
this equation except a are roots of thi* given equation.
26. If an equation have four consecutive coefficients in arithmetic progression,

"
prove that its roots cannot be all real.

This can be reduced to the preceding example. Writing down four teiuw of the
1, it readily appeal's that the lesulting equation
proper form, and multiplying by x
ias three consecutive
terms in geometric progression.
26. Calculate the first
two
of Sturm's remainders for
second term, viz.

a-
/(a?)
Am.
ax*
bx*
JKi
a-
Jfc
a Ax* + BX+
2a,r
;i
3for
ex
+ d=
cx
a quintic wanting the
0.
6rf,
C,
where
- 40<? - 12n 8 - 45*2 ,
B&
5Qa ft -
SaH ~ 60^,
--4
A - 75M.
of the third
Retaining this notation, it is easy to calculate the coefficients D,
remainder
Dx -I- in terms oi a, b, ct tl, A, , C; and, finally, 4 in termt
3
of A, $ t j; D, ^.
248
Remove
27.
coefficients,
the second term from the general quintic written with binomial
coefficients of the first two of Sturm'i
and prove that the leading
remainders for the resulting equation are
28. Calculate the leading coefficients of the first
an equation of the
n*h degree
* + ax*~*
No
coefficients
two Sturmian remainders
for
wanting the second term, viz.

4-
bx*~*
beyond those here given
c*"-4
-f
&c.
will enter into the K- quired values
we
readily find
J
29.
g1
s ~
s -
Remove
with binomial
2'/.r-
- 3kr- 3
2;
u'
4r*'-<
bnac
-f
9^
&c.
2
{
/?"-
&c.
the second term from the general equation of the n* h degree * ritten
and prove that tlie leading coefficients oi the first two
coefficients,
Sturmian remainders of the resulting equation are
- H,
-nHI+
l<
n - 2) o/.
These expressions are easily derived from the preceding example by aid of the
transformation of Art. 35 the values of ^2, ^3, î being given by the equations
;
G* being replaced by
its
value from the identity of Art. 37, and positive multipliers
omitted.
30. Calculate Sturm's functions for Euler's cubic (see Art. 61).
We find,
after
some reductions, and omitting
positive factors,
s 21* -f
All the conditions of Art. 68, with respect to the nature of the roots of the
may be derived from these results, by the aid of Ex. 4, p. 125. And
will be observed that the conditions for reality of all the roots as given in
biquadratic,
it
Art 100, as well as in the Article already referred to, are both obtained here
together ; for, in order that Euler's cubic should have all its roots real and positive,
the substitution of
*/- 12# 2 and
for
2JET/
a;
must give three changes of
- 307
should be both negative.
sign,
and
this requires that
CHAPTER
XII.
COMPLEX NUMBERS AND THE COMPLEX VARIABLE.
Complex Number* Graphic Representation.

In the foregoing chapters many examples have been met with
114.
the solutions of numerical equations of

- 1, involving the extraction of
/>J
of the occurrence
among
quantities of the
form a +
Such an expression,
the square root of a negative number.
consisting of a positive or negative real units, and b positive or
negative imaginary units, is called a complex number (see Art.
The imaginary
J-
1 is denoted for brevity by t.

Real and purely imaginary numbers are both included in the
expression rt + /^.the former being obtained when 6 = 0, and the
0.
latter, when a
Complex numbers may be submitted to all
15
!.
unit
and in the result

the ordinary rules of arithmetical calculation
i
such
calculation
of
any
beyond the first can
integral powers
;
of
always be reduced by the relation
We
explain a
proceed to
numbers geometrically, which
* -
t*
mode
will
1.
of representing
complex
be found very convenient in
the- treatment of functions involving quantities of this kind.
The
expression a + ib
/u
may
(cos
a +
sin a),
where
-
u =
The quantity
amplitude, of the
la
+ 6%
/u is
cos a
MM
a
= -,
sin a
called the modulus,
complex number a + ib.
b
= -
and the angle a the
The modulus is always
taken positively, the negative sign of the radical corresponding

to
an increase of the amplitude by
TT.
250
Complex Numbers and
the
OT
Let rectangular axes OX,

point
X OA =
We
=
IUL
11
such
a,
7) be taken,
and a
//.
OM
have then
cos a = a, and
sin o
(fig.
that
OA =
and
Complex Variable.
AM
=6.
The
if
expression -f ib may
therefore be represen ted graphically by
~~
fo
j
the right line drawn

from
to a point in
lg "
a plane whose coordinates referred to the fixed axes are a, b

the distance OA of this point from the origin being equal to
the modulus, and the angle
equal to the amplitude of
;
XOA
the complex number.

The magnitude of a complex quantity is estimated by the
When the complex quantity
magnitude of its modulus.
vanishes (that
is,
when
and
b separately vanish), its
modulus
vanishes; and, conversely, when thr modulus vanishes, since

9
then a -f b 2 = 0, a and b must separately vanish, and therefore
Two such quantities, a + ib and

the complex quantity itself.
=
a' i ib', are equal when a
a and b = b\ i.e. when the moduli
and when the amplitudes either are equal or
are equal
h
multiple of
Jii
what follows we
of a
mod.
Complex
IV
shall, for brevity, represent the
ib
OA
OA
',
-f
(a
amp.
ib},
(a
ib).
Addition and Subtraction.
umber*.
ib'
be represented by the
so that
= mod.
We proceed
modulus
by the notation
Let a second complex number a +

right line
by
~TT.
and amplitude
115.
differ
(a'
ib'),
XOA
to determine the
a +
ib
mode
+ a +
ib'.
- amp.
(a
4 iV).
of representing the
sum
and
Multiplication
Writing
sum
this
in the
251
Division.
form a +
a'
(b
6'),
we
in accordance with the convention of Art. 114, that
observe,
it
will be
represented by the line drawn from the origin to the point

whose coordinates are a + a', b + b'. To find this point, draw
AB
a\
BP
are equal to
and equal to OA' since AP,
the required point, and we have
- mod. \a + a' + i (b + V) J, JTOft = w/>. {a + *' + (6 + *')J
parallel
b',
OB
is
To add two complex numbers,

represent one of
the second (that
them
and, at
we draw
therefore,
its
OA
to
AB to
represent
equal to the modulus,
and the angle it makes with
equal to the amplitude, of
the second)
then OB represents the sum of the two complex
is,
so that its
extremity,
is
length
OX
numbers.
OB
Since
is
not greater than
OA
-f
AB,
modulus of the sum of two complex numbers

equal
to]
it
is less
follows that
tin
than (or at mo$t
the ttum of their moduli.
This mode of representation
may be extended to
the addition
any number of sucli quantities. Thus, to add a third a" ib"

represented by OA", we draw BC parallel anil equal to OA",
and join OC. Then OC represents the sum of the three, OA,
of
+-
OA\ UA'\
It is evident also that
that the modulus of the
we may conclude
in general
sum of any number of complex
quantities
than (or at most equal to} the ttum of their moduli.

Subtraction can be represented in a similar way.
Siuoo
is less
OA
OL
OA
and OA'
will represent the difrepresents the sum of
To subtract two complex numbers,
ference of OB and OA'.
^
we draw at the extremity of the line representing the

a line parallel and equal to the second, but in an opposite
an angle greater
direction (i.e. a direction which makes with
to the
by v than the amplitude of the second).
join
therefore,
first
OX
We
extremity of this line to find the right line which represents the
difference of the two given complex numbers.
116. Multiplication
two complex numbers a +

a 4 ib
fi (cos a + t sin
and
t*6,
a),
Division.
-+
a'
ib',
we
ib'
write
To multiply
them
j/ (cos a'
in the
4- 1
the
form
sin a')-
Complex Numbers and
252
We
have then, by
De
ib'}
(a
ib) (of
which proves that
the
Complex Variable.
Moivre's theorem,
{cos (a
JJLJJL
+ a)
sin (a
4- i
the product of two complex
plex number, whose modulus
is
(he product
of
a') },
numbers
is
a com-
the two moduli,
and
whose amplitude is the sum of the two amplitudes.

