The Owls of North America

HARIN COUNTY FREE LIBRARY
31111005162985
Owls of
North America
lie
Paintings
and Drawings by Karl E.Karalns

Text byAllai lWEckert
All the Species and Subspecies Illustrated in Color and Full) Des< ribed
The Owls of
North America
1*iii
ii
u;s. ii
Drawings In Karl
K Kara lus
TextbyAIlaiiWEcken
"Owls are marvelous
"They are incredible
birds."
in the acute-
and
ness of their senses of sight
hearing and remarkable

ability to fly
ness.
They
in
their
with utter soundless-
are admirable in their
and courage, and always
ferocity
fascinating in their habits."

"Yet, because owls are essentially
birds of the night and, thus, far less
often seen than birds of the day,
they are also decidedly creatures

"
of mystery
With these words from the

troduction to
In-
The Owls of North
America, Allan
\V.
Eckert explains
the enduring fascination of these

beautiful birds.
lie
and the
And
artist,
in
this
book,
Karl E. Karalus,
introduce you to the owls of our

continent with a detailed vividness
never attained before. In text and

160 illustrations they depict every
species and subspecies of the
owl family and describe
nificent
features, markings,
Where
its
and habits.
possible, they provide close-
up descriptions
and
mag-
life
of
the daily routine
cycle of each owl, includ-
ing hunting methods, nesting habits
and courtship mating and incubation rituals.
The Owls of Norn

I
h A merica
superb combination of
scientific
iCCUracy and high artistic

les
the portraits of
(continiK
d on back
is
all
flap)
fidelity.
subspc-
Karalus, Karl L.
Owls of North America
598.97 KARALUS
CENTRAL LIBRARY
(Ovrrlen\)
>tUS luflsi
'
inty,
XIII
si
kn
ONG-EARED
OWL
Godfrey. Male. Vicinity of Miles Citv. Custer
Montana, March
30, 1902.
A.O.U. Number 366
OF NORTH AMERICA
Books Illustrated by Karl E. Karalus
WILD SEASON
THE CROSSBREED
HOME
LIFE OF
AMERICAN BIRDS
THE OWLS OF NORTH AMERICA
Books Written by Allan W. Eckert
THE GREAT AUK
THE SILENT SKY

A TIME OF TERROR
WILD SEASON
THE DREAMING TREE

THE FRONTIERSMEN
BAYOU BACKWATERS
THE KING SNAKE

WILDERNESS EMPIRE
IN SEARCH OF A
WHALE
BLUE JACKET
THE CONQUERORS
THE CROSSBREED
INCIDENT AT HAWK'S HILL
THE COURT-MARTIAL OF DANIEL BOONE

THE OWLS OF NORTH AMERICA
rzre ows
OF NORTH AMERICA
(NORTH OF MEXICO)
All the Species and Subspecies Illustrated in
Color and Fully Described
%
fcv
'
ill
PAINTINGS AND DRAWINGS BY
f\arl. Karalus
TEXT BY
ÂllanW.Eckert
DOUBLEDAY
&
COMPANY,
INC.,
1974
GARDEN
CITY,
NEW YORK
DESIGN BY
M FRANKLIN PI.YMPTON
isbn: 0-385-O8758-6
I
IHK\RY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER: 73-83629

ig?3 by Karl E. Karalus and Allan W. Eckert
Copyright
\I
PRINTED
IN
I.
RIGHTS RESERVED
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
FIRST EDITION AFTER
THE
[KITED EDITION OF 25O COPIES
\M) COLLECTOR'S EDITIONS
For
their
many years
of
unstinting effort
in every conceivable
manner
on our behalf,
the authors
dedicate this book
with heartfelt appreciation
and deepest
to
HELEN
love
our wives,
C.
KARALUS
AND
JOAN
D.
ECKERT
Gontents
Color Plates
SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA SCREECH OWL (OtUS
ix
Acknowledgments
Introduction
inyoensis)
xi
132
kennicott's screech
xiii
kennicottii)
barn owl (Tyto alba pratincola)
northern barred owl
(Strix varia varia)
20
owl (Strix varia georgica)

texas barred owl (Strix varia helveola)
32
Florida barred
California spotted
occidentalis)
owl
caurina )
lucida)
asio
asio
137
ROCKY MOUNTAIN SCREECH OWL (OtUS

maxwelliae )
35
{Strix occidentalis
asio mccallii)
PASADENA SCREECH OWL (OtUS
(Strix occidentalis
(Strix occidentalis
140
asio
142
guadalupe screech owl (Otus
43
asiO
39
texas screech owl (Otus

quercinus)
Mexican spotted owl
(Otus
135
macfarlanei)
37
northern spotted owl
owl
macfarlane's screech owl (Otus
asio
asio suttoni)
144
Nebraska screech owl (Otus
asio swenki)
145
yuma screech owl
yumanensis)
146
whiskered owl (Otus trichopsis trichopsis)

ARIZONA WHISKERED OWL (OtUS trichopsis
149
(Otus
asio
45
great gray owl
saw-whet owl
(Strix nebulosa nebulosa)
(Aegolius acadicus acadicus)
queen charlotte owl

brooksi)
Richardson's
48
56
{Aegolius acadicus
flammeolus)
owl
(Aegolius funereus
cunicularia hypugaea)
long-eared owl (Asio otus wilsonianus)
WESTERN LONG-EARED OWL
72
80
(Asio OtUS tuftsi)
owl
cunicularia floridana)
whitneyi)
(Otus
asio aikeni)
98
1
snowy owl
19
120
American
(Nyctea scandiaca)
hawk owl
caparoch)
brewsteri)
cineraceus)
Florida screech
asio
californicum)
124
owl
(Otus
saguaro screech owl (Otus
asio floridanus)
asio gilmani)
hasbrouck's screech owl (Otus

hasbroucki)
131
asio
(Surnia ulula
ROCKY MOUNTAIN PYGMY OWL (Glaucidium

gnoma pinacola) 204
California pygmy owl (Glaucidium gnoma
asio
123
Mexican screech owl (Otus
185
195
121
brewster's screech owl (Otus
174
177
(Micrathene whitneyi idonea)
texas elf owl
asio naevius)
SOUTHERN SCREECH OWL (OtUS OSW asio)

CALIFORNIA SCREECH OWL (OtUS asio
bendirei)
163
Whitney's elf owl (Micrathene whitneyi
83
eastern screech owl (Otus
(SpeotytO
FLORIDA BURROWING OWL (SpeotytO
short-eared owl (Asio flammeus
aiken's screech
156
WESTERN BURROWING OWL
66
flammeus)
154
flammulated owl (Otus flammeolus
64
richardsoni)
asperus)
126
128
Arizona pygmy
gnoma)
owl
210
(Glaucidium gnoma
21
coast pygmy owl (Glaucidium gnoma

grinnelli)
212
183
51
Vancouver pygmy owl (Glaucidium gnoma

swart hi)
tundra horned owl (Bubo

wapacuthu)
214
virginianus
260
ferruginous owl (Glaucidium brasilianum

216
ridgwayi )
Comparison Tables
cactus owl (Glaucidium brasilianum

cactorum)
Comparison Table
222
Relative Size of North
American Owl Species
great horned owl (Bubo virginianus

virginianus)
st.
224
michael horned owl (Bubo

algistus)
virginianus
244
Labrador horned owl (Bubo virginianus

heterocnemis)
246
virginianus lagophonus)
248
Montana horned owl (Bubo

occidentalis)
pacific
virginianus
250
virginianus
252
virginianus
pallescens)
253
dusky horned owl (Bubo virginianus
254
Ontario horned
arctic horned
Maximum
257
Weight
262
Average Weight
Comparison Table 6
Maximum Total Length 263

Minimum Total Length 263
Maximum Wingspan 263
Minimum Wingspan 263
Maximum Individual Wing
Minimum Weight
Comparison Table 8
Comparison Table 9
Comparison Table o
1
263
Minimum
Individual
12
Comparison Table 13
Comparison Table 14
Terms
Maximum Tail Length

Minimum Tail Length
Maximum Beak Length
Minimum Beak Length
265
Bibliography of Principal Sources
274
Wing
264
Comparison Table
Index
263
264
Comparison Table
Glossary of
virginianus
262
Comparison Table 4
Comparison Table 5
virginianus
257
owl (Bubo
subarcticus)
Comparison Table
owl (Bubo
scalariventris)
Comparison Table
Length
western horned owl (Bubo
saturatus)
Average Egg Size
Length
horned owl (Bubo
pacificus)
Comparison Table
NORTHWESTERN HORNED OWL (Bubo
262
Comparison Table
268
264
264
264
264
Golor Elates
(Plates appear after page
barn owl
Tyto alba pratincola)
northern barred owl

varia
hi
Florida barrlu
owl
NORTHERN SPOTTED OWL

MEXICAN SPOTTED OWL
great gray owl
nebulosa)
IX
xxvi
22
XXVII
XXVHI
XXIX
acadicus)
XXX
38
acadicus brooksi)
XI
Richardson's
owl
XII
XVI
aiken's screech
54
70
OWL
(OtUS
xxxix
70
brewster's screech owl (Otus

70
floridanus)
asio
xli
86
(OtUS
asio
trichopsis
134
ARIZONA WHISKERED
OWL
(OtUS
134
flammulated owl (Otus flammeolus

134

FLORIDA BURROWING
(SpeOtytO
OWL
XLII
134
(SpeotytO
150
Whitney's elf owl (Micrathene

whitn eyi
150
texas elf owl (Micrathene
snowy owl
American
w hitneyi
150
(Nyctea scandiaca)
hawk owl
caparoch)
70
OWL
OSXO
118
whiskered owl (Otus
idonea)
asio
xl
MEXICAN SCREECH OWL (OtUS

FLORIDA SCREECH
YUMA SCREECH OWL (OtUS
w hitneyi
aSlO
asio
118
cunicularia floridana)
asio
xxxviii
CALIFORNIA SCREECH
118
NEBRASKA SCREECH OWL (OtUS
cunicularia hypugaea)
asio
southern screech owl (Otus
cineraceus)
XXI
(Otus
XXXVII
brewsteri)
XX
XXXVI
owl
GUADALUPE SCREECH OWL (OtUS OSW
flammeolus)
asio
54
bendirei)
XIX
54
EASTERN SCREECH OWL (OtUS
asio
XVIII
xxxv
asio
118
trichopsis asperus)
short-eared owl (Asio flammeus
aikeni)
XVII
XXXIV
Endpapers
naevius)
102
trie hop sis)
(Asio OtUS
asio
PASADENA SCREECH OWL (OtUS
yumanensis)
xxxiii
38
flammeus)
XV
XXXII
102
TEXAS SCREECH OWL (OtUS
swenki)
LONG-EARED OWL (Asio OtUS
tuftsi)
XIV
38
38
wilsonianus)
XIII
XXXI
(Aegolius funereus
richardsoni)
102
ROCKY MOUNTAIN SCREECH OWL (OtUS
suttoni)
queen charlotte owl (Aegolius
asio
102
quercinus)
(Aegolius acadicus
(Otus
macfarlane's screech owl (Otus
mccallii)
(Strix nebulosa
22
saw-whet owl
owl
kennicott's screech
asio maxwelliae)
22
86
asio inyoensis)
asio macfarlanei)
22
asio
86
kennicottii)
(Strix
occidentalis lucida)
vm
(Otus
(Strix
occidentalis caurina)
VII
SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA SCREECH OWL
(Strix
occidentalis occidentalis)
VI
XXrV
xxv
OWL
86
hasbrouck's screech owl (Otus
(Strix varia
CALIFORNIA SPOTTED
asio
xxiii
hasbroucki)
helveola)
saguaro screech owl (Otus

gilmani)
(Strix varia
texas barred owl
xxn
(Strix varia
georgica )
rv
number)
150
(Surnia ulula
166
ROCKY MOUNTAIN PYGMY OWL

(Glaucidium gnoma pinacola)
166
PYGMY OWL (GldUcidium
XLIII
CALIFORNIA
xliv
Arizona pygmy
gnoma
xlv
xlvi
xlvh
californicum)
owl
gnoma gnoma) 166

coast pygmy owl (Glaucidium
gnoma grinnelli) 182
Vancouver pygmy owl (Glaucidium
gnoma swart hi) 182
ferruginous owl (Glaucidium
xllx
ST.
LI
Lrv
pacific
horned owl (Bubo
pacificus
LV
198
virginianus
1 98
WESTERN HORNED OWL (Bubo

virginianus pallescens)
182
dusky horned owl (Bubo

saturatus)
LVH
198
virginianus
214
ONTARIO HORNED
OWL (Bubo
virginianus scalariventris )
virginianus
Lvni
182
arctic horned
owl (Bubo
subarcticus)
MICHAEL HORNED OWL (Bubo

virginianus algistus)
198
MONTANA HORNED OWL (Bubo

virginianus occidentalis)
182
great horned owl (Bubo

virginianus
LIH
lvi
cactus owl (Glaucidium brasilianum

cactorum)
NORTHWESTERN HORNED OWL (Bubo

virginianus lagophonus)
166
(Glaucidium
brasilianum ridgwayi)
xlviii
LH
LIX
182
virginianus heterocnemis)
182
214
TUNDRA HORNED OWL (Bubo

virginianus
LABRADOR HORNED OWL (Bufco
214
virginianus
wapacuthu)
Frontispiece
Acknowledgments
In a volume of this scope the aid of numerous people,
Curator of Birds and member of the American Ornitho-
becomes neces-
Union Check-list Committee; Dr. Melvin A.

Jr., Associate Curator of Birds; and their
very able assistant, Miss Dianne Maurer.
To Dr. William Beecher, Director, and his staff at the
professional scientists
sary.
and laymen
The authors have been most
alike,
fortunate in receiving
aid in
various ways from a great
many,
in
dividually.
we wish
efforts
to
To
attempt
to
fact,
those
listing
who have been
many
them
people
all
too
here
in-
of such assistance,
acknowledge with sincere appreciation their
on our behalf.
Especially are
logical
Traylor,
Chicago Academy of Sciences, Chicago,

textual materials,
we indebted
to the vast
number
of sci-
been
Their contribution has been of inestima-
possible.
ble value, yet to
or in the text
mention
would be
in
them individually here

one respect a monumental task
all
of
and, in another, a decided distraction to the readability

of this work. Therefore, while principal sources for this
work are
listed at the
back of the book, the authors have
preferred to keep the text
itself
For
tion,
efforts
to
help during the production of this
volume; for their aid and advice
in
such matters as
and
for
his advice
and
assistance in providing informa-
specimens, materials, and
facilities, as
extremely co-operative
staff.
For their cheerful and more than willingly given aid
and advice throughout production of the manuscript

and art, and for their directional comments from both
literary
and
scientific
Dorothy C. Saunders and Dr. George
and presently
For
to
his
in retirement at
superb photographic work on owls as an aid
our project, and for the portrait work done by him
connection with
to
this
Richard Muntjanoff of Aurora,

Finally,
to
September
ig~/2
Illinois.
the entire editorial, art,
and production
staffs of Doubleday & Company, Inc., Publishers, New

York City especially to editor T. O'Conor Sloane III,
art editor Diana Klemin, designers Earl Tidwell and
F.
Plympton, and Virginia Muller,
who
super-
our deepest gratitude
for their extensive assistance in all respects, for their per-
sonal interest in
this
book, for their encouragement,
and, most particularly, for their determination to maintain the highest standards of quality in reproduction of
both art and
text.
KARL
Englewood, Florida
in
volume, our sincere appreciation
numerous preserved specimens, the providing of textual

and facilities, and for
their personal encouragement of us in this project, the
authors express their most profound gratitude to the staff
of the Department of Ornithology, Field Museum of
R. Blake,
Saunders,
Englewood, Florida.
vised the production of the book
Emmet
B.
formerly of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service
Margaret
Natural History, Chicago, IllinoisDr.
the authors are in-
standpoint,
debted to husband-and-wife ornithological biologists Dr.
evaluation and taxonomy, the loan and identification of
materials, the use of collections
well as for
comments on both artwork and manuscript,

our appreciation to E. J. Koestner, Director of the Dayton Museum of Natural History, Dayton, Ohio, and his
ter
tended
ex-
his helpful
reasonably free of mas-
which is chiefly extraneous or incidental to the text.

There are, however, certain individuals who have contributed large amounts of their time, energy, and scientific knowledge to aid us, and these people in particular
deserve specific recognition. For their continuing ex-
we
matters concerned with the production of this work.
entists, researchers, students, ornithological investigators,
and skilled observers who have, over scores of years,

added to man's knowledge of the owls through their records, reports, and findings. Without the cumulative work
done by these people, published in such ornithological
periodicals as The Auk, Bird Lore, The Condor, The
Wilson Bulletin, Oologist, and others, along with articles,
papers, and books they have written and upon which we
have drawn heavily, a work such as ours would not have
Illinois,
numerous study skins and

their aid and advice in other
press thanks for the use of
E.
KARALUS and ALLAN W. ECKERT
Introduction
Owls are marvelous birds.

They are incredible in the acuteness of their senses of
sight and hearing and remarkable in their ability to fly
with utter soundlessness. They are admirable in their
ferocity and courage and always fascinating in their
habits.
Yet, because owls are essentially birds of the night
thus far
On
also decidedly creatures of mystery.

basis,
a world-wide
probably no other bird throughout the history of
mankind has been
so deeply revered, so greatly feared,
No
so thoroughly respected, or so soundly hated.
bird has been so
much
the subject of superstition
or tragedy; for others
stillbirth
wisdom or prophecy,
frequently
represented
and
it
some
war or death,
fancy. For
has been the symbol
truth or omniscience,
in
emblem,
effigy,
ornament. Even today the "wise old owl"
monly represented
other
fundamentally misunderstood or so
cultures the owl has been the symbol of
of
and
often seen than birds of the day, they are
less
is
and was
and
most
more abundant
as the classification
prominent, familiar, or representative owl of each of

the eighteen species has been selected for major description.
The
subspecies falling under that species des-
ignation are described only insofar as they differ from

the representative subspecies that
is
described in detail.
word about "subspecies" is advisable here. The

and geographic variation are
basically synonymous. Yet, the term "race" has come to
be considered a somewhat looser term than "subspecies,"
which itself has become rather identified with manestablished boundaries which do not necessarily conform
terms race, subspecies,
or
to natural or ecological boundaries. Subspecies are rarely
more com-
constant in coloration, markings, and characteristics in
symbol,
in statuary, posters, art, bookplates,
advertising, architectural design
and these become progressively

is narrowed down
through family, genus, species, and subspecies, repetition was most likely to occur. It was necessary to avoid
this problem, yet without undermining the value of the
description for each subspecies. To do so, the most
similar characteristics
especially
the
same sense that there
termination.
are
a constancy to species de-
is
The geographic
variations
races
or sub-
bounded
jewelry than any other bird in the world, surpassing
species
even the eagle.
geographic areas. Variation of a species on any conti-
In the preparation of the paintings for
known
this
book,
nent
is
rarely
separable
into
distinctly
almost invariably continuous in smooth clines of
and subspecies of owl on the North

American continent north of Mexico was very closely
studied and. wherever possible, the actual type specimens of the owls were used, i.e., the individual museum bird skins upon which the original descriptions
were based. Often this led to difficulties, especially
where accurate portrayal of the coloration and markings
was concerned. A museum collection of owl skins might
well contain twenty or thirty specimens of the same
subspecies, yet with some birds very dark and others
very light and the remainder in gradations of considerable degree between them. Which bird, then, from this
intergrades
spectrum of choices, should be used to exemplify the
ago may now be part of another species, or themselves

broken into more extensive subspecies. Further, sub-
every
species? In
museum
species
all
cases,
the authors
personnel studied
all
and various helpful
available birds very care-
and then selected as a model what seemed to be

the bird with a plumage most representative of the subspecies to which it belonged. Often this would not be
the type specimen from which the race was originally
fully
siderable
moment when
came
it
to a determination of
which geographical variations should be included in a

book purporting to describe all continental subspecies
of any one order of birds.
The matter
taxonomy is more often than not a

In some cases owls that were
legitimate species, or subspecies, some years
of
decidedly sticky
accepted as
issue.
species continue to be
it
becomes
It
is
difficult to
named and
described and often
keep pace.
new
may
not the province of this book to establish
races of owls, nor to eliminate races
whose
validity
be in question. Rather, after considerable research,

cussion with authorities far
described.
Where
and intermediates and therefore not neatly

some sort of order, the subspecific scientific names become a necessity, however
lacking they may be in the clarity one would hope to
ascribe to them. This in itself was a problem of conseparable. Yet, to establish
more
dis-
able in these matters,
and exhaustive study of specimens from
was concerned there were similar diffiwas important to include all known aspects
America, the authors have included those subspecies (or
of the life histories of each subspecies of the eighteen

North American owl species north of Mexico. Since
reasonably well apart from others. Undoubtedly there
culties.
text
It
owls, as a
scientific
order
(Strigiformes)
have many
races) with characteristics
will
which seem
all
over North
truly to set
them
be some question as to whether this owl or that
should have been included
or, for that
matter, excluded.
Admittedly, the authors are not taxonomists and perhaps, for the purposes of this volume, advantageously
not.
Judgment,
as
a result, has not been
colored or
Mountain Screech Owl is in the genus Otus, the

and the subspecies maxwelliae. This particular bird was first scientifically described by orni-
species asio,
Robert Ridgway. Therefore, under this headwould appear as: Otus asio maxwelliae (Ridg-
thologist
biased for a personal belief, as has sometimes stigmatized
ing
otherwise distinguished works previously published.
way). Following
For the species and subspecies to be included in this

volume, the authors have utilized the most recently
entific description are given. If the
American Ornithological Union Check-list

(The A.O.U. Check-list of North American Birds, Fifth
through reclassification or revision of nomenclature, the
published
Edition,
as
1957)
eighteen owl species
in
that Check-list.
the
most
foundation.
reliable
we include are all accepted species

Of the fifty-nine subspecies we in-
which make up those eighteen
clude,
The
are described in the 1957 Check-list.
species, fifty-two
Some
of the seven
that are not will quite likely be included in the
new
A.O.U. Check-list now in preparation. A

possible example is the Ontario Horned Owl (Bubo
which was not devirginianus scalariventris Snyder)
edition of the
scribed until
The
1 96 1.
plate of the owls indicates the place and date where

the specimen owl was taken which the artist used as a
model for accuracy in preparing the paintings for this
book. Many of these, obviously, were birds from museum collections, although a few were collected by the
artist and author while this work was in progress.
As an aid to the lay reader in understanding some of
the possibly unfamiliar anatomical terms used in this
volume, there are three "topographic" owl sketches

upperparts view, underparts view, and side view
In addition, there
with
anatomy and plumage named.
portions of the
These sketches immediately follow

tion.
had previous
is
this
introductory sec-
a Glossary of
Terms
data concerning the original
this,
sci-
owl in question has
names which were abandoned
scientific
most commonly used former name (or names)
will
be
given here.
In some cases
describer
name,
not.
is
This
it
the
of
shown
be noted that the
will
and in other cases it is

and follows the standard nomen-
is
Where
but where
name,
it
the
not given in parentheses,
that the original description of the bird
today;
of the
scientific
in parentheses,
clature practices for scientific naming.
valid
name
appearing after the
bird,
intentional
is
of the describer
scriber's
date and location listing accompanying each color
all visible
it
means
parentheses
it
still
enclose
name
means
remains
the
de-
that the species or subspecies
under discussion has been
reclassified or revised since
the original description of the bird was written.
OTHER NAMES
will be better known in a specific area
name other than its standard English name.
Such a name may be a local name, nickname, regional
name, or foreign name. Under this heading will be listed
Often an owl
by a
in alphabetical order those
names and the reason
for
such designation.
at the
back of the book.
For a more thorough understanding of the

text,
it
will
art
and
be of value to briefly discuss here the use
of the various descriptive headings for each of the
owl discussions
to follow. Naturally,
an order are similar

factor will be
made
major
wherever owls as
FOOT STUDIES OF VARIED OWLS
in habit or physical attribute, this

clear.
what they include are
The headings
themselves and
i.
Barred
Owl
sometimes turn
as follows
ing posture.
2.
Screech
(From subspecies
just
depicting
how middle
one side while the owl
Owl (Otus
for grasping,
COMMON NAME
(Strix varia)
to
asio)
is
toe will
in relaxed perch-
georgica.)
with foot three-quarters open
(From subspecies
prior to striking prey.
naevius.
3.
The most commonly used and generally accepted English name of the subspecies under discussion will be
the one used to designate each of the fifty-nine birds in-
Horned Owl (Bubo
virginianus) in alert standing pose on
more cus(From subspecies occi-
perch, with reversible toe sideways rather than in
tomary rearward-pointing
position.
dentalis.)
Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus) individual

(From subspecies pacificus.)
4.
cluded.
5.
Burrowing Owl (Speotyto cunicularia)
in
talon study.
normal ground-
perching posture. (From subspecies floridana.)
SCIENTIFIC
NAME AND ORIGINAL
6.
Elf
Owl
(Micrathene
open for grasping prey.
DESCRIPTION
7.
whitneyi)
From
with
foot
one-quarter
subspecies idonea.)
Barn Owl (Tyto alba) with foot
fully
(From subspecies pratincola.)

8. Snowy Owl (Nyctea scandiaca) with
coming to perch.
open
for snatching
prey.
Here
scientific
xw
will
be given the genus, species, and subspecies
name
of each owl.
For example, the Rocky
Introduction
foot fully
open
for
Tio^J^^
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES
In linear measurements,
all
have been
initially cali-
brated in millimeters, carried to one decimal place. Also
Here
be included the aspects which make
will
particular owl unique
Under
major
and recognizable
heading as
this
well, for
own
this
to conjecture. Is the
based on the weight of the bird? Does
wingspan?
Is
it
in millimeters
have been
the
from inches, one multiplies inches by 25.4; and to get

grams from ounces, one multiplies ounces by 28.35.
However, all calibrations here were initially carried to
only
four decimal places, and the results therefore figure out
comparison
mean
it
the total length of the owl?
one such measurement
measurements
formula of multiplying the number of millimeters by

0.0394 to arrive at the length in inches.
Normally, to reverse the process and get millimeters
maximum size among the eighteen different species.

When one speaks of one owl being larger than another,
open
aid, these
each of the eighteen
all
is
an
transposed to inches through use of the standard basic
its
descriptions, will be listed the owl's rank in over-
the statement
as
right.
in
If
used, the conclusion can be
accurately from millimeters to inches and from grams to
very misleading. For example, although the Great Gray
ounces, but not as accurately so vice versa. For example,
Snowy Owl and Great Horned

body weight. In
the Snowy Owl's average weight in grams is 1,659.8,

which multiplied by 0.035 gi ves a figure of 58.093,
which when reduced to one decimal place gives the
the
weight in ounces as 58.1. Yvt, multiplying 58.1 ounces
Owl
Owl
is
surpasses both the

in total
Great Gray
length,
Owl
in
yet
those latter two surpass the
wingspan and
attempting to resolve
this
matter
in
of relative
size,
authors have discovered that a quite acceptable rank-insize
calibration can be achieved by a simple formula
which
takes
into
consideration
all
weight, total length, and wingspan.
Table
i.)
It
is
through use of
relative rank-in-size
this
three
factors
of
(See Comparison
formula that the
by species has been ascertained.
by the standard figure of 28.35 gives a result of
647.1
grams, thus making the end result in grams appear
in-
The same holds true for linear measurements.

The Snowy Owl's average wingspan is 1,610.6 millimeters, which when multiplied by 0.0394 results in
consistent.
inches or, reduced to one decimal place, 63.5
6345764
inches.
Yet, multiplying 63.5
inches by the standard
conversion figure of 25.4 gives a result of 1,612.9 millimeters, which makes the end result in millimeters ap-
pear inconsistent. Such inconsistencies are, of course,
SHAPE AT REST AND

SHAPE IN FLIGHT
and inches
the result of not carrying the ounces
to six
or seven decimal places, which would serve no useful
purpose here.
which make the particular owl

species recognizable as it is perched or while on the
wing, whether in good light or in silhouette, are described under these headings.
The
characteristics
WEIGHT
All weights indicated are for birds that
(or freshly dead)
FLIGHT PATTERN
were
when weighed. Such weights
alive
are given
in
grams and parenthetically
is
included the average weight for the species as a
in ounces.
For each species
This describes the characteristic movements of wings
and body during
flight
the
undulation or levelness,
the directness or indirectness that the owl in question
normally exhibits while
flying.
HEAD AND SKULL STUDIES OF VARIED OWLS

i.
Head (above) and
asio),
in the other species pictured.
WEIGHT AND MEASUREMENT
2.
CALIBRATIONS
Head (above) and
virginianus)
all
weights have been calibrated in grams, carried to one
decimal place. As an aid, however, to the lay reader
unaccustomed to metric calibrations, all gram weights

have been parenthetically transposed to ounces through
3.
Head
(left)
compared
Owl (Otus
formation than
(From subspecies asio.)

(below) of Horned Owl (Bubo
and
(From subspecies
skull
(right)
of
to the typical
in
virginianus.)
Barn Owl (Tyto alba),
showing elongation of both beak and
skull in this species as
owls also pictured. (From subspecies
pratincola.)
4.
Facial studies of the Great
Horned Owl (Bubo
virginianus
virginianus)
use of the standard basic formula of multiplying the
number
skull
skull
showing greater cranial development than
other species pictured.
Because of the greater accuracy of the metric system,
of Screech
(below)
skull
showing the greater symmetry of
of grams by 0.035 to ar rive at the weight in
Note the difference and asymmetry of the auricular

(ear)
cavities
of
the
cavities are located just
ounces.
Introduction
three
species
depicted.
The
above the jaw hinge on each.
ear
E*
^H^
Wm
v-
ry*\AvS
It
*%*?
<fr6
>'C
s>.
/'WwfcXw-'O
whole,
plus
minimum,
the
EYES AND VISION
and maximum
average,
weights of both male and female birds. Included as well

is
rank in
this particular owl's
maximum
among
weight
Comparison Tables 3, 4, and

maximum, average, and minimum weights
Color of the
irides
and
visual ability of each species
the eighteen species. (See
are noted, as well as any peculiarity, ocular or visual, of
5 for relative
the species.
of
all
eighteen species.)
their vision
The
eyes of
all
owls are most unusual and
remarkable, night or day. Although even
is
North American owls weigh only a fiftieth

of an average-weight man, their eyes are as large as
human eyes. The eyes of humans have smooth muscles,
but the eye muscles of owls are striated fibers which
the largest
provide for amazingly rapid changes in focus.
humans with one plane
unlike
LINEAR MEASUREMENTS
owls have two fovea for simultaneous focus at objects
near and
measurements given under the headings of Total

Length, Wingspan, Individual Wing Length, Tail
All
Length, and Beak Length are given in millimeters, and

parenthetically in inches, based on a stated
measured for
birds
this
number
purpose. Total Length
of
the
is
length of the outstretched bird from tip of beak to end

of
tail.
(See Comparison Tables 6 and
Wingspan
7.)
is
the distance from the outermost outstretched limit of
one
wing
in
straight
line
stretched limit of the other.
8 and
9.
Individual
to
outermost
the
out-
(See Comparison Tables
Wing Length
is
the straight-line
measurement of the individual wing from the carpal

joint
(also called wrist or bend-of-wing)
most
tip
the
of
parison Tables
longest
line length of the
to the outer-
primary feather.
o and 11.) Tail Length
(See
longest extent of the
Com-
the straight-
is
tail,
from the
point where the longest rectrix enters the flesh to
outermost
Beak Length
is
the length of the upper beak, measured
with calipers in a straight
line,
but not including the cere.

14
and
its
(See Comparison Tables 12 and 13.)
limit.
from the
tip to the cere,
(See Comparison Tables
Their eyeballs are
far.
portion of the eye

rest
the
of
eye,
a tube-shaped
set in
or conelike bony structure, and
very large in comparison to the
is
allowing
thus
incredible
for
obstacles during night flight through interlaced branches
of trees, there
an odd, rather comblike organ
is
addition to both upper and lower eyelids,
a nictitating
the Barred
membrane which
Owls
damage during
made
are
that
all
owls have
translucent. (In
is
and some claims
struggles with prey,

it
also acts as a shield against
but evidence to support

is
is
helps protect the eyeball from
from brush while the bird
There
usually
[Strix varia sp.] this "third eyelid"
membrane
opaque.) This
is
flying
this
damage
through heavy cover,
claim
not substantive.
is
an almost complete lack of
ability to roll the
eyeballs in their sockets; thus, to see in different directions or
up and down, the owl must
lower
entire head. In doing so,
its
it
turn,
raise,
often gets into
or
what
consider as being amusing and seemingly im-
specific
which follow
owl headings.
EARS AND HEARING
TALONS
The hearing
This heading includes the specific characteristics
in-
and
volved, such as plumage, markings, color, strength,
should be noted here that
in the
back of the eye which acutely sharpens perception. In
under
It
light-
and light-concentrating ability about 100

times that of the human eye. As a further aid in
detecting prey and, even more particularly, in avoiding
possible positions, further descriptions of
other aspects.
and cornea
the lens
gathering
humans
15.)
LEGS, FEET,
Also,
of focus at a time, the
among
of owls
is
very probably
acute in the animal world.
It
is
among
the most
said, quite likely
with
accuracy, that some species of owls can hear the footfalls
all
owls there are four toes on each foot, two of which

point permanently forward, one of which points per-
manently backward, and a fourth which
may
is
point in either direction or sideways.
reversible
The
and
a close study of over 4,000 photographs of perched

owls where the feet were visible, discovered that 95.90
in
per cent of the owls photographed were perched with
two
forward and two toes backward; 2.17 per cent

were perched with two forward, one backward, and
toes
one sideways; and

three toes forward
xv in
1.93
per cent were perched with
and one backward.
OWL PELLETS
authors,
Feeding habits of owls can be determined quite accurately

by dissection and analysis of regurgitated pellets of undigesti-
found usually
ble material
etc.
sites of owls.
fur, feathers, bones, teeth, claws, chitin, skulls,
at or
near nesting
sites
or favored roosting
Extensive studies have been conducted on tens
of thousands of pellets collected, which were regurgitated by

North American owls, especially Barn Owls, Screech Owls,
and Great Horned Owls.

