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    Pipeline Design and Construction a Practical Approach is designed to assit the educations and learning of those interested in designing, building and managing pipelines

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    59 views611 pages

    Pipeline Design and Construction A Practical Approach M Mohitpour 2nd Ed

    Uploaded by

    Marcelo Varejão Casarin
    Pipeline Design and Construction a Practical Approach is designed to assit the educations and learning of those interested in designing, building and managing pipelines

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    PIPELINE DESIGN & CONSTRUCTION: A Practical Approach Second Edition By M. Mohitpour H. Golshan A. Murray TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments Foreword Dedication Preface Metric Conversion Table xvii Chapter 1 Elements of Pipeline Design il Introduction 1 Fluid Properties 2 Environment 2 Effects of Pressure and Temperature 3 Supply/Demand Seenario, Route Selection 7 ‘Codes and Standards 8 Environmental and Hydrological Considerations 8 Economies 12 Materials/Construction 13 Operation 16 Pipeline Protection 7 Pipeline Integrity Monitoring 19 References 2 Chapter 2 Pipeline Route Selection, Survey and Geotechnical Guidelines 23 Introduction 23 Preliminary Route Selection 23 Key Factors for Route Selection 24 Engineering Survey 31 Legal Survey 36 Construction/As-Built Survey 36 Geotechnical Design 44 References 55 iv ML Table of Contents Chapter 3 Natural Gas Transmission 587 Introduction 3s7 General Flow Equation — Steady State 37 Impact of Gas Molecular Weight and Compressibility Factor on Flow Capacity 71 Flow Regimes 74 Widely Used Steady-State Flow Equations B Summary of the Impact of Different Gas and Pipeline Parameters on the Gas, Flow Efficiency 83 Pressure Drop Calculation for Pipelines in Series and Parallel 83 Pipeline Gas Velocity 92 sional Velocity 94 Optimum Pressure Drop for Design Purposes 96 Pipeline Packing 96 Determining Gas Leakage Using Pressure Drop Method 97 Wail Thickness/Pipe Grade 100 ‘Temperature Profile 106 ‘Optimization Process 110 Gas Transmission Solved Problems 8 References 127 Chapter 4 Gas Compression and Coolers 129 introduction 129 Types of Compressors 129 ‘Compressor Drivers 131 ‘Compressor Station Configuration 135 ‘Thermodynamics of Isothermal and Adiabatic Gas Compression 137 ‘Temperature Change in Adiabatic Gas Compression 144 Thermodynamics of Polytropic Gas Compression 147 Gas Compressors in Series 150 Centrifugal Compressor Horsepower 160 thalpy/Entropy Charts (Mollicr Diagram) 162 Centrifugal Compressor Performance Curve 167 Influence of Pipeline Resistance on Centrifugal Compressor Performance 171 Reciprocating Compressors 175 Gas Compression Solved Problems 177 Gas Coolers 202 Introduction 202 Ai-Cooled Heat Exchangers 202 Coolers Heat Transfer Equations 203 Fan Air Mass Flow Rate 208 Required Fan Power 208 Gas Pressure Drop in Coolers 209 Table of Contents Mv Iterative Procedure for Calculations Based on Unknown To 2 References 212 Chapter 5 Liquid Flow and Pumps 245 Introduction. 215 Pully Developed Laminar Flow in a Pipe 218 Turbulent Flow 219 Centrifugal Pumps 227 Retrofitting for Centrifugal Pumps (Radial-Flow) 246 Pump Station Control 247 Pump Station Piping Design 249 References 249 Chapter 6 Transient Flow in Liquid and Gas Pipelines 251 Purpose of Transient Analysis 251 Background 251 ‘Theoretical Fundamentals and Transient Solution Technique 253 Applications 256 Computer Applications 270 References 299 Chapter 7 Pipeline Mechanical Design 301 Introduction 301 Codes and Standards 301 Location Classification 301 Pipeline Design Formula 302 Expansion and Flexibility 308 Joint Design for Pipes of Unequal Wall Thickness 323 Valve Assemblies 351 Scraper Traps 360 Buoyancy Control 368 Crossings 378 Depth of Cover 387 Aerial Markings 388 Warning Signs 388 References 388 1apter 8 Materials Selection and Quality Management 391 Introduction 391 Elements of Design 391 HM Table of Contents Materials Designation Standards all Quality Management 41s ‘Summary 424 References aaa Chapter 9 Pipeline Construction 427 Introduction 427 Construction 427 Commissioning 464 References 47 Chapter 10 Pipeline Protection 473 Introduction 473 Pipeline Coating 473 Cathodie Protection 480 