In the same way it appears that the product of any number
of such factors is a complex quantity, whose modulus is the
product of
all the
To
all
the moduli, and whose amplitude
amplitudes.
divide a + ib by a' +
-w
a +
ib
we have
,
cos (a - a +
fuL
= --
-7
il/ 9
sum
of
similarly
.
the
is
sin
- a, )},
-f
JJL
which proves that the quotient of two complex numbers is a complfx number, whose modulus is the quotient of the two moduli, and
whose amplitude
It
the difference
is
of the two amplitudes.
was assumed in the proof of the theorem of Art. 16 that
when a product
any nuniLer of i'aotors (real or imaginary)

must vanish. This is evident when
real.
From what is above proved the same
of
vanishes, one of the factors
the factors are
all
when the factors are complex for, in order

modulus of the product may vanish, one of its factors
must vanish, and therefore the complex quantity of which that
conclusion holds
that the
factor is the modulus.
117.
Other Operation* on Complex Numbers.
From
the foregoing propositions it follows that any integral power of

a complex number, e.g. (a + ib} m y can be expressed in the form
and
are real.
+ i, where
And, more generally, if in
any
rational integral function
a zn + a i*11
whose
coefficients are
"1
rtjss"-*
-f
complex (including
real)
nvmbers, a
The Complex
complex quantity a +
ib
253
Variable.
be substituted for
*,
the result can be
+ ill.
expressed in the standard form
It is not proposed in the present chapter to discuss any
functions of complex numbers beyond the rational integral
function of the kind hitherto treated in this work.
It
is
easy,
however, to show, by the aid of De Moivre's theorem, that

the remaining processes of numerical calculation
powers with
complex exponents, logarithms, and powers whose

base and exponent are both complex reproduce in every case a
fractional or
complex number as result. This is expressed by saying that

complex numbers form a system or group complete in themselves.
118. Tlie
Complex Variable.
In the earlier chapters of
the present work the variation of a polynomial was studied corresponding to the passage of the variable through real values
from - oo to + oo and the mode of representing by a figure

Such a mode of
the form of the polynomial was explained.
treatment is only a particular case of a more general inquiry.
Given a polynomial, rational and integral in s, whose coeffi;
numbers
cients are
f(z)
we may study
of
s,
where
both take
real or complex, viz.
a Q z n + di% n- 1 +
its
r/ 2
n "2
,_!*
-f
an
variations corresponding to the different values
z has the
complex form x + iy, and where x and y

This form x + iy is called the
all possible real values.
All possible real values of the variable are of

complex variable.
course included in the values of x + iy, being those values which
arise
by varying x and putting y =
principles of Art.
114 we
may
0.
In accordance
witli the
represent the complex variable
OP
to
(fig. 8) drawn from a fixed origin
the point whose coordinates are x, y.
Or we may say, x + iy is
Thus all possible values of x + iy
represented by the point P.
x +
iy
by the
line
will be represented
by all the points in a plane. Since, for any

value
of
-f
*,/(*) takes the form
particular
iB(Art. 117), the
values of f[z) may be represented in a similar manner by points
Complex Numbers and
254
a plane.
in
confine ourselves in the present Article to the

of the variable
We
variation of x +
conceive the
iy to take place
for
continuous manner;
example, by
Complex Variable.
We
representation
x + iy itself.
in
the
the motion of the
along a curve. If OP
and OP' represent two consecupoint
x, y>
we
tive values of the variable,
write the corresponding values

x -r iy> x' + //, as follows
:
smx + iymr (cos
sin 0},
z'
Fig.
myf +
?>/
8.
/ (cos 0' +
sin 9').
OP
and PP' (Art. 115),

represents the sum of
follows that PP' represents the increment of z and if *' = s +
Since
OP'
//
may
it
A,
sn
where p = PP', and $
The
the angle PP' makes with OX.

or /-r; the
variation of the modulus of z is OP'is
OP
variation of the amplitude of 2

of g itself is A or
/>
(cos
returns to
its
P'OP
to describe a closed. curve.
When
original position P, the modulus takes again its

and the amplitude takes its original value if the
original value
point O is exterior to the curve, or
;
or 9'- 0; the variation
sin ^), as just explained.
Let the point be supposed

it
is
is
increased
by
2ir if
is
interior to the curve.
If the complex variable describes the same line in two opposite directions, the variations of its amplitude are equal and of
From this we
is nothing.
opposite signs, i.e. the total variation
can derive a property of the variation of the amplitude of the
in our
complex variable, which will be found of importance
succeeding investigations.
Let a plane area be divided into any number of parts by lines
the amplitude
JBD, AF, EC, &c. (fig. 9) ; then the variation of
Continuity of a Function of the Complex Variable. 255

relatively to the perimeter
of the whole area
is
equal to the sum
to
oj*its variations relatively
the perimeters of the partial
the areas being

supposed to be described by
the variable moving in the
areas
all
same sense. This is evident;

for
when
--
the point is made

the partial
to describe all
the same
in
areas
sense,
Fig. 9.
each of the internal dividing lines will be described twice, the
two descriptions being
in opposite directions
perimeter will be described once
and the external
hence the total variation of
the amplitude relatively to the dividing lines vanishes, and the

variation relatively to the external perimeter alone remains.
AFD in
the figure.
When
the point describes these areas in the sense indicated by the
vanishes.
arrows, the total variation relatively to the line
Take, for example, the areas
ABF,
AF
119.
Continuity of a
Variable.
fixed value s
Function of the
Complex.
Suppose the complex variable s, starting from a

to receive a small increment h s pfcos^-t /sin $);
we have
then, if,/'*) be the given function, replacing x

the expansion of Art. 6,
/(*) = /(*
A)
/()
/'( Sc) )
h +
+
'-JÂ'
1
.
and the increment
of /(s), being equal to/(s
In this expression the
coefficients of the
by
z in
&o.,
/o
//)
/(c
),
is
powers of h are
all
complex expressions of the usual form ; and if their moduli be

2
3
a, 6, c 9 &c., the moduli of the successive terms are a/>, fy> e/> &o.;
,
and
since,
sum
of the moduli,
of/()
by Art. 115, the modulus
is less
it
follows that the
of a
4-
is less
than the
modulus of the increment
than
ap
sum
1
bp* op + &o.
Complex Numbers and
256
Now
the
Complex Variable.
be assigned to p (Art. 5) such that for it

or any smaller value the value of this expression will be less
than any assigned quantity. It follows that to an infinitely
a value
may
small variation of the complex variable
(viz.
one whose modulus
small) corresponds an infinitely small variation of

the function; in other words, the function varies continuously at
is infinitely
the
same time as the complex variable
itself.
Variation of the Amplitude of /() corresponding to tbe description of a small Closed Carve by the
Complex. War i able. Corresponding to a continuous series of
values of z we have a continuous series of values of /(*), which
120.
can be represented, like the values of

plane.
* itself,
by points
in a
We represent these series of points by two figures (fig. 10)
0'
Fig. 10.
by side, which, to avoid confusion, may be supposed to be

drawn on different planes.
To each point P, representing
x + iy, corresponds one determinate point P' representing f(z}.
side
P describes a continuous curve, P' describes also a continuous curve

and when P returns to its original position
after describing a closed curve, P returns also to its
original
When
position.
Our present object is to discuss the variation of the amplitude

of /(*) corresponding to the description of a small closed curve
by P.
Let
be any determinate point whose coordinates are
Variation of Amplitude
</o>
oases
*-
*o
#b
We
*y<>.
ofj(z\
257
fyc.
divide the discussion into two
When
(1).
iy* is
-f
different
is
(2).
When
x +
not a root of f(z)
from
0,
1.0.
when/(a
zero.
i^ is a root of /(a)
0, or
/(s
0.
In the
first case, to the point

corresponds a point A'
is different from zero.
value
A'
the
of
and
0'
/'(a ),
representing
=
=
Let a s -f /*, where h p (cos -f i sin 0) and suppose P, which
Let P'
represents a, to describe a small closed curve round A.
(1).
AP'
represents the increment of /(a) corresponding to the increment ^4P of a. By (he previous Article
it
appears that values so small may be assigned to p, that the
represent /(a)
modulus
then
of the increment of /'(*)
namely
A'F may be
always
than the assigned quantity 0'A\ hence P may be supposed
describe round A a closed curve so small that the correspond,
less
to
ing closed curve described by P' will be exterior to 0'.

follows, by Art. 118, that corrcs]>ondiny to the description by
It
of
a small closed curve, which does not contain a point satisfying the
equation f(z)
0,
the total variation of the amplitude of f(z)
is
nothing.
(2).
In the second
=
equation /(a)
suppose
case,
repeated
ir
times, and
H-
is
///
a root of the
let
/()-(*-s,,r^(*);
then
/(a)
= h m iL(z} = p w
*
(cos mty
-f
sin ?m/>)i/> (s).
In this case Q'A.' -
round A, P' returns
and when
P describes
to its original position,
a closed curve
and the amplitude
of /(a) will be increased by a multiple of 2rr, which may be

From the above equation we have
determined as follows
:
amp.
f (a)
m$
+ amp.
i//
(a)
and the increment of amp. /(a) will be obtained by adding the

Now the latter
(a).
incremen^ of m<f> to the increment of amp.
i/>
Complex Numbers and
258
increment
is
nothing by
(1),
the
Complex Variable.
since the curve described
by P
and since the increbe supposed to contain no root of ^ (*)

of $ is 2ir in one revolution of P, the increment of fjty
;
ment
is
when
It follows that
2mir.
describes a small closed curve
containing a root of the equation f(z)
amplitude of f(z)
121.
is
two opposite
responding line in
0, repeated
times, the
increased by 2ni7r.
Cauchy's Theorem.
line in a plane in
its
When
describes
-s
the same
directions, f(z) describes the cor-
plane in two opposite directions, and the
amp.f(z) undergoes equal and opposite variations.
It follows
any plane area be divided into parts, as in Art. 118, the

variation of the amp. fix) corresponding to the description iu
that, if
the same sense by
% of all
the partial areas,
is
equal to the variaby % of the
tion of amp. f(z) corresponding to the description
Now let any closed perimeter in the

external perimeter only.
be described and suppose, in the first place, that it
plane
XY
contains no point which satisfies the equation / (z) = 0.