Introduction
,_
c -f \jc\i Ji'ze
G^-eqT
W/ied "^1 Pc// f

a/o-t
ra<*l*-
,iV'
*
,^
f/<sff<j
on
city /i 5
c?u/f
/v6/e
Alo^tU
1"h5 ê<*
Pox /?iven
tff.X
^^ ^
n
frCif-
in
floJ-/dc\
fowoc/
CK^sh^
m/^/5
c/
pallets.
Skulls A'oT
MORTALITY AND LONGEVITY
of a beetle in the grass at a distance of well over ioo
yards and the squeak of a mouse for half a mile.
many
only can they hear well, but in
Not
Although owl-banding programs have increased
cases asymmetri-
and sized ear cavities allow for pinpoint

location of a most remarkable nature
to such extent
that a sightless owl can fly directly to, and grasp with
its talons, prey that it cannot see. For more on this, see
the discussion under this heading for the Barn Owl
(Tyto alba pratincola) and the Saw-whet Owl (Aegolius ac adieus ac adieus). Ear construction and the auditory sense of each species fall under this heading.
cally placed
recent years, there
is
somewhat a dearth
still
in
of infor-
mation for many species
in this respect.
become necessary
on information supplied from
to rely
zoos about their captive birds

rate,
length
of
life,
and
it
has
of death, death
matters
related
and
an indicator,
serves as something of
this
cause
Mostly
while
does not
it
what may actually occur under normal wild conditions. Whatever is known regarding the
mortality and longevity of the owls is included under
necessarily reflect
this
heading for each
species.
It
is
interesting to note
Europe was rather well reported

have
to
lived for 68 years and that another unverified
report noted that one had lived for over ioo years. The
that a captive owl in
EAR TUFTS, PLUMAGE, ANNUAL
MOLT
first
Not all owls have ear tufts, which are simply erectile
head feathers and have nothing whatever to do with
the sense of hearing.
tufts
altogether possible; the second
doubtful but
is
COLORATION AND MARKINGS:

ADULT AND JUVENILE
these
material included under this heading, along with
is
information regarding plumages and the annual
specific
molt that
is
undergone by
An
lesser degree.
flight
Whether or not they have
is
perhaps not impossible.
all
species to a greater or
interesting general factor about the
feathers of most owls
is
that they have a saw-
Reasonably comprehensive written descriptions fall

under this heading and help to augment what is visually apparent in the Color Plates of the fifty-nine owl
toothed fluting on the leading edges of those feathers,
subspecies.
permitting almost soundless to entirely soundless
is
flight.
The
reader should bear in
written or painted
closely
is
mind
that
representative
what
of
the
coloration and marking of the species in question, but
great degrees of variation in these physical characteris-
can and do occur
tics
VOICE
Some
owls tend to be rather silent most of the year
and not even

(Strix varia sp.)
of incredible.
whose
such
ventriloquistic.
in
It
the
as the
addition,
little
many
owls are extremely
in writing the sound that a bird makes,

an owl. What sounds a certain way to one
listener may sound considerably different to another.
Where a call lends itself to a form of transliteration,
especially
made
is
under
this
to
reproduce the
heading for the
reason for the call
if
this
is
Where
CHARACTERISTICS
repertoire of calls they
reproduce
effort
species.
GENERAL HABITS AND
short
often most difficult to attempt to
is
virtually all
breeding
Barred Owls
vocal abilities are
They have a wide
can utter and,
during
vocal
especially
season, but there are others
in
and markings are concerned, they

are noted in order to establish the difference between
an adult owl and an immature one of the same species.
juvenile colorations
call
in
specific owl,
Here the traits which make of the owl what it is are

discussed, and each species has habits and characteristics which set it well apart from other species, as well
as making it distinct from the other races within its own
species.
written form
PORTRAIT STUDIES OF VARIED JUVENILE
OWLS
along with the

1.
known.
Great Horned
proximately
2.
five
Owl
(Bubo
virginianus
virginianus)
ap-
caurina)
ap-
weeks old.
Northern Spotted Owl
[Strix
occidentalis
proximately one month old.

3.
SEXUAL DIFFERENCES:
SIZE, COLOR, VOICE
4.
six
Under this heading, whatever sexual differences are

known in these aspects are listed. Almost as a general
the female owl
male and, in
many cases, her voice tends to be higher. Sometimes
there is a difference in coloration to some degree.
rule,
xx
is
larger than the
Saw-whet
Owl
acadicus
{Aegolius
acadicus)
approxi-
mately nine weeks old.
5.
Long-eared
weeks
Owl
(Asio
otus
wilsonianus)
approximately
old.
Eastern Screech
Owl (Otus
three days after
asio naevius)
hatching.
6.
Eastern Screech
two weeks
7.
Owl (Otus
Great Horned
Owl (Bubo
proximately three and one-half
Introduction
asio naevius)
approximately
old.
virginianus
to four
weeks
virginianus)
old.
ap-
%/$,
weei<$
old
$
\
'/
Vc^
aowi nc%
Jc/vertle sffliiL}
Xftf
YOUNG AND FAMILY
HABITAT AND ROOSTING

ENEMIES AND DEFENSES
LIFE
CHARACTERISTICS
HUNTING METHODS
AND CARRYING OF PREY
FOOD, FEEDING HABITS, WASTES
From
hatching, through early development until the
time they leave the nest, and even beyond, the young
birds
and
their family life are discussed
under
this
head-
ing.
These headings are reasonably self-explanatory, and

for each of the eighteen species
information
and
its
under discussion,
regarding
how and where
favored,
the owl
provided
is
roosting
type
specific
of
terrain
done, the foes of
is
ability to protect itself,
how
secures
it
what it eats, how it eats and how

it disposes of its wastes. Most owls, for example, when
prey is small enough, swallow it whole and later regurgitate compact pellets containing the bones, fur, feathers,
teeth, and other indigestible materials. But some owls
and
carries
its
prey,
carefully dissect their prey,
much
as a
hawk does when
These and other matters related
feeding.
to the
above
headings are discussed in detail for each of the species.
DISTRIBUTION IN NORTH AMERICA

The
there
is
ANNUAL BROODS,
Under
range,
if
maps
any,
specifics
of
the
indicated by shading; the southerly
is
indicated by
is
more darkly shaded
MIGRATION
species,
along
with
regarding their nests and nesting habits. Al-
though owls are almost universally single-brooded, sometimes they do lay second or even third sets of eggs in a
single year.
Many owls do not migrate at all; others simply move

from higher elevations in mountainous areas to lower
elevations for the winter. Some, such as the Snowy Owl
(Nyctea scandiaca)
are quite erratic in their migrations,
movement about every four

depending to some extent upon severity of the
reaching cyclic peaks of

years,
winter and availability of prey. Often there
any migrational movement
EGGS
Under this heading
the number of eggs
at
is
scarcely
Characteristics
all.
in
regard to migration are described here.
for each species

laid
areas.
NEST,
these headings are included the courtship activ-
and mating habits
described in
and
map. Where the maps are concerned, some owls have a

more southerly winter range than their breeding range.
Such winter ranges tend to fluctuate greatly as to distance and regularity of occurrence and these variations
are discussed under the heading above as well as under
the heading for Migration. Breeding range on the dis-
NESTING HABITS
ities
is
for each
an accompanying North American distributional
tributional
COURTSHIP AND MATING
of each subspecies
distribution
detail in the text, as explicitly as possible,
is
listed
not only
per nesting and the color,
shape, texture, and size of the eggs, but the interval of
time elapsing between the laying of one egg and the

next,
and the dates when egg-laying occurs
ECONOMIC INFLUENCE
in various
geographic areas of the bird's distributional range. (See
Comparison Table 2 for average egg size of all eighteen

owl species in North America north of Mexico.)
North American owls are generally, with but very

few exceptions, highly beneficial economically and ecologically. Why this is so is discussed under this heading.
Because owls are indeed primarily birds of the night,
and therefore much more
INCUBATION AND BROODING

CHARACTERISTICS
observe and study
difficult to
than the diurnal orders, a great deal
known about
their
still
remains un-
natural history. Yet, they are no
longer so distinctly the birds of mystery that they were

It
is
interesting to note that
most owl eggs
in a nest
do not hatch at the same time. In fact, it may be more

than two weeks from the hatching of the first egg until
the hatching of the last, depending upon when actual
incubation was begun. These and other matters pertaining to
species.
xxn
the heading
above are discussed for each
through so
that
many
The Owls
centuries. It
of
is
the hope of the authors
North America
will
help to dispel
accumulated
myths and superstitions that
and text
art
of
about owls and that this presentation
will bring a greater appreciation and understanding of
just what an owl is, what it does, and its place in our
the
world today.
Introduction
have
THE TOPOGRAPHY OF AN OWL

(Side View)
2.
Talon
Thigh
3.
Belly
i.
Flank
23.
Scapulars
13.
Crown
24.
Greater Coverts
14.
Forehead
25. Tertials
12. Iris
15.
Superciliary (Eyebrow)
26.
Secondaries
Side
16.
Pupil
27.
Rump
6.
Breast
17. Facial
7.
Malar Region
18.
Side of
Hindneck
4.
5.
Rim
28. Upper-tail
Head
8.
Lores
19.
9.
Facial Disk
20. Lesser Coverts
10.
Auriculars (Ear Coverts)
21.
1 1
Outer Eye Corner
22.
Back
Middle
(or
(or
29.
Nape)
Median) Coverts
Coverts
Primaries
30. Rectrices (Tail)

31. Undertail Coverts
32.
Tarsus
33.
Foot

[Under parts)
23. Collar
Primaries
12.
Facial
Secondaries
13.
Suborbital Area
24.
14.
Ear Tuft
25.
26. Breast
Chin
Gular Area (or Throat)
3-
Flank Feathers
4-
Fluting
15.
Crown
Greater Coverts
16.
Superciliary (or Eyebrow)
27.
Side
5-
28.
Median
6.
Alula
17.
Forehead
7-
Lesser Coverts
18.
Supraorbital Area
29. Belly
B.
Axillaries
19.
')
Carpal Joint (or Wrist)
20. Side of
Culmen (Beak)
Head
31.
Shoulder
21. Facial
10.
1
Rim
I.
2.
1.
Ear
22.
Disk
Malar Region (Lower Cheek)
30.
(or Center) Line
Talon
Vent (or Cloaca)
32. Undertail Coverts

33. Rectrices (or Tail Feathers)
22
23

{Up per parts)
i.
2.
Outer Toe
Talon
15.
Rictal Bristles
29.
Shoulder
16.
Cere (Nostrils)
30.
Neck
3.
Primaries
17.
Forehead
31. Lesser Coverts
4.
Middle Toe
18.
Superciliary for Eyebrow)
32.
5.
Tarsus
19.
Crown
33. Scapulars
6.
Greater Coverts
20. Auriculars (or
7.
Flutings
21. Facial
Ear Coverts'
Rim
34.
Back
Lower Back
35. Secondaries
8.
Middle
22.
Ear Tuft
36.
Rump
9.
Alula
23.
Occiput (or Back of Head)
37.
Heel
10.
Throat
24.
Ear
38. Upper-tail Coverts
11.
Malar Region (Lower Cheek)

Chin
Lower Beak (or Mandible)
Culmen (Upper Mandible)
25.
Hindneck (Nape)
26.
Side of
27.
Carpal Joint (or Wrist)
12.
13.
14.
(or
Median) Coverts
28. Facial
Head
Disk
39. Inner
Toe
40. Rectrices (or Tail Feathers)
41.
Hind Toe
42.
Foot
SPECIES
AND
rsre
SUBSPECIES OF
ews
OF NORTH AMERICA
(NORTH OF MEXICO)
such groves in the Far West and Deep
ally frequents
South.
ghost owl
pearance in
Because of the white, wraithlike ap-
flight, especially in
the late twilight.
golden owl After the darker color phase.

lechuza mono Mexican-Indian name
SPECIES
meaning
"Monkey (Faced) Owl."

name
French-Canadian
l'effraie
"The
meaning
ORDER:
STRIGIFORMES
Frightener."
FAMILY:
TYTONIDAE
like
SUBFAMILY:
TYTONINAE
appearing eyes against the rather stark whiteness of the
GENUS:
Tyto (Billberg)
monkey-faced owl
monkey"monkey" aspect
dark, and somewhat beady-
For the
distinctive,
configuration of the face, with the
heightened by the smallish,

facial disks.
orange owl
For the yellowish-orange color phase of
some.
SPECIES:
(Scopoli)
alba
queen-of-the-night Because
and its imperiality at roost.
owl
spirit
BARN OWL
(Bonaparte)
it
often
its
grace in flight
inhabits
deserted
sweetheart owl
figuration of
its
Because of the heart-shaped con-
facial disks.
tawny owl For its general coloration.

white owl For the distinctiveness of its
BARN OWL
light color-
how-
ation in flight, especially at dusk. This local name,

ever,
{COLOR PLATE
or
abandoned buildings which the superstitious refer to as

being "haunted" houses.
stone owl For its habit in bygone years of nesting
in cavities of the stone walls of barns, silos, and other
farm outbuildings.
SUBSPECIES
pratincola
Because
of
and,
I)
Snowy Owl (Nyctea scandiaca)

the Arctic Horned Owl {Bubo
also used for the
is
often,
less
for
virginianus subarcticus)
NAME AND
SCIENTIFIC
ORIGINAL DESCRIPTION
Tyto alba pratincola (Bonaparte). Original description: Strix pratincola Bonaparte,
parison List, 1838, page
7.
Geographic and Com-
New name
Wilson, American Ornithology,
for Strix
Volume VI,
flammea
181
2,
page
on a specimen from Pennlocale designation. Former
57, plate 50, figure 2, based
sylvania
without
specific
names: Strix flammea, Strix flammea americana, Strix flammea pratincola, Aluco pratincola, Strix
scientific
pratincola.
Medium-large
in
comparison with other North Amer-
ican owls, the Barn
Owl
and
somewhat
configuration
tufts
its
facial
triangular,
and
has a large head without ear
and heart-shaped.
quite
long
stance
when perched. Because
much
appears
it
it
often
takes
of
its
long,
distinctively
is
rather
legs
Its
are
knock-kneed
expansive wingspan,
larger in flight, especially at dusk or
during the night, than when perched in the daytime.

Its face
is
distinctly white
and the generally tawny body
coloration takes on a peculiar whitish
dim
appearance
in
This whiteness, especially of the underside,
light.
tends to frighten some people,
who
associate
it
with a
OTHER NAMES
ghost flying through the dusk or darkness. Because of
American barn owl Frequently referred to by this

name to separate it from other races elsewhere in the
streamlined appearance than most other owls of this
world.
somewhat long-nosed
the smooth density of the plumage, the bird has a
citrus
owl
Primarily used in connection with the
yellowish-orange color phase of the owl and not because

it is
especially fond of citrus groves,
though
it
occasion-
continent.
to the
viewer to be a
Rank
Sixth.
Barn Owl
The unusually
in
over-all
more
long beak imparts an aquiline,
aspect,
and its expression seems

and almost haughty.
bit catlike
size
among
the
eighteen
species:
SHAPE AT REST
Tends
when
to stand well erect
WINGSPAN
perched, whether on
Species average
on a
This erectness of posture tends to im-
flat surface.
part a generally slimmer contour for
its size
than
seen
is
1,084.4
mm.
(42.7").
Male
the branch of a tree, a fence post, a barn rafter, or even
in other owls.
Average
1,066.1
Minimum
Maximum
1,029.0
Rank
in
1,105.0
Female
mm.
mm.
mm.
(42.0")
1,102.6
(40.5")
1,062.1
(43.5")
1,143.0
mm.
mm.
mm.
(43.4")
(41.9")
(45.0")
wingspan among the eighteen species: Fourth.
SHAPE IN FLIGHT
INDIVIDUAL WING LENGTH
Most likely to be mistaken for the Short-eared Owl
(Asio flammeus flammeus) in flight, especially since
ranges often overlap,
their
from that owl by not having quite

short-necked,
blunt
rather
so
appearance.
(13.0").
Male
pronounced a
Average
In
Minimum
Maximum
flight
mm.
Species average: 328.8
but can be distinguished

the
wings appear rather long.
Female
mm.
31 1.2 mm.
3419 mm.
324.9
Rank
in
(12.8")
332.7
(12.3")
317.0
(13.5")
356.6
mm.
mm.
mm.
(13.1")
(12.5")
(14.1")
wing length among the eighteen species: Fourth.
FLIGHT PATTERN
TAIL LENGTH
The Barn Owl
side to
a strangely moth-
Male
on the average)
during
side
flight
its
the bird
to
its
flying,
be and
long,
wings
frightened from
is
daylight hours,
of
This characteristic of
becomes even more noticeable
reeling flight
bewilderment
in
rather than following a
direct-line sort of flight pattern.
when
rapid wingbeats (6.7
fairly
Frequently the bird moves lightly from
strokes per second

like fluttering.
with
flies
when
there
is
its
at
times
Average
136.8
Minimum
Maximum
124.8
Rank
perch during the
length
(6.2").
Female
mm.
mm.
mm.
15 1.1
in tail
mm.
(5.4")
176.4
(4.9")
160.3
(6.0")
192.6
among
mm.
mm.
mm.
(7.0")
(6.3")
(7.6")
the eighteen species: Sixth.
a very distinct aspect of
to the bird's flight. Despite the irregularity
it is
quite swift
lightly,
flies
on the wing when it wishes

and noiselessly on
BEAK LENGTH
gracefully,
broad wings. Often, for steering purposes, the

will
flap
an
in
erratic
mm.
manner, out of concert
(1.0").
Male
with one another.
Measurements have been based on 96 measured

46 males and 50 females.
birds
Average
23.4
Minimum
Maximum
21.1
Rank
in
Female
mm.
mm.
mm.
25.4
beak length
(0.9")
25.4
(0.8")
22.9
(1.0")
30.5
among
mm.
mm.
mm.
(1.0")
(0.9")
(1.2")
the eighteen species: Third.
WEIGHT
LEGS, FEET,
gr. (15.5 oz.).
Male
Average
383.9 gr.
(13.4 oz.)
31 1.9 gr.
(10.9 oz.)
5 00 -5 gr3 8 3- gr-
('7-5 oz.)
Minimum
Maximum
(i34
oz.
507.5 gr.
(17.8 oz.)
573-2 gr.
(20.1
oz.
Rank
in
weight
among
TALONS
Female
The
73.3
unusually long tarsus of this owl, which averages
mm.
female,
ing
the
is
male and
(2.6") in the
slightly longer in the
nearly twice as long as the middle toe, exclud-
talon.
The upper
legs
are
coarsely
densely feathered, and the lower legs are
TOTAL LENGTH
mm.
423.0
Minimum
Maximum
485.4
Rank
360.7
in total
mm.
mm.
mm.
length
(17.4").
Male
Average
LIFE STUDIES OF
Female
16.7")
460.5
(14.2")
386.3
(19.1")
534.7
among
mm.
mm.
mm.
Barn Owl captured
Villa, Illinois,
showed
in
little
(18.1")
upon
(15.2")
under the bright sunlight
(21. 1")
number
silo
BARN OWL
near Cedar Lake at Lake
fear or hostility. Placed
unharmed
a fence, the bird sat quietly for a considerable while
of quick sketches
allowing the
before casually
flying methodically off, close to the ground.
Barn Owl
but not
much more
artist
time
for
taking wing and
and these feathers are shorter than
scantily feathered
The
those of the upper leg.
feathers of the tarsus along
upward
the backside point
downward
rather than
as
the frontside feathers do. All the toes are only sparsely
covered with
inner toe
almost indistinguishable
fine,
as long as the
is
the middle toe has
its
The
bristles.
middle toe and the talon of
inner edge pectinated with close,
comblike teeth which evidently aid the bird in
short,
maintaining a grip on
its
prey.
Legs and
where
feet
scales are evident range from dusky yellowish green to
American Ornithological Union Annual Convention, in

ioo7j Roger Payne and William Drury discovered that
Barn Owls could locate prey very accurately by sound
alone, wholly without use of the eyes.
dark gray and the talons are uniformly black. The

Barn Owl has a very powerful grip and with simple
ears
muscle pressure alone can drive the talons their
ity
full
The
ioo per cent accuracy.
wide-set character of the
and the asymmetrical placement and muscular
abil-
of the ear flaps permit a differential reception of
sound;
length into their usual rodent prey.
In a specially
from which all light was excluded, tests

proved the Barn Owl could repeatedly and unerringly
detect the presence of prey on the leaf-littered floor by
hearing alone. As soon as the prey animal stopped
moving, the Barn Owl would launch itself from its
perch and soundlessly snatch the prey with incredible
sealed room,
the
thus,
made by
noise
the
prey
potential
reaches one of the owl's ear chambers slightly before
reaching the other. This permits not only accurate identhe
of
tification
EYES AND VISION

North American
ears also
whence
from
direction
originates, but equally a
distance to the prey from where the owl
As with
tected
all
the
against
possibly against
struggles
collision
tremely bright light)
species, the eye
of
its
prey
(as
is
pro-
well
as
with brush and against ex-
by a nictitating membrane.
eyes are unusually small for
an owl of
this size.
The
Most
often the eyes are described as being black, but this
is
an understandable one. In actuality, the iris is a deep mahogany brown, with such depth
of hue as often to appear as black as the pupil under
poor lighting conditions. Although the Barn Owl's
an inaccuracy,
albeit
more important
role in hunting than do the eyes. (See Ears and Hearing.)
Unlike the majority of North American owls,
which can see quite well in the daytime, the Barn Owl
shows a strong dislike for any bright light and has
night vision
is
acute, the ears play a far
showed a
the
sound
remarkably flawless gauge of

is
perched.
well. When one of the Barn Owl's ears was temporarily

and harmlessly plugged with a piece of dampened tissue,
the bird would miss its prey by ten or twelve inches on
the first attack, but would always home in accurately
on the second attempt. In hunting, the owl's ears and
eyes work well in concert, but the primary function of
the eyes
is
to avoid obstacles during the attack flight.
Location of prey
chiefly
is
by sound, and so keen
the
is
owl's hearing that this species' auditory senses are said
running mouse's feet
to be able to hear the patter of a
on a hard-packed earthen path
at a distance of thirty
yards or more.
difficulty adjusting its vision to
daytime conditions, even
after long exposure to daylight.
During nighttime hunt-
MOLT
ing, the eyes are
The
distinct adaptability to distortion as
used more for locating and avoiding
branches and other obstructions than for pinpointing

the location of prey.
The Barn Owl

is
has no ear
tufts.
dense and tight to the body, but
with the
The
it is
bird's
plumage
equally very
soft,
feathers having rather furry serrations
flight
on the leading edges which cushion the
called flutings
passing air in flight and diminish sound. Observers have
EARS AND HEARING
had Barn Owls
past their heads so closely that the
fly
slight breeze of their passage

It
is
possible that the
Barn Owl may have the most
acutely developed sense of hearing of
all
our owl
species.
of cheek or neck, yet with

to
be heard.
Unlike most North American owls, which tend to have
year, usually in
asymmetrical ear cavities on opposing sides of the skull
though
as
it
no
could be
slightest
felt
on the
skin
whisper of sound
complete molt of plumage occurs each

August, September, and October,
al-
has been recorded beginning as early as July
an aid to accurate location of prey even on extremely
dark nights, the Barn Owl's ear cavities are symmetrical.
However, the
lightly feathered flaps of skin in front of
the widely separated ears are asymmetrically placed and
muscularly controlled to such degree that they can work
independently of each other, in concert or in opposition.

Evidently this
is
BARN OWL
Tyto alba pratincola (Bonaparte). Male. White-breasted color

phase, Peotone, Will County, Illinois, November 12, 1943.
A.O.U. (American Ornithological Union) Number 365
a tremendous aid in pinpointing the
II
location of prey through a process of triangulation. In
Strix
a series of well-publicized experiments reported to the
Cook County,
Barn Owl
varia
varia
NORTHERN BARRED OWL

Barton.
Illinois,
April
Male. Poplar Creek near Elgin,

1,
1968.
A.O.U. Number 368
,VW*<
^r^
fX
<
*tt
and ending
November. Since onlyt a few
as
late
as
feathers are lost at a time, hunting ability of the bird
is
quality.
It
described
best
is
sound, as in the
ten-second intervals at
not noticeably affected.
prolonged clicking
as
letters cliaaackkk!\
repeated at about
but becoming more closely
first,
toward the end and with lessening volume.

There may be as many as twenty of these sounds
issued in succession or as few as eight.
spaced
VOICE
The Barn Owl makes a
variety of sounds, including
groaning noises, raspy screeches, beak snap-
hissings,
and rather unearthly tonal
pings,
When
fluctuations.
hatched, and before their eyes have opened, the baby
owls are limited to a feeble and high-pitched, wavering,
whining
cry,
which continues nearly
hatchlings are awake. This
The
peal for food.
is
the while the
all
evidently a persistent ap-
deepens and becomes louder
call
with each passing day. By the time they are a couple of
weeks
and
old, they've learned to hiss angrily
make a
also tend to
when
disturbed
throaty, raspy, hissing scream
sound has been termed the "snoring"
and
call
sound which might be made
if
is
open
into throat, although the bird's
as the cry
uttered. It
is
rem-
the hun-
from
wide
gry young bird continually kept sucking saliva
mouth
mouth
is
a call which can be
is
simulated by clenching the teeth and inhaling sharply
through one corner of the mouth. This
call
pitch
and of shorter duration. Like
Owl,
it
parent birds, the
tends to become louder and more
call
The young
insistent.
same
this
usually uttering
The
the Barn
devoid of musical quality. If ignored by the
dramatically
make
all cries of
birds
some time after leaving the

while on the wing.
Owl
adult Barn
most owls and usually
seems to be limited to
made when
for a considerable distance
The
to
nest,
and
is
five vocal
common among
angry. It can be heard

is
rather menacing in
follows
i.
contact
call,
normally given in
which
flight,
permits traveling birds to keep within audible range of
one another.
cry,
much
dious.
It
It
considering the nature of the alarm
is,
softer sound,
though not
much more
melo-
has been likened vaguely to the call of the
nighthawk, but probably more because of the regular

intervals at
which
it
m
Strix varia georgica
is
repeated than because of tonal
FLORIDA BARRED
varia
helveola
20,
(Bangs).
even the most stalwart
a strong momentary apprehension. There

letters in the
is
no
alphabet through
which to attempt duplication of this harsh and wholly

unmelodious cry.
3. A heavy growling sound, not unlike a large dog
which can't seem to make up its mind whether to whine
or snarl and so combines both. This is a particularly
frightening cry in the darkness, especially if the Barn
Owl
uttering the sound
The growl
is
flying
is
prolonged for
six
toward the
listener.
or seven seconds
and
usually repeated from three to five times at intervals of

It has not been definitely
sound means, but it may be a sort
of recognition signal given by the male bird only to
seconds
several
established
between.
this
in
mate of his approach to the nest. The nearest

which it can be imitated in print is ssschnnaair-
mating
alert his
form
what
rkk!
4.
call,
evidently given only by the male
and uttered during the courtship flight. As the

male hovers in one spot not far above where the female
bird
is
perched, he raises his head until the beak
and makes
this
excited
skyward,
is
chanting cry in a distinctly
is the softest and least displeasing

Barn Owl utterances and most nearly sounds
like a faintly raspy, monotonous whee-tuh
wheetuh
whee-tuh
whee-tuh which may continue
for many minutes and with intervals of no more than
two seconds between each cry.
5. Finally, there is a peculiar rattling call for which
no explanation is known. This call, given in flight, has
a sound not unlike a pea-sized pebble vigorously shaken
from end to end in a short plastic cylinder. Some listeners have suggested that this is merely a different caliber
of beak snapping, but because of the rapidity with
which it is issued and the fact that it has never been
heard coming from a perched bird snapping its beak, it
breathless manner. It
of all the
is
more
likely that the call
is
vocal.
The sound cannot
well be reproduced in print.
SEXUAL DIFFERENCES
1969.
As
in
most birds of prey, the female Barn Owl is

markedly larger
larger than the male, although not so
TEXAS BARRED OWL

Female. Vicinity of Corpus
Nueces County, Texas, January

Number 368-B
Christi,
easily cause
adequate combination of
Latham. Female. Three miles southeast
Englewood, Charlotte County, Florida, June

A.O.U. Number 368-A
Strix
can
OWL
of
rv
a fearsome, shattering, dis-
is
basic adult calls, however, are as
five
human
sounds, plus the beak snapping, which
character.
continue
call for
it
in the darkness,
not too
is
unlike the cry of the adult bird, but usually higher in
is
alarm cry which
if
allowed to become too hungry. This angry, rather wet
iniscent of the
An
2.
cordant shriek or scream which, coming unexpectedly
20,
1910.
A.O.U.
as in many species of North American owls. There are

two distinct color phases and some degree of gradation
between these phases (see Coloration and Markings:
Barn Owl
Adult), but studies have indicated there

tion of color phase to sex. Vocally,
no correla-
is
the male bird
is
dorsal surface
are
and onto the inner

mottled with
usually well
scapulars.
The wings
black or,
grayish
less
reported to issue a deeper cry than the female and not
frequently,
so harshly grating. His repertoire of calls also
underparts are essentially very light tawny to pure white

and spotted or distinctly marked with small V-shapes
of dark brown or orange brown. These V-shapes may
be well scattered in some individuals and quite heavily
seems to
be greater than the female's.
barred.
distinctly
Breast,
belly,
and other
peppered across the underside of others. The

The Barn Owl has been
closely
results
studied in this respect
this species are
more
needed. As nearly as can
be determined from bird-banding data, out of every

ioo birds hatched, 60 will die before reaching the age
bars of dark grayish brown, terminating in white at the
The heart-shaped facial disk is

medium to heavy brownish encircling the upper half of the eye and much darker
near the front of the eye than toward the rear. The
tips
of
of
this
sumption of mice and
rats
mortality occurs from conwhich have themselves eaten
rodent poisons shortly before being taken as prey.
Of
the remaining 40 birds of each 100, 14 more will die

some time during their second year. Nine others will
live to between three and four years of age, six more
will die during their fifth year, and four each will die
during the sixth and seventh years. Two birds may live
to see their tenth year and only one of these 00 will live
beyond that time. As far as longevity is concerned, the
oldest banded wild bird recovered was just past its
eleventh year and still in good condition when struck
by a car and killed. However, there have been numerous cases of captive birds living well over fifteen
years, and even one unconfirmed report of a captive
Barn Owl which finally died of old age during its fiftyfirst year. Average lifespan in the wild seems to be between five and eleven years.
the rectrices.
pure white except for
disk
facial
of one year. Available evidence seems to indicate that a

sizable percentage
is
orange, well mottled and crossed by about five distinct
than any other owl species, but more conclusive

even for
tail
sometimes dorsally white, but far more often a medium-
is
encircled
by a narrow ruff of vaguely
darker brown to sometimes almost wine-red feathering,
with scattered blackish in the ruff across the throat.
The primary wing

brown, tending
usually
coverts are a decided darker orange
become mottled toward the tips, and

a small spot of white on the top near the outer
end of the
to
feathers.
In the orange-breasted phase the plumage
is
con-
and a somewhat deep,

though not dark, yellowish orange beneath, and simi-
siderably darker orange above
larly
V-marked or sometimes
tail is
spotted with brown.
The
a darker sienna tawny with bars of mottled dark
brown. The
facial disk
is
a medium-sienna
tint
rather
than white.
Plumage coloration variations seem to have nothing

to do with sex, geographic locale, or age of
the bird. The beak on both color phases is a pale yellow
tan. but the scaled portion of legs and feet is somewhat
whatever
darker
in
the
than
orange-breasted
in
the
white-
breasted phase.

ADULT

JUVENILE
The Barn Owl
is
to
some degree dichromatic within

markedly so as in some species,
though not so
example the Eastern Screech Owl (Otus asio
naevius) in which the dichromatism is quite manifest
in sharply defined red-phase and gray-phase birds. The
Barn Owl color-phase difference is limited to a light
tawny whitish coloration generally, which is referred to
as the white-breasted phase (see Color Plate I), and a
its
race,
as
for
darker
somewhat
and
more
yellow-orange-brownish
Juvenile birds in their first-winter plumage are quite

similar in coloration
and markings
with but a few minor exceptions.
to the adult birds,
The gray
the back and other dorsal portions are
spottings
less
on
extensive
and more interspersed with tints of tan. The crown

and hindneck vary from a sandy-cinnamon to a sandycream color instead of being uniform with the back
coloration and markings as in adults, and both crown
shade termed the orange-breasted phase. In the former

color phase
the
orange which
is
upperparts are a distinctly yellowish
mottled and dappled with generally
small scattered spots of dark grayish brown, and

delicately dusted with very light spots ranging
faint
tawny
to white.
from a
This spotting and a hint of white
and blackish mottling

8
more
is
continuous across the entire
Field sketches of the Barn
Owl {Tyto
alba pratincola) stand-
ing and listening for prey in northern Illinois barn. Stance

is
reasonably erect until sound of prey
upon head
is
by the bird, followed by instant attack.
Barn Owl
is
detected, where-
lowered, location of prey accurately triangulated
K.e.iC
and hindneck are sparingly spotted with salt-and-pepper

spots of gray and black.
aspect of the Short-eared
Further, the Short-eared
Owl immediately identifies it.

Owl regularly hunts its terri-
and is more apt to be seen, since the

Barn Owl rarely ventures out before dusk and is nor-
tory in the daytime
mally already at roost before sunrise.
GENERAL HABITS AND

CHARACTERISTICS
The Barn Owl
one of our most
is
owls, disliking leaving
when many
days,
is
its
on the cloudiest of
roost even
other owls are abroad.
An
exception
during the nesting season when procurement of food
young birds is a constantly increasing burden.