Cathodic Protection Calculations for Land Pipelines, 492 Internal Corrosion 498 References 498 Chapter 11 Pipeline Integrity 499 Introduction 499 References 520 Chapter 12 Specialty Fluid Transmission 521 Introduction 521 Carbon Dioxide Pipeline Transmission 545 References 601 Glossary of Terms 605 Appendices A Route Selection for Project Success: Addressing, “Feeling/Perception”” Issues 613 B - Impact of Different Gas and Pipeline Parameters on the Flow Efficiency of Pipeline 627 C - Temperature Computations in Fluid Transmission Pipelines 633 D - Sample Calculations from Chapter 9 645 ‘+ Hydrostatic Yield Plot 645 E - Cathodic Protection Problem Solution a7 Index 649 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS There were many contributors who helped with the preparation of this book, and the authors ‘would very much like to acknowledge and thank all those listed below. First are the sponsors and the original contributors without whom this book would not have been possible. The backbone of this book is the material initiated and prepared by the primary author (M. Mohitpour) for the course "Innovation in Pipetine Design and Construction Course" at the Faculty of Continuing Education, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada. This course was initiated in October 1988 by NOVA Gas International Ltd., now TransCanada Corporation (due to a merger of NOVA and TransCanada in July 1998), and has been since offered annually. The funds thus generated by the author from the course were allocated to a scholarship fund established under the auspices of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), OMAE Calgary Chapter set up at the University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Also authors proceeds fiom the sale of the 1” edition of the book was directed to ASME Pipeline Scholarship Fund that as well was set up at the University of Calgary. PRIMARY SPONSOR (1°T EDITION) The authors are grateful to TransCanada for sponsorship of the entire project, specifically for services received, financial sponsorship and above all permission granted for use of internally developed materials for preparation of the first edition of this book. Special thanks is due to the leadership of TransCanada (present & former), specifically Ron Turner, Ms. Shelagh Ricketts, Messrs. Ardean Braun, Andrew Jenkins, David Montemurro, Dave Comies, at TransCanada for their continual support of the project. PROJECT CONTRIBUTORS. ‘Thanks are due to the authors’ colleagues at TransCanada and those of the former NOVA, who in many ways contributed to the preparation and delivery of the material in this book. Acknowledgment is due to Marezban Cantcenwalla, Dr. lain Colquhoun, Dave Detchka, Bob De Wolff, John Kazakoff, Michael McManus, Cliff Mitchel, Mark Wright, Neal Russell, Tom Slimmon, Keith Coulson, Rick Spittal, William Thompson, Bill Trefanenko, ‘Trent Van Egmond, Doug Waslen, Robert Worthingham, and Chuck Middleton. Without their initial contributions, the original lecture series at the University of Calgary, which led to the eventual preparation of this book, would not have occurred. GRAPHICS DESIGNER AND TECHNICAL WRITER/EDITOR A project such as this, of course, owes its completeness to the technical writer/editor and reviewers, who kept a quality check on the timeliness of content and accuracy of the information included. vii viii Ml Acknowledgments Therefore, it is with deep gratitude that the authors acknowledge ASME publications, specifically Mr. Philip DiVietro, Ms. Mary Grace Stefanchik and Ms. Tara Smith for their tremendous encouragement and commitment toward completion of this work. ‘We are also grateful to Ms, Daphne MeIntyre and Ms. Karla Ferbey for their diligence and technical know-how in preparing the text. We would like to thank Ms. Camilla Williams (Robinson) of TransCanada for her detailed review of the book's content and Joel Brimacombe (University of Saskatchewan) for creating many of the figures appearing in this book. ERRATA Acknowledgment is due to many colleagues and associates whom have reported typographical errors and omissions noted in the 1" edition of the book. We are grateful to Messts E.J. Seiders, Doug James, Bill Leighty, Chia Hong Kiat and Bill Tyson. M. Mohitpour, Ph.D., P-E., F1.Mech.Eng, Fellow.FIC, FASME ‘mo.mohitpour@shaw.ca