It can
be broken up into a number of small areas, with respect to each
of which the conclusions of (1), Art. 120, hold
been just proved,
it
and by what has
follows that the
variation ofamp.f(z) corresponding

by z of the closed
to the description
perimeter
is
nothing.
Suppose, in
th e second place, that t he closed peri-
meter contains a point which is a root

of the equation f(z) =
repeated m
Let a small closed curve
times.
PQRS
be
described
point.
The
variation of amp.
tion
by
z of the
variations
round
corresponding
ABCPSR, CDAltQP,
'
f (z) corresponding to the descrip-
whole perimeter,
to
Fi
this
the
PQ21S.
is
equal to the
sum
of its
of
the
areas
description
The two former
variations
vanish by what is above proved ; and the latter is, by (2),

Art. 120, equal to Zm-rr.
The total variation, therefore, of f(z)
is
2w7r.
Similarly,
if
the
area includes
additiohal points
Number of Roots of the General
259
Equation.
which correspond to roots repeated m', ;//', &o., times, the

Hence we derive the
total variation = 2(m + m' + m" + &c.) TT.
following theorem due to Caucliy
The number of
obtained by dividing by 2ir the total variation of the
ix
plane area,
amplitude of
this polynomial
tion by the complex variable
corresponding
of
by means
are enabled
to
the perimeter
Number of Hoot*
122.
We
of any polynomial, comprised within a given
roots
the complete descrip-
of the area.
of the General Equation.
of the principles established in the
preceding Articles to prove the theorem contained in Arts. 15

and 16 namely, Every rational and integral equation of the n th
;
degree has n roots real or imaginary.
Let
/(*)
ft
rtis
n~l
fljs"'
# n _iS
+ an
Without making any

be a rational and integral function of z.
the
of
roots
further than
existence
of /(*) =
supposition as to
that
cannot vanish for any infinite values of the variable,

z to describe in its plane a circle so large that
/ (a)
we can suppose
no root exists outside of

= z
/(*)
s',
whose modulus
4-
|f/
- zn

it.
(V),
If,
then,
a& + a&* +
where
a n z'}
-,
the reciprocal of the modulus of
is
will
*,
Jesmibe a small circle containing a portion of the plane corresponding to the part outside of the circle described by z ; and
uo root of
<p
will
(z')
Hence, corresponding
the variation of
amp.
be included within
f (z')
0,
variation of amp. f(z]
md
9 is
if
r (cos
)f
sin 9)
whole
circle
by
s,
and therefore
variation of amp. z n
or z
= r" (cos
nti
-f
sin w0),
2?r, and therefore amp. z is increased by 2u7r.

from Cauohy's theorem, Art. 121, that the number
increased by
It follows
this small circle.
to the description of the
roots comprised within the circle described
by
z, i. e.
the total
Complex Numbers and
260
number
is
of roots of the
Complex Variable.
the
equation/ (z)
0, is n
and the theorem
proved.
The proposition whose proof was deferred in Art. 15 is thus

shown to be an immediate consequence of Cauchy's theorem,
which
may
therefore be regarded as the fundamental proposiIt is proper (o observe, how-
tion of the theory of equations.
theorem of Art. 15, viz., that every numerical

equation has a numerical root, can be proved directly, and
independently of Cauchy's theorem, by aid of the principles
contained in Art. 119 and the preceding Articles, as we proceed
ever, that the
now
to show.
123.
Second Proof of Fundamental Theorem.
If
there be no value of* which rnakes/(s) vanish; and

let the value
,
represented by A, fig. 10, correspond to the
possible let
to the origin 0'.

It is
nearest possible position, A\ of
a
show
that
such
direction
to
be
to
the
may
proposed
given
increment h as to bring P' into a position nearer to the origin

have the following expansion (Art. 119)
than A'.
We
///
/(*o 4 *)
/'(s
does not vanish
derived functions, /'(
),
which does not vanish
+/()
Bj hypothesis
f'**Qj
&c.,
be/w (s
h 4
may
),
''
do
V'
but one or more of the
Let the
so.
and
let
(cos
am 4
first
of these
us suppose
i sin
a,,,),
with corresponding expressions for the coefficients which follow.'

w
Collecting all the terms which contain powers of h beyond A
into one
complex expression, we
4 A)
=/(s
may
write
4 n m p m {cos (m$ 4 a m ) 4 t sin (m$ + a

4 (cos ^ + i sin ),
IUL
where, by the proposition of Art. 115,
261
Second Proof of Fundamental Theorem.
from the theorem of Art. 5 that such a

m
Now the direcvalue may be given to p as to make p < ti m p
tion of the increment h can be so selected, viz. from the equation
It
is
easily inferred
in$ +
X'tfA' +
TT
(fig.
10), as to bring P', in virtue of the
second expression in the value of f(z -f A), through a distance

m nearer to the
Let S be the
origin in the direction AO'
fi m p
in
this
A'
P"
is
which
the
line
on
ff
to
way. The
brought
point
l)
+ //) is to move
=
P' from 8 to a point T at a distance 8 T p and whatever the
O'T
direction of this movement, i.e. whatever the amplitude
<
that
have
.4'
We
is
since 8T< SA'.
proved, therefore,
effect of the last expression in the value of f(z Q
;
&A
>
not the nearest possible position of P' with reference to the

and in the same manner it may be shown that no
origin
is
other value different from zero can be the least possible value
of the modulus of /(*).
In the proof here given it is only shown that the equation

must have a root, and the precise number of roots is not determined, as it is in the proof derived from Cauchy's theorem
but when it is proved that one root at least must exist, the
;
proof can be easily completed by the method of Art. 16.

It is important to observe that when /'(* ) does not vanish,
the limiting value of the ratio of the
for any particular point
increment of/(s
to// is
the constant ./*() ^fii (cos
It is easily inferred that the
ui
-t-
/sin en).
two increments are inclined
at a
constant angle, and their moduli are in a constant ratio.

This
is usually expressed by
that
the
described
figures
by
-saying
and P' are similar in their infinitely small parts.

The student is referred to Note
at the end of the volume
some further observations on the subject of this Article.

124. Determination of Complex. Numerical Roots.
Solution of the Cubic. Little attention has been given by
for
writers
on the Theory of Equations to the actual determination
the complex numerical roots of equations ; nor is it easy to

jive any account suitable to an elementary text-book of general
methods in existence for this purpose. Theoretically the problem
:>f
Complex Numbers and
262
presents no difficulty
the
Complex Variable.
for if the real
and imaginary parts of
iy) be equated separately to zero, and from the two resulting equations one of the variables eliminated, an equation
is obtained from which a real value of the remaining one can
f(x +
be calculated by Homer's process.
method
that this
We
is
It will be found, however,
of little practical value.*
and the following
confine ourselves in this
Articles to
cubic and biquadratic equations with real numerical coefficients,

and exhibit the calculation in these instances in what appears to
be the simplest form for practical purposes.

/(a?)
a?
+ pop
qx +
be proposed for solution. The roots

h - k, of which a is real.
a, h + k,
Let the equation
may
be assumed to be
The character of the
roots will appear in the process of calculation;

k being detei mined from its square, which may turn out to be
No preliminary analysis of the
either positive or negative.
remaining
k be substituted for ^, and the

If A
and odd powers of k equated separately to
in Ex. 26, p. 152, we find immediately the equation
- k* =
= 3A 4- 2p/ + q.
f(h)
is
equation
sums
necessary.
-I-
of the even
zero, as
We
the
get also, by the elimination of A, a cubic equation for

determination of h
but there will be no occasion to
;
best got from the relation

2A = -/>, a having been calculated in the first instance in
the usual way by Homer's method.
form
this
equation,
since
is
-f
The student desirous of information as to the attempts of mathematicians in

the direction of the calculation of imaginary roots of numerical equations may
refer to the following ^ orks :
Lagrange's Traite de la Resolution dez Equation*
numeriques
Murpliy's Theory of Algebraical Equations; Allgemeine Auffotung

by Simon Spitzer (Wien, 1851); Die Aufl'owng der hoheren
der Zahlen-Gleichungen,
numerischen Gleichungcn, hy P. C. Jelinek (Leipzig, 1865)
method for calcu-
by Emory M'Clintock (American

and 2)
and Methode pratique pour la
lating simultaneously all the Roots of an Equation,
Journal of Mathetnatict, vol. xvii., Nos.
Resolution numerique complete des Equations algebrique& ou tramcenda*te& by

y
Carvallo (Paris, 1896).
M. E.
263
Examples.
It will be necessary finally to calculate A, and with it the

remaining two roots, whether real or imaginary. For this
purpose the following mode of procedure will he found convenient