At such times the Barn Owl will hunt late in the day
when it is overcast. Normally it prefers to remain very
inactive during daylight hours and is not easily aroused
from its sleep.
At Lake Villa, Illinois, a pair of Barn Owls roosting
for the
in a silo permitted the
author to scale the iron rungs to
watching him
their perch,
when he stopped
he ascended. Even
sleepily as
three feet from them, they were not
unduly alarmed. One was a partial albino and permitted the author to reach out and touch it before
taking wing rather sullenly through an opening in the
The
roof.
silo
bird,
allowed
second, a normal white-breasted-phase
made no
wings closed, and
muted beak snapping

where
rungs,
be picked up across the back,
to
itself
alarm other than a
sign of
bottom of the
began struggling. The bird was checked
it
leg. It
was placed upon a fence post
and
lot
for fully five minutes
it
sat
in the
there
squinting against the brightness of the day before finally
and then taking wing. It flew rather

lazily off low across a meadow and disappeared into a
dense growth of tamarack. This exemplifies another
fluffing
facet
feathers
its
of
the
character
bird's
that
is
it
normally a
calm-natured owl, not easily excitable and slow to be-
come angry. This is true even if

Not until about sunset does
roost
and begin
its
during the night,

returning to
its
eggs are handled.
Owl leave its

Though it may oc-
the Barn
evening hunt.
and
casionally perch
sleep for a short interval or
it is
two
normally active the night through,
favorite roost about half an
its
Tyto alba pratincola
hour before
distinctly
is
a bird of open
country rather than a woodland owl and
man
clined to avoid the proximity of
much
man and
yet
observed
is
less in-
than other owls.
Probably no other North American owl spends

time so close to
its
life-
Often
less.
up residence in the very midst of a buscity and yet remain undetected, primarily
pairs will take
town or
tling
because they are so thoroughly nocturnal in their hunting habits and so exclusively retiring during the day-
Their comings and goings are seldom ob-
light hours.
served by man,
even in heavily settled communities.
They have adapted extremely
well to a close existence
with man, taking advantage of the fact that the rodents
upon which they feed, very nearly to the exclusion of all

else, are more abundant near man than anywhere else.
Most highly favored roosts are usually high on the
darkest ledges and crannies of old buildings of all sorts
residences,
until nearly to the
thoroughly, found to be in good health and had no
band on its
open barn
nocturnal
strictly
fries,
inside
open
barns, churches, water towers,
silos,
bel-
vine-covered porches, on wall projections
attics,
wells,
tank houses, steeples, farm outbuild-
ings of all kinds, windmills, institutional buildings, factories, granaries,
community
of
rarely come.
and
similar places in the midst of the
man and
yet
where people themselves
Often large hollows
in
sion
it
beside resi-
trees
On
occa-
will dig a tunnel as a nesting site or roost,
going
dences or in city parks will be used as
roosts.
inward horizontally for three or four feet in easily excavated stream banks. In areas where there are cliffs, such
as along Pacific coastal areas, roosts are often in cliff
crannies. Clefts in quarry walls are also favored, as are
old
mine
ing
is
shafts.
In areas like southern California, roost-
frequently in areas of live oak trees and in the
smaller canyons, barrancas, and the fringes of the lower

slopes of foothills.
In such areas they will very often
roost beneath railroad or
highway bridges and
in cul-
sunrise.
verts.
Quite a heavy eater,

habits
and the
it
not at
is
area
nest
or
all
roost
fastidious in
is
usually
its
rather
messily cluttered with regurgitated pellets, bones, fur,

feathers,
and excrement.
It
is
especially fond of roost-
ing and nesting in old buildings,

of
farm buildings,
neath bridges,
steeples,
silos,
windmills,
different kinds
churches,
be-
and other such normally undisturbed
places.
of the
Owl
flying
deserted
same
it
is
relatively close in
size
to
lots,
prairies, orchards,
truck-farm
and other grain storage
areas,
plots,
down
near
alleys,
the Short-
and is a hunter
distinguishing between the two is
Miscellaneous
The
pratincola) in northern Illinois.
(Asio flammeus flammeus)

terrain,
usually easy enough.
10
still remain close to human habitation,

low through large-treed parks, over open fields,
foraging, they
corncribs
Although
eared
The presence of Barn Owls is more often detectable

from the "whitewash" staining of their excrement at the
roost than from actual sightings of the birds. When the
daylight hours have passed and they begin their nightly
stubby-necked, bullet-headed
Barn Owl
field
studies
of
the
Barn Owl
{Tyto
alba
fc^J Look
f>o
oft
<*)**i0s1~
hefos
and especially along railroad tracks and other places

where mice abound.
Very often in autumn and winter the Barn Owl becomes gregarious in its roosting and upward of ten or
twelve birds may be found roosting together in the same
tree or within the same ramshackle building. There
have been cases reported occasionally where even as
many as fifty Barn Owls had assembled and roosted together in the same small grove of trees, taking shelter in
the thick foliage of living trees or neatly hiding themselves among dead leaves of more scattered open-land
trees. In such community roosts, the owls have a habit
of leaving the roost singly, beginning at sunset or shortly
an interval of from
thereafter, with
to several
leaving the roost will frequently circle at

several passes
in
its
around the
it
The owl
first,
making
has just vacated, calling
raspy voice to those remaining behind before set-
ting off alone
on
Because of
its
old
tree
its
way.
and nesting
proclivity for roosting
in
often responsible
is
for the reputation such a house will get for supposedly
The
ing
calls,
along with
weird and rather frighten-
bird's
its
and whitish ap-
ghostlike flight
pearance in the dusk, inspire the '"ghost"

flies
stories as
it
through darkened rooms of the old buildings and
out of broken windows, fallen-door openings, and other
such places of entry or
exit.

As with
greatest
by
edly,
owl species, the Barn Owl's

man. More are destroyed, undoubtthan by any other enemy, either directly
practically all
enemy
man
is
or indirectly. Fortunately, destruction

recent years as
who
it
was
is
not as great in
in the past. Farmers, for example,
often shot the birds wherever they saw them, have
learned that the Barn

ficial
Owl
is
probably the most bene-
and they now welcome
bird to have around
presence and actively protect
it.
Good
its
conservation edu-
cation has also aided in stopping the pointless destruction of the birds. Nevertheless, a great
shot or clubbed to death
when
many
are
still
they are encountered,
simply because they are a large and rather fearsome-
appearing bird.
Many
are
still
Owl (Bubo
this
is
virginianus virginianus)
The
the Great
kill
without any
it
that begins flying too early in the day
runs the risk of encountering another natural
enemy
of
some consequence the Prairie Falcon. This bird will

harass the Barn Owl at every opportunity and with a
deadly savagery
if
given half a chance.
falcon will "stoop" into
its
From
above, the
dive at the flying owl and
its skull with the rock-hard blow of its fisted foot.

Sometimes the owl is merely bowled over with the first
blow, but it makes no effort at defense other than to
crush
seek the nearest cover to get
away from
the feathered
enemy.
Though
not really an enemy, the Burrowing
(Speotyto cunicularia sp.)
will occasionally fight
a Barn Owl. This normally occurs as a territorial
pute and, though the Barn
Owl
is
Owl
with
dis-
considerably the
the Burrowing Owl which succeeds

Barn Owl.
Many of the North American owl species are victims
of harassment by small birds wherever encountered, but
larger, usually
it
is
virginianus subspecies.
such
is
not the case with the Barn
Owl. Songbirds
such as wrens, warblers, catbirds, kingbirds, robins, and

jays, and magpies, ofmobbing an owl they discover
mockingbirds, along with crows,

ten take great delight in
at roost, but they
do not seem
to recognize the
Barn
Owl as an enemy and generally pay no attention to it.

Though its principal defense is to seek sanctuary
in
some old building or natural hollow, this is not to say

the Barn Owl has no fighting ability. To the contrary,
it can put up a respectable fight on occasion and, in the
manner of most owls, use its powerful feet well in defense. When threatened, the Barn Owl tends to crouch
or lie flat on the ground with wings outspread, facing
the enemy, glaring and hissing malevolently, while at
the same time snapping the beak sharply as a warning.
The head is often swung back and forth at this time, as
if the owl is looking for an opening for attack. If the intruder continues to press in, the Barn Owl will launch
itself feet first at the enemy and strike accurately with
its
talons toward the enemy's head, especially the eyes.
Even when still quite young, the Barn Owl can put
up a good defense. Fledglings in the nest will snap their
beaks and sway their heads much in the manner of
adults. If the enemy comes too close, they will throw
themselves upon their backs and strike out with the
powerful talons. Even if the enemy does not attack but
is
only
Horned
RODENT FOOD OF THE BARN OWL
or others of the
and more ferocious owl will attack, kill, and devour a Barn Owl without hesitation. Strangely, if there is no building or
natural hollow nearby into which the Barn Owl can
quickly fly and hide itself at the appearance of the Great
Horned Owl. it will often seem to give up and allow the
12
The Barn Owl
pounce and
itself.
man.
natural enemies are concerned, there
one of any consequence, and
Bubo
through indiscrim-
killed
inate use of rodent poisons spread by
Where
to
defend
in driving off the
abandoned houses, the Barn Owl
being "haunted."
real effort to
than a minute
less
minutes or more between departures.
Owl
Great Horned
larger
Although on occasion the Barn Owl

other small birds and,
more
will
often, frogs
important prey by far consists of small
which are shown
here.
Normally,
rodents up to a large rat in
size,
this
sparrows, or
rodents,
owl confines
its
most
some
of
itself
to
although cottontail rabbits
and snowshoe hares are occasionally taken.
Barn Owl
eat
and snakes,
5cJ
Pre^) foh
5/
2.
f) o
m fen a-^Q
OÛ
*e< d*tt
Ôc
^^
/..
s ,* y/)c/
^
/Are.
13 -/ff m,
/7-27
6
/V>,
7*o
/s.
^ 0</ ^j.
the young owls will often assume the

With head upraised and beak snapping viowhile at the same time issuing the angry hissing
remains
close,
back with remarkable
offensive.
before
lently,
Even
back,
intruder.
to
of the Barn Owl, even
feet
when
it
quite
is
young, are tremendously powerful and certainly weap-
They strike out with

accuracy and, upon encountering flesh,
ons deserving of respect.
consider-
able
instantly
curve inward with amazing pressure which drives the

talons deeply inward.
The
author, carrying a Barn
he had captured for study, carelessly brought
own body and
to his
talons gripped his
and
and
deeply
flesh
harm
desire to
was only with the greatest of
it
too close
it
one foot shot out and the
puncturing the
There was no
painfully.
so
instantly
thigh,
Owl
the bird
difficulty
and
make
stop,
close passes
Owl
hunts almost incessantly during
waking hours. A seemingly tireless hunter, it probably spends more time on the wing than any other owl.
Although it will occasionally perch on rafters, eaves, or
its
and await the appearance of prey, more often it prefers to range silently back and forth, less than
ten feet off the ground, over meadows, stubble fields,
marshes, open woodlands, and orchards. During such
tree limbs
times
its
tions
and
eyes are used primarily for avoiding obstruc-
incredibly sensitive hearing
its
locating prey. This hunting-by-sound

utterly silent flight of the bird.
mouse or
rat
angles toward
ten snap
it.
is
When
attuned to
the prey
heard moving, the Barn
usually
Owl
a few feet away, the bird
beak once, or
its
When
is
aided by the
is
issue
swiftly
will of-
a brief growling
hiss.
This evidently has the faculty of making the prey, units tracks in an inWithout hesitation the owl
arrows to the exact spot where the sound of movement
ceased and strikes with wide-open talons on both feet.
The instant that flesh is encountered, the foot making
contact closes and the talons drive deeply into the prey,
killing it at once. As is common among all owls, in that
instant of contact the owl closes its eyes tightly until it
aware of danger
until then, freeze in
stinctive protective reaction.
has established a balance against the struggles of

prey, then opens the lids but
membranes
mouse or
sound of the
to the
its
keeps the nictitating
rat does not instantly stop
hiss or
ground
Owl pounce on moving
in front of the
prey. If
running at the
beak snapping, the owl
cats.
More
carried off from where
is
of-
it
is
During the nesting season the adult carries it directly back to the nest for its young, but at other times
it flies to a convenient perch ten feet or more above the
ground before feeding. Almost all prey carried away by
the Barn Owl is carried in the beak. Only with the largkilled.
or bigger prey are the talons used for carry-
will pass
Although primarily a rodent eater and mainly mice

and rats among the rodents the Barn Owl will also
catch, kill, and eat a wide variety of other creatures.
Large
low
intended prey, then wheel
for example, such as katydids, crickets,
insects,
large moths,
a certain
and grasshoppers, are often
number
eaten. Equally,
and
of frogs, snakes, lizards,
crayfish
The
are consumed. Small birds are taken only rarely.
Barn Owl, in fact, is the least destructive of bird life of

any North American owl that is not strictly insectivo-
More
rous.
sparrow or
when a
make up
often than not
bird
is
taken,
it
is
than 5 per cent

of the annual diet of the Barn Owl. Although sparrows
and
starling. Birds
starlings
are in
fact
less
do make up the majority of the birds that

other species have been recorded
taken,
Owl
through dissection and analysis of Barn
These
include
grackles,
wrens,
cowbirds,
warblers, towhees, bobolinks, meadowlarks,
times even birds as large as blue jays, sora
pellets.
swallows,
and somerails,
green
and occasionally
even a small duck. Seldom, if ever, does the Barn Owl
attack domestic poultry. Now and then, though never
on a regular basis, the Barn Owl will catch and eat fish.
herons, clapper
Usually
rails,
this occurs
flickers,
when a
fish
pigeons,
has become trapped in a
drying pool area of a stream, pond, or marsh, and therefore
becomes easy prey.
Among mammals,
although
various species of mice and rats are the principal prey,

the Barn
ground
young
closed until the struggles have terminated.
Rarely will the Barn

the
still
does
ever, will
if
prodigious eater and dedicated provider of food for
young, the Barn
rarely,
dozen or more well-experienced barnyard

ten than not the prey
ing.
its
But only
it.
continues
So expert a hunter is the Barn Owl that a single

owl will catch as much rodent prey in one night as a
est of rats
The owl
the confused animal
until
the prey be snatched while in the act of running.
from the
HUNTING METHODS AND

CARRYING OF PREY
again.
run before the owl can come
to
and then snatches
with the help of a friend that the talons were extricated

flesh.
and begin running
wits
almost certainly doomed.
is
it
rodent pauses and
agility as the
its
manage
does
if it
croak, they will open their wings and run fiercely at the
The
can collect
it
Owl
known to take gophers and

many kinds, shrews, moles, bats,
and even mammals as large as full-grown
has also been
squirrels
rabbits,
of
and spotted skunks.

the Barn Owl is definitely
jackrabbits, cottontails, muskrats,
In the pattern of most owls,
not a fastidious eater. All smaller prey

small birds, small
Barn Owl
mammals,
reptiles,
insects,
mice,
and amphibians
are swallowed whole, usually in two or three convulsive
of these activities are relatively sketchy.
mouth once or twice

of
the prey. The Barn
as if to clear it of any residue
Owl can very easily swallow whole prey up to the di-
North American owl
gulps followed by a gaping of the
mensions of a medium-sized house

that
rat.
Prey bigger than
vigorously torn into swallowable chunks with the
is
beak and devoured.
The Barn Owl,
about the courtship and mating
enough
and
bits
mates for
The shape
often, tapered.
let,
mammals
and from two
Owl
is
to three pellets are cast
by the
in-
very rapid and the individual owl will
own weight in prey

nightly and often much more. Young in the nest are
even more voracious and require their own weight or
in
its
Pellets are regurgitated while the
owl
is
perched and,
not, this occurs at the nest site or the
most frequently used
roost.
As a
result, roosts
and
nests
are usually rather disreputable in appearance with the

debris of new,
and decomposed
old,
virtually
pellets
carpeting the area. Sometimes the owl retains
whole
its
roost
becomes covered with

a deep, ruglike covering of prey fuzz from the mouse
hairs in the decomposed pellets. On the ground beneath
the nest area, pellets ejected by the young owls may
build up to a height of two or three feet before the birds
leave. Even beneath a normal adult bird roost there
may accumulate as much as two or three bushels of pelso long that the
let
floor area
on top very fresh and lower

and disintegrating.
wastes, the normal excrement of
material, with those
levels gradually settling
In addition to pellet
the Barn
Owl
is
Where
much
frequently expelled and does
to
The excrement
is
normally a viscous mass mainly
white in color from unassimilated bone matter of the

prey.
Drying of the excrement causes the whiteness
intensify
and
Owl
have been observed
is
concerned,
known
it is
that the fe-
to
look as
if
it
male
Barn Owl watches intently all
feigns lack of interest in anything the courting
actions of her suitor. If she does not wish to be courted
by the approaching male, she

fly off swiftly. If she remains
almost immediately
will
in
male
place, the
will
her roost several times and then hover in place in
circle
front of
and above her by about

flier,
at this time the
o or 15
feet.
Though
male deliberately makes
a muted fluttering sound with his wings. At least once

and perhaps several times during this fluttering action,
rise 50 feet or more and then fall, while
same time clapping the wing tips together be-
the male will

at the
neath him with a crisp slapping sound, catching himself
him
to
within a dozen feet or so of where the object of his
at-
and resuming
tentions
is
his
fluttering
as
his
fall
takes
perched. At intervals between
and clapping, but while he

will
still
is
the
falling
hovering, the male
the unmusical courtship cry of a repeated
issue
whee-tuh sound. (See Voice.)
At
length, evidently satisfied that the female has ap-
proved of
his antics, the
Usually he returns in
less
male
away.
will soar quickly
than 10 minutes with a mouse
or some other form of prey gripped in his beak. Again
he
issues the rattling cry as
he
flies
him and,
he nears her, but
this
time
With
the
prey
from
the female accepts
directly to the perch
surprising delicacy,
ute,
after holding
it
and
settles beside her.
quietly for as long as a min-
throws her head back and swallows
it
whole.
to
after a prolonged period, the roosting or
nesting area tends
courtship
does, the perched female
heighten the sorry appearance of the nesting or roosting

area.
pairs
together over a period of years.
soundless
food every day.
more often than
same
since the
nears her. Unlike some owl species, where the female
usually contained within each pel-
almost always eat at least half
more
though not yet proven, that the Barn
life,
our
in
suspected,
is
Undigested material from three to

is
dividual owl during each 24-hour period. Digestion in

the Barn
It
male is usually perched and is approached by the male

on the wing. He makes a peculiar rattling cry as he
of the
roughly cylindrical with the ends rounded
six small
filled.
or,
three-quarters of an inch in width.
less
others,
some gaps
alba pratincola,
knowledge are gradually being

for example,
is
in
enable some fairly solid conclusions to be reached. In
feathers,
pellet
known
is
nessed over a period of years by trained observers to
tates
compact waste pellets containing the fur, bones,

and other undigestible material of their prey.
For the Barn Owl, each pellet averages about one inch
to an inch and a half in length and about a half-inch to
activities;
pieces of such activities have been wit-
the case of Tyto
of course, as other owls do, regurgi-
Among some
nothing
species, virtually
had been poorly
whitewashed.
Following
this,
copulation
usually
occurs.
The
fe-
male goes into a sort of squat as the male edges toward

her and as he places a foot low on her back with his
wings partially outspread, she partially spreads her
and
tilts
her underside toward him.
his cloacal
opening close
to hers
The male
own
presses
and copulation com-
mences, continuing for as short a time as 5 or 10 seconds to upward of 30 seconds.
The
about
Because of the nocturnal habits of so
many
owls, the
courtship and mating habits are not easily observable,

as they are in other avian species. Consequently, details
act of copulation
five
is
sometimes repeated within
minutes but more often the two birds
immediately after the
first,
fly off
the female leading the
way
and the male close behind her. Copulation probably occurs numerous times over the next eight or ten nights.
Barn Owl
'5
ANNUAL BROODS,
NEST,
cases the
NESTING HABITS
Owl
if
breeding
its
double-brooded, usually having
is
and the second brood in late summer or early autumn. However,

this is only a generalization, since the Barn Owl, unlike
other owls, will evidently breed at any time of the year.
Baby Barn Owls have been banded in the nests during
every month of the year except December and February,
its first
brood
in late winter or early spring
known
but they are
during those
to be in their nests
undisturbed on their
nesting
bone,
and
Barn Owls,
return to the same
will
nests,
year after year and, as a result, the pellet,
site
feather,
and excrement deposits become

to an enormous ex-
hair,
cumulative and sometimes build up

tent.
The
powering
and stench are sometimes almost overhumans.
filth
to
Normally the nesting male and female roost
close
together during the daytime. Underground, the female

will sleep
male
months
soon carpeted with the
is
the whole area badly stained by excrement.
Except in the more northerly portions of

range, the Barn
whole nesting area
debris of pellets in various stages of decomposition,
on the nest while incubating the eggs and the

one side of the nest near her.
will sleep to
also.
Tyto alba pratincola
not at
is
all
choosy in regard to
Nests have been found in a wide variety of
a nesting
site.
settings.
Natural tree hollows, especially in
oaks,
live
EGGS
with the hollows about 10 to 20 feet high, are a favored
and even more so if the tree is near a marshy

meadow. Occasionally, abandoned crow, hawk, or magpie nests are used. More often the eggs are laid on bare
ledges in silos, barns, and abandoned houses, beneath
bridges, and in old water towers. Church steeples and
belfries are also selected for nesting sites and, on occasite,
the owl will rather stupidly select a completely
sion,
Number
Usually there are a
per nesting
minimum
and a maximum of seven eggs per nesting, but

exceptions occur frequently. Sometimes as few as three
eggs are laid, though rarely fewer than that. Eight, nine,
of four
ten, or eleven eggs in a single nesting
common. Once
a while there
in
is
not terribly un-
may
be twelve and
exposed location on a rooftop to lay her eggs. Such ex-
rarely thirteen or fourteen.
posed nestings are rarely productive, since the heat of
of eggs
on record was twenty-four. This was an unsuc-
cessful
nesting on
and destroy them. Proare often used and once in a
the sun tends to cook the eggs

tected ledges in
cliff
faces
while eggs will be laid on a convenient
some large abandoned piece
of
flat
spot within
farm or railroad ma-
chinery, construction equipment, or dredge.
Very often the Barn Owl

the
abandoned burrow
other such
mammal
adopt the habit of
burrow much
Equally,
it
is
in
of
and,
sitting
the
will nest
it
in
woodchuck, or
does
so,
it
tends to
exposed at the mouth of the
manner
of the
Burrowing Owl.
fond of nesting in holes in the sides of
stream banks and barrancas. Such holes are usually 8 or

10 feet above stream level
and go inward on a
zontal plane for two or three feet before angling
ward
slightly to
end
in a
hori-
down-
more commodious chamber,
perhaps two or three feet in diameter, where the eggs

are laid. Although such holes are usually the
abandoned
own
squirrels, the
Barn Owls use
their
talons to enlarge the tunnels
and chambers
for
them-
selves. Not uncommonly, if the hole is too low

bank of a stream, the nest will be destroyed by
in the
holes of
ground
flood-
largest
a bare tin roof;
deposit
although the
fe-
hours shielding the
daylight
the
all
single
clutch with her wings and body from the sun's rays, the
radiant heat from the tin destroyed them.
Normally a pure, dead white, but occasionally

cast. There is no
Color
underground
badger,
when
male owl spent
The
having a vague yellowish or bluish

gloss
whatever
to the eggs
and they are usually badly

and caked with dried ex-
stained with blood from prey
crement.
Whereas the eggs
Shape
of most
North American
owls are very nearly round, the eggs of the Barn
On
considerably more ovate.
Owl
rare occasions they
are
may
even be an elongated ovate, but most often they are

ovate
liptically
with
one
end
slightly
smaller
el-
than
the other.
Very
Texture
finely
granulated but never entirely
smooth.
Size
The average egg
size,
based on the measure-
ments of 97 eggs, is 42.4 mm. long by 32.4 mm. wide

Ci.7"X'-3")- The extreme measurements are as follows:
waters.
No
actual nesting material
a building ledge, rafter,
cliff
is
collected. If the site
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum
is
ledge, rooftop, or other
such area, the eggs are simply laid on the bare surface.
In
natural
tree
hollows
chips or whatever other debris

rally or
been brought
in
laid
on the wood
may have
collected natu-
they are
by the previous occupant. Un-
length:
48.3
length:
35.1
width:
39.8
width:
26.8
Interval of egg-laying
intervals of
The
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
eggs
two or three days, or
may
(1.9")
(1.4")
(1.6")
(i.i")
be laid singly at
in pairs at intervals of
derground, the eggs are usually laid on or near the bed-
about two days followed by a pause of about a week be-
ding material collected by the ground squirrel, badger,
fore the next
or
16
woodchuck
that previously used the burrow. In
all
two eggs are
Egg-laying dates
Barn Owl
laid
two days apart.
Western North America:
earliest,
January 17:
June
latest,
normally between
7;
March
and April 16.

Northern North America: earliest, February 27; latest, July 18; normally between March 28 and May 3.
Eastern North America: earliest, February 22; latest,
June 29; normally between April 9 and May 3.
Southern
North
March
latest,
March
December 24;
normally between March 2 and
America:
advanced appetites and the initial food brought to the

nest is torn into tiny chunks and fed to them by the
mother owl. At first they are fed only the actual meat
free of bones, fur, or feathers.
The
earliest,
24.
earliest,
December
latest,
12;
normally between January 26 and February
March
13;
28.

CHARACTERISTICS
Incubation begins with the
fore hatching of the owls
fuzzy white
the fifth day.
On
down
covers the nestlings through
the sixth day a buffy second
down
be-
and the natal down is carried away on

the tips of the new down. Movements of the nestlings
against each other and the nest surface quickly wear off
the vestiges of the natal down, and by the ninth day
little trace of it remains. The babies are more attractive
now and rather comical in actions and appearance.
By the ninth day the second down is dense and woolly
and this covering is worn by the young bird until the be-
first
ginning of the seventh week.
On
egg laid and there-
staggered. Well-developed
is
and with dark pinbe found in the same nest with
owlets about the size of a pigeon

feathers in the wings will
eggs just ready to hatch. Normally the
about 18 days before the
first
egg hatches
last egg.
some divergence of opinion about the incubation period required for the hatching of an individual egg. Some authorities have stated as short a period
is
much as 35 days.
much depends on how well incubated the
and how often or for what length of time the
walk about on the nest

sharply
when
often they will
sit
side
by
a portion of the clutch.
side,
The
with each bird brooding
female, though, normally
its
out danger. However,

over onto
its
On
male or female attack a human intruder who
will either
approaches or handles the eggs.
it
from
be handled withit
will roll
eat,
hunger continues
at
nestling of this age, given all the mice
it
swallowed
and prance about in

and screaming. Rarely
still
out angrily with grasping
strike
downy. The young
still
could
a highly agitated manner, hissing
can
it
the twenty-sixth day the primary feathers begin
supplied with food during this period.
short distance away, alight, flutter,
hisses sharply,
head, and sways
pushing through their sheaths, but the wing coverts are
does most of the brooding and the male keeps her well
neck to see
feet.
fly
it
its
severely provoked,
if
back and
disturbed
its
menacingly; but
high peak.
disturbed while brooding, the female will
When
wings, lowers
its
craning
fullest height,
surroundings better.
eggs are
under normal conditions, hatch in 30 to 34 days,

with the most usual incubation term being 33 days.
Both male and female assist in brooding the eggs and
disturbed.
often stands to
side to side
eggs,
this stage
By the twenty-second day the bird is very lively and

extremely demanding of its parents. It eats upward of
one and a half times its own weight in prey brought by
the parents during each 24-hour period. At this age it
its
Probably the majority Qf
docile
relatively
still
spreads
air.
At
alert to everything.
Evidently,
eggs are exposed to the
young owl becomes much

it can stand and
surface without difficulty and is
to handling, though it hisses
the thirteenth day the
more
as 21 to 24 days, while others say as
When
Barn Owls, even if the parent

They are hatched with well-
as
not nearby.
are
gins appearing
Florida:
There
them beyond doubt

birds
bird's
in
six
succession before refusing
the seventh.
The
defensive
reaction
more apparent by
mains
at
peak
the
of
levels.
The young
truders without hesitation.
Fed
becomes
and hunger re-
fledgling
the thirty-first day,
bird strikes out at in-
all
the mice
it
wanted, a
fledgling of this age swallowed nine, although the tail of

its mouth for some
showed signs of hunger again and rapidly swallowed four more mice.
Wings and tail are developing well by the thirty-sixth
day, and by the forty-second day the young birds weigh
more than their parents. The babies are very aggressive
the
YOUNG AND FAMILY
LIFE
CHARACTERISTICS
one continued
last
time.
By
to
hang out
the end of three hours
of
it
may
At hatching, the babies are sparsely feathered and

lift their heads. By the end of
the first day they are covered with a warm white fuzzy-
The youngest
down and
quickly torn apart and devoured by the others.
very weak, barely able to
are
somewhat
stronger,
able to raise their
heads high for short periods, and even able to stand

clumsily for brief moments.
acteristic
of the
The
elongated facial char-
hatchling owls immediately identifies
and,
if
food
is
scarce, cannibalism
bird in the nest
bedraggled, and should
The
occur in the
usually trod
become weak and
nest.
upon and
fail,
it
is
primaries are becoming well advanced by the
forty-fourth day
wearing
Barn Owl
it
is
and the residue of downy plumage is

These primaries remain as part of
off the tips.
birds which, being so
often bowled over
much
smaller than the others, are
and stepped upon by
their
larger
nestmates.
In the earliest stages of the care of the young,
all
feeding seems to be done by the female bird, but by the
time the young are several days old and have begun to
take whole food
and swallow
it,
the male feeds
them
as
well.
Throughout each night the young birds are fed almost continuously by the hard-pressed parents. When
the babies are younger, the hunting of the parents some-
times results in an overabundance of

nevertheless deposited in
is
which
food,
is
the nesting area. This food
always consumed by the young during the daylight
hours which follow, while the parent birds are sleeping

close
by.
In
one well-observed
brought to the nest
in less
mammals, including
21
case,
parent
bird
than half an hour a total of
squirrel, 3 gophers,
rat,
and
16 mice.

As a
species,
Tyto alba
is
the most widely distributed
nocturnal bird in the world, populating most of the

world's major land areas.
the duck
BARN OWL
Tyto alba pratincola (Bonaparte)
the first-winter plumage.
The young Barn Owl. how-
ever, does not
become clad
plumage, as
so characteristic of other
is
in a long, soft, fluffy juvenal
North American
hawk
Among
all
birds of prey, only
has so extensive a range, although
it
is
nowhere near the population level of the Barn Owl.

In North America the subspecies Tyto alba pratincola breeds from southwestern British Columbia (Ladner,
Duncan, Vancouver Island), North Dakota
(Grand Fork County), southern Minnesota (Hennepin
County), southern Wisconsin (Dodge County), south-
On(Lambton County, Middlesex County), southern

Quebec (Berthierville) and Massachusetts (Wenham),
ern Michigan (Genesee County), extreme southern
tario
owls.
From
the forty-fifth to the fifty-eighth day the
birds begin losing
some weight,
young
as the parent birds are
no longer able to provide as much for them as they demand. Wings and tail are developing well, and by the
sixty-sixth
day the young owl
first-winter
parent bird.
in the
is
fully feathered in the
plumage and weighs about

It
as
much
as the
leaves the nest at this time but remains
immediate area and is still fed by the parents

two or three weeks, even after beginning to
for another
hunt for
On
itself.
the seventieth
day
at
the
earliest
and by the
young owls disperse

further tendency to
no
There
remain in the nesting area or to return to it any time in
the future. The young owl merely begins wandering
and adopts as its own territory whatever area it has happened to reach by the time winter sets in.
eighty-sixth
in
random
The
day
at the latest, the
directions.
18
all
the contiguous United States to
Baja California (Cape San Lucas), through Mexico to

eastern Guatemala, probably to eastern Nicaragua, and
from Texas through the Gulf States
to southern Flor-
ida.
Casual Range: Northward
to
southern Saskatchewan
(Aylesbury), southern Manitoba (St. Anne), northern
Minnesota (Roseau County), southern Ontario (Sault

Ste. Marie, Bruce County, Carleton County), northern
Vermont (Lyndon), southern Maine (Portland), and

Nova Scotia (Yarmouth County).
is
deplorable condition of the nesting area increases
and soon is a filthy mess; somewhat surprisingly,

however, the baby owls are very clean except for their
feet, and with the exception of the one or two youngest
daily
southward through
MIGRATION
First-winter juveniles from
more northerly portions
of
move southward
movement that has some
the Barn Owl's breeding range tend to
with the coming of winter in a
of the characteristics of a true migration, but this
Barn Owl
is
not
a general characteristic of the
Barn Owl
first-winter
juveniles elsewhere. Generally speaking, Tyto alba prat-
incola
is
a permanent resident throughout
its
is
withdrawal southward, though not a true migra-
Barn Owls are more inclined to wander aimand for greater distances during late autumn and
value as a destroyer of grain-eating
its
In a classic case where a pair of Barn Owls nested in
breeding
range, but during especially severe winters there

slight
holds true for
mice throughout the prairie croplands of mid-America.
unused tower of the Smithsonian
an
ysis
lessly
tained the skulls of 225
early winter than at other times during the year, al-
20
though such wandering is usually haphazard and not

specifically in any one direction. Occasionally they have
and
far out
on the sea and landed on ships
to
rats,
1
meadow
mice, 179 house mice,
20 shrews, 6 jumping mice,
pine mice,
mole,
sparrow.
Because of these highly beneficial feeding habits, the
Barn Owl
America,
rest.
in
They con-
of 200 pellets recovered close to the nest.
tion. All
wandered
Institution
Washington, D.C., Dr. A. K. Fisher conducted an anal-
protected
is
well
as
it
species
should
be.
throughout the world the value of

recognized,
and
throughout
In
other
this bird
North
countries
is
becoming
steps are being taken to protect
it.
In
Barn Owls were once killed

That ended after a study was made by
the Australian Department of Agriculture. It was determined that the average Barn Owl regurgitates a total of
730 pellets each year. Therefore, that number of pellets
was collected and carefully analyzed. They contained
the identifiable remains of 2,239 animals, of which
2,162 were vertebrate animals and 77 were insects. The
Australia, for example, the
indiscriminately.
ECONOMIC INFLUENCE
The Barn Owl
is
among
the most valuable birds not
only in North America but throughout the world.

a voracious predator throughout
its life,
It is
and well over

is made up of
on an annual basis
man and his crops. Extensive
studies of Barn Owl pellets have been made in various
areas of the world and the conclusions are markedly
90 per cent of
its
diet
animals highly injurious to
similar.
In a study carried out in Poland, for example,
were analyzed which contained the remains of
pellets
15,587 vertebrate animals.
Of
this total, 95.5
individual
animal remains
one Barn
made up
the remaining
.3
Owl
meadow
rats in the
and
far
more than
is
practically inestimable.
The same
bats
young rabbits
375 house sparrows
that an
mice. Its value as a destroyer of cotton
South
143 rats
34 other birds
4 lizards
174 frogs
25 moths
52 crickets
23 starlings
destroys pocket gophers to
the value of $20 to $30 annually,

that in
shown
2,239
which approximate what
alone eats in the course of a single year,
1,407 mice
per cent.
Studies in southern California have
individual adult Barn
Owl
in the pellets,
The
per cent
were important in pointing out the
included:
were small mammals, almost exclusively mice and rats.