H. Golshan, Ph.D, P-Eng. hossein_golshan@transcanada.com A.Murray, Ph.D, P.Eng ma-murray@shaw.ca PERMISSIONS ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors wish to thank all of the organizations that kindly granted their permission to rept their figures and tables in this book. Details regarding these items and their formal acknowledgment appear below Chapters 3, 4 and 8 Chapter 5 Chapter 7 and I Chapter 12 ‘Phe McGraw-Hill Companies Figures 3-3, 4-14 and 4—26: From Handbook of Natural Gas Engineering by D. Katz, et al. copyright 1990, Figure 8-14 From book “Profitable Procurement Strategies”, 1998. These figure are “reproduced with the permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies”. Marcel Dekker, Inc. Figure 5—7: Reprinted from Chemical Engineering Fluid Mechanics, p. 239, by R. Darby, courtesy of Marcel Dekker, Inc. CSA International Chapter 7 tables (71, 7-2, 7-3, 7-4 ) and Figure 7—18 as well as Chapter 11, figures 11-6 and 11-7. With the permission of CSA International, material is reproduced from CSA Standard CAN/CSA- 2662, Oil and Gas Pipeline Systems, which is copyrighted by CSA International, 178 Rexdale Blvd., Etobicoke, Ontario, M9W 1R3 Elsevier Science Figures 12—34 a and b: Reprinted from PHYSICA, Vol. 25, Michels et al, “Compressibility Isotherms of hydrogren...”, T-S Diagrams, pp. 25, Copyright 1959, with permission from Flsevicr Science. ‘The authors also gratefully acknowledge the following organizations for permission granted to reproduce various items that appear in the text: American Gas Association—PRCI American Petroleum Institute CRC Press LLC Crane Company Daniel Industries Canada David Brown Union Pumps (Canada) Limited Gas Processors and Suppliers Association (GPSA) x Ml Permissions Acknowledgment Hydraulic Institute John M. Campbell & Co. Institute of Gas Technology Institute of Materials National Fire Protection Association Pipeline and Gas Journal, Petroleum Engineer Publishing Company Welding Technology Institute of Australia FOREWORD "pipeline Design & Construction - A Practical Approach” was first published in October 2000 at the time of ASME International Pipeline Conference in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, ‘The first edition has been a resounding success due to its practical approach in the development of pipeline systems from inception through to design, construction, operations and maintenance. “pipeline Design & Construction - A Practical Approach” evolved from training courses initiated in 1988 in response to the pipeline community’s need to educate those in the industry's hierarchy, and the training and development needs of those entering the profession. These courses have been offered worldwide. ‘The content of the book, generated by the considerable knowledge and experience of the authors, is augmented by current industry practices that have been made available by TransCanada Corporation, one of the world’s largest pipeline companies. lam very pleased that this experience and knowledge continues to be available to the pipeline industry through the publication of this second edition. Ron Tumer Executive Vice President: Gas Transmission, ‘TransCanada Corporation Chairman: Canadian Energy Pipeline Association. @ "5 TransCanada ca FOREWORD "Pipeline Design & Construction - A Practical Approach" was first published in October 2000 at the time of ASME International Pipeline Conference in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, ‘The first edition has been a resounding success due to its practical approach in the development of pipeline systems from inception through to design, construction, operations and maintenance. "Pipeline Design & Construction - A Practical Approach" evolved from training courses initiated in 1988 in response to the pipeline community's need to educate those in the industry’s hierarchy, and the training and development needs of those entering the profession. These courses have been offered worldwide. The content of the book, generated by the considerable knowledge and experience of the authors, is augmented by current industry practices that have been made available by ‘TransCanada Corporation, one of the world’s largest pipeline companies. I am very pleased that this experience and knowledge continues to be available to the pipeline industry through the publication