The value of S/' (a) in terms of the coefficients is
:
p*
30, viz.,
/'(a)
+/'(A +
/' ( h +
also
+/'(*-*) =
*)
+ /' (A
A)
A)
2
jt?
3?;
= 2/' (A) + 6k2
whence immediately,
/'(o)
+ 4*'=jt>-3 ?
from which A can be determined

the numerical value of
f (a)
last coefficient in the final
process already completed.
witli
very
little
labour, since
can be written down from the second
transformation in the work of Home r's

The character of the remaining two
depend on the sign of the number so found and the

roots themselves will be determined by taking the positive and
negative square roots of this number.
roots will
EXAMPLES.
1.
Solve the equation

3
tf
First
the
calculate
real
-f
positive
Homer's method, and obtaining

coefficients
2#2
23#
root,
70
0.
completing four transformations by
for the final trans formed equation the following
1,
-44341896.
7G609868,
17402,
Remembering that the roots have been three times multiplied by 10, we find
the values of /(a) and /"() by cutting off nine figures from the right in the former
It is well to carry
case, and six in the latter, and supplying the decimal point.
the approximation a couple of steps further by the contracted method, and thus get
a more accurate value of /'(a).
find, in this way,
We
/'(a)
Subtracting this
number from;? 2
4* 2
76-6286.
3#,
which
is
equal to 73,
we
find
3-6286.
tfcis is negative, we have proved that the remaining roots are imaginary.
the ascertained value of a, viz. 5*13457, the value of h is found immediately
Since
From
Complex Numbers and the Complex Variable,
264
to
be
3-6672, and dividing 3-6286
finally the
two complex
by
4,
and taking
roots of the equation as follows
its
we have
square root,
0-9624 -v/^T.
3-5672
Solve completely Newton's cubic (see Art. 107), viz.,
2.
;r
2# - 6 -
0.
Completing four transformations by Horner, and proceeding as

- 2-09466, and
example, we find a
/'(a)
- 11-16078;
*-
hence
the former
ii>
1-290195,
and the remaining two roots (thus proved imaginary) are found to be
- 1-04727 + 1-13594 x/ 1
Find the remaining two roots
3.
x-
We
find
/'(a)
64-0841,
k*
of the
x-
= -
example of Art. 109,
x - 100
-f
4-0646
p. 231, viz.,
0.
and the required
16-52102,
2-6322
1.
roots are
\/^T.
Solve ihe equation
Dividing by 20, ana applying Homer's process to find the root of the equa2 -^
s -15 =
1 2.r
and 1, we find a = 0-4460366, and
.r
lying between
tion
/'(a)
- 0-47364.
We
4#
henr-e
k2
'47841,
have therefore
= pi -
3q -/'(a)
1-44
+ 0*47364
and the remaining two roots are
real.
We
find
-37698
and adding and subtracting &, the other roots are found to be 1*06865 and
- 0-31469 id. Ex. 15, p. 246).
5.
Solve completely Lagrange's cubic
&-
1x + 7
0.
Change the signs of all the roots, and calculate the positive root a betweer
3 and 4 of the transformed equation f(x)
0, thus obtaining a = 3-0489173, and
hence k 2 = -0281575, and Jc = -1678. Also h = - 1-624458
/(a) = 20-88737
;
whence the values of h
-f
k and h -
Jc ;
and changing the signs of
all
the roots
thus found, the roots of the given equation are
3-0489,
The examples given
1-3666,
1-6922.
are sufficient to
(Of.
Ex.
1,
Art. 111.)
show in what way
this
be used to solve a given numerical cubic, without

any previous examination of the character of its roots. The
process
amount
may
of
work required
to decide in this
way whether
the two
265
Solution of the Biquadratic.
remaining roots are real or imaginary is usually very little

greater than is required in the application of Sturm's theorem;
and the additional labour necessary

of the roots
We
extremely small.
is
for the actual determination
proceed
now
to biquad-
ratic equations.
1^5.
When
Solution of the Biquadratic.
a biquadcan be solved in a
has real roots (two or lour), it

to that employed in the preceding Article.
ratic equation
manner analogous
In some examples the existence of a real root can be at once

recognized and when such is the case, the following process for
the complete solution of the equation can be used with advan;
Lot the proposed equation be
tage.
and
---
/*'/,
+ px*
.r
-f
qx
-f
rx +
0,
the remaining two roots
be reprek, no assumption being made as to the

Let a and j3 be both calculated
character of the latter pair.
its real roots a,
/3
may
sented by h + k and h -
by Horner's process, and the numerical values of /'( a ) and

f (fi) determined at the same time, as in the preceding Article.
Now, if h + k be substituted for x in /^), and the method of
f
solution of Ex. 26, p. 152, employed,
- 6/
f (a) f
(/3)
JTT
Again, we have, as
"
+ /'
is
we
find,
8
8
- 4A +3p/i +
fy/i
without
difficulty,
+r
easily proved,
(h +
k)
+/' (A -
*)
= -
;>
4 4
W - 8r,
and
/'(A
4-
-f
k)
f (h -
7c)
r 2f'(h) 4 f"' (A) k\
whence immediately
-
4#(4A +
p)
/'(a)
+/
(/3)
+ p s - 4pj +
8r.
This formula oan be used for the calculation of A3 the value

of A having been previously ascertained from the equation
,
1-
/3
4-
2A = ~jo by means of the calculated values of a and
The second
)3.
pair of roots will be real or imaginary according as

the resulting value of A2 is positive or negative.
Complex Numbers and
266
Complex Variable,
the
EXAMPLES.
Solve completely the equation
1.
- 3*3 + 7z 2 -
a,
l(te
therefore be a second,
we
which
is
found to
between
lie
0.
between
It is at once apparent that a real root exists
and
and
1.
There must
By Homer's process
2.
find
a
/'(a)
& =
0-107767,
= -8-59078,
1-923262,
= 12-09133;
/'(/3)
whence we have
/'(a)
z
+/'() + p - 4pq +
Also, from the values of
0, and^, h
a,
=-
8r
19*49945.
0-484485, and 4A
-f
p = - 1*06206;
therefore
_
~
19-49946^
1-OG206
It is now proved that the remaining two roots are imaginary, and their values
can be ascertained by calculating k from this formula. Logarithmic Tables will
The roots are found to be
assist in the calculation.
2-1424
0-4845
2.
Solve completely the equation of Ex.
&
We
- YLx
1.
2, Art. 110, via.,
0.
find
<*
a
/'(a)
0-59368,
= -
whence the pair of imaginary
j8
2-04727,
22-3180;
/\/3
11-1635,
roots
- 1-32048
3.
4-
\/ -
v/^T-
2-0039
Solve the equation

2* 4
13s 2
-i-
There must be two real roots: one

Divide by
2,
When
=
j8
(a)
19
is
a4
G-5:r 2
calculated in the usual
0, it is to
-f-
0.
positive,
and write the equation as follows

/(#)
of f(x)
10#-
5#
way by
and the other
first
9-5
/'(a)
changing the signs of the roots
last coefficient supplied
2-45733.
32-409,
.
6-473
Fl46?
and the imaginary roots

0-2866
by the
final
= - 3-03055,
-66-936;
/'()
ft
whence
~ ** "
1-0924
negative.
0.
be observed that, in order to get the value of
change the sign of the second

We find
in Horner's process.
(ft)
y7
/'(jS),
we must
transformation
267
Solution of Biquadratic.
- 80*8 + 1998** - 14937s + 6000
There
lie
clearly a real root between

between 12 and 13 (see Ex. 4, Art. 93).
is
/'
(a)
and
18664,
/'
whence
1,
is
easily seen to
We find
0-35098,
=-
0.
and a second
(jB)
=
-
12-75644,
5286-7
413-3
...
63-785
The remaining two
roots therefore are real,
and are
found to he 32-0602 and
easily
34-8322.
All the root* of this equation have been calculated by Homer's method
by
Young (Analyst* and Solution of Cubic and Biquadratic Equations, pp. 216-221).
Our last two roots agree, to the number of places here given, with the values
arrived at
hy him.
126. Solution of
Biquadratic continued
When
the
roots of a biquadratic equation are all imaginary, the mode of

solution of the preceding Article of course fails.
In this case,
and
in general,
whatever be the nature of the
ing method may be uaed

its
Let the equation,

second term, be written in the form
f(x) a
rr* -f
qx*
+ rx +
roots, the followfirst
deprived of
0.
may be assumed to bo h k, - h //, no

made
as to their character, which will depend
assumption being
on the signs of k* and k' 2 when calculated.
Substituting h + k
for #, and
proceeding as before, we find
The
roots of this
__
+ qi
-h
r
>
57,
"/"'(*)
whence
- 4*1 =
4/<
+ 2q +
from which k can be found when h
is
known.
eliminated between the two equations of Ex. 26,

sextic in h reduces to the cubic
of whioft
4/i
is
a root.
When
p.
is
152, the
This cubic must have one positive
Complex Numbers and
268
Complex Variable.
the
the remaining two may be both positive, both negative^

or both imaginary, according to the nature of the roots of the
root
The equation
given biquadratic.
cubic (with roots multiplied
is,
in fact, Euler's reducing
4) for the biquadratic
by
under
consideration (see Ex. 4, p. 125).