Of the remaining 4.5 per cent, birds mainly house sparrows made up 4.2 per cent and amphibians, primarily
frogs,
totals
great value agriculturally of the Barn Owl.
As a result of this study, legislation was enacted

which makes it a crime in Australia to kill a Barn Owl,
with an automatic fine of $25 for each Barn Owl killed.
Barn Owl
*9
round-headed owl
less
swamp owl
wood owl
SPECIES
STRIGIFORMES
FAMILY
STRIGIDAE
SPECIES
varia Barton
distinctive, large,
For the type of habitat

Similarly,
tuft-
it
favors.
woodland habitat
for the
it
One
of our largest owls, the
{Strix varia varia),
Strix Linnaeus
its
likes.
ORDER:
GENUS:
For
head.
is
Northern Barred Owl
easily recognizable
barred plumage,
because of
its
rounded and earless head, and the rather swollen appearance of its
neck plumage. A heavily built and rather obese-appeardistinctly
ing owl,
it
is
its
large
among North American

Snowy Owl (Nyctea scandiaca) the
surpassed in size
owls only by the
Owl (Bubo virginianus virginianus) and

Great Gray Owl (Strix nebulosa nebulosa). Because
Great Horned
SUBSPECIES
the
of the barred ruff encircling
its
throat
it
tends to have a
peculiar double-chinned appearance. There
is
always an
aspect of brooding thoughtfulness about the bird
NORTHERN BARRED
varia Barton
OWL
Latham
georgica
FLORIDA BARRED
OWL
and
an odd sense of innocence, rather than the fierce look
of the Great Horned Owl. It is distinguishable from the
latter owl by the fact that it is somewhat smaller, has no
ear tufts, and is a much grayer owl in over-all coloration.
The
horizontal barrings on throat
below
(Bangs)
helveola
TEXAS BARRED OWL
that, the
and upper breast and,
heavy vertical stripings are further un-
mistakable identity markings.
Rank
in
over-all
size
among
the
eighteen
species:
Fourth.
NORTHERN BARRED OWL

{COLOR PLATE
II)
SHAPE AT REST
Because of the manner in which
SCIENTIFIC
head
NAME AND
Strix varia varia Barton. Original description
Strix
Barton; Fragments of the Natural History of

Pennsylvania, 1799, page II, based on a specimen from
varius
in the
it
tends to couch
its
plumage of neck and breast when perched,
the Northern Barred Owl seems almost to be neckless

and endowed with an especial chunkiness of body shape.
It rarely stretches its body position into a slim, elongated form for concealment when perched, as does the
Screech Owl (Otus asio sp.) and, to some extent, the
Great Horned Owl.
Pennsylvania. Former scientific names:

Syrnium nebulosum, Strix nebulosa, Strix varius.
Philadelphia,
SHAPE IN FLIGHT
OTHER NAMES
is so apparent when the
on a perch is carried over to its form in
flight. It tends to have a thick, lumbering, easygoing
aspect when flying, with a somewhat slower wingbeat
than that of the Great Horned Owl. In flight, the
The
hoot owl Because of its distinctive hooting cry.

la cholette rayee French-Canadian name meaning "The Striped (or Barred) Owl."
le chat-huant du nord French-Canadian name
meaning "The Hooting Cat of the North."
rain
owl
Because of
its
habit of hooting before a
rainstorm.
20
owl
heaviness of form that
at rest
wings tend
to
look stubby
and broad because
of
the
dense plumage of the body; actually the wings are quite

in
Barred
is
proportion to the body.
Owl
PATTERN OF FLIGHT
For such a large, bulky-appearing bird, it

light and graceful flier despite the fact that
beat rather slowly, heavily,
is
and methodically.
It rarely,
ever, soars
does
fly
which
mob
swiftly, especially
of pursuing crows.
can maneuver
it
swamp
and
quite high
ing to elude a
in
branches,
smooth and
little
is
is
bright
moonlit
way through
its
short
may
it
miraculous.
of
is
flat
and
made low
When
level trajectory
to the
overhead
pass
inches of a person and never betray
by the passing shadow.
320.1
(12.8").
Minimum
Maximum
307.3
Rank
in
Female
mm.
mm.
mm.
330.0
mm.
320.5 mm.
3556 mm.
(12.6")
(12.9")
328.5
(12.1")
'13.0")
(12.&")
(14.0)
wing length among the eighteen species:
Fifth.
TAIL LENGTH
the
Its
Male
its
night
Average
when attemptThe skill with
body never undulates in flight as

does that of the Snowy Owl. It is another extremely
silent flier, rivaling the Barn Owl in this respect. On a
flight
mm.
Male
extremely dense forest and
growth, intricately weaving
interlaced
324.3
wings
on motionless wings, although it will occasionally make long direct glides through the woods
while hunting. Such glides usually terminate in a graceful upward curve as the owl alights. It can and often
if
Species average
a very
its
its
Average
216.7
Minimum
Maximum
212.3
Rank
within
mm.
(9.3 ")
Female
mm. (8-5")
mm. (84")
mm. (9-o")
228.6
among
in tail length
mm.
mm.
mm.
253-7
247.4
260.4
(10.0")
9.7")
(10.3")
presence except
gliding, the flight pattern
and the
BEAK LENGTH
glides are usually
ground, below the lowest limb
levels of
the surrounding trees.
Measurements have been based on

21
mm.
(0.9").
Male
measured birds:
Average
23.3
Minimum
Maximum
21.
Rank
in
Female
mm.
mm.
mm.
23.9
beak length
(0.9")
23.7
(0.8")
22.1
(0.9")
24.6
among
mm.
mm.
mm.
(0.9")
(0.9")
(1.0")
the eighteen species: Fifth.
WEIGHT
LEGS, FEET,
Species average: 450.9 gr. (15.8 oz
Male
TALONS
Female
Average
395.8
gr.
(13.9 oz.)
506.0
gr.
(17.7 oz.)
Minimum
Maximum
330.0
gr.
(11.6 oz.
388.4
gr.
(13.6 oz.)
sparsely
(20.0 oz.)
651.2 gr.
(22.8 oz.)
sparsely feathered portion of the toes
Rank
in
569.3 gr.
weight
among
the eighteen species: Fourth.
Feathered to or near the base of the talons, but very
from the
last joint to
The naked
the talon.
is
gray, with the larger scales a slightly clearer yellow.

soles of the feet are
much deeper
or
a dull yellowish
yellow and
The
the talons
are a dark horn color near the base but deepening to
black at the
TOTAL LENGTH
tips.
bars or spots of
mm.
for
(19.6").
Male
Average
484.1
Minimum
Maximum
407.9
Rank
565.2
in total
mm.
mm.
mm.
length
Female
(
19.1")
51
1.3
(16.1")
452.1
(22.3")
613.7
among
1,092.2
mm.
mm.
mm.
1,073.1
Minimum
Maximum
Rank
in
963.9
1,098.6
mm.
mm.
mm.
a buff
dun brown. The

and also not
this size
feet are rather small
as strong as
might be
(17.8")
(24.2")
EYES AND VISION

Although not especially small for the size of the owl,
the Northern Barred Owl's eyes seem small, because of
the concentric rings of dark brown encircling them on
the facial disks.
The seeming
solid darkness of the eyes,
impart a character of beadiness and small
(43.0").
size.
Female
(38.0")
1,003.3
mm
mm
(43.3")
1,1392
mm.
(42.3")
is
(20.2")
too, tends to
Male
Average
an owl of
mm.
denser leg plumage
expected.
WINGSPAN
Species average:
The
white and marked with numerous but faint transverse
1,111.3
wingspan among the eighteen species:
(43-8'
Actually, the
scribed;
it
is
iris
is
not black as sometimes de-
a very deep brown with often very
and
(39-5'
demarcation between
(44.9'
pupil often seems to be bluish black.
Fifth.
there
is,
Northern Barred Owl
iris
pupil.
little
In contrast, the
To
the viewer
despite the slight beadiness of character about
21
them
the eyes, a sense of soulfulness and softness in
which gives the owl an appealing expression. The vision of the Northern Barred Owl is extremely keen at
night and quite good by day. Although like most owls it
is bedazzled by a sudden bright light at night, it can see
very well to hunt during the day and often ranges in
the daytime, especially when skies are overcast. So keen
vision
its
is
in
daylight that, although
against the brightness of the sky,
passing overhead
it
it
which the human
eye,
is
unaided by
not as good
Barn Owl's and on heavily overcast nights when
especially dark,
it is
squint
can see flying birds
binoculars, cannot see. Its vision at night

as the
may
it
prefers not to
fly.
EARS AND HEARING

As with North American owls in general, the hearing
of the Northern Barred Owl is very keen. Not only are
the ear cavities very large in order to pick up sounds of
extremely low intensity, they are asymmetrical in size
and shape, permitting highly accurate sound locating.
This owl will come from a distance of over 50 yards to
the faint squeaking of a mouse and can detect the running of a mouse on open hard-packed earth at half
when
that distance, even farther
across dried leaves or grasses.
(Tyto alba pratincola)
can
it
the rodent
is
rustling
As with the Barn Owl

strike
well
by sound
and the combination of eyes and ears working together makes this owl a deadly accurate hunter. Though
it may be sound asleep in its roosting tree and its locaalone,
known
tion
hearing
man
is
will
advance, the Northern Barred Owl's
in
so acute that,
find
it
even using great
stealth,
practically impossible to
a hu-
approach
To
calls.
attempt to imitate
these
well to written description.
The most common and
often heard utterance
the
first
The
three in the second being very clearly enunci-
deliberately
ated,
last
two
in
and
given,
on the
the hardest accent of the entire call
note and this sliding
is
is
The
dense and heavy and not
The
lead-
ing edges of the flight feathers are very well fluted for
fully silent flight.
The
adult birds have one complete
molt of their feathers during the summer and early autumn. This molt generally begins around mid-July or
August and
November. Flight
early
is
finished by late
ability
is
tone.
downward
next-to-last
in tonal quality to the
which slowly dwindles away.

The second most frequently given call, equally familiar and wild, is a very loud and strenuously uttered
four-syllable call of hoo-hoooo hoo-WAAAHHHHhhhh,
gradually fading away:
Often the Northern Barred

long tremulous
call
which
of the Eastern Screech
of harshness:
Another
is
Owl
much
Owl (Otus
livered with greater force
will give voice to
in quality like that
asio naevius)
but de-
and a more pronounced degree
WHOOOO-O-O-O-O-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o.
frequently given resembles the distant
call
apparent recognition
of
eight
sounding
like
rises
that of the Barn Owl.
in
final note,
is
notes,
call
it.
given back and forth be-
a loud but relatively uninflected

these
being crisply
and
issued
HOO-HOO-HOO-HOO-HOO-HOO-
HOO-HOO. Often there
MOLT
head and body
low
relatively
each group are closely melded, but with
it
of
is
nicknamed "Hoot Owl." This cry can be heard at a

distance of several miles or more on a still night and is
an impressive and rather enjoyable sound. It is comprised of two groups of four or five notes each, virtually
belched outward in the night air, very strongly accented and with a definite rhythm and imparting a
sense of wildness. Transposed to print, it can be written as HOO-hoo-to-HOO-0000, hoo-hoo-hoo-to-HOO00000, with the first two notes in the first group and
series
tight to the body, as
the
is
resonant and far-carrying hoot for which this bird
tween roosting owls
tufts.
of
basic calling patterns that lend themselves reasonably
An
ear
print
in
number
squeaks, and hootings. Yet there are a
bles,
coon hunters have often been fooled by
The Northern Barred Owl has no
calls
baying of a hound so very closely that experienced rac-
unheard.
plumage
all
would be an impossible undertaking, since so many of

them are weird shrieks, screams, cries, trillings, grum-
is
a throaty whistling call which
sharply at the end, not unlike a boy giving a sharp
whistle through his fingers.
Sometimes
this
is
heard
in
conjunction with a low whining note, also relatively uninflected, which might be written as whee-ooo-wheeeee-
ooo-we-oooooo.
These are only the basic and most commonly heard

There are many others uttered by the Northern
calls.
October or early
not noticeably
hampered
CALIFORNIA SPOTTED
by the molting.
Strix occidentalis occidentalis
OWL
(Xantus). Male. Piru Creek,
Ventura County, California, February
5,
197
1.
A.O.U. Num-
ber 369
VOICE
VI
Strix
Without doubt this is the most vocal of all the owls

of North America and the owl with the widest range of
22
Barred
occidentalis

caurina
(Merriam).
Female.
southwest of Prospect, Jackson County, Oregon,

1930.
Owl
A.O.U. Number 369-A
Six
miles
March
25,
Barred Owl. as well as numerous variations to each of

the
There
calls.
are, in addition, specialized calls
made
with relative infrequency which virtually defy written
Some
description.
almost uncouth in character. Others are
ears,
the
hair-raising
fierce,
human
much like
are coarse, guttural, and, to
of
shrieks
mating
alley
Owl
does not utter.
There is a marked difference between the voices of

his being
the male and female Northern Barred Owl
considerably deeper and somewhat mellower than hers.
The voices of the young birds differ also, being much
higher in tone than the female's.
make
Young birds will

when first on
a peculiar ratlike squealing cry
sexes are identical.

Not
and can be heard
at a distance of ioo
yards.
Almost
the wide variety of sounds
all
Northern
Owl
Barred
are
appalling
made by
When
perch, the owl swells visibly as
inflates its lungs,
thrusts
the
its
head forward and
Any
call.
it
slightly
downward
then
to expel
Owl
it is
not as great as with the Barn
Barred
Owl
but then the Northern
many
does not lay as
eggs as does the Barn
No
thorough study has been made of the Northern

Barred Owl's expected lifespan in the wild, but in vari-
Owl.
ous zoos
it
known
has been
to
live
often actual concerts of calls between perched owls of

ADULT
The crown, back
of head, sides of head, hindneck,
and upper breast are broadly and regularly
throat,
crossed with heavy rufous-brown to grayish-brown bars
Feathers of the belly, sides and flanks are buffy white,
each with a broad central vertical stripe of dark, warm,

gray brown, these stripes often overlaying one another to
form a pattern
dinally
down
coverts
which tend
thunderstorm.
broken and unbroken
of
have similar but rather narrower stripes

more of a reddish brown. The area of
but
may
is
usually a very pale buff
be immaculate white on some birds.

greater coverts have roundish white
on the outer webs
of each feather, but the lesser
coverts are a plain deep brown.

plainly crossed by five,
SEXUAL DIFFERENCES:
SIZE, COLORATION, VOICE
in the previous section, there
difference in the voices of
male and female
birds.
Fur-
MEXICAN SPOTTED OWL
Canyon near
Strix occidentalis lucida 'Nelson). Female. Bear
Faixview,
Sierra
County,
New
Mexico, October 31,
1970.
A.O.U. Number 369-B

VIII
decided orange brown.
nebulosa
Salol,
Roseau County, Minnesota, April
ber 370
nebulosa
series of rather
Forster.
Female.
7,
Hay Creek
1963.
near
A.O.U. Num-
the
the
The
primaries are transversed
square spottings of pale brownish
on the outer webs of each feather,
this
brown becoming
deeper in hue on the inner
The
longest primary
usually has eight spots.
The
quills.
tail
has six or seven sharply
defined bands of pale brown, with the outermost band

tips of the feathers. Facial disks
from grayish white
OWL
Strix
or seven bands of pale gray-
margin. The primary coverts have four bands of brown,

which may range in shade from deep gray brown to a
continuing to the
GREAT GRAY
secondaries are
brown which becomes grayer near the edges, and

terminal band on each feather becomes white on
by a
VII
six,
The
ish
a distinct
is
The under-
to be
The middle and

spots
stripes longitu-
the front of the perched bird.
the vent, called the crissum,
daytime before the onslaught of a

in color,
As noted
well over twenty
years.
tail
in the
of this aspect of the North-
cycle. Infant mortality at the nest
or shortly after leaving
of the calls are just as apt to be uttered
during daytime as they are at night, and there are very

this species
known
is
life
separated by somewhat narrower pale buffy-white bars.

the
and decidedly
calling from a.
frightening to the superstitious.
a great deal
ern Barred Owl's
the
the hissing cry in lieu of a tonal call, but the hiss
eerie in quality
some-
also
As with other owls, this species also snaps its beak

loudly and hisses in a penetrating manner when
alarmed or angry. Young birds still in the nest often
is
invariably the larger of a pair
is
In coloration and markings, however, the
slightly so.
wing.
make
female
cats.
There are deep chucklings, harsh laughing sounds, maniacal gibberings and gabblings, disconsolate mutterings, howls, and yells. Occasionally there will even be a
decidedly disconcerting humanlike scream of pure agony.
Although the call of the Great Horned Owl (Bubo
virginianus virginianus) is a hooting somewhat similar
to the basic call of the Northern Barred Owl. the latter's
cry is never quite so deep and booming and it always
ends in a descending, prolonged trailing note, which the
Great Horned
ther, the
times quite noticeably larger and at other times only
five
to a pale buffy gray
range
and have four or
concentric semicircular rings of darker brown. Feath-
ers of the
eyebrows and lores are a grayish white, each
feather having a thin black shaft. There
Northern Barred Owl
is
a narrow
23
o<<>
brown
crescent of very dark
The
angle of the eye.
or black against the inner
impression
over-all
of cool
is
brown rather than the warm buffy brown overall impression of the Great Horned Owl, and the placement of stripes and bars on breast and belly is just
opposite that of the Great Horned Owl.
grayish
were fishing
woodland stream. At such
at night in a
times the owl shows remarkably
movement.
Equally, the owl evinces
apprehension over en-
little
tering towns or even rather large cities at night to
mice and
for house
species,
rats.
More
so than
which
but the neck, head, and
is
an incredibly
winging at
seen
it
agile
speed
top
seems the
bird must surely collide with the branches.
plumage on wings and
tail,
underparts are regularly
all
be
often
will
through cover so dense and interlaced that
JUVENILE
Basically similar to adult
and
it
remaining there long after
to nest, often
the nesting season has passed. It

flier
hunt
most other owl
remains rather closely attached to the area
it
selects in
human
fear of the
little
voice or
and broadly barred with buff white, buff, and brown.

The wing coverts, back, and scapulars are even more
broadly barred, with the brown barrings of a deeper
shade and each of the feathers tipped with white.
The Northern Barred Owl has earned the enmity of

many a trapper by stealing the meat used to bait the
On
traps.
from a
occasion
Goshawk away
will also bully a
it
and claim the carcass
kill
as
own.
its

The Northern Barred Owl
GENERAL HABITS AND
varia varia
by day.
is
it
does
its
the following night. Next to the Screech

asio sp.)
it is
the most
commonly
judge of speed and distance,

swiftly
it
readily
Strix
Owl
hunt
to
seen owl.
Owl (Otus
An accurate
seems to enjoy
A
if
is
rarely struck by a
relatively non-aggressive owl,
taken
when young.
apparent, however,
if
the bird
it
tames quite
Aggressiveness becomes
is
ing delight, even in the midst of winter. Its sense of

is
well developed
and
it
for
hardwood
forests
trees
it
will
also
well
and hold them if the

and numerous. Woodlands which
streams, swamps, marshes, and low mead-
The
if
habitat of this owl coincides very closely with
that of the
Red-shouldered Hawk, and the owl ap-
pears to be reasonably compatible with that bird, often
the
nests
its
and hunting by night the same areas that
hawk hunts by
day.
Occasionally the Northern Barred
posed in an isolated
tree,
Owl
lock,
will roost ex-
but more often than not
prefers the quiet seclusion of a dense,
humans lounging
well-es-
frequented.
mature
are
will often follow a scent
from considerable distances to where a trap has

been baited with a commercial trapping scent.
Not infrequently this owl will visit campsites, take a
low perch not very far from the fire and glare with
Sometimes
are
ows are ideal habitats for Strix varia varia, especially

the woods are a mixture of conifers and hardwoods.
trail
rather comical sternness at the
although
roosting,
isolated woodlots will attract
border lakes,
using
the habit of drinking
water frequently and bathing often, usually with seemsmell
particularly
tablished
Even
Thick
this owl.
pines and hemlock are especially
favored,
hungry.
The Northern Barred Owl has
tall
flitting
through the headlight beams of cars passirfg
along woodland roads at night, yet

vehicle.
habits,
tends to sleep throughout
so, it
swamp
The deeper and darker the
woods, the more they seem to attract
not so disinclined as the Barn
When
woodlands.
or
tangles
stands of dense
in
essentially a forest-lov-
ing bird and rarely strays too far from deep
CHARACTERISTICS
Although most often nocturnal
is
tall
it
pine or hem-
perching on a large limb very close to the bole of
the tree
and quite well camouflaged against the bark.
about.
even alight on the ground only a few
from the flames, evidently in the hope of catching

insects attracted by the glow. The authors on numerous
occasions have had Northern Barred Owls fly in and
feet
perch within the glow of a gas lantern by which they
For a bird of prey, the Northern Barred
commonly
gentle bird
and not easy
to
Owl
goad
is
an un-
to anger.
many other owls, even the very smallest, it

make any attempt to attack a human being,
even when that human is molesting its nest, eggs, or
young. More often than not when such occurs, it will
simply fly off and return later when the human has
Unlike so
will rarely
Detail of the upperside surface of the outstretched left wing
Northern Barred Owl [Strix varia varia). Note how

wing coverts overlay the feathers behind and beneath them,
and also the flutings on the leading edge of the flight feathers,
which permit soundless flight.
of a
gone away. Occasionally a more aggressive bird of the

species will fly to a nearby tree and give voice to a series
of hair-raising cries, hissings,
Northern Barred Owl
and beak snappings, but

25
without following through with an attack on the

truder. Yet, despite this,
a fight
unavoidable.
is
it
in-
a bird of great courage
is
opponent,
terrible
if
strikes
it
and deadly clutchings

of its sharp talons. Once in a while an individual bird
becomes extremely combative and will readily attack an
intruding human, swooping down from above and attempting to bite and tear with beak and talons as it
passes, and often with marked success. It does not as often turn over onto its back on the ground and strike out
with its claws, as so many North American owls do.
As usual, man is the worst enemy. Though well prowith
flailing wings,
many
tected by law in
bites,
Northern Barred Owl
areas, the
numbers
great
falls in
still
savage
to the
destroy the Northern Barred Owl, which
much
match
ply no
fierce
Northern Barred Owl
is killed and eaten. Its only hope

and a slim one at that, is flight with the greatspeed and agility possible through the densest of
of escape,
est
know
should
Barred
Owl have
this
owl a
it
as
abundant
its
habitat
destroyed in the
name
of progress, fewer
and fewer
causes the most
Though crows
kill
it,
enemies
natural
strife
for
of
crow
the Northern Barred Owl.
are
rarely inflict injury
concerned,
the
on the owl, much
one crow discovers such an owl
as
less
at roost
sends out vocal notice of the fact in strident
within minutes
all
dive in at the big owl, causing
and
calls,
it
Time
to
after time they
duck and
flinch in
order to avoid being struck by the strong sharp beaks of
but to no
avail.
It glares
Eventually
and snaps
it
flies,
its
beak
followed closely by
woodland cover or by flying very

high and with great speed away from the area.
The Goshawk is also an enemy, and with some justification, since the Northern Barred Owl will not in-
into the heaviest of
simply
fend
its
flee in silent
its
kill
prey.
Usually
the
Goshawk
anger, but occasionally
it
with vigor. Usually neither bird
will
may
is
de-
badly
or the other of the two birds has been killed
though
more often the Goshawk than the Northern

Barred Owl.
Next in line as enemies come the multitude of
smaller woodland birds which gang up on the roosting
owl with almost as much effectiveness as do the crows.
Flickers and other woodpeckers, blue jays, chickadees,
red-eyed vireos, kingbirds, shrikes, warblers, wrens, and
many others join in the affray with great enthusiasm

and make life generally unpleasant for the big owl until
at last
swiftly
26
it
away
is
forced to rouse
itself sufficiently
to
up
largely to rodents
Two
is
up
size
of
its
feet,
it
prefers
and occa-
to the size of a squirrel
to the size of
itself
a quail.
principal hunting methods are employed and
both are
wing
into the deeper recesses of the forest.
effective.
woods or
The
isolated
in
meadows and
first
trees
merely to perch
the attack with uncanny accuracy.

to
frighten potential prey into
soon as the quarry
flushed, the
is
it
they try to
flee,
and while
small birds on the wing,

as they stir
though
it
on
owl pounces. Not
it is
it
in
broad daylight
and again somewhat
will be attacked,
One was
fleeing
its
is
toll
on
And,
has been witnessed hovering over
pouncing successfully upon one of the
it
in-
not swift enough to catch
does take a certain
their roosts during the night.
Owl
a covey of quail
cessful,
woodland or
movement. As
of
not a customary method of hunting, the
is
Northern Barred
Now
arrows to
will nail squirrels against limbs or trunks as
frequently
them
it
The second method
wing through the heaviest tangles
swamp and
the
in
wait. Sooner or later the incredibly sharp
and eventually
birds.
larger prey than normally
but even though the owl might be suc-
some sort of difficulty.

pounced upon the back of a
usually not without
witnessed as
adult
it
cottontail
rabbit.
Balancing
itself
with
wings, as the rabbit continued trying to escape, the
Detail of the underside surface of the outstretched wing of

a Northern Barred Owl (Strix varia varia). Note overlay of
underwing coverts on feathers above and behind them; also
Outings on leading edges of flight feathers, and emargination
of the outermost primaries.
Barred
is
overlooking marshlands or
hearing detects the movements of prey and
hurt in such an altercation, but there have been times
when one
hunter that the
than does Bubo, confining
smaller prey
sional birds
in anger,
before finally eluding the pursuers by arrowing swiftly
take
versatile
Northern Barred Owl
the
is,
weaker nature and smaller
much
is
the noisy throng and often routed three or four times
frequently
Owl
it
crows within hearing have hastened
to the scene to join the attack.
the passing crows.
Great Horned
nevertheless highly skilled as a predator. Because of the
they torment the big bird of prey unmercifully.
As soon
Although certainly not the
is
the impressive birds survive.
Where
does the Northern
HUNTING METHODS AND

CARRYING OF PREY
a tragedy, since Strix
no longer anywhere nearly
is
respect
this
fine
once was, and as more and more of
varia varia
as
it's
in
a very slight edge over the Great
Horned Owl.
better see the bird as a threat
both cases
to their poultry. In
Only
cover.
forest
trophy to have mounted and hung from their wall;
who
sim-
is
any time for the considerably more

Bubo. Almost invariably in such encounter, the
at
who
in particular,
encounter the bird most often) see in

farmers
not very
is
smaller than the attacker. Strix varia varia
guns of hunters and
Hunters (squirrel hunters
farmers.
The one truly dangerous natural enemy is the Great

Horned Owl. Just as Bubo virginianus virginianus will
attack, kill, and devour the Barn Owl, so also will it
Owl
H
^v
owl strove
to drive
talons inward deeply
its
enough
running,
bling up, and running again the rabbit carried
kill
the
owl on
mammal. For 84
back
its
yards
until at last
falling,
owl then used
its
Unable
the heavy prey, the owl tore
to
devoured
lift
it
the big
could run no more.
it
The
strong beak to break the rabbit's neck.
in place, all but
flew ponderously
away
to
one hind
Strix varia varia
to
scram-
it
apart and
foot,
and then
perch and digest the large
turtles
and
Though
favors hunting in woodlands, swamps,
and
the margins of marshes and meadows, the Northern
Barred Owl also frequently hunts in quite open country as well as in close proximity to farm buildings. Now
and again it comes well into cities seeking prey and is a
not uncommon visitor to town dumps and railroad
yards where mice and rats proliferate.
Like the Great Horned Owl, the Northern Barred
Owl will often catch fish in shallow waters, wading in
knee-deep after them in sluggish streams and ponds,
snatching them with the talons and dragging them
ashore. Usually these fish are of a size which can be
swallowed whole, and they are most often horned pout,
suckers, chubs, and small carp.
it
Strix varia varia rarely carries prey in
the prey
is
small enough,
its
talons.
If
carried in the beak. If too
it is
tortoises.
safety of
its shell.
have
these
make up a
less often,
Among
Owl will
Almost without exception, prey that can be swallowed

whole is juggled about in the beak until properly in
position to be swallowed head foremost. This holds true
even with small mice, which the owl could swallow
if it
choose
to.
to
eat
crayfish,
and many
spiders,
dids, grasshoppers,
The bulk
mice and
Northern Barred
the
scorpions,
snails,
large
slugs,
large insects such as beetles, katy-
and
crickets.
of this owl's diet, however,
rats,
along with other small
is
comprised of
mammals
chipmunks, ground
squirrels,
rels, flying squirrels,
and sometimes fox
such as
gray squirrels, red squir-
young
and
squirrels,
hares and rabbits, bats, shrews, and moles.
Now
again this owl will successfully take even some larger
mammals
such as opossums, mink, and smaller wea-
sels.
Its
upon young chickens,

and other barnyard poultry accounts
habit of preying occasionally

pigeons,
for the enmity harbored by

is
many
a farmer for this owl,
taken so rarely that the species can
hardly be considered a major threat in

Pellets
this respect.
compacted undigestibles are regurgitated

of about one to three per night. More often
of
at the rate
bird
life
than the
not the difficulty in pellet
some owl
species.
Usually one convulsive belching action sends the mucusslickened pellet shooting several feet out of the widely
opened mouth. This action is often followed by a ruffling of the feathers and a haphazard and brief preening of the plumage.
Excrement is generally of a darkish nature, rather
viscous in texture, and seldom expelled near the nest.
two or three ounces may be expelled in a
powerful evacuation as the owl leans forward on
As much
other woodpeckers, kingfishers, blue jays, towhees, jun-
or
and other sparrows, blackbirds, warblers, cardinals,

brown thrashers, robins and other thrushes, catbirds,
swallows, and
not as often birds as large as crows,
pigeons, ruffed grouse, spruce grouse, and some other
species of owls, particularly Screech Owls (Otus asio
sp.). Even Long-eared Owls (Asio otus sp.) have been
the ground.
cos
is
regurgitation that seems to plague
Barn Owl, Northern Barred Owls have been observed to

kill and eat a rather wide selection of birds of woodland, meadow, swamp and marsh, including mourning
doves, bobwhite quail, purple gallinules, flickers and
turtles are con-
other such amphibians as
animals,
invertebrate
leaving the nest. There
Somewhat more detrimental
than
reptiles other
than not these pellets are not expelled near the nest
site, but rather from the first perch the owl takes after
sideways with ease
some owls
salamanders.
size
nest, carrying the
owl with-
as
small part of the entire diet. Frogs are
freqently taken and,
but such prey
and make two or three trips to the

dismembered pieces in its beak.
this
peril,
cerned, some lizards and snakes are consumed, though
carried in the talons to the nest. This always seems to
though, and so the owl often
in flesh
their toes to turtles before being able
Where
ducks,
prey into chunks of manageable
embedded
talons well
Terrapins are taken by
chunks of
lost
it is normally devoured on the spot where

However, during the nesting season when there
are young birds at home to feed, some prey animals are
difficulty,
tortoises often fall prey, pro-
its
out hesitation, though not without
killed.
will tear the larger
Box
before the tortoise has a chance to withdraw into the
large for that,
be done with
will
viding the owl can get
to kill them.
meal.
one of the few North American

bother catching and eating
is
owl subspecies that
swift,
its
as
perch and
briefly raises
its
tail.
The
feces
may be
squirted with such force that they travel a dozen feet
more on a horizontal
trajectory before dropping to
killed as prey.
Among
fish,
bullheads, chubs,
water
28
fish
suckers,
Courtship
other relatively slow-
early spring
horned pout, perch,

eels,
carp,
and
bluegills,
callings,
are taken.
Barred
Owl
normally begins
in
late
winter or very
and involves a wide variety of antics and

especially on the part of the male bird, but
copied to some extent by the female. As with most of

the cries made by this owl, duplication of its courtship
calls in print
is
very difficult and
less
than satisfactory
The
above the ground
thirty feet
Failing to find
at best.
will
The mood instilled by them, however, is almost always

broken when they conclude in a strange chuckling which
nest being used by a
degenerates
into
what sounds
like
weird,
rather insane cackling. These, in turn, often give

to calls not unlike
way
the squalling of an angry bobcat.
Interjection of the female's voice
is
infrequent but
al-
ways noticeable because of the higher pitch of her

voice, as much unlike his as the broken and squeaky
cawing of a fledgling rooster
unlike the strong crowing
is
on
display, the
his branch,
open
male
will often
crouch low
and lean
wings,
so
far
seems he cannot possibly maintain
his
grip or recover his balance, yet he seldom fails to
do
forward that
it
half
is
preferred.
almost certainly adopt as
nest of a
hawk
its
own
When
the
latter
the
used,
is
and hollows out the chamber to

accommodate itself better. If an old bird nest is used,
very little is done to improve it beyond possibly enlarging the hollow and, far more rarely, vaguely lining it
with a few bunches of grasses or clusters of pine
needles. Now and again the rim will be rebuilt slightly,
with some fresh twigs or sticks.
owl tears
off the top
peculiar situation sometimes develops in the nest-
Northern Barred Owl.
selection of the
in to share
of laying
Red-shouldered
It
find
will
Hawk and move
with that bird of prey, even to the point
it
own
its
eggs alongside those of the hawk's.
The owl broods the eggs by day and the hawk by night.
The outcome of such an arrangement is not definitely
known, although
it
is
highly unlikely to be successful
for either bird.
Failing to find an abandoned nest to take over as its

own, the Northern Barred Owl will occasionally build
own nest one of the exceptions among North
its
American owls. However, such a nest is so slovenly and
his
inexpertly constructed
Since the two. owls eventually
fly off
together follow-
fall
quite often
eggs
the
is
sometimes on the ground, but most often
heavily leafed oak tree near a river or lake
has been infrequently observed and poorly described,
used.
evidently similar to the copulation of other owl
first
The
may be
nest
major crotch of the
tree, or as
February or early March, but on occasion
may be
de-
the Northern Barred Owl
ing,
same
often
is
located as low as 20 feet in the
high as 60 feet in
the uppermost sturdy branches. If successful in
Courtship and mating almost always occur in late
to
pines or other dense conifers, but a large-limbed,
ing the male's courtship antics, the actual copulation
species.
will
fall
through holes in the bottom.
their death
in
that
out and be smashed, or the hatchlings will
Nesting
it is
varia
abandoned
the
or crow and sometimes even the leafy
nest of a fox squirrel.
either.
but
chips or
hole about
of a full-grown rooster.
During the
a suitable cavity, Strix varia
As the male flies to the female and takes up a perch

in an adjoining tree or in the same tree some distance
from her, he engages in a complex series of bobbings,
weavings. wing flappings, and vocal presentations. Almost all the cries given at this time are emphatically uttered and rather thrilling to hear. Some are little short
of spectacular, while others border on being sounds that
can best be described as uncouth. While most are issued
with the full power of the lungs and carry great distances, now and again a series of shorter, softer, and
more rhythmical calls are uttered which are far more in
keeping with the love cooings that one might expect.
quickly
wood
eggs are merely laid on the rotting
other debris on the bottom of the cavity.
is
inclined
to
its
use
nest-
the
nest in successive vears.
layed until as late as early April.
ANNUAL BROODS,
EGGS
NEST,
NESTING HABITS
There
set of
is
only one brood per year, although
eggs
second
set
is
destroyed, the pair will
is
laid in
On
about three weeks.
As long
first
mate again and a
casions even a third set will be laid

similarly destroyed.
the
if
if
rare oc-
is
if
one can be found which
is
No
is
are
by no means un-
occasions four are
unmarked
suc-
From vaguely round-ovate
suitable.
In
nesting materials are brought in from outside.
laid,
and very
only one.
Shape
such cases the cavity must normally be roomy and quite

deep.
rarely there
rare
eggs are the most com-
Pure,
however, there will be no other.