of this second edition. Ron Turner Executive Vice President: Gas Transmission, TransCanada Corporation Chairman: Canadian Energy Pipeline Association. © sas) TransCanada xi DEDICATION This book is dedicated to all those pipeliners who baffle a novice on “pigging a pipeline.” ‘These pipeliners are the real contributors to our technological advancements because without them progress in the pipelining industry would have been very limited. Where there is the largest advanced network of pipelines, there is also the most progress in technological development. It is dedicated to an industry whose breadth of expertise has been a principal party to these advancements. It is dedicated to the future of the pipeline industry. xili PREFACE Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach” is designed to assist the education and learning of those interested in designing, building and managing pipelines. The book provides a practical way to learn about the elements that make up a single-phase liquid and gas pipeline system, as well as a rational way to design, construct, commission, and assess pipelines and related facilities. It is a reference material for those involved in the industry and a tool for training new entrants or for refreshing the knowledge of professionals. Materials for compilation of the book have been gathered from the authors” collective experience totaling more than 65 years of service in the industry, covering all aspects of gas and liquid transmission; compression. pumping, protection and integrity; procurement services: construction, commissioning and operation; as well as management of pipeline projects. It also draws upon materials researched by the authors from outside sources and materials developed by the authors’ employer, TransCanada, ‘The layout of the book generally presents, in a logical manner, the sequential steps in the design, construction and integrity maintenance of the pipeline. Where possible, mathematical models are presented from basic principles developed by the authors or obtained from other sources. Examples and case studies are deseribed in some detail for illustrative purposes. In some chapters, application - oriented examples, with sketches and descriptions of systems, are presented and discussed. References and bibliographical guides are presented to the reader for additional information. In this book, a mix of imperial and metric units is utilized; however, corresponding metrie conversions are provided for imperial units. The use of both systems is justified because the industry uses them interchangeably. While every care has been exercised by the authors to contact copyright holders and obtain permissions and reference materials, avoid etrors and omissions, and provide information adequately, it is not intended that specific examples, or applications be copied for tumkey use. Readers are encouraged to check formulations and other details prior to use, Notifications of corrections, omissions and attributions are welcomed by the authors. xv METRIC CONVERSION OF SOME COMMON UNITS TO CONVERT FROM ‘TO DEFINE UNIT 1 SYMBOL MULTIPLY BY CUSTOMARY UNIT barrel per hour liters per second Ls 0.044 163 barrel per day cubic meters per day mid 0.158 987 MMBOD_ ‘cubic meters per day mid 0.158 987 x 10° Btu/second kilowatt kW 1.055 056 Biwhour watt w 0.293 071 Btw, kilojoule per kilogram kirkg 2.326 Buwllby,-°F R kilojoule per kilogram- KI/(kg.K) 4.1868 kelvin Btwlbyy-mole-"R joule per mote-kelvin J/ (moL.K) 4.1868 BuwR kilojoute per kelvin 1K 1.8991 Brwft?-hr. joule per sq. meter- Ii (ms) 3.194 591 second Baw ft-he°F joule per meter-second- J/ (mnls.K) 1.730 735 kelvin joule per square meter- J/(m?sk) 5.678 263 second kelvin foot-pound force (ft. 1b) joule J 1.355 818 foot? square meter mi 0.092 903 foot? cubic meter m* 0.028 316 85 foot?