Let the positive root of the
cubic be calculated by Homer's process (if the three are positive,
any one of them will do).

it h\ and the full solution
is
Thus 4A
determined, and from
is
of the proposed biquadratic equation
given by the two formulae
EXAMPLES.
1.
Give the complete solution of the equation
+ x + 10 =
0.
This equation
is used by Murphy (Theory of Equations, p. 126) to illustrate his

propo&ed method of determining the imaginary rodts of equations by means of
find readily the reducing cubic
recurring series.
We
3
y - 40y -
0,
3
and, by Horner'n process, the positive root 6-3370184: hence the value of A and
,
from
it
/*
We
1-2586.
find then
0'7945,
according as the positive or
fy
used. In either case the quantity under the square root

and
the
are therefore all imaginary.
roots
negative,
They are easily found to be
negative sign of
is
1-3362
1-2686
2.
Solve the equation

x*
This example
thungen, p. 16).
is
v/^L,
4- 9a?
treated
by Spitzer
The reducing cubic is
whose positive root
is
6tf
1-2686
1*1771
is
\/-T.
0.
(Allyemeine
Auflowng for Zahlen-Qlei-
found to be 0*51094249; hence
0-36740.
The
numerical value of r divided by h is found to be 16-7878 ; and whether h be taken

with positive or negative sign, the quantity under the square root is negative, and
therefore all the roots imaginary.
0-3674
0-6663
The four
V'-T,
roots are
0-3674
+ 2-9706 \/^l.
269
Examples.
3.
Solve the equation
* - 2s 3 -
by
7^ +
10*
-HO
0.
To remoye the second term, multiply the roots by 2, and then diminish
The reducing cubic of the transformed equation is easily found to be
roots
2
3
y - 68y
320y
- 256 =
0.
by 10, and find immediately that the transformed

equation has a root between 6 and 7, which is found by Homer's process to be
6*29838. Hence 4A 2 = 62-9838, and h =
3-968.
Whether A is taken positively
Divide the roots of this
or negatively,
found that the quantity under the square root is a positive

case.
We find 4 A 2 = 9*04840,
it is
number, and therefore all the loots are real in this

4#2 = 0-98400 hence k = + 1*604, k' = 0*496
;
two transformations which weiemade

four roots as follows
5, p.
4.
-2-236.
-0-732,
2-236,
the product of the factors x*
is
and & 2
it
is
2x
easily seen that
2 (compare also
208).
Solve the equation
# 4 - 7a s
This example
d leichtmgen,
-f
Tt- -
7a- 4
0.
by Jelinek (Die Aujtosung tier holier en numerischen

remove the second term, multiph the roots by 4, and
discussed
is
To
p. 29).
then diminish by
We find in this way

& - 182^ - 16242- - 3069 =
7.
whose reducing cubic
0,
is
3
3/
To
leeults, in this instance, can be readily verified, foi
the given function
Ex.
whence, taking account of the

removing the second term, we have the
2-732,
The
in
- 364y 2 4 45360^ - 2637376 =
0.
find the situation of the positive loot, it is well to divide the roots
when readily appears that the tiansformed equation lias a root between
8 =
205-91, and h
By Homer's process it is found to be 2'0591 whence 4//
it
When
by
100,
2 and 3.
f 7*17.
taken positively, the quantity under the square root is found to be

and uheu it is taken negatively, the quantity
positive; hence two real roots;
under the squaie root is negative, and gives a pair of imaginary roots. Taking
account of the two transformations employed to remove the second term, we find
is
the four roots of the proposed equation as follows

5-993,
1*091,
- 0*042
l'033v/~l.

a?
- 80*8 +
1998a--
- 14937s + 5000 m
0.
We
solved in the preceding Article.

repeat
H Young's equation, already
solutioti here by the method of the present Article, in order that the student
This
its
is
270
Compkx Numbers and
may have
an opportunity of comparing the amount of labour required in the two
methods.
When
instance), or
the second term
when
the second term
Complex Variable.
the
removed
(as is
the case in the present
is
easily
is
already absent in an equation,
be found that the method of the present Article
is
it
will usually
the more expeditious of the two.
Diminishing the roots by twenty, we find
- 402s* + 983* + 25400 =
z*
whose reducing cubic
0,
is
- 804y 2 + 59764y - 966289 =
0.
We get, by Homer's process, 4/< 723-21038, and therefore h

The quantity under the square root is found to be positive whichever
2
taken, and for the four
roots
we have
we have
hence, adding 20 to each root,
- 3^ +
10000 =
0-18748
Solve completely the equation Ex.
The
76*
10-2609,
2, p.
- 4s3 - 3*
**
0.
-f
9-927
207, viz.
23
\/~T.
0.
roots are
2-0526,
3-7853,
0-9189
Solve the equation of Ex. 4, p. 212, viz.
*4
Multiply the roots by
3s3
surable root
= 180
-*3 -3*+
1-4545
hence A
it is
11
3 \/5.
found that the
The
four imaginary roots expressed as follows
Find the imaginary roots
0,
solution
When Homer's
latter equation has

is
method
a commen-
easily completed,
and the
of the equation of
**-
\/^~l.
and remove the second term.
4,
applied to the reducing cubic,
9.
32-0603.
34*8321,
roots are
9-8860,
is
</l '92090;
Solve completely the equation of Kx. 4, p. 234, viz.
The
8.
the four roots of the proposed equation as
0-3511,
**
7.
12-7665,
6.
is
the two formula)
- A i v/38-47390,
follows
13-4462.
sign of h
11727* + 40385
Ex.
14, p. 246, >iz.
0.
Am. -
12-4433
197596y/::
NOTES.
NOTE
A.
ALGEBRAIC SOLUTION OF KQl'ATIONS.
THE
and
solution of the quadratic equation was known to the Arabians,

found in the works of Mohammed Ben Musa and other writers
is
In a treatise on Algebra by Omar

Alkhayyami, which belongs probably to the middle of the eleventh
century, is found a classification of cubic equations, with methods of
The
geometrical construction, but no attempt at a general solution.
study of Algebra was introduced into Italy from the Arabian writers
by Leonardo of Pisa early in the thirteenth cent ury and for a long
period the Italians were the chief cultivators 01 the science. A work
styled UArte Maggiore, by Lucas Paciolus (known as Lucas de Burgo),
published in the ninth century.
was published
in 1494.
of cubic equations,
This writer adopts the Arabic classification
and pronounces their solution to be as impossible in
the existing state of the science as the quadrature of the circle.

At
the same time he signalizes this solution as the problem to which the
attention of mathematicians should be next directed in the development of the science. The solution of the equation a? -f mx = n was
by Scipio Eerreo ; but nothing more is known of his discovery

that
he imparted it to his pupil Plorido in the year 1505. The
than
attention of Tartaglia was directed to the problem in the year 1530, in
effected
consequence of a question proposed to him by Colla, whose solution

depended on that of a cubic of the form a? + px* = q. Florido, learning
that Tartaglia had obtained a solution of this equation, proclaimed his
of the solution of the form a? + mx = n.
Tartaglia,
own knowledge
doubting the truth of his statement, challenged him to a disputation
272
Notes.
and in the meantime himself discovered the solumx = n. This solution depends on assuming
x an expression *]t - 3Jw, consisting of the difference of two radi-
in the year 1585;
tion of Ferreo's form a? +

for
and, in fact, constitutes the solution usually known as Cardan's.