Although the nest is most often the abandoned nest
of a Red-shouldered Hawk or Crow, the Northern
Barred Owl shows a preference for nesting in a natural
hollow
On
Two
Color
cessful,
tree
common.
nesting
although three
is
the second
as the first laying
Number per
mon number,
white.
to
very
nearly
round.
Somewhat more granulated than those of

Owl; enough so that there is a faint sense of
roughness to the touch. Oddly, some Northern Barred
Owl eggs have been observed which had a definite
glossiness to them, but normally they are dull and not
Texture
the Barn
at all glossy.
Northern Earred
Owl
2g
Average egg
Size
of 86 eggs,
1.7")
50.0
is
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum
mm.
long by 41.9
Extreme measurements are
wide (2.o"X
length:
55.5
42.5
width:
45.0
width:
37.1
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
As with othei owls, hatching is

hatchling emerging as much
(2.2")
first
(1.8")
een days before the final one emerges. The newly

hatched owlets have their eyes closed and are clad in
(1.5")
Eggs seldom,
Midwest:
ever,
if
follow
February
earliest,
April 30; normally between
latest,
March 6 and
25;
April
and
They are very weak
food into tiny
continues for the
March
earliest,
Southern:
March
latest,
February 17;
earliest,
mally between February 27 and
at
April 25; nor-
latest,
March
June 4, nor-
three weeks of their
sealed. It
is
at
lives.
time their eyes are
this
not until near the end of the
become
show a marked
still
week that
as this oc-
activity within the
mostly a poorly controlled ac-
is
and somewhat disruptive
tivity
first
As soon
partially opened.
curs they begin to
confines of the nest. It
25.
tear the
them. This food-rending process
whining, peeping sound which increases in volume with
the eyes
29.
and parents must
first
is
the length of the back.
of the fourth day, they begin to utter a
each passing day, but
and March
18; nor-
21.
Eastern: earliest, February 28;
mally between
May
13; latest,
and April
first
down
silky
bits for
By the end
Northern:
as fourteen to eight-
a fairly thick covering of fluffy white down, which

particularly soft
3-
mally between April
at intervals, with the
(1.7")
one another by an interval shorter than 48 hours; sometimes as much as a week separating them.
dates
LIFE
CHARACTERISTICS
as follows:
length:
Egg-laying
YOUNG AND FAMILY
based on the measurements
size,
mm.
the nest,
to
with oc-
casional dire results. Holes are torn in the bottom of
the
if

CHARACTERISTICS
Although incubation
with the laying of the
is
generally considered to begin

egg, there
first
some reason
is
to
believe that incubation begins even before laying, since
embryos have been found
relatively well-developed
eggs removed
on the
from the female's oviduct.
however,
nest,
maximum
days to a
is
Incubation
minimum
stated to be a
of 30 days, with the
in
of 21
most normal
duration evidently being close to 28 days.
done by the female, with

the male bringing her food during this period. OcAlmost
all
the incubation
is
casionally, however, especially

to drink or bathe, the
male
when
will
the female wishes
assume the incubating
when
varia
Strix
related Spotted
among
are
along with the very closely
subspecies,
Owl
subspecies (Strix occidentalis sp.)
the least aggressive of North American owls
where protection of nest is concerned. Often a human

can approach to within 10 feet without the brooding
bird
taking alarm and flying
birds
will
pay very
little
human, coming and going
off.
In some cases the
attention
to
at the nest as
if
Now
in
will
nest
two raptors seem to get along

well enough, without one or the other attempting to
is
nesting, but the
cause problems to either the adults or young birds. In

fact, the adult birds
tend to watch the activities of the
and are
to exposure.
body.
The new
sooty-brown banded
tips,
and buff colored
closer to the bird's
breast feathers are quite similar, though
The belly and

now have long fluffy down feathers, and even
longer down feathers yet are on the thighs. These
ventral down feathers are yellowish white to pure white
considerably paler in over-all coloration.
flanks
at the tips, but a light buffy color at the base. It

this
is
at
time that the wing feathers begin to sprout, but
the rectrices
By
tail
feathers
are not yet evident.
the end of the second

all
week
after the final egg has
brooding of the baby birds ceases and
attention of both parents
home enough food
to satisfy the
By the end of the

very active, but more sure
spring.
third
demands of their
week the babies
off-
now and
ca-
of themselves
pable of keeping themselves from falling should they

advertently step into a hole.
first
full
devoted toward bringing
is
It
is
are
in-
at this time, as well,
evidence of aggressive and defensive
Between the beginning of the fourth week and the

ending of the sixth week, the young birds leave the
nest for the
first
time and take up positions on branches
nearby. Although they rarely

times
it
happens.
If so,
stage,
some-
the young bird flutters
down-
fall
at
this
ward and usually lands unharmed. It will then remain

on the ground beneath the nest tree and be fed there
by the parents.
By the seventh week the downy plumage has become
other species with some degree of fascination.
30
succumb
broadly white at their
that they give
and then the Northern Barred Owl
fall, finally
across the center
characteristics.
a tree right next to another where a Red-shouldered
Hawk
are
intruding
were not there at all, though he may have climbed to

within a few feet of the nest.
through
fall
From the second to the third week, the woolly

white down begins being pushed out by the secondarydown, which is called the first downy plumage. On
both back and wings these distinctive downy feathers
the person
an
birds
they strike lower limbs or the ground or,
surviving the
hatched,
or brooding position.
and baby
structure
killed
Barred
Owl
The white tips of the feathers of

much more conspicuous now. Those
quite well developed.

the upperparts are
become irregularly spotted or

barred with a medium brown over a general coloration of gray white. Little of the base color of buff on
of the underparts have
these feathers shows now.
It
is
at this time
that the
molt into the first-winter plumage begins and the
first
firm feathers to appear are those on the scapulars
and
and
back. Next to appear are the long feathers of flanks

belly,
each having a broad brown stripe
down
the center.
All these feathers are fully developed before the horizon-
upper breast
tally encircling of the
the
true "bars"
are well developed.

Flight
is
attempted between the twelfth and fifteenth
week, though usually with poor results at

a few days at
least,
first
and, for
the entire family of owls finds
itself
on the ground near the nest tree. However, as the

wings quickly strengthen and flying skills improve, they
move back up into the branches, though not to the
nest, and continue to be attended by the parents. During their brief flights at this time they tend to squeak
like
is
a family of
rats.
Plumage
the soft
and
of body, wings,
and thighs
well developed, but that of head
is
tail
still
downy juvenal plumage.
Although the
young birds become proand more dextrous, they continue to

be fed and attended by the parents throughout the remainder of the summer and possibly even longer. By
late September the young birds have their full dress
of first winter plumage and equal the parent bird in
flights of the
gressively longer
size.
Their coloration at
the parents
red
brown
except
this stage
that
they
in general tone
are
much
is
NORTHERN BARRED OWL

Strix uaria varia Barton
like that of
somewhat more
than the more gray brown
and with buff-colored instead of white

is slightly more pale
buff on the underparts and in the light bars of wing
and tail.
As the end of the first year is reached, the young
birds are wholly indistinguishable from the adults.
of the adults,
bars on the hindneck. Also, there
North Carolina, through northwestern South Carolina

and northeastern Georgia, angling northward again
from this point to southeastern Virginia, but not in
coastal areas until about the mouth of Chesapeake
Bay.
More
casual in the southeastern tip of
District of

Northern and central British Columbia (rare, HazelCreek, Liard Crossing), southeastwardly through
tine
and
north
McMurray),
central
yot,
central
Saskatchewan,
south-central
Manitoba
Alberta,
(Fort
(Chemawawin),
and southern Ontario (Ingolf, Port Arthur, AmQuebec (Montreal, Godbout,
Yukon and
Mackenzie, northern Saskatchewan, Alberta,
and Manitoba, and sometimes southern Keewatin, to

the area of Churchill Bay, Manitoba, and southward
along coastal Hudson Bay and James Bay, to southwestern Labrador and, more often, much of Newfoundland and islands of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Occasionally to northern Texas panhandle, central Oklahoma and Arkansas, southern Tennessee, northern Alabama and Georgia.
Moose Factory),
Anticosti Island),
Nova
Scotia (Pictou), Prince
Edward
and south through northwestern Minnesota,

southeastern North Dakota, all but northwestern South
Island,
Dakota, eastern
Wyoming
MIGRATION
(Bear Lodge), and eastern
Colorado (Holyoke), to western Oklahoma (Kenton),
No
(Mountain Home), northern and

eastern Tennessee (Knoxville), down the Blue Ridge of
have a
northern Arkansas
distinct migration,
slight
ment during
Northern Barred Owl
although more northerly birds
tendency for somewhat southerly movelate
autumn.
Normally,
this
owl
is
3'
permanent resident within
WINGSPAN
range. There have been
its
several authenticated sightings in Louisiana during the
winter months.
About
five
than Strix
in the maximum figure

Maximum wingspan of the
at 1,270.0 mm. (50.0").
inches greater
varia
varia.
female has been recorded
ECONOMIC INFLUENCE
The Northern Barred Owl
(Strix
varia
varia)
so often
is
the case, individual instances of poultry de-
struction are often enlarged all out of proportion to the
actual
damage done, and a blanket defamation
species
results.
Certainly
methods have improved,
Owl
in
this
loss of
virtually negligible.
is
is
reputedly destructive to half-grown poultry but, as
On
maximum
the
in
figure
of the
where poultry
poultry to the Barred
the whole, because of
upon rodents
extensive preying
age,
About a half-inch longer
than that of the Northern Barred Owl.
especially mice,
TALONS
LEGS, FEET,
its
rats,
and ground squirrels the species must be regarded as

far more beneficial than destructive and it should be
protected.
Unlike those of Strix varia varia, the toes are nearly
naked and with a somewhat grayer cast to the yellowish

coloration of the scales. There is a narrow strip of
short, bristly feathering on the outer side of the middle
toe, but this is not apparent except upon close, in-hand
examination.
FLORIDA BARRED OWL
{COLOR PLATE
III)
VOICE
The
SCIENTIFIC
NAME AND
very
is
much
that of the Northern
like
than in the northern race. Before intensive develop-
ment
Latham. Original description:

Strix georgica Latham, Index of Ornithology, Supplement, 80 1, page 15 (Georgia americana), based on a
specimen from southern Georgia. Former scientific
names: Strix georgica, Strix varia alleni.
Strix
voice
Barred Owl, although possibly even more vociferous
varia georgica
of Florida began, sometimes
upward
and
these owls could be heard calling back
of
100 of
forth to one
another in the same general area. There was a peculiar

pattern to the delivery of these
one bird
quiet,
Another
call.
usually
often
calls.
a female
After a period of
would
(but not always)
answer from some distance away
utter a loud
would
same note but
a male
in the
in tone, and this would be followed by calls

from three or four others in turn from different direc-
deeper
Then another
tions.
OTHER NAMES
called previously,
The Florida Barred Owl is called by most of the

same names by which Strix varia varia is known, as
well as one other
Allen's Barred Owl, a name rarely
in use now and formerly used in connection with the
previous subspecific name, Strix varia alleni.
with
the
would
of
which evidently had not

a very penetrating
issue
call
sounding
like
WHOOO-
WAAAaahhh aah-aah-WHOOO-WAAAaaahhhh.
stantly
upon conclusion
of this call the
variety of field sketches of the Barred

left,
from the
adult
call
UH-UH-UH-WHOOO-WAAA-
aaahhhh, or a different
Upper
sound
bird,
Owl
others
In-
would
(Strix varia).
male of subspecies Strix varia georgica
vicinity of Fort
Drum,
Florida.
Upper
right, roost-
ing posture of subspecies Strix varia varia in Schiller Park,
Considerably darker in over-all coloration than the
Northern Barred Owl, but basically similar

other respects.
It
in
most
little more inclined toward

on very low branches than is the more
tends to be a
regularly perching
northern race.
32
Illinois.
Middle right, month-old juvenile of subspecies Strix

from near Chillicothe, Ross County, Ohio. Lower
varia varia
left,
after
slouched posture of the Schiller Park bird immediately
awakening and, lower
from below and preparing
Barred
Owl
right,
the
to take flight.
same bird disturbed
(W*<*
J^yeni
f} >^
le
breast
horizontally barred with pure white
is
snuff brown, showing
more
and deep
contrast between the bars
than
in Strix varia varia. Belly plumage ranges from

pure white to pale buffy cinnamon, streaked longitudinally with deep snuff brown and here also showing
more
contrast between
Northern Barred Owl.
and dark than
light
in
the
palm and
live

Favors mixed
hammocks
oak in the grasslands or

the
more northerly
parts of
preference for densely

is
of cabbage
tangled
in
its
range
wooded
it
swamplands. In
shows a marked
Roosting
normally closer to the ground than with Strix varia
varia, except in the cypress
Everglades, where roosting
river valleys.
heads of the northwestern
is
primarily near the upper-
most branches of bald cypresses when those

but not
in leaf,
when bare
trees are
of foliage.
FOOD
OWL
FLORIDA BARRED
Strix varia georgica
Much
Latham
that of Strix varia varia except for geo-
like
graphical variants such as marsh rabbits, cotton
rats,
young armadillos, occasional baby alligators,

and frequently fiddler crabs. Tends to prey upon
Screech Owls (Otus asio floridanus) more often than
the Northern Barred Owl.
occasional
join in,
sively,
sometimes in concert and sometimes succes-
with some birds giving utterance to the
first
suc-
and others giving voice to the second.

This cacophony would build as their voices came closer
and closer together, overriding one another until it was
a veritable bedlam of calls, and then very quickly all
the calls would die away and there would be silence
again. This phenomenon was most often heard im-
cession of notes
mediately preceding a severe thunderstorm,
although
such was not always the case.
NEST AND NESTING HABITS

and
March. Favored
include the tops of broken-off cabbage
Earliest nesting occurs shortly before Christmas
the latest
nesting
is
during the
sites
first
week
of
palms, cavities in the trunks of large live oaks, in low

crotches of longleaf pines in the midst of thick groves
of these trees,
The
nest
varia,

ADULT
hawk
underparts tend to have a deep snuff-brown or sepia

coloration,
with
marked broadly
34
the
in
terminal
edges
of
white or buffy white.
the
feathers
The upper
Barred
in the hollow limbs of
hardwoods.
even in the case where the abandoned nest of
to 25 feet, but
The
and
normally lower than that of Strix varia
or crow
doned
Similar to the Northern Barred Owl, but darker.
is
hearted
nests.
effort,
is
used. Usual nesting height
sometimes up
to
is
65 feet high
The female evidently makes

when adopting the abandoned
from
15
in
aban-
half-
nest of
crow or hawk, to line it with bits of Spanish moss and

sometimes with a few feathers from her own breast,
though never as a rule in the latter measure.
Owl
EGGS
Egg
size
Owl than
averages slightly larger in the Florida Barred
Northern Barred Owl. Average length,
in the
based on the measurements of 37 eggs, is 51.1 mm.

(2.0") and average width is 43.5 mm. (1.7"). Extreme
smaller
Slightly
(Strix
varia
varia)
than
Northern
the
Barred
and a considerably more
Owl
pallidly
yellowish-colored race than either the Northern Barred
Owl
Owl
or the Florida Barred
{Strix varia georgica).
measurements included
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum
Egg-laying
March
dates
length
55.6
length
45.8
width
46.6
width
40.4
Earliest,
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
(2.2")
(1.8")
(1.8")
LEGS, FEET,
(1.6")
December
23;
TALONS
latest,
The
toes are naked, as in Strix varia georgica, but
without the side
bristles
down
the length of the middle
14.
toe.

ADULT

Central and western Arkansas
Rock
) ,
(Hot Springs,
Little
The Texas Barred Owl
southwestern Tennessee, northwestern to east-
Alabama, across central Georgia, coastal South

Carolina, and coastal southeastern North Carolina (to
Cape Hatteras
southward throughout all of Florida
and the Gulf Coast to eastern Texas. Though somewhat limited on the Florida Keys, this owl has been
reported on a fairly regular basis as far as Key West.
Especially abundant in the northern Everglades where
central
.1
even- suitable
hammock
seems to harbor at
least
is
much
paler in
its
coloration
than the Northern Barred Owl. All the lighter markings
much more
conspicuous than in the more northern

and the underlying coloration on the upperparts
ranges from pale yellow to yellowish cinnamon. The
wings and tail are especially pale.
are
race,
one
pair of them.

Confined almost entirely
and lowland
to
well-wooded river valleys
forests.
TEXAS BARRED OWL

{COLOR PLATE
IV)
EGGS
In color, texture, and shape the eggs are similar to
those of both Strix varia varia and Strix varia georgica,
but they are smaller than either.
SCIENTIFIC
NAME AND
43 eggs determined
the average
measurement of
length
and average width of 42.3 mm.

extremes of those measured were
(1.9")
Strix
varia
helveola
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum
(Bangs). Original description:
Syrnium nebulosum helveolum Bangs, Proceedings of

the New England Zoological Club, Volume 1, March
!
899; page 31, based on a specimen from Corpus
31
Christi, Texas. Former scientific names: Strix varia
albogilva, Syrnium nebulosum helveolum.
length:
53.6
length:
45.0
width:
46.5
width:
39.1
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
of 49.2
mm.
(1.7").
The
(2.1")
(1.8")
(1.8")
(1.5")
Florida
Egg-laying dates
1 1
Earliest,
January
latest.
Texas Barred Owl
March
7.
35

Most limited
barred owls,
in
is
it
range of the three subspecies of

found from south-central Texas to
the adjacent Gulf Coast. Primarily found in Bexar
and
Nueces and Brazoria counties, and
probably northwestward as far as Tom Green county,
Lee counties
to
but in more limited numbers in

'
wardly portion of
its
range.
this
There
more northwestsome evidence
is
that this subspecies has been extending
limited degree over recent years
its
range
in
and casual specimens
are being recorded in counties outside the limits of the
above-described range.
ECONOMIC INFLUENCE
The Texas Barred Owl
is
considered
generally
to
be the most destructive to poultry of the three Barred
Owl
less
subspecies,
protected
primarily
because
of
poultry raising within
abundant and
very limited
its
range. Nevertheless, despite the fact that
upon poultry
to
some
extent, the
it
provides that
struction
chicken-feed storage areas.
TEXAS BARRED OWL

Strix varia helveola (Bangs)
36
Barred
Owl
it
it
will prey
does to the
is more than offset by the savsame poultry raiser through deof rodents which make extensive inroads into
individual poultry raiser

ings
damage
wood owl
Because of
its
preferred habitat.
xantus's owl After the original describer

species and this particular subspecies.
the
of
SPECIES
ORDER
STRIGIFORMES
FAMILY:
This
Owl and
Spotted
Strix occidentalis caurina
STRIGIDAE
the
and
two subspecies,
other
Strix occidentalis lucida
Owls (Strix
and South, to which they are
closely related and which they resemble to some degree
in general configuration, size, and habits.
are the western representatives of the Barred
of the East
varia sp.)
GENUS:
Strix Linnaeus
SPECIES:
occidentalis (Xantus
The
California Spotted
headed owl with
Owl
is
a rather large, round-
large, dark, rather soft eyes,
erally appealing facial character.
Its
and a gen-
most distinguish-
is the liberal and conspicuous spotting

on both the upperparts and underparts. The
ing characteristic
SUBSPECIES
of white
species
is
just
slightly
smaller than
the
Owl
Barred
species.
Rank
CALIFORNIA
SPOTTED OWL
occidentalis (Xantus)
in
size
among
the
eighteen
species:
Fifth.
NORTHERN
caurina (Merriam)
SPOTTED OWL
SHAPE AT REST
MEXICAN
lucid a (Nelson)
When
SPOTTED OWL
{COLOR PLATE
perched
is
a bulky owl, tending to crouch
flight.
V)
NAME AND
SCIENTIFIC
it
somewhat more than do the Barred Owls. It is also

decidedly more restless on a perch and often engages
in a peculiar and distinctly parrotlike movement. When
determined to sit still and stare, it does so with great
stubbornness, and it becomes difficult to force it into
OWL
CALIFORNIA SPOTTED
SHAPE IN FLIGHT
Strix occidentalis occidentalis (Xantus). Original description:
over-all
Syrnium occidentale Xantus, Proceedings
heavy, short-necked, large-winged bird
the Northern Barred
Owl
in
much
appearance when
like
flying.
of
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Volume ii, signatures 15-19, August-September. 1859
the
(January 10, i860), page

from Fort Tejon, California.
193, based
on a specimen
FLIGHT PATTERN
Owl,
Basically similar to that of the Northern Barred
make long
Spotted Owl
although seemingly not as inclined to

glides to
OTHER NAMES
its
The
California
buoyant
in
the air for
its
undulation of the body during normal
distinctive call.
Because of the close
tionship to Strix varia sp., the Barred Owls.
perch.
with methodical, rather heavy wingbeats, yet

prisingly
hoot owl Because of

western barred owl
its
rela1
size.
it
There
is
is
flat
flies
sur-
no
flight.
Measurements have been based on 24 measured birds

males and 13 females.
California Spotted
Owl
37
WEIGHT
Much
gr. (15.6 oz.).
Male
Female
Average
391.0
gr.
(13.7 oz.)
501.7 gr.
(17.6 oz.)
312. 1
gr.
(10.9 oz.)
383.6
gr.
(134
gr.
(18.0 oz.)
591
gr.
(20.7 oz.)
in
5135
weight
among
those of the Barred
like
Owl
species of
oz.)
somewhat smaller than might be expected for a bird

size, and they are not as powerful in gripping
and earning as those of some smaller species of owls
are
of
its
on
this continent.
The
legs are well feathered,
but the
The
toes are bare for the final half of their length.
where
scales,
TOTAL LENGTH
mm.
461.6
Minimum
Maximum
389.3
Rank
in total
soles
The
482.6
(15.3")
456.5
mm.
mm.
(21.8")
606.3
mm
(18.0")
EYES AND VISION
2 3-9")
As
Species average: 1,078.1
mm.
(42.5").
Male
Minimum
Maximum
Rank
mm
in
mm.
mm.
942.0
1,092.8
Female
(4 ! -9")
1,092.2
(37.1")
993-4
(43.1")
1,130.5
mm.
mmmm.
(43")
(39-i")
(44.5")
wingspan among the eighteen species: Sixth.
mm.
324.1
Minimum
Maximum
322.8
Rank
in
mm.
mm.
mm.
326.4
of the Strix
occidentalis
somewhat smaller than they

actually are, although this is not quite as pronounced
in the California Spotted Owl and the other Spotted
Owls as it is in the Barred Owls because of a lesser
contrast between the lightness and darkness of the
rings. The irides are a warm, deep gray brown in
color but with slightly more demarcation between iris
and pupil than in the Barred Owls. Vision is excellent,
day or night. Full sunlight seems to have no particularly disturbing effect on vision, and the pupils are
the eyes seem
may
at times
seem almost
to
size
tnat they
be absent.
(12.9").
Male
Average
make
disks
capable of contracting to such pinpoint
around
in the Strix varia species, concentric rings
species
WINGSPAN
1,063.9
clearly colored.
(19.0")
the eyes on the facial
Average
more
scales are
talons are jet black for their entire length.
(18.6").
(18.2")
among
length
The
of the feet are a slightly brighter orange yellow.
Female
mm.
mm.
mm.
552.5
Female
(12.8")
331.5
(12.7")
325.1
(12.9")
355-5
mm.
mm.
mm.
(13. 1")
EARS AND HEARING
(12.8")
(14.0")
wing length among the eighteen species: Sixth.
Auditory cavities that are asymmetrical
in
both
and placement on the head are of great aid

California Spotted
mm.
Minimum
Maximum
210.
Rank
mm.
mm.
mm.
220.0
in tail
length
Owl (Tyto alba) and

From a perch about
(9.1").
Male
21 5.1
in locating prey
247.0
(8.3")
232.2
mm.
mm.
(8.7")
254.5
mm
Owls
high and
the Barred
50 feet
yards distant, the California Spotted
Female
(8.5")
among
Owl
size
to
the
through a
tri-
angulation process similar to that used by the Barn
TAIL LENGTH
Average
toe
a dusky orange yellow on top,
visible, are
and the larger
Male
Average
the
Owl
East and South, the feet of the California Spotted
Minimum
Maximum
Rank
TALONS
LEGS, FEET,
9.7")
ingly locate the source of the
9.2")
mouse running
Strix varia^
at
Owl
least
will
sound made by
fifty
unerra
pine
an expanse of solid rock. As in

if not
the case of the Barred Owls, it is most difficult
impossible
to creep up unheard on a sleeping Caliacross
(10.0")
fornia Spotted Owl.
BEAK LENGTH
mm.
(0.9").
Male
Average
21.5
Minimum
Maximum
20.3
Rank
38
in
22.0
mm.
mm.
mm.
beak length
IX
SAW- WHET OWI.
Aegolius acadicus acadicus (Gmelin). Female. Lac Etchemin,

Sainte Germaine, Quebec, Canada. A.O.U.
Number 372
Female
(0.9")
22.6
(0.8")
21.2
(0.9")
23.5
among
mm.
mm.
mm.
(0.9")
QUEEN CHARLOTTE
OWI.
(0.8")
Aegolius acadicus brooksi (Fleming). Male. Vicinity of Mas-
(0.9")
set,
Spotted
Queen Charlotte
ary 28, 1938. A.O.U.
Owl
Island, British
Number
372-.
Columbia, Canada, Janu-
xsuXCaAc^
%yA*&A+4fo
A
is
MOLT
headed, with no vestige of ear
is
Its
plumage
molting
nual
bird,
is
August,
replacing
their
all
October or early November. Loss of the

and widespread throughout the
feathers by late
feathers
Adult birds begin their an-
flight.
early
in
so staggered
however,
no
that
hampered during
flight
facility
appears
to
only,
whooo-whooo-WHOO-WHOO.
basic call, given by the female, has been
likened to a turkeylike chuckle or low, pleasant, dove-
be
this process.
which sounds like: COOO-COOO-coo-coo.

male and female birds utter a call of
like call
fluffy,
edges for soundless
fifth
is
though not quite as much so as that

of the Northern Barred Owl. All flight feathers have
the flutings of soft, comblike serrations on their leading
dense and
The
round-
decidedly
tufts.
which may be given by the male
call,
carrying cry of:
occidentalis
occidentalis
Strix
fourth
a melodious yet somewhat guttural and rather far-
Finally, both
two variants which has much of the quality of the calling of the Great Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus virginianus), though not as resonantly given. At times it will
sound something like: hoo-ah HOO-ah. At other times
an extra note will be added and more emphasis placed

on the final note: hoo-ah-HOO-HOO-AHHH!
There are, of course, numerous variations as well as
other calls which do not lend themselves to emulation
in print
strange
ing whines.
VOICE
whinnies, squeals, rattlings, and grat-
study of the calls turns up an odd factor:
with but few exceptions, almost
all
of the calls are given
in a series of four notes, usually in couplets of
As with the Barred Owls, the California Spotted

Owl is gifted with a wide repertoire of calls and with
a surprising number of variations to each call. In essence, however, there are six basic calls which differ
enough for some attempt at written description. The
most ordinary call, uttered by both male and female
though evidently more often by the female is an
explicit enunciation of three equally loud and identically toned notes, with the first two of them voiced
rather rapidly and then a three-second to five-second
two.
What
may have
significance this
Generally speaking, the
is
calls of the
two and
not yet known.
Spotted Owls are
more muted and therefore not quite

ening to humans as those of the Barred Owls.
slightly
as fright-
pause before the third. This calling has the distinctive
sound
of:
HOO-HOO
HOOOO.
Another group of notes comprising one

uttered by the male only, whose voice
is
may be
call
SEXUAL DIFFERENCES:
As noted, there is a slight difference in tonal quality
between the voices of male and female birds. The female is slightly larger as a rule, though this size differ-
vaguely deeper
ential
and more resonant than the female's. This call has a

decidedly canine quality and from a distance sounds
remarkably like the baying of a hound. The four notes
in
is
many
not as visually evident in Strix occidentalis as

other owl species. There
is
no sexual difference
in their coloration or markings.
of this call are strung together in a rapid delivery, but

sliding
upward
the scale
in
and becoming quite em-
phatic with the final note. It sounds like:
oh-ooh-oou-
ooOOWWW!
The
female, and possibly the male as well, sometimes
utters a sort of
warning whistle
approaches or leaves the
to
has the quality of a
It
nest.
her young as she
human might make by
soft whistling a
pursing his
lips
and whistling with indrawn air rather than with exhaled air. The whole call has a steadily rising inflection
and lasts for about four seconds, sounding similar to:
wheee-e-e-e-E-E-E.
RICHARDSON
12, 1970.
and longevity
other two
Mud
Owl
California
Spotted
but
not unreasonable
it
development
is
to
consider
or the
that
in
they
would approximate those of the Barred Owls. It is

known that captive Spotted Owls have lived for as long
as twenty-one years and they may possibly live half again
One
Lake, Aroostook County,
mile

ADULT
Maine,
LONG-EARED OWL
Unlike the Barred Owls, the California Spotted
Asio otus wilsonianus (Lesson). Male. Vicinity of Meredosia,
366
of the
subspecies,
view of parallel
A.O.U. Number 371

XII
Brown Countv,
have been made concerning the mortality
OWL
Aegolius funereus richardsoni (Bonaparte). Male.
January
studies
that long.
XI
from west shore of
Few
Illinois,
October
23,
1899.
A.O.U. Number
Owl
and regularly spotted down the length of breast

and belly, with the spots on the upper breast smaller
is
finely
California Spotted
Owl
39
and gradually enlarging as the pattern continues downward. The ground color is a rich, warm cinnamon
brown, each feather having a narrow central line of
the brown separating the pure white into two spots on
opposing webs of the same feather. Often, but not
always, there is a horizontally elongated white patch on
the throat which is about twice as long as it is wide.
Almost always, but with occasional exceptions (especially among female birds), there is a narrow but fluffy
stripe of pure-white feathering running from mid-breast
to belly and widening toward the bottom. The tail is
basically
brown, crossed by a regular
series of thinner
and terminating in a thin white marginDark buff spots on the primaries alternate regularly
with similar-width spots of deep brown. Eyebrows and
lores are white near the top and shade into buff near
white
lines
the bottom,
beak
enclosing the
back-to-back-crescent
in
formation.
evident
clearly
Facial
are
disks
warm cinnamon
semicircles of
buff overlaid by (usually) three narrow

deep red brown emanating outward from
the eyes in concentric fashion.
The
deep brown black. The center
facial
line
rim
gravely winks one eye, then the other, opens each in

turn, closes both together
and then
Occasionally
simultaneously.
blinks both
perch
will
it
open
long
for
moments with one eye shut and the other widely open.
More than any other North American owl species,
it
seems to take tremendous delight in preening itself,

rarely sitting on a perch for long without doing so. First
it
shakes
one by one begins

with
tip
and then
feathers very carefully into place
its
preen away every frayed feather
to
beak, contorting
its
usual positions as
it
the most
into
itself
works. Very often
un-
asleep in
falls
it
the midst of such preening, then awakens with a start
and continues the

and reluctance
to
Because of
job.
to take flight,
ity
observe, once located.
uncommon
its
it
is
Unfortunately,
tively rare experience to observe
one
it
is
tameness when approached have given
tion for stupidity which
a rela-
in the wild at
any
and gen-
time. Its evident fearlessness, mild curiosity,

eral
placid-
an interesting owl
a reputa-
it
largely undeserved.
is
a very
is
head from
of the
between the brows and above the beak to the midpoint

of the head is normally a deep and unspotted brown.
The
habitat
Owl
Spotted
that
prefers
it
causes
California
the
to be rarely seen in the wild. It
inclined
is
to stay within the confines of the deepest portions of
cliffsides,
JUVENILE
Very
similar in
first-winter
and,
but
adults,
to
with the white spots more buffy or ivoried, and with
much
not as
and breast
contrast to the brown. Gular
The facial disks are a

much contrast between the
patches of white are absent.