/minute liter per second Us 0.471 947 foot’ hour cubic meter per day mid 0.679 604 MMSCFD cubic meter per second m/s 0.327 774 gallon/minute (GPM) liter per second Us 0.063 090 inch? ‘square centimeter om? 6.451 600 inch* cubic centimeter cm 16.387 064 kilowatt-hour (kWh) megajoule MI 3.6 mile per hour kilometer per hour kovh 1.609 344 pound kilogram kg 0.453 592 37 pound force/foot? (psf) pascal Pa 47.880 258 pound mass/foot® (Ib,,/ft*) kilogram per cubic kg/m? 16.018 463 meter pound mass/galion kilogram per liter ke/L 0.119 826 pound mass/hour Kilogram per hour kgh 0.453 592 Psi kilopascal KPa 6.894 757 xvii xviii Il Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach TO CONVERT FROM TO DEFINE UNIT 1 SYMBOL, MULTIPLY BY CUSTOMARY UNIT psiffoot kilopascal per meter kPasm 22.620 59 psi/mile pascal per meter Palm 4.284 203 Watt-hour kilojoule kJ 3.6 vyard square meter mm 0.836 127 yard cubic meter mm 0.764 555 acre square meter mm 4,046,856 almosphere (std) kilopascal kPa 101.325 barrel (42 gal) cubic meter * 0.158 987 Buu (Intemational Table) kilojoule kr 1.055 056 calorie (Thermochemical) joule J 4.184 degree F degree Celsius “cl 5/9 (°F-32) degree R degree kelvin K 5/9 foot meter m 0.3048 gallon (U.S. liquid) fiter L 3.785 412 horsepower (U.S.) kilowatt kw 0.7457 inch (U.S.) millimeter mm 25.4 inch of mecury (60°F) kilopascal KPa 3.376 85 inch of water (60°F) Kilopascal kPa 0.248 $43 mil micrometer yam 25.4 mile (U.S. statute) kilometer km 1.609 344 ounce (U.S. fluid) milliliter mL 29.573 53 poise pascal-second Pas o1 stokes square centimeter per cm*/s 1 second ton, Tong (2,240 Ib) ton t 1.016 047 ton, short (2,000 Thin) ton t 0.907 184 74 ton of refrigeration kilowatt kw 3.516 853 yard (U.S.) meter m 0.9144 NOTE: Multiply factors for compounds units. For example: 1 To convert Ib/ft? to kg/m*, multiply Lib 0.45536 ke a fe 1b (0.3048)° m? 2. To convert a viscosity at 25°C of 0.548 centistoke to viscosity in centipoise, obtain 548. centistol n2/s 2/s 0.548 centistoke | 1 cm?/ min?/S 6,995.48 mm? /s T ‘centistoke “ 100 om?/s kg ‘Now multiply by the flow density p-z8&. to determine the viscosity in centipoise: 0.00548 nm? ke ae ne x p 8 , s mm’ .00548p centipoise Chapter 1 a ELEMENTS OF PIPELINE DESIGN INTRODUCTION ‘This chapter provides an overview of elements that systematically influence pipeline design through to construction, operation, and maintenance, Subsequent chapters provide detailed information on these topics. Pipelines affect daily lives in most parts of the world. Modem people’s lives are based on an environment in which energy plays a (predominant) role. Oil and gas are major participants in the supply of energy, and pipelines are the primary means by which they are transported. It is no coincidence that an extensive pipeline network goes hand-in-hand with a high standard of living and technological progress, ‘Among other uses, oil and gas are utilized to generate electrical power. Using clectricity/oil and gas directly, houses are heated, meals are cooked, and a comfortable living environment is created. Petrochemical processes also use oil and gas to make useful products. To fulfil the oil and gas demand for power generation, recovery processes, and other uses, pipelines are utilized to transport the supply from their source. These pipelines are mostly buried and operate without disturbing normal pursuits. They carry large volumes of natural gas, crude oil, and other products in continuous streams Construction procedures for most pipeline systems can be adapted to consider specific environmental conditions and are tailored to cause minimal impact on the environment. Unattended pumping stations move large Volumes of oil and petroleum products under high pressure. Similarly, natural gas transmission systems, supported by compressor stations, deliver large volumes of gas to various consumers. Many factors have to be considered in the engineering and design of long-distance pipelines, including the nature and volume of fluid to be transported, the length of pipeline, the types of terrain traversed, and the environmental constraints. ‘To obtain optimum results for a pipeline transmission system, complex economic and engineering studies are necessary to decide on the pipeline diameter, material, compression! pumping power requirements, and location of the pipeline route. ‘Major factors influencing pipeline system design are: Fluid properties Design conditions Supply and demand magnitude/locations ‘Codes and standards Route, topography, and access Environmental impact Economics Hydrological impact Seismic and volcanic impacts ee eee eens 2M Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach © Material = Construction © Operation © Protection © Long-term Integrity FLUID PROPERTIES ‘The properties of fluid to be transported have significant impact on pipeline system