Tartaglia continued his labours, and discovered rules for the solution
cals
of the various
forms of cubics included under the classification of the
Arabic writers.
Cardan, anxious to obtain i knowledge of these rules,

After
applied to Tartaglia in the year 1539, but without success.
many
imparted to him a knowledge of these

from him, however, the most solemn and sacred prosecrecy.
Regardless of his promises, Cardan published in
solicitations Tartaglia
rules, receiving
mises of
1545 Tartaglia's rules in his great work styled Ar& Magna.

been the intention
own.
He commenced
in 1559, before he
As
of Tartaglia to publish hie rules in a
his work, therefore, contained no
came
work
the publication of this
had reached the consideration
It
work
had
of his
in 1556, but died
of cubic equations.
mention of his own
ruies, these
time to be regarded as the discovery of Cardan,

and to be called by his name.
The solution of equations of the fourth degree was the next
rules
in process of
problem to engage the attention
of Algebraists
the case of the cubic, the impulse
and here, as well
was given by
to the learned the solution of the equation x*
-f
6# 2
Colla,
4-
who
36 = 60#.
as in
proposed
Cardan
appears to have made attempts to obtain a formula for equations of

hut the discovery was reserved for his pupil Ferrari. The
this kind
method employed by Ferrari was a transformation of such a nature as
;
make both sides of the equation perfect squares, a new unknown

quantity being introduced which is itself determined by an equation
It is, in fact, virtually the method of Art. 63.
of the third degree.
to
This solution
is
who published it in
known as Simpson's,
sometimes ascribed to Bombelli,
his treatise on Algebra in 1579.
which was published much

tially different from that
The
solution
later (about 1740), is in no respect essen-
In the year 1637 appeared

treatise, containing many improvements in algebraical
science, the chief of which are his recognition of the negative and
" Eule of
His exSigns."
imaginary roots of equations, and his
of Ferrari.
Descartes'
pression of the biquadratic as the product of two quadratic factors,

although deducible immediately from Ferrari's form, was an important
contribution
to
the study of this quantic.
Euler's
Algebra was
273
Notes.
published in 1770.
His solution
of the biquadratic (see Art. 61)
is
important, inasmuch as it brings the treatment of this form into

harmony with that of the cubic by means of the assumed irrational
The methods of Descartes and Euler were the

attempts made to obtain a general algebraic solution of
form of the root.

result
of
Throughout the eighteenth century many mathematicians

occupied themselves with this problem but their labours were unsuccessful in the case of equations of a degree higher than the fourth.
In the solutions of the cubic and biquadratic obtainea by the older
equations.
we
observe two distinct methods in operation the first, illusthe

assumptions of Tartaglia and Euler, proceeding from an
by
assumed explicit irrational form of the root the other, seeking by the
analysts
trated
aid of a transformation of the given function to change its factorial

In Art. 55
character, so as to reduce it to a form readily resolvable.
these two methods are illustrated; together with a third, the concepwhich is to be traced to Vandermonde and Lagrange, who
tion of
published their researches about the same time, in the years 1770 and
The former of these writers was the first to indicate clearly
1771.
the necessary character of an algebraical solution of any equation,
viz. that it must, by the combination of radical signs involved in it,
represent any root indifferently when the symmetric functions of the
roots are substituted for the functions of the coefficients involved in
the formula (see Art. 101). His attempts to construct formulae of this
character were successful in the cases of the cubic and biquadratic,
but failed in the case
of the quintic.
Lagrange undertook a review of
the labours of his predecessors in the direction of the general solution

of equations, and traced all their results to one uniform principle. This
principle consists in reducing the solution of the given equation to
that of an equation of lower degree, whose roots are linear functions
of the roots of the given equation and of the roots of unity.
He shows
also that the reduction of a quintic cannot be effected iu this
equation on which
its
way, the
solution depends being of the sixth degree.
All attempts at the solution of equations of the fifth degree

having failed, it was natural that mathematicians should inquire
whether any such solution was possible at all. Demonstrations have

been given by Abel and Wantzel (see Serret's Cours cFAlgelre Superieure. Art. 516) of the impossibility of resolving algebraically equa-
tions unrettricted in form, of a degree higher than the fourth.
274
Notes.
transaandental solution, however, of the quintic has been given by

in a form involving elliptic integrals.
Among other
M. Hermite,
contributions to the discussion of the qumtic since the researches of
Lagrange, one of leading importance is its expression in a trinomial

form by means of the Tschirnhausen transformation. Tschirnhausen
himself had succeeded in the year 1683, by means of the assumption
2
in the reduction of the cubic and quartic, and had
4- Q,x + #
y
imagined that a similar process might be applied to the general equaThe reduction of the quintic to the trinomial form was published
tion.
by Mr. Jerrard in his Mathematical Researches, 1832-1835, and has

been pronounced by M. Hermite to be the most important advance
in the discussion of this quantic since Abel's demonstration of the
In a Paper published by the

impossibility of its solution by radicals.
Kev. Ilobert Harley in the Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, vol. vi.,
p. 38, it is shown that this reduction had been previously effected, in
Of equal importance
1786, by a Swedish mathematician named Bring.
by means of
which the quintic is expressed as the sum of three fifth powers a
form which gives gieat facility to the treatment of this quantic.
Other contributions which have been made in recent years towards the
discussion of quantics of the fifth and higher degrees have reference
For an account
chiefly to the invariants and covariants of these forms.
<*>
W**
of these researches, additional to what will be found in the second
volume of this work, the student is referred to Clebsch's Thtorie der
lindren algebraischen Formen, and to Salmon's Lessons Introductory to
the Modern
to Bring's reduction is Dr. Sylvester's transformation,
275
Notes.
NOTE
B.
SOLUTION OF NUMKKICAL EQUATIONS.
THE
first
attempt at a general solution by approximation of numewas published in the year 1600, by Vieta. Cardan
rical equations
had previously applied the rule

to the
"regula aurea")
method were of little value.
cubic;
of "false position" (called
by him
but the results obtained by this
It occurred to Yieta that a particular
numerical root of a given equation might be obtained by a process

analogous to the ordinary processes of extraction of square and cube
and he inquired in what way these known processes should be

modified in order to afford a root of an equation whose coefficients are
roots
given numbers.
Taking the equation
(x)
Q,
where Q
is
a given
number, and/(#) a polynomial containing different powers of x, with

numerical coefficients, Vieta showed that, by substituting in / (x] a
known approximate value
of
the root, another figure of the root
When this
(expressed as a decimal) might be obtained by division.
value was obtained, a repetition of the process furnished the next
It will be observed that the principle
figure of the root ; and so on.
of this
method
is
identical with the
main principle involved in the
methods of approximation of Newton and Homer (Arts. 107, 108).

All that has been added since Vieta's time to this mode of solution of
numerical equations
afford facility
is
the arrangement of the calculation so as to

of evolution of the root.
and security in the process
Hjow gcaat has been the improvement in this respect may be judged
by an observation in Montucia's ffistoire des Mathtmatiques, vol. i.,
of
where, speaking of Vieta's mode of approximation, the author

regards the calculation (performed by Wallis) of the root of a biquad-
p. 603,
ratic to eleven decimal places
labour.
The same
as a
calculation can
work
of the
most extravagant
now be conducted with
great ease
by anyone who has mastered Korner's process explained in the text.

Newton's method of approximation was published in 1669; but
before this period the method of Vieta had been employed and simAfter the period of
plified by Harriot, Oughtred, Fell, and others.
Newton, Simpson and the Bernoullis occupied themselves with the
276
Notes.
same problem. Daniel Bernoulli expressed a root of an equation u

the form of a recurring series, and a similar expression was given by
Euler; but both these methods of solution have been shown by
Lagrange to be in no respect essentially different from Newton's
solution (Traite de la Resolution des Equations numeriques}.
Up to
the period of Lagrange, therefore, there was in existence only one
distinct method of approximation to the root of a numerical equation
;
and this method, as finally perfected by Horner in 1819, remains at

the present time the best practical method yet discovered for this
purpose.
Lagrange, in the work above referred to, pointed out the defects
methods of Yieta and Newton. AVith reference to the former
in the
he observed that
it
required too
many
trials
and that
it
could not be
depended on, except when all the terms on the left-hand side of the
equation /(#) = Q were positive. As defects in Newton's method lie
signalized
first,
its failure to
give a commensurable root in finite
secondly, the insecurity of the process which leaves doubtful

the exactness of each fresh correction; and lastly, the failure of the
terms
method
an equation with roots nearly equal. The

" Etant
problem Lagrange proposed to himself was the following:
donnee une equation nuuierique sans aucune notion prealable de la
in the case of
grandeur ni de 1'espece de ses racines, trouvcr la valeur numerique

exacte, s'il est possible, ou aussi approchee qu'on voudra de chacune
de ses racines."
Before giving an account of his attempted solution of this problem,
necessary to review what had been already done in this direction,
it is
in addition to the
methods
of
approximation above described.
Harriot
discovered in 1631 the composition of an equation as a product of

Vieta
factors, and the relations between the roots and coefficients.
had already observed this relation in the case of a cubic but he

This
failed to draw the conclusion in its generality, as Harriot did.
;
discovery was important, for it led to the observation that any integer
must be a factor of the absolute term of an equation; and Newton's Method of Divisors for the determination of such roots was
root
Attention was next directed towards finding limits

of the roots, in order to diminish the labour necessary in applying the
a natural result.
method
of divisors as well as the
in existence.
methods of approximation previously
Descartes, as already remarked,
was the
first to
recog-
277
Note.
nise the negative
and imaginary roots of equations
commenced by him
as to the determination of the
and the inquiry

of real and
number
any given equation was continued by Xewton,

and
others.
DeGua,
of imaginary roots of
Stirling,
that, in order to arrive at a solution of the
Lagrauge observed
problem above stated, it was first necessary to determine the number

of the real roots of the given equation, and to separate them one from
For this purpose he proposed to employ the equation whose
another.
roots are the squares of the differences of the roots of the given equation.
Waring had
previously, in
1762, indicated this method
of
separating the roots but Lagrange observes (Equations numeriques,

Note iii.) that he was not aware of Waring' s researches when he
;
It is evident that when

this subject.
the equation of differences is formed, it is possible, by finding an
inferior limit to its positive roots, to obtain a number less than the
composed his own memoir on
least difference of the real roots of the given equation.