darker, with not as
trifle
concentric rings.
fir
in
much
pastures.
plumage
forests, on sheer but heavily wooded

narrow canyons with equally sheer walls
very dense
less
regularly, in wide,
Occasionally
it
will
flat,
parklike forest
frequent stream valleys
grown with oak, sycamore, willow, Cottonwood,

and alder tangles. At no time is it an easy bird to locate.
Roosting is normally done about two-thirds of the way
up in a dense fir tree, close to the bole, and with the
bird well camouflaged against the dappled background
of bark. If disturbed it will fly only a short distance and
then promptly go to roost again.
well
GENERAL HABITS AND

CHARACTERISTICS
Although the California Spotted Owl can see and
well during the day,
it
is
more
are the Barred Owls. Except on the cloudiest of days,

will
seldom
fly in
daytime unless forced to do
so,
Strangely limited in offensive qualities, this owl has
fly
retiring diurnally than

it
and
been known
to
truder destroy
move on
perch close at hand and watch an

its
nest,
eggs,
in-
or young, with never a
the adult bird's part to attack or even attempt
even then only reluctantly.
When
marked
startled,
alteration
its
facial
expression can undergo a
from what seems
to a
to be a suspicious, catlike expression at
ing
and somewhat
alarmed
its
quizzical
expression
more
friendly than
seem
to
has
look.
the
ferocious,
human
first
for
to a soften-
Even when
it
and some
the
of
is
its
California. Difference of breast-plumage markings
habits
no clear
peculiar parrotlike
movements it so often makes when perched and these

movements appear all the more comical as the bird
40
Perched hunting postures of the California Spotted Owl (Strix

occidentalis occidentalis) in northeastern Los Angeles County,
is
appearance of being
border on the ludicrous. There
explanation, for example,
viewer
Spotted
magnified individual feathers to

turning radius of head
is
left
depicted by light head sketch be-
hind darker head sketch of middle bird. Turning

its
own
right,
but can return

blink of a
Owl
shown on
Amazing
of middle bird.
its
head on
the owl accomplishes a turn of about

its
human
270
gaze forward in so swift a time that the
eye will miss the movement.
drive
to
intruder.
the
off
bodily lifted by unprotected
On
occasion
off
been
has
it
human hands
clutch
its
Not a great deal
of eggs with never a protest. Its greatest defense seems
natural camouflage in
to be a
which makes
its
virtually invisible
it
plumage,
speckled
when
roosting in a
of observation. It
sun-dappled shady spot against bark or foliage, even
gins
when the
Where
still
to
observer
very close.
is
natural enemies are concerned,
prey on occasion to the
fall
Pacific
it
believed
is
known about
positively
is
the court-
ship of this owl species, mainly because of the difficulty

is
known
that courtship generally be-
anywhere from late February to very early April,

with mating following immediately. Much information
neads to be gathered in
this regard,
however.
Horned Owl
(Bubo virginianus pacificus) Otherwise, its only natuenemies seem to be the hordes of smaller birds
which delight in harassing it, though rarely if ever with
actual injury to the owl. These smaller bird antagonists
.
ral
ANNUAL BROODS,
NEST,
include vireos, flycatchers, California woodpeckers, bluefronted
California
jays,
jays,
NESTING HABITS
and a
creepers,
Sierra
variety of warblers.
Strix occidentalis occidentalis
It
doubtful that
is
the
first
is
always singlebrooded.
will lay a second clutch of eggs
it
destroyed. Unlike the Barred Owls,
is
it
if
will
seldom take occupancy of an abandoned hawk or raven
HUNTING METHODS AND

CARRYING OF PREY
More
often than not
its
preference
is
to
some manner
until
intently
listening
along, at which time
launches
it
itself
normally takes
carrying
ally,
it
small enough so that
is
back
to nest or
perch in
comes
prey
with thunderbolt
speed and great accuracy to the attack.

it
The prey
beak. Occasionkilled,
range through the woods or along small watercourses
manner
the
of the Barred Owls, but this
more the exception than
such a nest will usually
an oak or pine grow-
feet.
Far more often the California Spotted Owl prefers
to
nest in a natural tree hollow or sheltered in highly inaccessible cliff crannies, usually with a sheer
drop of
100 to 400 feet directly beneath the nesting cranny. Occasionally, almost as
if
throwing caution to the winds,

exposed areas, such
as a
it
hollow
on the ground, or in a declivity of a stream

bank no more than a few feet above the lower ground
log lying
is
the feet are used for carrying. Sometimes the owl will
in
6,000
will nest in surprisingly

its
so,
it
has no difficulty
however, when a somewhat larger animal
much
does do
feet in height, in
ing on the edge of a canyon, at an elevation of about
perch quietly
of
it
be from 30 to 50
near a small grassy forest glade, watching and
in a tree
when
but
nest,
level of the creekside.
No
effort
is
made
to build a nest
and the eggs are
is
laid
directly
the rule.
chosen
site.
on whatever surface is available in the

Very soon, however, the nest is surrounded
by a motley collection of such debris as feathers, bones,

fur,
in
pellets
various
stages
other rubbish. This species

This
one of the few owls that are known
is
fond of various forms of

at
offal
and garbage.
If
it
to
is
chances are that the California Spotted
all,
condition of
There
will
it
fire-fried trout will
trates
be
Owl
muskmelon there, a piece

Even the heads of campbe eaten if discovered. Where living
bit of
mainly on
rats,
brush
Though
rats
Owl
and
Two or three eggs are laid, but

On rare occasions there will be
four.
Color
Pure, unblemished white.
Round-ovate
chipmunks and small squirrels.

a feeder on other birds, it will
also
not noted as
per nesting
Shape
and eat warblers, crested jays, Screech

Owl (Glaucidium gnoma
Pellet ejection and defecation are much as in
kill
Owls, and the Coast Pygmy

grinnelli)
Number
most often only two.
and mice of various species, such
white-footed mice, red tree mice, pine
rats,
occasionally
Spotted
to very nearly globular. Virtu-
ally indistinguishable from those of the Barred Owls.
As in the Barred Owls, slightly granulated.

Never, however (as may occur with Barred Owls), with
the eggshell being in any degree glossy.
Texture
Based on a
Size
average
mm.
the Barred Owls.
42
EGGS
concen-
concerned, the California Spotted
wood
rats,
not as fastidious about the
seen
of hard-boiled egg elsewhere.
is
and
walk about nonchalantly, picking up a
morsel of meat here, a
prey
is
decomposition,
nesting area as are the Barred Owls.
be seen at some woodland picnic disposal area.
will
as
its
of
Owl
size
total
of
23
was 50.0 mm. (2.0")
1.6") in
eggs
measured,
the
and 41.3
width. The extreme measurements were:
in length
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum
Interval
length:
54.0
length:
42.3
width:
43.2
width:
33.5
(2.1")
(1.7")
(1.7")
(1.3")
Not incontrovertibly
egg-laying
of
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
estab-
lished but probably very similar to that of the Barred
Owls.
Egg-laying dates
Earliest,
March
normally between March 27 and April
latest,
May
17.

CHARACTERISTICS
Incubation begins with the
egg laid and
first
is
prob-
ably from 25 to 28 days in duration. As nearly as can
be determined,
bird, while the
all incubation is done by the female

male supplies her with food. Occasion-
ally she will leave the nest for brief periods, possibly to
drink or bathe, but there
is
though he evidently does stay

So unaggressive
tightly
sit
will
no evidence
to
show that
take over incubation duties even
the male will
is
then,
close by.
the female that, although she will
on her eggs
allow herself to
in the face of disturbance, she
be
lifted
without
eggs
the
off
and even with an odd sense of

detachment over what is occurring.
protest
disinterest or
CALIFORNIA SPOTTED
OWL
Strix occidentalis occidentalis (Xantus'
YOUNG AND FAMILY
LIFE
CHARACTERISTICS
On
Little solid
information has been gathered on the nest
and juvenal life of the California Spotted Owl. It

has been noted, though, that late each afternoon
usually around 4 p.m.
there is a period of marked increase of activity within the nest, although what connotation this may have remains a mystery. Fledgling
birds have been seen at this time moving about in the
nest and flapping their wings vigorously. There is some
life
unusually interesting but
parent birds may,

cally
move them
if
to
young
inclusive
evidence
the
from Tehama County

to
cliff face.
perhaps
effort to flap or struggle while
may
from Santa Barbara County
San Diego County.
MIGRATION
None.
a pro-
Reportedly, the baby
ECONOMIC INFLUENCE
being so
transported. It should be borne in mind, however, that

the report
in California
Tulare County, and the moun-
tains of southern California
birds are carried in the beak of the parent by one foot
and make no
to
Nevada
birds are endangered, physi-
a safer location
tected ledge on a nearby
that
the west slope of the Sierra
be at best somewhat embellished, and at
Undoubtedly of some
but to what extent
is
benefit in forest-rodent control,
not known.
worst entirely fanciful.
At about twelve or
fifteen
days of age, the young
down on the upperand buffy-white on the underparts. At this age

they tend to shrink slightly from an extended hand,
but do not hiss or threaten.
birds are clad in soft, grayish-white
parts
Northern Spotted

{COLOR PLATE
Owl
VI)
43
TAIL LENGTH
Slightly shorter than
that of Strix occidentalis oc-
cidentalis, averaging 204.7
mm.
(8.1").
EARS AND HEARING

Extremely keen, and
close
this bird
may
be decoyed into
observation range from comparatively long dis-
tances by emulating the squeak of a mouse.
VOICE
Very much
Strix occidentalis occidentalis, with
like
the addition of one cry best described as a prolonged,
and rather nerve-racking whining sound which

rises in tone and volume to a grating noise
that can set the teeth on edge in the daytime and
cause the hair at the nape to tingle at night. Once
eerie
gradually
heard, this cry

fied, is
is
never forgotten and,
never mistaken for anything
if
properly identi-
else.

Strix occidentalis caurina
SCIENTIFIC
SEXUAL DIFFERENCES:
(Merriam)
NAME AND
Voices of males and females primarily indistinguishable.
There
tween the
is
very
sexes,
little,
if
any, difference in size be-
and both are marked and colored
similarly.
(Merriam). Original description: Syrnium occidentale caurinum Merriam, The

occidentalis caurina
Strix
Auk, Volume
15,
Number
based on a specimen from
1,
January 1898, pages 39-40,
Mount Vernon
in the Skagit

ADULT
Valley of Washington.
OTHER NAMES
le
dian
As noted, similar to Strix occidentalis occidentalis,

but everywhere darker. Generally speaking, the white
chat-huant tachete du nord French-Cananame meaning "The Speckled Hooting Cat of the
North."
and markings are smaller than those of the Caliis especially apparent on
both the head and back, where the white spotting is
reduced to a minimum and in some cases practically
absent. The dark markings on the sides, flanks, and feet
spots
fornia Spotted Owl, and this
more
are
extensive
and considerably darker than
California Spotted Owl.
Similar in size and markings to the California Spotted
Owl
(Strix occidentalis occidentalis)
but considerably
darker. Also darker, and with a richer brown than that

on the plumage of the Mexican Spotted Owl (Strix
44
Spotted
in the
obvious difference
between the two races, however, is on the wings. The

primary feathers are a great deal darker and the broad
whitish tips on Strix occidentalis occidentalis are absent
in
Strix
occidentalis
caurina and are represented
stead by a vague, pale,
occidentalis lucida)
The most
Owl
in-
buffy-gray band which becomes
slightly
whiter on the outer edge of the vane.
of these feathers there
outermost
tips.
The
On
OTHER NAMES
some
a faint whitish edging at the
is
Arizona spotted
three or four pale bars nearest the
owl
Because of geographical loca-
tips of the feathers in Strix occidentalis occidentalis are
tion.
imperfectly developed in Strix occidentalis caurina.
canyon spotted owl Because of preferred habitat.

tecolote manchado de nelson Mexican-Indian
name meaning "Nelson's Spotted Owl."
HABITAT
Confined to the
dense
timberlands
of
the
humid
Pacific coastal forests.
Slightly smaller than
Owl
Primarily mice,
rats,
Owl
Spotted
FOOD
California Spotted
either the
(Strix
occidentalis
caurina), but darker
than the former and lighter than the
chipmunks,
squirrels,
and
rabbits.
or the Northern
(Strix occidentalis occidentalis)
latter.
The beak
is
a brighter yellowish ivory than that of either of the

other two subspecies, and
though the significance of
is
it
this
is
also
thicker beak,
unknown.
EGGS
Two
or three, but usually two. Four eggs in a nesting
have not been recorded,

fornia Spotted Owl.
as they
have been
TOTAL LENGTH
in the Cali-
Average length
is
slightly
Spotted
Owl
the male
and 458.5 mm.
less
than the other two
subspecies, being 427.5

(
18. 1") for
mm.
(16.8")
for
the female.

From southwestern
Columbia (north to Alta

Lake and east to Hope), through western Washington
(east to Lake Wenatchee, Chelan County; Cle Elum,
Kittias County), western Oregon, and coast ranges of
California southward from the Oregon border to San
Francisco Bay, Marin County.
British
BEAK LENGTH
Slightly greater
Owl
Spotted
23.0
mm.
(0.9").
VOICE
MEXICAN SPOTTED OWL

(COLOR PLATE
Generally higher in pitch
VII)
is
NAME AND
16,
Number
40,
November 30,
Mount
Washington, Volume
1903, page
Tancitero,
One
whoo-whoo-WHOOO
last note,
with
but each note about
them.
Syrnium occidentale lucidum Nelson, Proceed-
on a specimen from
Mexico.
own.
two seconds long, with a one-second pause between
(Nelson). Original descrip-
ings of the Biological Society of
calls of its
not shared by either of the other two races
a simple, medium-pitched
On
tion:
call
a strong inflection on the
Strix occidentalis lucida
than that of the other
Spotted Owls, but with specialized
common
SCIENTIFIC
than that of either the California
or the Northern Spotted Owl, averaging
152, based
Michoacan,
brightly moonlit nights these owls tend to call
back and forth across canyons for long periods. The

usual call
made
conversational
at this time is a pleasing and rather

who-who-who-who-who-who-who, de-
an evenly spaced musical monotone. This
livered
in
call
almost invariably answered immediately by a
is
rather grating and particularly unmusical cry of
Mexican Spotted Owl
w heck45
HABITAT
Forested mountain tablelands and canyons between
the
elevations
5,500 and 9,000 feet are favored,

with dense aspen clumps and creek-
of
especially those
Deep,
maples.
fringe
narrow,
well-wooded
canyons
dotted with caves and craggy clefts seem definitely to be

a requirement for residency.
ENEMIES
is
The Mexican Spotted Owl's greatest natural enemy

the Western Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus pal-
lescens)
and
strives to
it
avoid those areas where the
range of the two species might overlap.
FOOD
Consumes considerably more
tebrate
life
insect
and other
inver-
such as spiders, scorpions, and centipedes
than do either of the other two subspecies. The Mexican

Spotted
Owl seems
especially to favor feeding
on large
moths.
MEXICAN SPOTTED OWL

Strix occidentalis lucida (Nelson)
NEST
wheck-wheck-wheck-wheck, similar to but much harsher

than the distant quacking of a duck.
The
voice of the female
recognizably higher in
is
On
rare occasions Strix occidentalis lucida will build
own
its
poorly constructed nest in a crotch about 30

Cottonwood or very dense Douglas
feet high, usually in a
pitch than that of the male.
at
fir,
an altitude of about 7,500
prefers a natural cavity in
However,
feet.
a large oak tree or
it
on a
ledge near the entrance to a rather spacious but relatively inaccessible cave.

ADULT
The Mexican Spotted Owl
rare occasions lighter)
ish suffusion of
Spotted Owl.
is
less
EGGS
(though on
darker
and has much
buffy-yellow-
The
general coloration than the California
In
almost
all
cases
has
it
a vaguely
grayer general coloration than the Northern
Owl, even though
its
Spotted
browns more nearly approach
eggs of the Mexican Spotted
or
the
(2.0") in length
and 42.9 mm. (1.7")
three are the usual
Northern race.
more often
occidentalis
very small
white spottings,
occidentalis,
are
like
much
those of Strix
larger
than
are slightly
Northern Spotted Owl, averaging 50.8
those of the California race than they do those of the

Its
Owl
larger than those of either the California Spotted
laid
number
laid,
in width.
Owl
mm.
Two
or
although three are
than two. Rarely, four
will
be
laid.
the
white spots on Strix occidentalis caurina.
In a very general way,
the
California
Spotted
Owl
could be called a cinnamon-brown owl with large white

spots;
the
Northern Spotted
Owl
could be called
chestnut-brown owl with small white spots; and the
Mexican Spotted Owl could be called an ashy chestnutbrown owl with large white spots.
46
Spotted
Northern Arizona (Grand Canyon), central and western
Owl
New
Mexico, southeastern Utah
(Navajo Moun-
tain),
central
Colorado
(Park
County,
MIGRATION
Colorado
Springs), and western Texas (Guadalupe Mountains),
southward into Mexico, where

northern
(Pinos Altos,
it
has been recorded in
Chihuahua
Vasagota), Michoacan, Guanajuato, and
Sonora
Nuevo Leon (Cerro
(Sierra
Potosi).
de
Oposura),
No
into
number
true migration, but evidently a fair
Mexican Spotted Owls do come down

the
winter
is
to
of the
lower altitudes
near-mountain lowlands during years when

especially
severe.
This
is
not,
however, an
annual occurrence.
Mexican Spotted Owl
47
Heavy Walker" because
of
awkward movements on
its
the ground.
spectral
it is
SPECIES
owl
Because of the fanciful notion that
associated with being a
phantom
or other object of
superstitious terror or dread.
ORDER
STRIGIFORMES
FAMILY:
STRIGIDAE
<
An
roundheaded
and having distinct concentric circles around the eyes. With its uncommonly dense and fluffy plumage and long, broad
unusually large-appearing,
owl with remarkably large
GENUS:
Strix Linnaeus
SPECIES:
nebulosa Forster
wings, this owl
is
tuftless,
facial disks
generally gray in color because of the
over-all intermingled pattern of black
with gray.
deep
SUBSPECIES
The huge
facial
beak, which
plumage,
lowish toward the

losa nebulosa
Horned Owl
is
seems not as
(Bubo
and white along
almost
virginianus
virginianus)
Great
nor
as
sp.)
or
Spotted Owls (Strix occidentalis sp.). While the bird
GREAT GRAY OWL
seems to be as large as a golden eagle,
this
is
illusion because of the huge head, the long
amazing denseness of the

actual body
GREAT GRAY OWL

[COLOR PLATE
yel-
expression of Strix nebufierce as that of the
benign as that of the Barred Owls (Strix varia
nebulosa Forster
the
lost in
but becoming
greenish,
The
tip.
is
VIII)
is
much
not
bird's
an
and the
largely
tail,
plumage. The owl's
larger than that of the North-
ern Barred
Owl
bit smaller
than either the Great Horned
(Strix varia varia)
Snowy Owl (Nyctea scandiaca)

Rank in over-all size among
and quite a good
the
Owl
eighteen
or the
species:
Third.
NAME AND
SCIENTIFIC
SHAPE AT REST
Strix
nebulosa
tion, Strix
actions,
nebulosa
nebulosa
Volume
J.
Forster.
Original
descrip-
Always a very bulky-appearing owl, the Great Gray
R. Forster, Philadelphia Trans1772, page 424, based
62, article 29,
on a specimen from the Severn River

Ontario. Former scientific names: Strix
of northwestern
cinera,
Syrnium
Owl
perches in a relatively upright position, wears a
rather scholarly expression, and has a

gaze.
When
walking
it
moves
medium
slowly, rather
piercing
awkwardly,
of character, though
cinereum, Scotiaptex cinera, Scotiaptex nebulosa nebu-
and with a decided heaviness
losa, Strix nebulosa.
not anywhere near as heavy in body weight as
it
is
ap-
it
pears. It seems to be almost without a neck because of
the enormity of the great rounded head, which
OTHER NAMES
fit
cinereous
owl
Because of
is
usu-
ally about 20 inches in circumference and seems to

emerge directly from the bird's shoulders without bene-
of neck. It seems all out of proportion to the body.
generally ashy color-
its
ation.
great cinereous
owl
After
size
and ashy colora-
SHAPE IN FLIGHT
tion.
great gray ghost

ghostly appearance as
Because of
it flies
size,
coloration,
and
The wingbeats
in the late twilight.
of the Great
Gray Owl are generally
chouette cendree d'amerique French-Canadian name meaning "The Ashen-colored Owl of
slow and ponderous and not quite so graceful or as-
America."
Snowy Owl. The
la
nuhl-tuhl
48
Northern Indian name meaning "The
sured as are those of the Barred Owls, Horned Owls, or
flight, as
Great Gray
Owl
illusion of necklessness
the head
is
is
continued in
couched heavily on the shoulders,
imparting a silhouette in
biness,
considerable
of
flight
unusually long for an owl,
and when
perched.
pears to be a
much
stub-
The
despite the broad expanse of wings.
tail,
quite apparent in flight
is
The Great Gray Owl always
larger bird than
it
actually
mm.
(153")-
Male
ap-
is.
Average
379.3
Minimum
Maximum
358.2
Rank
in
386.8
mm.
mm.
mm.
Female
(14.9")
397.0
(14.1")
381.
(15.2")
426.2
mm.
mm.
mm.
(15.6")
(15.0")
(16.8")
wing length among the eighteen species: Third.
FLIGHT PATTERN
This owl does not have the buoyancy and lightness
flight that
is
exhibited by most owls and
more than 20
across
it
in
TAIL LENGTH
flies
actually preferring to range
feet high,
hunting territory at heights of
its
rarely
less
than
10
and frequently only two or three feet off the

ground. The wings beat ponderously and there is very
little gliding. However, there is no fluctuation of the
body to the wingbeats, as is the case with the Snowy
Owl, which undulates markedly in flight. The Great
Gray Owl is not especially graceful in flight and it
feet
seldom
before
short,
except
during migration
mm.
(12.4").
Male
Average
299.2
Minimum
Maximum
287.0
Rank
335-7
Female
mm.
mm.
mm.
in tail length
(11.9")
323.9
(11.3")
305.2
(13.2")
344.8
among
(12.0")
(13.6")
the eighteen species: First.
BEAK LENGTH
landing very close to the trunk of the tree selected as
mm.
(1.5").
Male
a perch.
13
(12.8")
great distances
flies
coming to perch. Normal flight is relatively

from one low perch to another, almost always

mm.
mm.
mm.
measured
birds:
Average
32.1
Minimum
Maximum
28.0
Rank
in
42.5
mm.
mm.
mm.
beak length
Female
(1.3")
43.2
(1.1")
35.6
(1.7")
47.0
among
mm.
mm.
mm.
(1.7")
(1.4")
(1.9")
WEIGHT
Species average: 1,340.0 gr. (46.9 oz.).
Male
Average
1,288.8 gr.
(45.1
oz.)
1,390.9 gr.
(48.7 oz.)
Minimum
Maximum
1,056.8 gr.
(37.0 oz.)
1,077.5 gr.
(37.7 oz.)
1,384.6 gr.
(48.5
oz.)
1,523.9 gr.
(53.3
Rank
in
weight
among
LEGS, FEET,
oz.)
The
legs
and
feet are completely
becoming more deeply

Great Gray Owl
are somewhat small for the size of the bird and this
fact may be contributory toward its awkwardness when
walking on the ground. Though small, the feet are by
no means weak.
talons are a dull lead color,
692.2
mm.
(27.3")
717.6
Minimum
Maximum
617.3
mm
2 4-3")
670.2
755.7
mm.
(29.8")
845.3
in total
length
tips.
The
feet of the
Female
Average
Rank
is
(27.8").
Male
-
heavily-
rather finely barred with gray white and slatish gray.
The
TOTAL LENGTH
mm.
and rather
feathered to the base of the talons, and this feathering
black toward the
TALONS
Female
among
mm.
mm.
mm.
(28.3")
(26.4")
/ EYES AND
(33.3")
VISION
The
iris
of the eye of Strix nebulosa nebulosa
is
lemon yellow, and though the eyes are actually

quite large, they appear to be small because of the
enormous bulk of the head and the expansive facial
disks enclosing five dark gray concentric circles around
each eye. Vision is excellent both during the night and
in the daytime. In the more northerly parts of its
range, the Great Gray Owl hunts more by day than bynight and sees well at all times. It has been known to
observe a mouse moving through the grasses at disbright
WINGSPAN
mm.
(55.5")
Male
Average
1,397.0
Minimum
Maximum
1,303.8
Rank
in
1,447.3
mm.
mm.
mm.
Female
(55.0")
1,422.4
(51.4")
1,412.3
(57.0")
1,524.8
mm.
mm.
mm.
(56.0")
(55.6")
(60.1")
wingspan among the eighteen species: Third.
Great Gray
Owl
49
V VOICE
tances of well over ioo yards. Vision plays a strong role

in hunting, equaling the role played
by hearing, instead
of being subordinate to hearing as in
American owl
many
other North
species.
There are three basic calls uttered by the Great Gray

Owl, and very little tonal difference between the calls of
male and female birds. The most common call is a very
deep, booming, four-note utterance which
is
peated at
of
Often
seconds.
EARS AND HEARING

While the ear
to
the
to
it
as
Gray Owl
Quite
bird.
15
many
as
WHOOOO-
has the sound of
and is not
Horned Owl.
about
greatly dissimilar to that
The second most common
call
uttered
is
far-
repeated as often as twenty times in succession. This
extremes of the ear cavities are reached. This

not beneficial
of the Great
is
such the Saw-whet

acadicus) where asymmetry
say that the hearing of the Great
be sounded as
will
this
with those other owl species

(Aegolius acadicus
It
usually re-
not as extremely im-
portant a factor in the Great Gray Owl's hunting as
Owl
call
intervals
carrying but rather soft and lyrically musical whistle,
not quite as marked as in some other owl species of
is
this
at
OOO-OOO-OOO
cavities are slightly asymmetrical,
is
three times
eight or ten times.
aid in pinpointing the sound of prey, the asymmetry
continent. Consequently, hearing
least
the
is
is
not to
poor or
but
contrary;
rather unusual call has the sound of:
OOOO-EEE-
HHHH.
Finally, there
is
a low, occasionally uttered cry of a
tremulous
decidedly
Eastern Screech
nature
Owl (Otus
not
unlike
asio naevius)
that
of
the
in structure,
but considerably louder and farther-carrying.
whereas many other owl species depend far more upon

their ears than
upon
their eyes for locating prey, the
Owl depends
equally upon eyes and ears

and would be greatly hampered by the loss
of either sense. Its ear openings are large and have
conspicuous anterior flaps which can be outspread at
Great Gray
y SEXUAL DIFFERENCES:
in hunting
will as
an aid
to
SIZE,
sound locating.
The female
COLORATION, VOICE
bird
is
distinctly larger
than the male and
almost always exceeds his body weight by about half a
pound and
MOLT
The Great Gray Owl has no
ear
tufts,
the top of the
head being quite smoothly rounded. No other North

American owl species has plumage so dense and fluffy.
Even that of the Snowy Owl, which is remarkably dense,
is more tightly compacted to the body form than is that
of the Great
plumage
Gray Owl. This density and
in Strix
nebulosa nebulosa
is
as
plunge
to
blanket
against
more than
50
temperatures
F.

Few
have been completed in these aspects of

Gray Owl's natural history but, in view of its
habits and lack of natural enemies, early
studies
the Great
nesting
fluffiness of
much
mortality
as three
inches thick, providing the big bird with an effectively

insulating
body length and wingspan by at least

an inch each. However, there is no appreciable difference between the sexes in vocal qualities or in
coloration and pattern of markings.
his
which
often
is
probably not as high as in
many
other owl
species. No information is available on the lifespan of

wild birds, but captive Great Gray Owls have lived for
upward
of forty years.
Because of the density of
Gray Owl appears to be larger

in over-all size and body weight than either the Great
Horned Owl or Snowy Owl, but such is not the case,
since it is a good bit lighter than either bird. Adult
Great Gray Owls undergo one complete annual molt
which begins in mid-July. The wing feathers molt first,
over a period of several weeks, then the body plumage.
New and old primary feathers will be found in the
wings at the same time. The molt is completed by the
end of November normally, but occasionally not until
as late as early December.
the plumage, the Great
50
The Great Gray Owl {Strix nebulosa nebulosa) appears to be

a much larger bird than it actually is, because of the great
density of the plumage. The rendition at upper right depicts
how this heavy plumage covers the actual body of the bird.
Also, because of the dense feathering
encircling the eyes,

small.
Great Gray
Owl
and the concentric
the eyes themselves seem
to
rings
be rather

ADULT
GENERAL HABITS AND
The
general coloration of the bird
without any distinctive brownish
cast.
is
a mottled gray
More
specifically,
the upperparts are a dusky slate gray to sooty
and
gray,
this
brown
broken by deeper mottlings of very
is
dark gray black interspersed with grayish-white mottlings,
mostly on the edges of the feathers.
of each feather
The
produces an over-all effect of irregular dark
stripes
which are most conspicuous on the shoulders and across

The same central sooty gray of each feather
the back.
continues on the plumage of breast, neck, belly, sides,
reasonably fearless bird
takenly
interpreted
Never
losa
range,
outer webs of the feathers on the wing coverts
and the primary coverts have relatively indistinct bands of pale ash brown.
Nine bands of grayish brown mark the outer webs of
the secondaries, with the final band continuing to the
tip and the innermost three being concealed by the
The
greater coverts.
primaries themselves are crossed by
nine rather square patterns of brownish gray on the
outer webs, with those nearest the tips of the feathers
being
than those closer to the
less distinct
flesh.
coarse mottlings or even marblings of sooty

sooty grayish white tend to
make
Rather
brown and
a pattern of irregular
broken bars across the inner secondaries and the middle

tail
feathers.
The remainder
of
the
tail
is
generally
dusky in color and crossed by about nine somewhat

smaller and paler grayish bands.
The
becomes
it
nebu-
species, Strix
even during the
late
period.
Although virtually diurnal
in the northerly portions
more crepuscular and noc-
far
turnal in the southern portions.
distinctive whitish mottlings
mis-
the
flight. It is, howand antagonistic an owl as
a relative solitude,
prefers
its
is
not easily put to
any time a gregarious
at
autumn migrational
of
fearlessness
Horned Owl.
the Great
the bird.
The
is
whose
by some as being stupidity
ever, scarcely as aggressive
and flanks, but on these feathers the whitish edges are

more uniformly barred. There is a more profuse mottling of grayish and black on the rump and uppertail
coverts, which contributes to the general gray aspect of
have
Owl
Great Gray
center
uniformly sooty in coloration and
is
CHARACTERISTICS
Although a bird of the far north, the Great Gray

has a decided preference for timbered areas and
rarely strays far out into the tundra barrens and muskeg marshes, as does the Snowy Owl and, to a lesser
Owl
extent, the Arctic

arcticus)
Dense
Horned Owl (Bubo

of pine and
virginianus sub-
forests
fir
are most fa-
vored, although this bird will often be found during
meadows near
meadows farther
migrational periods in the brackish tidal
mouths and
costal river
more
in
lush
if they are traversed by streams and

have a scattering of small spruce trees.
More often than not the roosting choice is a wellhidden location within the mid or low recesses of an
inland, especially
especially dense evergreen, with the bird perched very
and frequently even
close to the trunk of the tree
ing against
and superciliaries are usually distinctly

and form two opposing crescents between
the eyes. There is a very dark area on the chin directly
beneath the beak, and a deeply dusky-colored space between eye and lores. The facial disks are a clear light
it
as
it
lean-
sleeps.
lores
grayish white
gray with (usually)
five concentric,
narrow, semicircular
bands of deep brown gray. The narrow facial rim is

dark brown, passing into ash white on the foreneck
and broken by a spot of brownish black on the throat.