design. Fluid properties are either given for the system design or have to be determined by the design engineer. The following properties have to be calculated for gas at a specific pressure and temperature: ‘© Specific volumes © Super compressibility factor © Specific heat Joule-Thompson coefficient ‘* Isentropic temperature change exponent Enthalpy ‘+ Entropy © Viscosity For liquid (such as oil or water): + Viscosity + Density ‘© Specific heat ENVIRONMENT ‘The environment affects both below- and above-ground pipeline design. For below-ground pipelines, the following properties have to be determined during system design ‘+ Ground temperature # Soil conductivity = Soil density # Soil specific heat # Depth of burial In most cases, only air temperature and air velocity have a significant impact on the design of above-ground facilities. For both below- and above-ground pipelines, ground stability influences pipeline design/the pipeline support system. Significant variations in ground elevation particularly affect liquid pipeline design. Elements of Pipeline Design M3 EFFECTS OF PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE General ‘Temperature and pressure influence all fluid properties. A temperature rise is generally beneficial in liquid pipelines as it lowers the viscosity and density, thereby lowering the pressure drop. A temperature rise lowers the transmissibility of gas pipelines due to an increase in pressure drop. This results in a net increase in compressor power requirements for a given flow rate. The value of absolute (dynamic) viscosity for gas increases with an increase in pressure and temperature. Such an increase will result in an increase in frictional loss along the length of the pipeline. Pipeline temperature also impacts the environment. For example, heated liquid lines that are not insulated can cause crop damage in farmland during summer seasons, as shown in Figure I-1 (Mohitpour 1991), In winter, the cold soil temperature can affect the pipe and the fluid being transported. Cooling of noninsulated liquid pipelines by frozen ground increases liquid viscosity and density, thereby requiring greater pumping power. Figure 1-2 shows the temperature pattem around a buried pipeline during the cold season, Liquids that have a constant shear rate with respect to shear stress at any given temperature are termed Newtonian fluids (e.g., water, crude oil), and the viscosity is a function of temperature only, increasing with decreasing temperatures. Non-Newtonian, fluids such as bitumen have viscosities that are not only a function of temperature, but also of shear rate (Figure 1-3) and, in some cases, time (i.e. shrinkage) (Kung and Mohitpour 1987; Withers and Mowlt 1982). ‘There are a number of different fluids that can exhibit Non-Newtonian behaviour. These include dilutants (¢.g., starch, water, quicksand), pseudoplastic fluids (¢.g., lime solution) and Bingham plastics (Lestor 1958). For Non-Newtonian fluids, the viscosity has to be carefully considered. Since the shear rate changes with different fluid velocities, the viscosity curve of a specific fluid can be determined at a known fluid velocity along the fluid temperature profile of a pipeline. Typical Flow Equations The interrelationship of pressure, temperature, and other parameters for liquid and gas pipeline design can be summarized by the review of typical relevant flow equations. The following equations explain the relationships of pressure and temperature, pipe characteristics such as diameter and pipe roughness, flow rate, pipeline length and elevation profiles, and the properties of the Mid to be transported. They will be described in further detail later on in this book. Liquid Pipelines Equation for steady state isothermal liquid flow in a pipeline (ASCE 1975): a 03 =) x10 VIF a? Bi Pa Gh ~ ha 0-1 Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach AIR TEMPERATURE = 25 °C GROUND SURFACE » 18°C LEIA 1000 mm, 2000 mm. ‘Temperature isotherms around a buried pipeline after 30 days (summer season) Figure t-1. Friction factor f for a fally turbulent flow is given by the Colebrook-White equation k viral (1-2) ‘TOPGON TEMPERATURE (0) i ‘SUBSOIL TEMPERATURE (-o} i Elements of Pipeline Design M5 Distance Gen round Stace Tempera on Below Surace 20.0 Below Surace Lies Font ‘ute Tomporture=2°6 vaste SE re