By substituting in succession numbers differing by this quantity, the real roots
When the roots are sepaof the given equation will be separated.
rated in this way, Lagrange proposed to determine each of them by
the method of continued fractions, explained in the text (Art. 112).

This mode of obtaining the roots escapes the objections above stated
to Newton's method, inasmuch as the amount of error in each successive approximation is
known
and when the root
is
commensurable,
the process ceases of itself, and the root is given in a finite form.
Lagrange gave methods
also of
obtaining the imaginary roots of
equations, and observed that if the equation had equal roots, they
could be obtained in the first instance by methods already in
existence.
Theoretically, therefore, Lagrange's solution of the problem
he proposed to himself
is
almost useless.
which
As
a practical method, however, it

The formation of the equation of differences for
is perfect.
equations of even the fourth degree
is
very laborious, and for equa-
becomes well-nigh impracticable. Even if

the more convenient modes of separating the roots discovered since
tions of higher degrees
Lagrange's time be taken in conjunction with the rest of his process,

still this process is open to the objection that it gives the root in
the form of a continued fraction, and that the labour of obtaining
it in thfs form is greater than the corresponding labour of obtaining it
278
Notes.
by Homer's process
in the
form
of a decimal.
also that the latter process, in the perfected
has brought
above stated.
it, is
free
from
It will be observed
form
to
which Horner
the objections to Newton's method
all
Since the period of Lagrange, the most important contributions to

the analysis of numerical equations, in addition to Homer's improvement of the methods of approximation of Yieta and Newton, arc those
of Fourier,
Budan, and Sturm. The researches of Budan were puband those of Fourier in 1831, after his death. There
lished in 1807
no doubt, however, that Fourier had discovered before the publication of Budan's work the theorem which is ascribed to them conjointly
is
in the text.
The
researches of
methods of separation
Sturm were published
in 1835.
The
of the roots
explained in Chapter X.
By
we have now
proposed by these writers are fully

a combination of these methods with
a solution of Lagrange' s problem far

simpler than that proposed by Lagrange himself. And it appears
impossible to reach much greater simplicity in this direction. In
that of Horner,
extracting a root of an equation, just as in extracting an ordinary

square or cube root, labour cannot be avoided and Homer's process
;
appears to reduce this labour to a minimum. The separation of the

roots also, especially when two or more are nearly equal, must remain
a work of more or less labour.

tion
by
This labour
may admit
of
some reduc-
the consideration of the functions of the coefficients which
play so important a part in the theory of the different quantics. If,

for example, the function? H> I, and 7J are calculated for a given
the character of the roots
quartic, it will be possible at once to tell
Mathematicians may also invent in process of time
(see Art. 68).
some mode of calculation applicable to numerical equations analogous

simple roots. But at the present
time the most perfect solution of Lagrange's problem is to be sought
in a combination of the methods of Sturm and Horner.
to the logarithmic calculation of
All that has been said applies only to the real roots of numerical
have referred, in a foot-note on p. 262, to the chief
equations.
We
works in which attempts have been made to give general methods of

calculation of the imaginary or complex roots; and in Ajts. 124,
125, we have shown how these roots may be calculated most expethird and fourth degrees with
ditiously in the case of equations of the
'
real numerical coefficients.
Notes.
NOTE
0.
THE PROPOSITION THAT EVERY EQUATION HAS

IT
is
what
A ROOT.
important to have a clear conception of what is proved, and

it is possible to prove, in connexion with the proposition dis-
cussed in Arts, 122, 123.
If in the equation
ti^r*
the coefficients
fli**""
+ ...+
a l9
a n are used as mere algebraical symbols
without any restriction that is to say, if they are not restricted to
denote either real numbers or complex numbers of the form treated
,
XII. then, with reference to such an equation it is not

proved, and there exists no proof, that every equation has a root.
The proposition which is capable of proof is that, in the case of any
in Chapter
rational integral equation of the n th degree,
whose
coefficients are all
numbers, there exist n complex numbers

which satisfy this equation so that, using the terms number and
numerical in the wide sense of Chapter XII., the proposition under
complex (including
real)
consideration might be more accurately stated in the form Every

numerical equation of the n th degree has n numerical roots.
As regards this proposition, there appears little doubt that the
proof is one founded on the treatment of

or
imaginary expressions
complex numbers of the kind considered in
XII.
first
idea
of the representation of complex numbers
The
Chapter
in
due
a
is
to
Argand, who in 1806 published anonyby points
plane
most direct and
scientific
mously in Paris a work
entitled JEssai sur une mani&re de representer
This
quantity imaginaires dans les constructions geomttriques.
writer some years later gave an account of his researches in Gergonne's
les
Annales.
Notwithstanding the publicity thus given by Argand to his

attracted but little notice, and appear to have been
new methods, they
discovered independently several years later by Warren in England

and Mourey in France. These ideas were developed by Gauss in his
works published in 1831 and by Cauchy, who applied them to the

proof of the important theorem of Art. 121. "With reference to the
;
280
Notes.
proposition now under discussion, the proof which we have given in

Art. 123 is a modification of a proof found in Argand's original
memoir, and reproduced by Cauchy in his Exercices & Analyse.
proof in many respects similar was given by Mourey.

Before the discovery of the geometrical treatment of complex
numbers, several mathematicians occupied themselves with the prob-
lem
of the nature
researches
riques.
is
The
An
of the roots of equations.
account of their
given by Lagrange in Note IX. of his Equations numtinquiries of these investigators,
among whom we may
mention D'Alembert, Descartes, Euler, Foncenex, and Laplace, reand the object in
ferred only to equations with rational coefficients
view was, assuming the existence of factors of the form x - a, x - ft,
&c., to show that the roots a, /?, &c., were all either real or imagi;
nary quantities of the type a + b J 1 ; in other words, that the

solution of an equation with real numerical coefficients cannot give rise
an imaginary root of any form except the known form a -f b J - 1,
For the proof of this proposition,
in which a and b are real quantities.
the method employed in general was to show that, in case of an
to
equation whose degree contained 2 in any power k, the possibility of

its having a real quadratic factor might be made to depend on the
an equation whose degree contained 2 in the power k - 1

only, and by this process to reduce the problem finally to depend on
the known principle that every equation of odd degree with real coefsolution of
Lagrange's own investigations on this subject,

given in Note-X. of the work above referred to, related, like those
ficients has a real root.
of his predecessors, to equations
founded ultimately
root in an equation
.on
with rational
coefficients,
and are
the same principle of the existence of a real
of v odd degree
with real
coefficients.
As
an
resting on the same basis, viz. the existence of a real root in

equation of odd degree, may be noticed two recently published
methods
of
considering this problem
Clifford (see his Mathematical Papers,
sophical Society's Proceedings, II., 1876),
>one
p. 20,
by the late Professor

and Cambridge Philo-
and the other by Mr. Malet
(Transactions of the
Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxvi., p. 453, 1878).

th
with
an
Starting
equation o*f the 2m degree, both writers employ
method of elimination to obtain an equation of the

on
whose solution the existence of a root of the
1)
is
proposed equation shown to depend and since the number m (2m - 1 )
Sylvester's dialytic
degree m(2m -
281
Notes.
contains the factor % $*<**
is
I****
^^
f.him
fâ number 2m. the problem

methods above mentioned,
reduced ultimately to depend, as in the
on the existence of a root in an equation of odd degree. The two

equations between which the elimination is supposed to be effected are
m and m - I and the only difference between the two
of the
degrees
of proof consists in the manner of arriving at these equations.

In Mr. Malet's method they are found by means of a simple transfor-
modes
mation
of the
by equating
polynomial
proposed equation while Professor Clifford obtains them

the coefficients of the remainder when the given
;
to zero
is
The general forme

divided by a real quadratic factor.
found among the Miscellaneous Examples
of these coefficients will be
appended to the chapter on Determinants in the second volume of th^

work and it will be readily observed that the elimination of /? from
the equations so obtained will furnish an equation in a of the degree
;
m(2t* - M.
fSee Kx. 38.
D. 64,
Vol. II.
INDEX TO VOLUME
I.
[The figures appended refer to the pages.]
Abel, 273.
Algebraical equations,
2,
Biauadratic
u a stormed
215.
r,
lo reciprocal, 135.
their solution, 105.
solved
solution of cubic, 108.
equation of differences, 142.

nature of roots, 144, 211.
of biquadratic, 121.
historical note, 271.
by symm.
functions, 139,
Bombelli, 272.
Alkhayyami, 271.
Bring, 274.
Amplitude of complex number, 249.
Budan, theorem
of, 189, 278.
variation of, 256.
Appi oximation to numerical root*

Kewton's, 225.
Homer's, 227.
Cardan, solution of cubic, 108.

his relations with Tartaglia, 272.
Cauchy, his theorem, 258.