Iris coloration, which is usually a clear lemon yellow,
may sometimes

Although
nebulosa
enough
nebulosa
snap
to
anger
spread
its
wings threateningly,
peculiar growling sound,

gressive
be a deeper straw color.
Strix
arouse
to
it
is
sometimes
will
its
beak
irritably,
and give voice
to
essentially very non-ag-
and has often been caught by hand during
daylight hours.
Young birds in the nest are sometimes taken by

Horned Owls (Bubo virginianus sp.), martens, and

JUVENILE
and markings from
little
adults.
differ-
Downy
young, however, are a bufTy white in general coloration,
down
on the hindneck, shoulders,

wings, and back being a dark sooty brown at the base
and pale, dull, brownish buff at the tips.
with the
5*
feathers
its
greatest threat,
At such
have it
particularly during the southward migrations.
Juveniles in first-winter plumage are very
ent in coloration
wolverines, but the adults have no really deadly natural
enemy. Man, of course, constitutes

hunters will often
times,
mounted
tribes
still
as
a trophy.
kill
shoot
Some
of
the
the
the bird as food, but
bird
to
northern
more
as
Indian
an emer-
gency measure than as a staple item. Far more regularly,
the eggs are gathered by Indian
source.
Great Gray
Owl
women
as a food
Surprisingly, in view of
Owl
is
its
large size, the Great
Gray
rarely bothered by harassing jays, warblers, king-
birds, shrikes,
or other smaller birds. Oddly, this owl
when
evinces the greatest agitation

cat or dog;
it
spies
a prowling
remains very nervous until that particular
it
rabbits,
and
birds up
and ptarmigan. Not infrequently
hares, along with occasional
the size of grouse
to
it
upon crows; these being taken by the owl as they

During migration into more populated areas to
feeds
roost.
the south, poultry
readily taken.
is
animal has moved out of range.
HUNTING METHODS AND

CARRYING OF PREY
Great Gray Owl most
morning and late afternoon and evening hours, there is no time of day or
night when it cannot be seen engaged in hunting. Unlike the Snowy Owl, however, it does not often care to
range back and forth close to the ground in search of
prey. Rather, it prefers to move frequently from one
Although
as a general rule the
actively hunts during the early
low perch
to another. It will
sit
low
in a tree for any-
where from a couple of minutes to a quarter-hour, then
wing ponderously and usually no more than a few

feet off the ground
to another tree not very far distant. From such perches it watches and listens for prey
which,
when
Prey
detected,
killed
is
it
Although the male will engage in a certain amount

maneuvers before the perched female,
and just as often alight on the ground before her and
march about in a rather ridiculous, pompous manner,
of peculiar flight
there
Now
this.
male
and again, though not
animal, usually a mouse or

is
beyond
as a general rule, the
female with a freshly killed prey
will present the
rat.
ceremony
Little vocal
more apt
involved. Actual copulation seems
to
occur
on the ground than on a perch. Though male and female remain together throughout the nesting season
and perhaps remain mated for years, there is little
demonstration of affection between them other than
that which immediately precedes copulation.
attacks with great accuracy.
by the clutching feet driving the huge
deeply into the prey animal's body and most
talons
courtship demonstration
actual
little
is
often piercing the heart. Smaller prey
Larger prey
ried in the beak.
on the spot where

carried whole to the
is
is
killed
and
nest,
transported in the
is
ANNUAL BROODS,
normally car-
most often torn apart

is
eaten
there
but,
NEST,
NESTING HABITS
if
The Great Gray Owl has
feet.
though there
will
occur
if
only one brood per year,
some indication that a second laying

the first nest is destroyed. There is no
is
evidence that a third clutch of eggs will be laid
y FOOD, FEEDING
HABITS,
WASTES
second
the
if
In by far the greater majority of cases,
lost.
is
Gray Owl is an abana Goshawk, Red-tailed Hawk, or Broad-
the nest choice of the Great
up
and occasionally even
to and including the
All prey
rel,
without
larger,
within the limits
swallowed whole
Larger creatures are quickly torn
difficulty.
huge chunks just

of being swallowed and are devoured
by the powerful beak
apart
size
is
of a red squir-
with no attempt to
first
into
dispose of bones, feathers, or
doned nest of
winged Hawk. Some attempt is made
nest, but this effort is haphazard at
Pellets are ejected regularly
and are
relatively large,
Often green pine needles
occurs just prior to the bird taking wing.
Fecal material
is
somewhat more dense and
less vis-
many other owls, and is of a marbled

when fresh greenish, grayish, brownish,
coloration
and
black.
Though
bird
is
perched.
ever, occurs
Evacuation of such wastes
during
the
rarely,
if
will use.
well
as
be in either a hardwood or
shows a preference for
those which are relatively high

fir.
50
100 feet
to
However, sometimes
in
nests will
be
used in rather unprotected cottonwoods or other decid-
uous
trees
Once
will
and
as close to the
established
stick
in
its
ground
nest,
determinedly with
any intruder
to
make
it
it,
leave.
as
the
2 or 15 feet.
Great Gray
despite
Owl
the efforts of
Even the pounding
a club on the tree trunk will have
flight.
There are few small animals that are not considered

by Strix nebulosa nebulosa, although it tends
to seek, most specifically, rats, mice, shrews, squirrels,
as prey
may
the nest
conifer, Strix nebulosa nebulosa
normally drop beneath where
Feces
as
deer hair, sphagnum, shredded bark, and root-
dense spruce or
cous than in
be added,
will
lets.
averaging about three to four inches in length and one

to two inches in width. They are ejected at random
wherever the bird happens to be perched, and usually
Some new
be added, along with fragments of mosses
and somewhat more feathers than most owls

tufts of
fur.
this
may
twigs
to refurbish the
best.
little
effect
of
other
than to make the owl glare downward at the disturbance.
If,
as occurs
leave the nest,
Great Gray
Owl
it
on rare occasions,
will
usually
fly
to
it
does decide to
an adjacent
tree,
53
remain there
briefly
as
moves about on
it
perch
its
nervously, then return to the nest.
most pure white
at hatching, but within a
day or
By the time the
nestling
is
two weeks
down
old, the
being forced out by a downy plumage which

sentially olive brownish in general coloration.
is
EGGS
X
Number
From two
to five eggs are laid,
but most commonly three.
Color
spoiled
white
Dull
ready
with
often
peculiarly
sooty-gray
bands,
thighs
and
bands.
The downy plumage
the species
(1.7")
is
in
55.3 mm. (2.2") in length

width. Extreme measure-
similarly
is
banded with
Adult plumage
scapulars,
grayish
is
length:
58.8
length:
48.3
width:
49.0
width:
41.9
No
fully developed,
Earliest,
normally between April 9 and
white
olive
with
pale
sooty-olive
around the neck is

brownish and pale buff.
still
Facial
coverts.
disks
are not yet
nor has the head yet taken
enor-
its
mous globular shape.

By the end of the first week in September, the young
birds are flying well. They are at this time equal to
and have assumed most
of the
distinguishing physical characteristics of the adult bird,
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
(2.3")
the only significant difference being that the head and
(1.9")
still somewhat small, and some vestige

downy plumage remains on the throat and underpays, giving the young bird a slightly unkempt look.
facial disks are
(1.9")
of
(1.7")
than 48 hours be-
less
tween eggs and more often closer

Egg-laying dates
in-
The under-
nearly fully developed on the back,
and wing
the size of their parents
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum
exhibit
which are
and these feathers broadly tipped

fluffy down remains on flanks and
Shape Not quite so globular as in many other

North American owl species; ranging between oval and
elliptically oval, and normally more pointed at one
end than the other.
Texture Quite roughly granulated, with no gloss.
Size
For the size of the owl, it lays relatively small
eggs. Based on the measurements of 65 eggs, the aversize for
nest
es-
still clad in soft juvenal plumage,

each feather a dusky white and having three or four
with white. Long,
age egg
the
tail
distinguishable from those of adult birds.
spoiled.
and 43.9 mm.

ments were:
leave
to
developed wings and
fully
is
pays, however, are
and
about them, even though they are not
look
almost
Fledglings
nearly
per nesting
so
begins assuming an ashy-bluff coloration.
to a
March
May
week
apart.
23; latest, July 19;
Strix nebulosa nebulosa breeds in the boreal forests
from central Alaska (Nulato, Fort Yukon), northern

Yukon (La Pierre House), northern Mackenzie (Anderson River), central Keewatin, northern Manitoba

7^ CHARACTERISTICS
The incubating female has bare thighs and lower
abdomen and the flesh in these areas is well layered
with fat. Whether the loss of feathers here is a natural
breeding
or the feathers have been deliberately
loss,
plucked away by the female,

cubation begins with the
for
all,
from 28
first
is
The
not known.
egg
in-
and continues
laid
30 days before hatching. All, or almost

incubation is performed by the female.
and northern Ontario (Severn River), south to the

central Sierra Nevada in California (Madera County,
Yosemite), northern Idaho (Fort Sherman), western
Montana (Lincoln County), Wyoming (Moose),

ern Minnesota
(near Roseau),
District of Ontario.
Although
it
LIFE
nestling
life
has
not yet
been recorded, but certain spaced observations have

been made which provide some illumination
in
regard
young birds. Newly hatched birds are covered

with a somewhat woollier and denser down than that
of most other owls on this continent. The down is alto the
54
it
summer
north-
Nipissing
in
Gaspe
does
its
breeding range,
move southward and
SHORT-EARED OWL
Glen Ellyn, Du Page County,

A.O.U. Number 367
XV
of
in
the
Asio flammeus flammeus (Pontoppidan). Female. Vicinity of
CHARACTERISTICS
observation
found
usually winters within
irregularly over the years
XIV
Extensive
is
in
County, Quebec.
to
YOUNG AND FAMILY
It
and
Illinois,
November
10,
1969.
EASTERN SCREECH OWL
Otus asio naevius (Gmelin). 3 young, female, male. Young:

Cook County, Illinois, May 19, 1962. Gray-phase
female: Vicinity of Forest Park, Cook County, Illinois, Janu-
Northlake,
ary 10, 1968. Red-phase male: two miles south of Bensenville,
Cook County,
373-M
Great Gray
Owl
Illinois,
February
6,
1948.
A.O.U. Number
eastward to northern California
(at
lower elevations
County), southern Montana (Billings), southMinnesota (Goodhue County), Wisconsin (Ra-
to Butte
ern
New York
Michigan,
cine),
(Painted
Post,
Fulton
County), and Massachusetts (Springfield).

Casual to southern Idaho
(Omaha),
Iowa
Anthony), Nebraska
(St.
(Hillsboro),
northernmost
Illinois
(Rock River, Zion), Indiana (Posey County), Ohio

(Clark County), and New Jersey (Mendham)
MIGRATION
The migrations
tially
of the Great
Gray Owl are
essen-
sporadic and dependent upon cyclic levels of small
mammal
scarcely
life
in
the
North.
some years there
In
any southward movement
is
at all; in others, a
movement of the species to the

The winter movement, when it occurs, seems to
move as much in an eastward direction as a southrather heavy general
South.
ward one. Nearly all the records for eastern North

America occur between October and March.
ECONOMIC INFLUENCE
GREAT GRAY OWL
Decidedly detrimental to populations of grouse and
Strix nebulosa nebulosa Forster
ptarmigan, and undoubtedly the root of certain eco-
nomic
losses to poultry raisers
southward
migration
during those years
becomes
more
extensive.
when
Yet,
these detrimental factors are largely offset by the highly
and much more extensive predation at

upon mice, rats, and other destructive rodents.
beneficial
times
XVI
Otus
asio
aikeni
AIKEN
(Brewster).
all
SCREECH OWL
Male.
South slope of Eagle
Mountain, El Paso County, Colorado, June
3,
1933.
A.O.U.
Number 373-G
Great Gray
Owl
55
la chouette
dian
granges de l'est
df.s
name meaning "The Barn Owl
la petite nyctale
"The
Little
French-Canadian name meaning
Night Owl."
cabezon
tecolotito
SPECIES
French-Cana-
of the East."
gmelin
de
Mexican-Indian
name meaning "Gmelin's Little Big-headed Owl."

sparrow owl Because of its diminutive size, as
as for
ORDER
STRIGIFORMES
FAMILY:
STRIGIDAE
GENUS:
Aegolius
SPECIES:
acadicus (Gmelin)
predeliction for preying
its
well
upon sparrows.
white-fronted owl After the

and belly plumage.
generally light col-
oration of breast
Kaup
The Saw-whet Owl
the
is
smallest
the eastern
of
owls and easily distinguishable from the Screech
(Otus
in that
asio sp.)
it
is
has a well-rounded head without ear
SUBSPECIES
Owl
not only a bit smaller but

tufts.
Its face is
rather shallow and the facial disks are small, thus
mak-
ing the eyes appear quite disproportionately large and
imparting an
acadicus (Gmelin)
brooksi (Fleming)
SAW-WHET OWL
somewhat sorrowful expresNot much larger than a fat sparrow
appealing,
sion to the bird.
when perched,
this little
owl
QUEEN CHARLOTTE
OWL
in the type of terrain the
owl prefers.
Aegolius acadicus acadicus
taken within
Richardson's,
is
IX)
its
is
beak
but
it
is
black instead of yellow, and
is
black rim around
Owl's crown
One
the
Volume
Part
Owl
of
i,
(Gmelin). Original de-
acadica Gmelin, Systematica Natura,

1788, page 296, based on the Acadian
i,
Latham (Gen.
names: Nyctale
talis,
Strix
Syn., Vol.
from Nova
ica Septentrionali,
1,
p.
149)
Former
Scotia.
in
Amer-
scientific
albifrons, Nyctale acadica, Strix fron-
passerina,
Cryptoglaux
acadica
disk
Further,
which
the
is
so
Saw-whet
streaked rather than spotted.
of the most peculiar
of the
Strix
is
facial
it
prom-
and appealing characterSaw-whet Owl is the seemingly impossible

positions into which it moves its head
sometimes with
its chin virtually resting on its feet, sometimes with the
face looking straight backward, as if the head had been
put on a full 180 off kilter, and even more startlingly,
turning its head so amazingly that the eyes are below
the beak as it stares balefully at an intruder. In this
latter position it seems that the head has somehow
been taken off and then reattached upside down. The
tail is short and blunt, and the head seems not only
istics
(Aegolius
noticeably smaller than
lighter in general coloration. It also lacks the
inent
NAME AND
Owl
Richardson's
of
evident in Richardson's Owl.
SCIENTIFIC
not likely to be mis-
range for any other owl, with the
funereus richardsoni)
SAW-WHET OWL
{COLOR PLATE
its
exception
possible
scription:
rarely seen by the casual
is
woodland visitor because of its small size, nocturnal

habits, and the difficulty of the visitor in moving about
acadica,
Strix acadica.
oversized but badly misshapen because of the grossly
asymmetrical ear construction.
Rank
over-all
in
size
among
the
eighteen
species:
Thirteenth.
OTHER NAMES
acadian
owl
Because of the geographical location
SHAPE AT REST
of a part of this owl's range.
acadian
in part,
saw-whet owl
and
for the tonal quality of
kirtland's
56
For geographical location
owl
one of
Honorary name.
its calls.
Although
reversible
Saw-whet Owl
like all the
toe
and
is
North American owls
it
has a
capable of perching with three
forward and one behind, as well as with two forward and two behind, it nevertheless invariably perches
with two toes forward. When perched it appears to be
TOTAL LENGTH
toes
much
smaller than
when
wing expanse for a bird of
the oversized
dappled background, and

sits
length.
this
coloration blends extremely well with a sunlight-
Its
on
motionlessly
the bird, for
time sitting
still;
is
on
the bird
its
want
194.3
Minimum
Maximum
Rank
The
held
tail is
especially
it,
Average
494.0
when observed
and
is
mm.
(8.6")
the eighteen species: Thir-
(19.9").
Minimum
Maximum
458.5
516.9
Female
(19.5")
515.6
(18.1")
478.8
(20.4")
562.6
mm.
mm.
mm.
(20.3")
(18.9")
(22.2")
wingspan among the eighteen species: Thir-
in
at
so short
Average
133.2
Minimum
Maximum
127.0
acadicus
slightly
emerging from
woodcock when
for a
its
it
more
wishes to go, and then
rises
140.3
(5.0")
131. 6
(5.5")
144.9
mm.
mm.
mm.
(5.5")
(5.2")
(5.7")
Fif-
TAIL LENGTH
an
flushes.
Owl
to
sharply to take
perch at about the height from which
it
When
wings rapidly
floor,
(5.3")
in
the
of
hole in a tree, the Saw-whet
drops swiftly to near the forest
139.2
Female
mm.
mm.
mm.
is
undulative character, like a woodpecker. Hunters have

it
(5.4").
teenth.
of Aegolius acadicus
woodcock, though with
often mistaken
mm.
Male
very rapid and distinctive, usually suggestive of
mm.
(2.8").
Male
Average
70.3
Minimum
Maximum
66.9
Rank
originally
72.4
mm.
mm.
mm.
in tail length
Female
(2.8")
73.3
(2.6")
69.9
(2.9")
among
74.0
mm.
mm.
mm.
(2.9")
(2.8")
(2.9")
the eighteen species: Fif-
teenth.
dropped.
On
217.2
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
to be absent.
flight pattern
it
(8.0")
teenth.
FLIGHT PATTERN
where
(7- 2 ")
among
Rank
its
mm
about con-
downward when
rarely spread
tail is
may even seem
flight of a
(7.8")
183.5
WINGSPAN
with what appears to be
expanse and breadth of wings, imparting a
dusk. In flight, the
The
mm.
(7.1")
the body of this owl seems abnormally short
flight,
it
198.6
Male
vague batlike quality to

that
203.2
perched.
is
the
(7.7")
difficult
SHAPE IN FLIGHT
In
79.
in total length
Rank
for
Female
mm.
mm.
mm.
to
also tends to shuffle
perch.
Average
bob concontinually swiveling its head
is
It
(7.7").
teenth.
the head seems to
unlimited curiosity.
gr.
Male
it
not always easy for
is
seems to have a
it
to look in various directions
siderably
often overlooked as
This
roost.
its
when awake
and the bird
stantly,
it
largely because of
in flight,
occasion, the wings of this
ternatively, especially
when
it
owl will beat almaneuvering through
little
is
BEAK LENGTH
tangled thickets. At such times the flight becomes particularly jerky in character.
birds
mm.
(0.5").
Male
Average
11.7
Minimum
Maximum
11.5
Rank
WEIGHT
in
11.8
mm.
mm.
mm.
beak length
Female
(0.5")
12.3
(0.5")
11.7
(0.5")
among
13.0
mm.
mm.
mm.
(0.5")
(0.5")
(0.5")
the eighteen species: Four-
teenth.
Species average: 104.4 gr. (3.7 oz.).
Male
Average
Minimum
Maximum
Rank
in
Female
10 1.5 gr.
(3.6 oz.)
gr.
(3.0 oz.)
119.2 gr.
(4.2 oz.)
84.3
weight
among
107.2 gr.
87.9
124.
LEGS, FEET,
(3.8 oz.)
gr.
(3.1
oz.
gr.
(4.3
oz.)
the eighteen species: Fifteenth.
The
feet of the
TALONS
Saw-whet Owl are quite
though not disproportionately so for the
Saw-whet Owl
small, al-
size
of
the
57
The
bird.
and rather gracefully formed,
toes are trim
terminating in very long, well-curved, sharply tapering

talons
which are
feathered to the
jet black.
The
last ball of
and feet are thickly

the toe, and the scales of
legs
naked portion are a pale
this final
There
flight.
is
one annual complete molt which begins
about early August and
completed by mid-Novem-
is
ber.
dull yellowish.
VOICE
EYES AND VISION
The
eyes
with
large,
vision
is
of
Aegolius acadicus acadicus are

yellow
brilliant
excellent, but
it
irides.
The
will occasionally
is its
quite
night
Despite this fact, the
be witnessed hunting
on heavily overcast days. Evidently its

day or night, is not
is hunting by
location of prey as
bird's
tends to exhibit some difficulty
seeing well in bright sunshine.
Saw-whet Owl
The somewhat
sight,
as
whether
it
important in
metallic string of notes this owl utwhich have been rather grossly likened to the
filing of a saw
and the call for which the bird has
been named is really not the unpleasant sound one
might expect. Nor is it the most common call that the
Saw-whet Owl utters. This supposed saw-filing call,
uttered primarily during courtship
mainly from mid-
ters,
March
to
late
and, though
hearing.
it
April
is
very harsh
rarely
in
has a decided metallic ring to
nature
the
it,
SWEEEawwww SWEEE-awwww SWEEE-awwww SWEEEawwww and once the owl has begun voicing it, he may
sound
been
little
pause.
owl has extremely acute hearing.
attracted
It
has
from quite phenomenal distances by
emulation of the squeak of a mouse.
One
observer,
squeaking faintly to watch the reaction of an Eastern
Owl (Otus asio naevius) in a tree, watched a

Saw-whet Owl streak with unerring accuracy directly
Screech
toward the sound he was making, the bird coming
from a wooded area over half a mile distant across a

meadow. So intent was the owl on the sound that the
observer had to throw up his hands to ward it off.
Even then the owl circled him twice at very close range
before arrowing back toward the distant woods from
which it had emerged.
The ear cavities of this little owl are so huge and so
asymmetrical in size, shape, and placement that the
skull is oddly misshapen and the head of the living bird
often appears to be badly distorted. Quite frequently
when perched it will lean forward and raise one or the
other of the ear flaps located at the back curve of the
facial rim and listen intently. More often than not,
after a moment or so, it will drop from its perch, skim
along over the ground, and with uncanny accuracy
suddenly plunge to fasten
its
talons in a mouse, shrew,
grasshopper, or other creature which
made
the faint
sound that the owl detected.
MOLT
The Saw-whet Owl
exquisitely soft
all
eg
flight
and
feathers
has no ear
fluted
Another
tufts.
Its
plumage is
and with
for
perfectly
soundless
common
relatively
note
metallic-sounding
this
owl makes has a decidedly anvil-like ringing qual-
ity.
It
usually uttered in groups of four notes, each
is
of the four following one another rapidly, then a pause

of about five seconds before the next set of four
The
gun.
entire calling session of this song
possible, the
song sounds
also
last
last
As
closely transliterated as
TAAAaannggg-TAAA-
aannggg-T AAAaannggg-T AAAaannggg.

Again during courtship, the male often
series of three notes every two seconds, and
may
be-
is
may
like:
for as long as ten minutes.
throughout
much
of
the
voices
this
night.
rather melodious and quite a pleasantly soft
little
call
It
is
call,
in a rather breathless
manner, but never im-
peratively given. It sounds like:
WHOOOOOK-WHO-
sounded
OOOOK-WHOOOOOK.
common
Probably the most

bird
call
is
It
not far-carrying
is
yond a distance of
at
this
any
a questioning, rather raspy sound
of low timbre, sounding like:

y-y-y.
made by
practically
utterance
which may be heard
time of the year
oo
SSSsss-haaayyyyyyyy-y
and
is
seldom audible be-
feet.
As with many owls, especially the smaller species, the

Saw-whet Owl is capable of producing remarkably ventriloquistic effects. The authors have actually watched
one of these interesting little owls calling from a branch
about 20 feet in front of us and yet both of us were
utterly convinced for a time that another owl was
calling, first
finally
from
from behind us, then off to the left, and

far ahead of us past the owl we were
was only through associating the sounds

we were hearing with the movements of the bird's beak
as it sang that we were able to convince ourselves that
the bird we were watching was the one who was dowatching.
delicate, neatly overlaid
well
pleasantly muted. It has a sound like
continue the call most of the night without appreciable
EARS AND HEARING

This
is
ing
all
Saw-whet Owl
It
the singing.
One
that
more pleasant
of the
whet Owl
is
noted
which the Saw-
calls for
a very melodious, tinkling sound
is
cannot be reproduced in print but which
just
has the remarkable quality of sounding almost exactly

like a tricklet of
Next
to the
water falling into a quiet
little
Barred Owls {Strix varia
and the
the Saw-whet
(Strix
Owl probably
has the widest variety of
occidentalis
sp.),
among
calls
North American owls. As with those larger species,

many of the calls have numerous variations given at
different times. No attempt will be made to enumerate
emulate them here,
or
worthy of noting. This

ing
little
one other
but
is
call
quite
is
a very gentle and very pleas-
mouselike squeaking that
is
outer edges of the outermost
three narrow
the
cross
both harmonious
and surprisingly far-carrying. Not infrequently, tamed

Saw-whet Owls will respond to a gentle stroking of their
backs by uttering this delightful sound.
white, as
primaries
Two
with white along their lengths.
and usually interrupted bands
The
tail.
tip
tail
"eyebrows" (superciliaries)
pool.
sp.)
Spotted Owls
The
feathers.
are spotted
The
and chin are a
ground color of the
the
is
has a white margin.

lores,
dusky coloration surrounds the
facial
or
white
of
dull
disks.
eyes, especially off the
and extends downward along the facial

to dark-brown spots
outlines the bottom of the facial rim at the throat and
extends on each side to the ear ruff; sometimes, but not
always, forming a patch of the same speckling on the
upper throat. Sides of the head are streaked with
brown and white.
outside corners,
rim.
The
band
entire
of chestnut-brown
underparts are basically white or buff-
tinged white and broadly but irregularly striped
(ex-
cept for the median line)
The
with chestnut brown.
undertail coverts are usually pure white, but sometimes
may have
SEXUAL DIFFERENCES:
While there
is
no difference
in coloration, markings,
or voice between the sexes, the female
the
slightly
is
indistinct
little
spottings
brown,
of
these
becoming elongated into short

streaks. Leg plumage varies from cinnamon buff to a
very pale buff, and the foot plumage is a pale buffy
white. The inner webs of the primaries and secondaries
on the underside have large spots of white on grayish
brown.
spottings
sometimes
larger.
JUVENILE
Aegolius acadicus acadicus seems to be particularly

susceptible to sudden,
unexpected snowstorms
accorri-
Only the wing and
tail
The
feathers are identical to those
and the forward
panied by severe temperature drops during which time
of the adult birds.
prey virtually disappears and the high metabolic rate
portion of the forehead are white, in strong contrast
of the
owl cannot be adequately refueled. Numerous
times in the past, large numbers of these
little
owls
have been found dead following such inclemencies.

reliable
information
seems to be available
expected lifespan in the wild,
although
No
regarding
several
zoos
have reported that specimens in their collections have

lived for over eight years.
to the
uniformly blackish brown to lighter brown of the
ear region.
The
rest of the
upperparts except on
brown. The chin and
The
superciliaries
breast
entire
is
tail
crown, along with
and wings,
is
the
all
plain
deep
sides of the throat are dull white.
an unblemished brown
lighter than the brown

maining underparts are unmarked tawny buff
that
is
of the upperparts. All the re-
namon
buff.
The
facial
disks
are blackish
to
brown
cin-
ex-
cept between and over the eyes, where they are whitish.

ADULT
The
general
upperparts
is
is
color of
a rich
the
crown, back,
and other
Vandyke brown. The crown
narrowly streaked with short, irregular white
these streaks often are restricted
and
sides of the
crown.
On
to just
the forehead
triangular in
but largely concealed by overlying plumage.

terminally
with the outer webs mostly white.

speckle the outer
wing
itself
lines;
the lower hindneck there
are large spots of white, mostly
der feathers are margined
Such marked difference between juvenal and adult

plumage is practically unique among North American
owls, and for some time juvenal birds of this subspecies were thought to be a different species of owl
entirely. However, the full juvenal plumage is worn for
only a few weeks after the young bird has left the nest.
coverts,
in
The
shape,
GENERAL HABITS AND
shoul-
CHARACTERISTICS
brown, but
few white spots
mainly on the larger
The Saw-whet Owl has inordinate patience. If some

manner of prey should happen to elude it under a log
Saw-whet Owl
59
or rock or in a hole, the owl will take a perch as closely
overhead as possible and wait for hours,
necessary,
if
reappearance of the animal. Usually the patience reaps its expected reward.
for the
Saw-whet Owl does not take

and may be approached rather closely
if spotted at roost. It is reasonably sociable where humans are concerned and not infrequently will come
quite close to a campfire and join the campers grouped
around it, even to the point of perching on a conRelatively fearless, the
alarm too
easily
Nor
venient shoulder.
camper's
is
hesitant about entering a
it
Occasionally this bird will be found deep
tent.
within the confines of a major
The author
city.
ob-
it perched and
on a window ledge of the Wrigley Builddowntown Chicago. However, though relatively
Owl
Owl
not hesitate to attack and
will
opportunity
the
if
secluded
and
habitat
man
nature,
retiring
a Saw-whet
kill
Because of the
arises.
owl's
not
is
enemy except during the woodcock-huntwhen owls are frequently shot by mistake
considerable
ing season,
because of their
similar flight pattern to that
initially
of the woodcock.
Saw-whet Owl's principal
Basically unaggressive, the
defense
one of protective coloration.
is
pearance and small
Its
speckled ap-
camouflage
size so well
that quite
it
away
often an observer standing only a few feet
miss seeing the perched bird unless

seen at
under such circumstances,
all
moves.
it
it
is
will
If
it
is
usually be-
served one for a considerable while as
cause the owl's hiding place has been discovered by
preened
one or more of the many smaller songbirds which delight in tormenting it wherever they find it
birds such
ing in
tame,
itself
it
far
is
more often heard than
probably because of
its
This
seen.
is
remarkably well-developed ven-
as
bush-tits,
chickadees, kinglets,
name
blers, to
and war-
sparrows,
only a few.
triloquistic abilities, as well as its small size, protective
and
coloring,
Despite
retiring habits.
small
its
size,
known
extremely fierce with prey and has been
mammal
as
large
as
a cottontail
is
although
rabbit,
HUNTING METHODS AND

CARRYING OF PREY
to kill a
it
rarely attacks any creature larger than a full-grown rat.
The
greatest likelihood of seeing one of these owls in
when
the woods comes very early in the morning
seems to delight
in
perching temporarily in
atop the uppermost spire of a
view
full
tree.
fir
Utterly fearless with any
it
the
manner
owl often does not eat
little
only on the head
or
its
of prey
entire
it
kill,
attacks,
but dines
sometimes only the brains.
It
hunts more in the evening and early morning hours
than any other time and exhibits remarkable inventive-
ness
and
how
to
it
The Saw-whet Owl mainly
prefers
keep
to
to
the
versatility in hunting.
come upon a number
will quickly
holding
with the second
about at
swampy
tangled
areas within such woods. It tends to
tamarack
frequent
alder
bogs,
groves of cedar. Occasionally
it
residence in or around a barn

until
it
likes
and heavy
up temporary
remain there
thickets,
will take
and
will
rats
has been exhausted through
its
hunting
far the most preferred roosting
conifer,
trunk,
especially
cedar
in the foliage.
will
once
has used a roost
and again. Dense vine

site
sometimes
is
in a
close
dense
to
the
Quite often such a roosting
be within a foot or so of the ground, and
branch
ing
site
but just as often on the outer branches, well
camouflaged
it
this
set of talons.
point,
will
it
If there are
finish
killing
still
and then go
this
way
it
after the
has been
living ones
known
still
others
those
its
it
is
beak
remaining.
to kill five or six
it
mice
In
in
rapid succession.
When
the
attack
rectly to the prey
is
say
launched, the owl

a
mouse
and
arrows
di-
slams a sharply
taloned foot to the middle of the furry back. As soon
efforts.
By
same time,
holding by swiftly tearing off the heads with
either frightened off or the food supply of
is
mice and
manage some-
with one foot, pursue another and catch
it
mixed hardwoods and coniferous.
especially
it
descend and snatch one and then, while
deepest recesses of dense woods, strictly coniferous or

It
Should
of mice at the
when such
it
will
come back
to
it
time
made, the talons jerk convulsively inward,

penetrating deeply into the prey's body and almost always killing it instantly as the heart and other vital
organs are punctured. While in the process of killing
its prey, it ruffles its feathers and snaps its beak in
as contact
is
agitation.
clusters are also a favorite roost-
vines are in foliage, but not during
the winter.
variety of field sketches of the Aegolius acadicus subspe-
cies,

The Saw-whet Owl's
larger owls of almost
60
greatest
any
natural
species.
Even
enemies are
the
Screech
the
Queen Charlotte Owl
(Aegolius acadius brooksi)
and the Saw-whet Owl (Aegolius acadicus acadicus). The

normal sleeping posture of bird at middle left is on a slightly
more forward-inclined plane than is common among most
other North American owls.
Saw-whet Owl
oo<< s ;
5?
'?3?
"">-'
rr
ff.f.tf.
^rt;M
Except with very small prey, such as

majority of prey
is
the
insects,
and very often

carrying.
Insects and
the
doing
carried in the talons,
with only one foot
As the female
sits
in relative serenity
upon her perch,
many
other quite small prey creatures are normally carried
the male
in the beak.
twenty times before alighting a foot or so away, nor-
bird
mally on
will
her as
circle
During
another branch.
as
and
which she
circling
this
after he lands, he voices a variety of calls
appears to
listen to
or
fifteen
Once he
with great attentiveness.
has landed he engages in a complex series of bobbings,
bring
Regardless of what sort of prey
Saw-whet Owl
has
it
the
killed,
almost invariably eat the head
will
first.
enough so that only head or brains

abandon the rest of the carcass. Most
mice, shrews, insects, frogs, and other prey of this size
prey
If the
are eaten,
large
will
be swallowed whole in a
will
ingly
known
young
as a
to
flying squirrel,
An
torn apart.
sarily
normally such larger prey
exceedingly voracious eater,
regularly eat double
With such an
own weight
its
appetite,
very rapid. As
its
the
at
many
prey each night.
and
feces
may
may be
every
twice
or
ninety
minutes.
him
foot
which gradually
closer to her. Occasionally he will be holding
some other small prey in one set

moves about. Finally, when he is
only inches from her, he will drop the food and then
move away a short distance and watch closely to see
whether or not she will accept what he has offered.
No case has been witnessed where she has refused it.
Once she has in fact taken it into her beak and then
swallowed it, the male breaks into a series of tooting
a
gift of
an
insect or
of talons while he
calls of
mally
a pleasingly whistled nature.

off while
flies
continuing his
pair
move out
call,
The female
nor-
and he follows her,

which gradually fades away as the
he
whistling
is
of hearing.
Copulation generally occurs on a branch at mid-
as four or five pellets
once
of
rate
in
will
it
digestive processes are neces-
be regurgitated in a single night,

expelled
seem-
series of convulsive,
Although the Saw-whet Owl

swallow whole an animal as large
gulpings.
difficult
has been
is
is
it
and maneuvering^ on
shufflings,
height in a tree and

it
is
repeated
only a few seconds, but
lasts for
each
times
several
night
several
for
nights.
Prey includes a wide variety of small animals:
backed mice, house mice, woodland mice of
meadow
kinds,
red squirrels,
voles, rats of different varieties,
flying squirrels, bats, shrews, moles,
all
red-
young
and
rabbits,
ANNUAL BROODS,
NEST,
occasionally prey as potentially dangerous to the owl

itself as
the least weasel. Birds are also eaten
such
vireos,
than a couple of days

strikes
to
when
the
of
die.
pellets
owl
this
always ejected with what

fall
as
severe weather
and
and food becomes unobtainable
suddenly weaken and
Most
such
is
ejects
Owl [Tyto
bird's
line of the
alba pratincola)
very
will
the
to "whitewash" the area below
they
daytime
habits of the
roost with
roost.
Barn
its
drop-
each about three-quarters
of
an inch long and half an inch wide have been discovered on the ground beneath a roosting area. At the
time of pellet regurgitation, the owl stands high on its
perch, then crouches while leaning forward and gapes
several times, simultaneously shaking its head violently
back and forth sideways. At last the pellet, covered
with a slick coating of mucus, flies out of the mouth
much
from the bird and drops to the

ground. Once the pellet is out, the little owl evinces a
relieved aspect that is most comical to witness.
as
62
as
a foot
the
although the success of the third nesting
The
especially at higher altitudes.
Almost invariably the nest

hairy woodpeckers are used.
is
first
is
unlikely,
brooding nor-
an abandoned
is
The
flicker
cavity within the hole
about a foot deep and normally the hole
to 50 feet
is
from 18
above the ground.
Reluctant to leave the nest once eggs have been

the owl will poke
as ioo pellets
to
hole in a tree stub, although sometimes the holes of
pings.
As many
unknown
Saw-whet
primarily single-brooded, and on a
not
is
Owl, although it is
few recorded occasions, triple-brooding has occurred,
are
Saw- whet Owl tends
its
Double-brooding
mally takes place in April or May.
evidently great difficulty
the ground beneath the
And, much along the
it
NESTING HABITS
as
and warblers but rodents and frogs

seem to make up the bulk of the diet. Because of its
high rate of metabolism, the Saw-whet Owl must eat
often during its active periods. If denied food for more
uncos,
its
head from the hole
banged with a branch, but

enough to fly off.
it
will
if
laid,
the tree
rarely be
is
alarmed
EGGS
Number
per nesting
but usually four,
five,
or
Three
six.
to seven eggs are
Five
is
the most
number, and six oftener than four.