Epa Figure 1-2. Temperature along a buried pipeline (winter season) Gas Pipelines ‘The equation for steady state isothermal flow of a compressible Mid in a pipeline is written as (ASCE 1975, Katz et al., 1959): p2 . =a(f)e” vit lets act | : tue For fully turbulent flow, Nikuradse rough pipe flow law for the determination of friction factor is applicable: Vuh (4) where Q,=flow rate (turbulent region) iction factor ke=pipe roughness pipe internal diameter P4=downstream or outlet pressure P,=inlet or upstream pressure G=specific gravity of fluid hhg~downstream elevation b,-upstream elevation pe segment length ALG® - Dys 6 Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach RATE OF SHEAR $-1 (Represents Different Fluid Velocities) 0 ae e 38 8 8 . Non.Newtonian Newtonian Behavior Behavior * _— 5 feet * 5 2 = e a 8 3 2 > oo 10 20 30 40 50 o TEMPERATURE, °C ———— Typical Bitumen — — — Typical Bitumen -Dilutent Blend Figure 1-3. Viscosity characteristies for typical non-newtonian fluids e=2.718 ..., natural logarithm base s=gas density factor (to allow for elevation change) =Cy (rBu:)¢ Tp, Py=base temperature and pressure Ty.=flow temperature (average for segment) Z,.=compressibility factor (average for segment) Cy, C2, C3, C4=constants ‘The expression /1// is also sometimes referred to as the transmission factor, F. From the analysis of Equation (1-1), applicable to liquid lines, it can be inferred that for constant friction and elevation, pressure loss (P; -P) is directly proportional to flow. Such a pressure loss (converted to head) when plotted on a distance elevation scale will represent a straight Tine called the hydraulic gradient. In pipeline design, the hydraulic gradient must never cross the pipeline elevation profile, else the liquid will not be able to clear the elevation high point. ‘The analysis of gas pipeline Equation (1-3) indicates that for constant friction factor the pressure loss and flow do not have a linear relationship. Elements of Pipeline Design ll 7 Raseve Reuse pra et; Fate eh ef bey Fg eat gt ee Figure 1-4. Moody diagram friction factor for flow of fluids in pipelines [Moody 1944] Reviewing Equations 1-1 through 1-4, itis also significant to note the interrelationship between friction factor and pipe roughness, diameter, and Reynolds Number (Re), which is related to fluid Viscosity (14), density (p) and flowing velocity (V). Such a relationship is well depicted by the Moody diagram (Moody 1944) shown in Figure 1-4 ‘Changes in elevation alter the flow velocity. Also, changes in temperature along the pipeline alter viscosity and density. The result in each case is that the friction changes. It is important not to confuse friction with pipe roughness. Roughness is the physical characteristic of a pipe and is generally constant at any given time and location, but it is, friction that changes within the pipeline. SUPPLY/DEMAND SCENARIO, ROUTE SELECTION Supply and delivery points, as well as demand buildup, affect the overall pipeline system. design. The locations of supply and delivery points determine the pipeline route and the locations of facilities and control points (eg., river crossings, energy corridors, mountain passes, heavily populated areas). The demand buildup determines the optimum pipeline facilities size, location, and timing requirements, Following the identification of supply and delivery points, and as a prelude to pipeline design, a preliminary route selection is undertaken. Such a preliminary route selection is generally undertaken as follows: 1. Identification of supply and delivery points (1:50000 map). 2. Identification of control points on the map. 8 MM Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach 3. Plot of shortest route considering areas of major concern (high peaks, waterlogged terrain, lakes, etc.) 4. Plot of the selected route on aerial photographs and analysis of the selected route using a stereoscope to ascertain vegetation, relative wetness, suitability of terrain, construction access, and terrain slopes, ete. 5. Refinement of the selected route to accommodate better terrain, easier crossings, etc, This preliminary route selection is often examined by aerial reconnaissance and on-site visits to ensure the pipeline route and potential facility locations are feasible prior to detailed survey. Determining the pipeline