Clifford, on the proposition that every
Lagrange's, 241.
Arabians, 271.
equation has a root, 280.
Argand, 279.
Colla, 271, 272.
Commensurable
roots
Complex numbers,
Ben Musa,
Binomial
271.
solution of, 90.
leading properties
solution
by
of,
92.
circular functions, 98.
Gauss' method of solving, 102.

Biquadratic, 73.
Euler's solution of, 121.
Ferrari's, 129.
Descajtes', 133.
theorem, 216.
graphic representation of, 249.

addition and subtraction of, 250.
coefficients, 68.
Binomial equations
22, 249.
multiplication
and division
of, 251,
other operations on, 252.
Complex
roots of numerical equations,
261.
determination of, for cubic, 262.

for biquadratic, 265, 267*
Complex
variable, 253.
continuity of function of, 256.
284
Index.
Continuity of rational integral function,

9.
Fourier: his theorem, 189,278.

applied to imaginary roots, 19<
Cube
roots of unity, 43.
corollaries from, 197.
Cubic, 71.
equation of differences, 81.

criterion of nature of roots, 84.
Cardan's solution
as difference of
of,
108.
Fundamental theorem, 259.

derived from Cauchy's, 260
second proof
of,
260.
historical note on, 279.
two cubes, 111.
solved by symmetric functions, 113.
homograpbic relation of
roots, 120.
Gauss, binomial equations, 102.
Graphic representation
of polynomial, 13.
Darwin, G. H., example solved, 246.
De Gua,
rule for imaginary roots, 197.
Derived functions,
of derived functions, 164.

of complex numbers, 249.
Greatheed
8.
on the biquadratic, 136.
grapbiu representation of, 154.

in terms of the roots, 157.
Descartes, rule of signs, 28, 30, 197.

solution of biquadratic, 133.
improvements in Algebra, 272.

Divisors, Newton's method of, 217.
Harley, 274.
Hermite, 274.
Homogeneous
products, 178.
Homographic transformation,
75.
relation of roots of cubic, 120.
Homer
Equal
roots, 25.
his
method
of solving
nume-
rical equations, 227.
condition for, in cubic, 84.
contraction of the process, 235.
in biquadratic, 144.
his process applied to cases where

roots are nearly equal, 238.
determination
by method
Equation
of,
159.
his
of divisors, 207.
of squared differences
improvements
in the solution of
numerical equations, 277.
of cubic, 81.
of general equation, 84.
Equation whose roots are powers of

roots -of given equation, 78.
Euler: solution of biquadratic, 121.
Imaginary
roots, 21.
enter in pairs, 26.
determined for a cubic, 262.
and for a biquadratic, 265, 267.
his reducing cubic, 122.
Sturm's functions for his cubic, 248.

publication of his Algebra, 272.
Lagrange
on equation of differences,
142.
his approximation to roots
by con-
tinued fractions, 241.

Ferrari
solution of biquadratic, 129,
272.
Florido: 271.
on solution of equations, 273.

his treatise on Numerical Equation*
referred to, 143, 276*277, 280.
285
Index.
1
Quartic, see "Biquadratic.'
Leonardo, 271.
Limits of roots
definitions, 180.
Quintic
propositions on, 180, 181, 185.
Newton's method, 185.

inferior limits, and limits of nega-
special
248.
impossibility of its solution, 273.
tive roots, 186.
Quotient and remainder: when polynomial is divided by binomial, 10.
Limiting equations, 187.

Lucaa de Burgo, 271.
Beality of roots
Malet, on the proposition that every
equation has a root, 280.
Maxima and minima,
17, 155.
of Divisors, Newton's, 217.

Modulus, of complex numbers, 249.
Multiple roots, 25, 158, 159.

of,
of cubic, 84.
in general, 210.
tions, G2.
solution of reciprocal equations, CO.
reciprocal form,
theorem on sums of powers
bis
Robei ts
two
of roots, 165.
mode of approximation, 225.
of,
67.
on an equation derived from
cubics, 118.
identical relation, 153.
example on quartic and quintic, 213.
Numbers, complex, 22, 249.

Numerical equations, 2, 215.
commensurable roots
divisors, 217.
Rollers theorem, 157.
Roots: theoiems relating
216.
to, 19.
imaginary, 21.
multiple roots of, 159, 222.
methods of approximation to
number
roots,
of, 22.
equal, 25.
225, 227, 241.
note on solution
to
on equation of squared differences
finding of limits, 185, 197.
method of
biquadiatic
135.
Reducing cubic, 122.
Removal of tc-ims,
Newton
of
transformation
by method of
222.
divisors,
of biquadratic, 144, 211.
Recipiocal roots, and reciprocal equa-
Method
determination
form solved, 104.
Sturm's remainders calculated for

one wanting second term, 247,
of,
275.
note on the fundamental proposition

as to roots, 279.
Descartes' rule for positive, 28.

for negative
and imaginary, 30.
relation of, to coefficients, 35.
cube roots of unity, 43.

Order, of symmetric functions, 173.
symmetric functions
of, 46, 165.
multiple, 158, 222.

limits of, ISO.
Polynomials
general properties, 5, 6.
change of form
continuity of, 9.
graphic representation
maxima and minima,

Puraer,
<Ai
separation of, 189.
commensurable, 216.
of, 8.
of, 13.
17.
Sturm's functions, 214.
approximation to, 225, 227, 241.

Cauchy's theorem on, 269.
complex roots determined, 261.

every equation has a root, 260, 279.
Index.
286
Eule
Symmetric functions
Descartes', of signs, 28, 197.
De
expressed by coefficients, 167.
Gua's, 197.
order and weight of, 53, 173.
of the double sign, 197.
calculation of, 48, 174.
Salmon, 274.
Scipio Ferreo, 271.
Tabulation of functions, 12.
Separation of roots, 189.
Tartaglia, 271.
Serret, 273, 274.
Transformation
of equations, 60.
Simpson, 272.
of cubic, 71.
Special roots of binomial equations, 95.
of biquadratic, 73.
Sturm:
homographic, 75.
his theorem, 198.
'
for equal roots, 203.
by symmetric functions,
application of theorem, 206.
in general, 80.
exercises
on
theorem,
213,
76.
214,
248.
Sums
of powers of roots
Yandermonde, 273.
:
Variable, change of form of polynomial

with change of variable-, 8.
Newton's theorem on, 165.

in terms of coefficients, 169.
complex, 253.
coefficients expressed by, 170.
Symmetric functions
Vieta, 276.
**
j^f
definitions, 46.
theorems relating
to, 53.
Wantzel, 273.
transformation by, 76.
Weight
K*S>
OF
1*
of
symmetric functions, 63, 171.

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THE BOOK WAS

THE THEORY OF EQUATIONS.

DUBLIN UNIVERSITY PRESS SERIES

INTRODUCTION TO THH THHORY OF BINARY

WILLIAM SNOW BURNSIDK,

LAIE SENIOR I-KLIOW OF TRINI1Y COII.EGK, DUBLIN;

ARTHUR WILLIAM PANTON,

AND 1U1 OR,

LONDON: LONGMANS, GREEN

GIBBS, University Press, Dublin.

PREFACE TO SEVENTH EDITION OF VOLUME

to preserve the original design,

make any change

wished as far as possible

in the Preface to previous editions.

In coining to this decision I have been influenced to a great

Dr. linrnside died llth March, 1920.

our aim to make this Chapter

intelligible as possible to the beginner;

the same time to omit no proposition which might be found

useful in the application of this calculus.

Chapter, as well as in other parts of the

work, we are indebted to the kindness of Mr. Cathcart, Fellow

have approached the consideration of Covariants and

and most attractive mode

subject to beginners, and has the advantage, as will be seen,

terms of the roots.

have attempted at the same time

harmony with the more general problem

of the linear trans-

formation of algebraic forms.

Of the works which have afforded us

elementary part of the subject, we wish to mention particularly

Bertrand, and the writings of the

which have contributed so

extend and simplify the analysis and solution of

In the more advanced portions of the subject we are

Introductory to the Modern Higher Algebra of Dr. Salmon, and

the Theorie der bindren algebraischen Formen of Clebsch

also our obligations

in this department of the subject to Mr. Michael Roberts,

whose papers in the Quarterly Journal and other

and from whose professorial

very great assistance has been derived.

the examples also are taken from Papers set

In connexion with various parts of the subject several

among which may be

on Algebra by Serret, Meyer Hirsch,

and 'Rubini, and papers in the mathematical journals by Boole,

have added also in

what was contained

and the preceding

in the earlier editions of this work>

the Theory of Substitutions and Groups.

possible, an account of the subject which may be found useful

systematic works which are specially devoted to this depart-

The works which have

preparation of this Chapter are

which there is an English

Resolution algtbrique des Equations,

TABLE OF CONTENTS OF VOL

Numerical and algebraical equations,

GENEKAL PROPERTIES OF POLYNOMIALS.

form of a polynomial corresponding

Theory of Equations Volume I by Burnside & Panton

Theory of Equations Volume I by Burnside & Panton