route will influence design and construction in that it affects requirements for line size (length and diameter), as well as compressor or pumping facilities and their location. Hydraulics, operational aspects, and the requirement for special studies in areas where the pipeline traverses unstable ground in highly wet and corrosive soil are generally established at this stage ‘The economically optimum sizes of facilities required for the entire range of possible flow rates are determined by the supply and demand buildup data. This data also influences the timing and location of the facilities and whether additional metering stations, compression/pumping facilities, or looping will be required. CODES AND STANDARDS Pipelines and related facilities expose the operators, and potentially the general public, to the inherent risk of high-pressure fluid transmission. As a result, national and intemational codes and standards have been developed to limit the risk to a reasonable minimum. Such standards are mere guidelines for design and construction of pipeline systems. They are not intended to be substitutes for good engineering practices for safe designs. Major codes affecting pipeline design are listed in Table 1-1. Some Federal and other governmental authorities have the right to issue regulations defining minimum requirement, for the pipeline and related facilities, These regulations are legally binding for the design, construction, and operation of pipeline system facilities, which are under the jurisdiction of the relevant authority. There are also a number of other authorities (¢.g., utility boards) who have jurisdiction over specific concems with regard to pipeline design and construction. These authorities have the right to enforce their own regulations, setting minimum requirements for pipeline facilities within their jurisdiction. ENVIRONMENTAL AND HYDROLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS Environmental ‘The environmental evaluation of a pipeline route is an integral component of its design and construction, It requires special planning to ensure effective and successful protection and reclamation procedures. Initially, resources in the immediate area of the pipeline route are identified and assessed to determine potential impacts. Although site-specific, resources that are usually considered in an evaluation are wildlife, fisheries, water crossings, forest Elements of Pipeline Design Ml 9 TABLE 1-1. List of major organization codes and standards affecting pipeline design, Construction and operation Acronym Organization/topic acl American Conerete Institute AGA American Gas Association ANSI ‘American National Standard Institute APL “American Petroleum Institite ASME American Society of Mechanical Engin ‘ASTM American Society for Testing Materials CsA Canadian Standards Association DEP. Design Engineering Practice IEEE Institute of Electronic and Electrical Fngincers iP Institute of Peiroteum ISA Instrument Society of America 180, International Standards Organization MSS Manufacturers Standardization Society NACE National Association of Corrosion Engineers NAG. Normas Argentinas de Gas NEMA National Electrical Manufacturing Association NFPA [National Fire Protection Association sis rlaeds Institute of Sweden SSP Steel Structures Painting Council ANSI B165 Pine Flanges and Flanged Fittings. ASTM A 350 Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings Material MSS SP-25 Siandasd Marking System for Valves, Fitings, Planges, and Unions MSS SP-44 Steel Pipe Line Flanges API SL [APL Specifications for Line Pipe ‘API 6D Specifications for Pipeline Valves, End Closures, Connectors, and Swivels APL 1104 (NAG 100) Welding of Pipeline and Related Facilities ASTM A333 of ASTM A 106, Materials for Surface Installations Piping ANSI R169 ASTM A234 or ASTM A420 ASTM A 350 or ASTM A 10: ANS! B16.11 ANSVASME B34 ANSVASME 531.8 ‘ANSI BI69 ANSI 16.10 DEP 31.3801.10 ANSI B1634 ‘ANSI B11 ‘ANSI B9S.1 Division I, Rules for Construction of Pressure Vessels Qualification Standards for Welding and Brazing Procedutes, Welders, Brazers, Welding, and Brazing Op- MSS SP-53 MSS SP-54 MSS SP-55, MSS SP-75 API RE 6F ‘API 601 ‘API RP 520 API 526 ‘APL 527 ASTM A106 Butt Welding Elbows/Tees Butt Welding Elbows/Tees Mat Forged Fitings

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