Color Pure white and rarely nest-stained.
Saw-w het Owl
laid,
common
Oval
Shape
to
slightly
ovate and sometimes very
nearly globular.
Very smooth and moderately glossy, alis variable and there may be dull
Texture
though the glossiness
eggs as well as highly shiny ones, though never in the
same
clutch.
Based on the measurements of 164 eggs, the

is 30.5 mm. (1.2") by an average width
Size
average length
of 25.1
mm.
(1.0"), with extremes of:
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum
length:
3!-5
length:
27.0
width:
28.3
width:
23.6
and usually
No
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
(1.2")
(1.1")
(1.1")
(0.9")
than 24 hours apart
less
closer to 72 hours separating them.
Egg-laying dates
March
Earliest,
May
19; latest, July 3;
2.
INCUBATION AND
BROODING CHARACTERISTICS
Incubation
days, with
is
set at
from 26
though both parents

of the young,
not
less
than 21 nor more than 29

most likely figures. Al-
to 28 days the
assist in
most of
incubation and brooding
this activity
is
the female. Incubation begins with the
accomplished by
egg
first
SAW-WHET OWL
laid.
Aegolius acadicus acadicus (Gmelin)
YOUNG AND FAMILY
LIFE
Feather development
CHARACTERISTICS
of the fourth
is
fairly rapid,
week the young
and by the end
birds are able to flutter
15 or 20 feet through the air, but they are poorly skilled
Because of the interval of egg-laying and the fact

that incubation begins with the
hatched babies
blind,
first
and
egg
laid,
newly
By
fly
hatched, the babies are very

virtually
naked,
with
only
and unable
to
launch themselves from
young birds
plumage is evident.
the end of the thirty-fourth day the
quite well and the full juvenal
worn
and
early August,
tiny, helpless,
This
the
complete molt occurs, producing the
covering of sparse white down. However,
scantiest
this
down
grows quite rapidly and the birds appear woolly within
level
ground.
be found in the same nest with
young.
fully fledged
When
may
first
at landing
is
until late July
age, exactly like that of the adults.
first
when a
winters plum-
At about
this time,
parental care ceases.
three days. By the fourth day they utter almost continu-
ous liquid peepings. The eyes begin partially opening

on the eighth or ninth day, but at this time the irides
are inky dark and without much luster.
The
is
first
down
is
worn from
10 to 14 days,
and
pushed out by the juvenal plumage. By the beginning
of the third
make
week they snap
or seventeeth day. the

a deep chocolate
brown
On
and
the sixteenth
clusive
downy underparts have become

in color and now the irides be-
gin to brighten, although they are
still
not fully colored,
nor the eyes yet fully open. That does not occur until
about the twenty-second day, at which time the iris is a
brilliant lustrous vellow.
Breeds from southern Alaska (Mitkof Island), central

British
their beaks ferociously
a rasping call to their parents.
this
Columbia (Nulki Lake, Indianpoint Lake) exof
Queen Charlotte
(Carvel), central
Islands,
Saskatchewan
central
Alberta
(Nipawin), southern
Manitoba (Aweme), northern Ontario probably from

Moose Factory), central and eastern Quebec (Anticosti
Island) and Nova Scotia (Sydney), southward to southern California (mountains of San Diego County), in
the highlands of Mexico to Veracruz, and to Oklahoma
Saw-whet Owl
63
(near Tulsa), central Missouri (Bluff ton), central Ohio,
Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, Canada. Former
and Maryland (Cumberland).

The Saw-whet Owl winters throughout its breeding
range, but also moves sporadically to Queen Charlotte
scientific
West
Virginia,
Islands, the southwestern deserts
(Desert Center, Cali-
La Osa, Pima County,
fornia;
names: Nyctala acadica scotaea, Cryptoglaux
acadica scotaea, Cryptoglaux acadica brooksi.
Arizona),
(Madisonville), South Carolina
(St.
Louisiana
Helena Island),
OTHER NAMES
Georgia (Tybee Island), and Florida (Fort Myers).

Casual
Bermuda and Newfoundland.
in
brooks's
owl
Honorary name from the
subspecific
nomenclature which honors the ornithologist and bird
Major Allan Brooks.

la chouette de reine-charlotte French-Canadian name meaning "Queen Charlotte Owl."
northwest saw- whet owl Because of geographic
location and relationship to the Saw-whet Owl.
pacific saw-whet owl
For the same reasons.
artist,
MIGRATION
There
though
something
is
it
is
of
movement,
migrational
not truly a migration in the strictest sense
Much depends upon the weather conDuring more severe winters, the Saw-whet Owl
moves much farther southward than at times of mild
winters. Sometimes there is no migrational movement
whatever. Even bad weather does not always make this
owl move, as evidenced by the large numbers found
dead after especially severe storms. Some which wait
until such storms strike and then attempt to migrate
do make it farther south, but these arrive at their
the word.
of
ditions.
destination
emaciated
such
in
chances for recovery are
slim.
condition
Normally,
be a migrational movement southward at

gin in October
migration
is
and reach
its
peak
in
that
if
their
there
is
to
December. Such
always done at night and
is
A much
darker bird than the Saw-whet
ius acadicus acadicus)
rarely wit-
kill
a certain
{Aegol-
same
size
in
its
own
This
right.
is
particularly true in light of the
number
is
Aegolius acadicus.
ECONOMIC INFLUENCE
does
Owl
closely related, of
an absence of any known intergrades

of race between this owl and Aegolius acadicus acadicus. At present, however, it is still recognized by the
American Ornithological Union as a subspecies of
nessed.
it
though very
and general physical construction. The

and these are so
striking that there is a good possibility it may not be
merely an A. acadicus subspecies, but rather a species
the
fact that there
Although
principal differences are in coloration,
will be-
all, it
of pigeons,
barnyard chicks, and songbirds, Aegolius acadicus acadicus
destroys
such
numbers of injurious rodents and

it must be considered a
LEGS, FEET,
TALONS
insects that in the final result
highly beneficial bird.
Thick feathering continues down

on
legs
and
feet
and
the toes to the base of the talons, instead of the last
ball of the toe
being bare of plumage, as in the Saw-
whet Owl.
QUEEN CHARLOTTE OWL

{COLOR PLATE X)
SCIENTIFIC

ADULT
NAME AND
Aegolius acadicus brooksi
scription:
(Fleming).
The markings
Original
de-
Cryptoglaux acadica brooksi Fleming, The
Auk, Volume 33, Number 4, October 11, 9 6, page

422, based on a specimen from Graham Island, Queen
1
64
are practically identical to those of the
Saw-whet Owl, but there is a very decided difference in

coloration. Everywhere that the Saw-whet Owl is white,
the
Queen Charlotte Owl
in
is
a strong light rufescent in
browns are much deeper and richer

the Queen Charlotte Owl than in the Saw-whet Owl.
tone,
and
Queen Charlotte Owl
all
the

JUVENILE
Much
the juvenal form of the
like
but with
colors richer
all
Saw-whet Owl,
and darker.
GENERAL HABITS AND

CHARACTERISTICS
If
anything, even
Owl and
more
Saw-whet
and observe. A
reclusive than the
therefore difficult to detect
handsome little owl is sorely needed.

known at this time, the Queen Charlotte
much like the Saw-whet Owl in general
close study of this
So far
Owl
is
habits
as
is
very
and
characteristics, with
much more wary
the possible exception
and far more inclined

Body shape at rest
or in flight, the flight pattern and, as far as is known,
choice of habitat, courtship, nesting, incubation, and
that
it is
bird
to flee in the face of disturbances.
family
life
characteristics are very similar to those of the
Saw-whet Owl.
DISTRIBUTION
Although
it
to the British
southward as
QUEEN CHARLOTTE OWL
was previously thought to have extended

Columbia mainland and as far coastally
the Puget Sound area of British Columbia
Aegolius acadicus brooksi (Fleming]
and Washington, it has now been determined that this

owl is confined strictly to the Queen Charlotte
Islands. As far as can be determined, it is completely
little
non-migratory.
Queen Charlotte Owl
65
la chouette de richardson
name meaning "Richardson's Owl."
la nyctale boreale
ing "Night
SPECIES
Owl
French-Canadian
French-Canadian name mean-
of the North."
Montagne Indian name mean-
pillip-pile-tschish
ing "Water-dripping Bird," due to liquid notes of one

of
ORDER
STRIGIFORMES
FAMILY:
STRIGIDAE
its calls.
sparrow owl After the prey this owl

tengmalm's owl Erroneously, after
frequently
the
kills.
Old World
race of the species, Aegolius funereus tengmalmi.
tuckwelinguk
One," because
GENUS:
Aegolius
SPECIES:
funereus (Linnaeus)
Kaup
this
Eskimo name meaning "The Blind

owl can be easily approached in
daytime.
SUBSPECIES
richardsoni
(Bonaparte)
Richardson's
RICHARDSON'S
OWL
RICHARDSON'S
(COLOR PLATE
OWL
XI)
tufts.
Rank
NAME AND
rather closely resembles the Saw-
whet Owl {Aegolius acadicus acadicus) but is a good

bit larger, though still by no means a very large owl.
Unlike the Saw-whet Owl, with its black beak coloration, Richardson's Owl has a yellow beak, and there is a
distinctive facial rim of black that is lacking in the Sawwhet Owl. In addition, where the Saw-whet Owl has
white streaks on crown and forehead, Richardson's Owl
has white spots. It is also about two inches longer than
the Saw-whet Owl. A variable but rather distinctive
feature, sometimes quite apparent and sometimes almost absent, depending upon the stance of the perched
bird, is the unusual flat-topped appearance of the top
of this owl's head. As with the Saw-whet Owl, it has no
ear
SCIENTIFIC
Owl
in
over-all size
among
the
eighteen
species:
Tenth.
Aegolius funereus richardsoni (Bonaparte). Original
SHAPE AT REST
description: Nyctale Richardsoni Bonaparte, Geographic
and Comparison List, 1838, page 7; new name for

Strix tengmalmi Audubon, Birds of America, folio, Plate
380; based on a specimen from Bangor, Maine. Former
scientific names: Strix tengmalmi, Glaux funerea richardsoni, Cryptoglaux funerea richardsoni, Nyctale teng-
malmi
Aegolius funereus richardsoni has the inclination quite

frequently to stand high but lean
so that
its
underside
In this stance
it
sparrow. Despite
richardsoni, Nyctale Richardsoni.
is
its
body well forward
almost parallel with
its
perch.
tends to resemble vaguely an oversized

its
evident chunkiness of shape, the
and the tightness of the

plumage impart a sort of stylized or streamlined look.
Not only more or less flattened, the top of the head may
flat-topped aspect of the head
OTHER NAMES
at times
vex as
American sparrow owl Referring

and to the prey sparrows that
location
to
this
appear to be
slightly
concave rather than con-
in other owls.
geographic
owl often
seeks.
arctic
saw-whet owl
From geographic
SHAPE IN FLIGHT
location
and superficial similarity to the Saw-whet Owl.

boreal owl Meaning "Owl of the North," although this term is in more familiar use with the Old
World race, Tengmalm's Owl.
in part,
66
Saw-whet Owl, but with a longer and

broader spread of wings and with the tail slightly more
apparent in silhouette than is the case with the Saw-
Richardson's
Not unlike
Owl
the
whet Owl. There

as
is
is
not as
much
evident in smaller owls;
it is
TAIL LENGTH
of the batlike similarity
more streamlined.
mm.
(4.1").
Male
FLIGHT PATTERN
Again,
it
differs only slightly
Average
95.5
Minimum
Maximum
88.1
Rank
from that of the Saw-
102.5
in tail length
whet Owl, the differences being that it gives the apbit more directness and determination in
its flight. The wings beat rather rapidly, and this is
mm.
mm.
mm.
Female
110.5
(3.5")
95.3
mm.
mm.
mm.
(3.8")
(4.0")
among
19.9
(4.4")
(3.8")
(4.7")
the eighteen species: Tenth.
pearance of a
especially noticeable
ity in
when
it
approaches
BEAK LENGTH
nesting cav-
its
a tree and tends to hover momentarily before the
entrance in a mothlike manner.
mm.
(0.6").
Male

birds:
Average
14.
Minimum
Maximum
13.3
Rank
15.8
beak
in
mm.
mm.
mm.
Female
(0.6")
14.6
(0.5")
14.2
(0.6")
16.6
length
among
mm.
mm.
mm.
(0.6")
(0.6")
(0.7")
eighteen
the
species:
Twelfth.
WEIGHT
Species average: 217.5 S1"- (7-6 oz.).
Male
Average
226.7 g1
in
"-
weight
Female
(74 oz -)
Minimum
Maximum
Rank
210.9 E r
192.7 gr.
LEGS, FEET,
gr.
(7.8 oz.)
(6.8 oz.)
199.2 gr.
(7.0 oz.)
(7-9 oz -)
2 35- 2
(8.2
among
224.1
P*-
oz.)
TOTAL LENGTH
mm.
240.0
Minimum
Maximum
209.6
Rank
263.0
in total
mm.
mm.
mm.
length
Dense plumage, reminiscent of heavy leggings, covers

Owl and continues to be
relatively thick on the feet, extending out onto the toes
to the base of the talons. Occasionally the plumage of
the feet will have a random dark brown spot here and
there on the upper surface, though this is sometimes
the lower legs of Richardson's
absent.
The
talons are uniformly black.
(9.8").
Male
Average
TALONS
Female
(
9.5")
255.3
8.3")
232.5
(10.4")
308.6
among
mm.
mm.
mm.
iai ")
9.2")
EYES AND VISION
(12.2")
There
some
is
variation in
slight
specimens.
different
Though
iris
color
most cases the
in
among
irides
lemon yellow, they may sometimes have

considerably more orange coloration to them, or have
gradations of orangish-yellow color between the two
are a strong
WINGSPAN
extremes.
mm.
(23.8").
Male
Average
594-4
Minimum
Maximum
499.1
Rank
in
626.4
mm.
mm.
mm.
Female
(23.4")
611.0
(19.7")
567.7
(24.7")
654.1
mm.
mm.
mm.
(24.1")
(22.4")
Vision is extremely good at night and reasonably

good by day, providing the owl is not subjected to
abrupt strong light, at which it tends to become bewildered.
(25.8")
wingspan among the eighteen species: Tenth.
It
sun
is

mm.
166.0
(6.5")
172.7
Minimum
Maximum
158.9
(6.3")
164.9
(6.9")
190.9
in
for bright sun-
EARS AND HEARING

As with
Female
Average
Rank
much
(6.7").
Male
mm.
mm.
1740 mm.
does not seem to care
any time and prefers not to fly at all when the

shining, though it is often abroad on cloudy days.
light at
mm.
mm.
mm.
(6.8")
is
excellent
(6.5")
hunting.
(7.5")
Owl
wing length among the eighteen species: Tenth.
is
all
the North
and
Owl
species, hearing
Though
this
auditory-
sense
of
Richardson's
not quite as well developed as in some species,
such as the Barn
Richardson's
American owl
certainly the most important sense in
Owl
(Tyto alba)
or Barred
Owls
67
(Strix varia sp.),
The
owl.
this
and vary
it
nevertheless an acute sense in
is
ear cavities are asymmetrically
slightly in physical
dimensions from one an-
other, but not to the extremes that
many
may
grating cry and,
in the similar
so, is
if
times with intervals of as
usually repeated three or four
much
as
two minutes between
cries.
On
be found in
other owls, and certainly they are nowhere nearly
markedly asymmetrical as
as
placed
rare occasions, this owl will give voice to a con-
tented chirping sound at regular intervals.
but smaller
Saw-whet Owl.
SEXUAL DIFFERENCES:
MOLT
There
is
no difference of coloration or markings be-
tween male and female
Owl
Richardson's
does not have ear
tufts. Its
plumage
dense but relatively compact and close to the body,
is
imparting an over-all streamlining to the general out-
birds.
The female
is
slightly
than the male, and the voice of the male is

generally a shade deeper in tone and mellower than
larger
that of the female.
line of the bird.
There
is
a complete annual molt once each year, be-
ginning about the middle of July or early August and

not completed until early or middle November.

To some
though not
extent,
pronounced a de-
in as
gree as with the Saw-whet Owl, there

susceptibility
VOICE
calls,
many
but not as
great
smaller
variation
owl.
as the
the
of
Saw-whet Owl, nor with

individual
that
as
calls
Owl calls much less freSaw-whet Owl and is mainly heard
Richardson's
quently than the
only in the early spring during courtship and nesting

season. It
is
capable of a
and piercing
distinctly
very peculiar gaspings
most charming and

sound,
bell-like
distinctive call
muted and
ventriloquial,
and has the amazing
a small
into
below
pool
sort of call issued
not
from no apparent cause, beginning about the third or

fourth day after an unusually heavy snowstorm has
blanketed the terrain. There are no reliable
available regarding the
span
too
may
owl
expect that
it
would
Owl and perhaps
is
in
of years of
have, although
live at least as
it
statistics
normal
life-
reasonable to
is
long as the Saw-whet
even longer.

ADULT
highly
proclivity of sound-
little
this
number
is
tinkling
character, which carries considerable distances,
ing like water dripping from a
Numerous
most un-owl-like
whistles, the latter being
in character. Its
series of
evidence of
is
severe weather onslaughts.
Richardson's Owls have been found dead in the snow
Aegolius funereus richardsoni has a wide range of

as
to
trickling waterfall
unlike
by the Saw-whet Owl.
is
The upperparts
same
this
It
a de-
lightfully charming sound, which may be continued

more than half an hour at a time, day or night;
of Richardson's
Owl
are generally a
deep Vandyke brown, with forehead, crown, and rear
for
sides of
re-
spots,
head
liberally spotted
with white. Larger white
roughly triangular, on the hindneck are largely
duced to writing, it sounds something like: TINGGTINGG-TJNGG-TINGG-TINGG-TINGG-TINGG, at
hidden by overlying plumage. Some of the greater coverts and the wing coverts near the edge of the wings
the rate of about two notes per second. Sometimes
have a
it
distinctive
scattering
of white
spots
that
are
ventriloquistic at times
As with the Saw-whet Owl, Richardson's Owl is quite

and most difficult to locate by
and generally round. The outermost half of

show two rows of small white spots on
the edge of the outer webbing of the primaries, with
these spots becoming smaller on the innermost quills.
Four or five rows of white spots which do not touch
the central shaft on either web cross the tail. Facial
sound.
disks are a grayish white, as are the superciliaries.
There are times when the female bird, and possibly

the male as well, will utter an odd grating call which
front of each eye
will fade to the point of

rise
being nearly inaudible, then
quite strongly again. After a series of these calls
has been completed, the bird will
about
five
lasts for
which sounds remarkably
68
into silence
for
or
may
or ten seconds by a
call
about seven or eight seconds. This
not be followed within
This
fall
minutes, then begin the same calling again.
latter call
may
five
like a small child
may
whimpering.
be issued without the preliminary
fairly large
the secondaries
lid
is
In
and immediately above the upper eyean unblemished area of pure dark brown or black.
thin, irregular, concentric black ring in the
of the facial disk surrounds the eye.
The
mid-point
sides of the
head are intermixed with dusky, although above and

behind the ears the plumage is a uniform dark brown
Richardson's
Owl
on the rear portion behind
delicately dotted with white
the ears. Sides of the neck are mainly white, although
some of the feathers are brown-tipped. A broken band

of mixed brown and white extends across the throat,
with the brown predominating.
The underparts are generally white in ground coloration, although often tinged in some areas with buffiness.
There are large brown spots on the breast, except for
the median line which is clear. Sides and flanks are
quite broadly brown-striped, each crossed by one or two
horizontal bars of brown which cross the quill but do
not reach the outer edge on either side. Undertail
coverts have narrow, buffy-brown stripes. Upper and
lower legs are buff, normally streaked irregularly with
brown. The underwings are a grayish brown spotted

with white, and the spots become larger and rounder
While
it
shows a preference for extensive growths of
somewhat stunted spruce in relative proximity to grasslands, more often than not it will be found in mixed
coniferous and hardwood forests. Farther north it is
confined primarily to evergreen woods and dense alder
thickets. During winter, when it occasionally wanders
into more developed areas, it will roost in isolated
deciduous trees, usually low and close to the trunk. Now
and again it will roost on the rafters of barns or under
the eaves of outbuildings. Most often, wherever it happens to settle, roosting is done in relatively thick growth
and within a dozen feet of the ground. During the
summertime it tends to wander into slightly higher
mountain elevations.
on the secondaries and inner primaries.

JUVENILE
Only the wings and
tail
are similar to those of the
The entire underparts

brown. The region back of
adult birds.
slaty
area of
the
ear
are
unmarked
are a uniform deep
and
the eye
black.
the
in
Superciliaries,
and mouth corners are gray white, each feather
lores,
possessing a thin black shaft. Occasionally there are a
few white spottings on the primaries and
tail
Not infrequently Aegolius funereus richardsoni falls

prey to larger owls and hawks. Long-eared Owls (Asio
otus sp.), Barred Owls (Strix varia sp.), and Horned
Owls {Bubo virginianus sp.) are especially prone to
prey upon Richardson's Owl. Newly flying fledging birds
have often fallen victim
Owl can
feathers.
ravens. Yet, Richardson's
to
put up a spirited defense, meeting
wdth savage bites and grippings of

not bothered as
is
birds
GENERAL HABITS AND
are
as
many
its
its
attacker
strong talons. It
much by harassment from

other
owls
of
species
smaller
in
North
America.
CHARACTERISTICS
Richardson's
excited.
As a
Owl
result,
does not easily become angry or
when
discovered on a low branch
it
can usually be approached quite closely for observation

to
sometimes
be picked up without showing undue
though
alarm.
Al-
most active in the early evening until nightfall and during the first gray light of dawn, it can be
found actively hunting at almost any time of day or
night,
it is
on overcast days.
particularly
If
agitated,
this
bird tends to sway back
and forth on its perch, shifting

its weight from foot to foot and sometimes using its
beak to grip branches and climb about in a manner
similar to a parrot. It is not a gregarious bird and even
during courtship and nesting season it likes a certain
amount of solitude. When perched in the daytime it
often presents an amusing sleepy appearance, with
long
a strong
flights.
an ocean
flier
Some
liner
in
Richardson's
Owl
tends to
sit
motionless and watch-
high in a tree on the edge of a dense forest growth

overlooking sedge, meadow, swamp, or marsh, and then
ful
dive swiftlv to the attack
when prey
appears.
The
talons
of both feet usually strike the prey animal simultane-
driving deeply into the body cavity, while the
ously,
keep the owl upright and the
wings
flutter rapidly to
tail is
spread widely to act as a balancing prop against
the ground. For this reason the

frayed.
Although
it
has been
feathers are often
tail
known
birds in flight, especially sparrows
heavily lidded eyes.

It is
HUNTING METHODS AND

CARRYING OF PREY
to the point of actually allowing itself
to
and
catch smaller
linnets,
this
is
mid-Atlantic and rested there for
and when birds are taken, thev are

usually attacked at night when they have unconsciously
given away their location by shuffling or otherwise mak-
raw chicken
ing a slight noise in their sleep. Almost without excep-
and
will
sometimes make unusually
years ago one landed on the
nearly three hours. It accepted pieces of
rail
of
from passengers, slept briefly after devouring about an

ounce or so of meat, and then winged silently away.
relatively rare.
tion prey
and only
Richardson's
Owl
is
If
carried in both feet;
less
often in one foot
rarely in the beak.
69
much
in natural cavities and,
the abandoned
less often,
nest of a rusty blackbird or gray-cheeked thrush
Rodents make up the bulk of the

various species of mice.
Lemmings
especially
diet,
are extremely im-
especially
Sparrows,
and
linnets,
other small birds are frequently taken during the nest-
more northerly
Although the preference

conifers,
richardsoni
will
tion this
owl
whether
in the nesting season or not, at the
grasshoppers,
the
roaches,
especially
Insects,
crickets,
and moths, are often

and salamanders, and
beetles,
some
along with
eaten,
wing.
frogs
will retire to the seclusion of
and remain
of stormy weather
pellets are ejected
rarely
the
in
vicinity
much
without
of
either
nest
or
Each
roost.
Number
measures approximately an inch and a half in length

by about a half to three-quarters of an inch in width,
and they are uniformly dark gray in color. Most often
they are regurgitated from the first perch the bird takes
after
leaving the nest or roost.
The
feces
dark,
are
sometimes with marblings of white or greenish white,
approach
inside the hole until the
EGGS
but
difficulty,
such a hole,
storm has passed.
occasionally a small snake or lizard.
The
use
also
those which are in hardwoods. Almost without excep-
Bats are taken often, mainly while hanging, but some-
when on
used,
bird's
for nesting holes to be in
is
Aegolius funereus
ing season, but very rarely at other times of the year.
times
is
the
of
limits
range.
portant to Aegolius funereus richardsoni, as are red-
backed voles and deer mice.
the
in
As few
per nesting
two and
as
as
many as
More
but both two and eight are rare layings.
eight,
normally from three to seven, and usually four,
five,
or
six.
Pure white, though
Color
a vague yellowish
cast,
in exceptional cases with
which may
possibly be a dietary
manifestation.
and more viscous than
solid.
Rounded
Shape
oval,
though sometimes nearly glob-
ular.
Very smooth-shelled, without
Texture
Average egg size

measurements of 49 eggs
Normally the courted female

spire of a
fir
sits
high atop the lofty
or spruce while the male performs a series
of swift
and expert
cluding
dives,
maneuverings close by, inan occasional mid-air tumbling,

circling around her. Almost without
aerial
exception he makes a continuous series of
and odd chirpings
and again
his
while
calls
Now
primary feathers on opposing wings
will
each other with a muted clapping sound. This
strike
activity continues for
upward
As
of a quarter hour.
like
distant dripping water. After several
is
of the 49
length
36.6
29.0
width
28.8
width
25.4
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
Eggs are
(1.4")
(1.1")
(1.1")
(1.0")
not
laid
less
than
24 hours apart at intervals longer than 72 hours. Usu-
mo-
Egg-laying dates
May
latest,
June 9
20.
INCUBATION AND
The copulation is swiftly begun and

though often repeated for several successive
days at varying intervals.
Earliest, April
accomplished on a branch at about mid-
Incubation
egg
is
laid,
27 days.
ANNUAL BROODS,
The extremes
ally all eggs are deposited in eight to twelve days.
height in a tree.
ended,
in length
it
ments of this, the female takes wing and arrows swiftly

toward deeper areas in the woods, very closely followed
by the male. Copulation may occur on the ground but
more often
on the
(1.3")
length
nears termination, the male breaks into the call that
sounds
mm.
32.2
in width.
(1.1")
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum
mostly
so engaged.
mm.
is
eggs measured were
dips,
hovering, and tight
whistlings
by 26.9
glossiness.
for the species, based
Size
may
and
not begin until the second or third
lasts for at least
The female
does
all
25 days but rarely over
or almost
all
of the in-
cubating, and the male provides food for her while she
NEST,
is
thus occupied.
NESTING HABITS
Normally only one brood per year, although rarely
two. Almost invariably the laying of a second clutch of
eggs occurs only
there
is
second
if
the
first set is
destroyed. Less often,
the possibility that a third set

set is
may be
laid
if
the
SOUTHERN SCREECH OWL
Female, male. Female: Vicinity of

North Carolina, March 7, 1968. Male: Myrtle Beach,
South Carolina, October 3, 1966. A.O.U. Number 373
Otus
Elkin,
XVm
ruined.
Most nesting occurs in abandoned flicker or pileated

woodpecker holes in both dead and living trees, usually
at a height of from 10 to 25 feet. Some nesting occurs
70
XVII
asio asio (Linnaeus).
Otus
asio bendirei
CALIFORNIA SCREECH
Zenia, Trinity County, California,
Number 373-C
Richardson's
Owl
OWL
(Brewster). Male. Three miles north of
November
10, 1965.
A.O.U.
>s\<gluA<-
xxL^
mm
i
*
YOUNG AND FAMILY
LIFE
CHARACTERISTICS
Because of staggered hatching, the young
considerably in size in the nest
number
quite evident because of the
dividual brood.
of
shell,
its
The
may
smallest
vary
will
becomes
fact that
of birds in the in-
be a baby newly out
the remainder being progressively larger in
stair-step fashion to the eldest,
which may already be
well feathered in juvenal plumage.
The
babies are clad in white
down upon hatching

new feath-
but soon develop a distinct brownish hue of
ers on the back, especially down the dorsal centerline.

Most of the down is lost within two weeks, with the
residue
still
adhering to the outermost
tips of the
new
juvenal plumage.
There
is
plumage by the
virtually complete juvenal
mid-point of the third week, with the entire upperparts

a clear brown, which may have either a muddy or
somewhat reddish cast. All the colors are darker than in
the adult birds. This juvenal plumage is worn until
early autumn when a molt occurs which involves all but
the tail and wings, producing the first-winter plumage.

RICHARDSON
Breeds from northern Alaska
central- western
Hardisty
Yukon
region),
Saskatchewan
OWL
Fairbanks),
(Fortymile), Mackenzie
central
northern Manitoba
(Nulato,
Aegolius junereus richardsoni (Bonaparte)
(Lake
(Nipawin),
probably York Factory), northern'
Quebec
(around the area of Kapuskasing
(Magdalen Islands), Labrador (Hopedale), and probably Newfoundland, southward to northern British
Columbia (Flood Glacier, Laurier Lake), central Alsouthern Maniberta (Athabaska Landing, Belvedere
western Ontario (around
toba (probably Winnipeg
Wabigoon), Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick (Grand
Ontario
Fort Sherman), Colorado (Crested Butte), Nebraska
(Lincoln), Illinois (Rockford, Sycamore, Cicero, Kenil-
worth), Pennsylvania (Allegheny County),
New York
(Fort Covington, Plattsburg), Connecticut (East Wind-
sor Hill,
Kent), and Rhode Island
(vicinity of
Provi-
dence)
Manan).
Winters in part throughout
especially
bad-weather
southern British Columbia
(Fillmore County),
breeding range but, in

spreads
southward
,
)
(Free-
Ottawa
southern Quebec, and Massachusetts.
Casually to southern Oregon (Fort Klamath), Idaho
XLX
Otus
asio brewsteri
County,
California,
BREWSTER
MIGRATION
(Fargo), southern Min-
southern Michigan
land), Ontario (north shore of Lake Ontario;
area
to
Sumas, Okanagan), north-
ern Montana, North Dakota
nesota
its
years
There is no regular annual migration, but during the

more severe winters large numbers of Richardson's Owls
do tend to move southward and appear in the northern
tier of
SCREECH OWL
ECONOMIC INFLUENCE
Ridgway. Female. Shinn's Peak, Lassen

November 17, 1929. A.O.U. Number
373-J
It
XX
Otus
tains,
ber 373-F
cannot be denied that
damage
MEXICAN SCREECH OWL
(Ridgway). Female. Chiricahua MounCochise County, Arizona, June 20, 1968. A.O.U. Num-
asio cineraceus
the United States.
to
songbird
this
populations
owl does do some

during
its
breeding
on the whole, considering its yearlong heavy

of mice and other rodents, it is considerably more
season, but
diet
beneficial than otherwise.
Richardson's
Owl
7'
name meaning "Long-tufted Owl,"
referring to the ear
tufts.
le hibou A longues oreilles French-Canadian

name meaning "Long-eared Owl."
LECHUZ BARRANQUERA DE WILSON Mexican-Indian name meaning "Wilson's Owl of the Barrancas."
lesser horned owl Rare term, distinguishing the
Long-eared Owl from the larger Horned Owls {Bubo
SPECIES
ORDER
virginianus sp.).
STRIGIFORMES
wilson's
FAMILY:
STRIGIDAE
GENUS:
Asio Brisson
SPECIES:
otus (Linnaeus)
owl
This
one of the more distinctive of
is
American Owl
over
SUBSPECIES
and exhibiting a
WESTERN LONG-
Godfrey
erect,
the
North
all
distinctly contrasting colora-
set of ear tufts
narrower, and
set
are in particular contrast to the general darkness of the
head, being a strong
EARED OWL
all
being quite heavily marked
which tend to be
somewhat closer together
than those of the Horned Owls or Screech Owls (Otus
asio sp.). These ear tufts, on occasion, tend to lean
toward one another slightly and are faintly tapered
toward the tips on their outer edges. The facial disks
tion,
LONG-EARED OWL
wilsonianus (Lesson)
species,
plumage, having
its
more
tuftsi
Honorary name.
medium
orangish buff to reddish
brown, which darkens considerably around the eyes.

The disks are separated by distinctly gray white and
unusually
full
superciliaries
and
lores.
medium-sized
owl, Asio otus wilsonianus wears a constantly peeved expression.
LONG-EARED OWL
{COLOR PLATE
Rank
in
over-all size
among
eighteen
the
species:
Eighth.
XII)
SHAPE AT REST
SCIENTIFIC
NAME AND
Asio
otus
wilsonianus
(Lesson).
Original
descrip-
Otus Wilsonianus Lesson, Traite Ornithologia,

Livr. 2, May 8, 1830, page 110 (Etats-Unis et principalement dans Vautomne Pennsylvanie) Based on a
tion:
Although the Long-eared Owl tends to slouch somewhat when relaxed on its perch, it can straighten and
elongate its body to an amazing extent, becoming very
long and slender in appearance an action which effectively helps to camouflage the bird and make it
appear
to
be the stub of a broken branch, a device
especially effective
specimen from Pennsylvania without locale
Former
Otus
signified.
names: Strix otus, Otus americanus,

Otus vulgaris wilsonianus, Otus Wilson-
scientific
vulgaris,
ianus.
under poor lighting conditions.
About midway in size between the Great Horned

Owl (Bubo virginianus virginianus) and the Eastern
Screech
Owl (Otus
asio
naevius)
guishable from both in that
it
it
is
easily
distin-
lacks the white throat
Owl and is much larger,

much deeper red brown, than the
patch of the Great Horned

with facial disks
Eastern Screech Owl.
OTHER NAMES
The ear tufts are usually distinctive and held sharply

when the bird is perched, but there are times
when the sitting bird holds them almost flat against
the head. The folded wings exceed the length of the
erect
American
lonc-eared
owl
To
differentiate
this
race from others elsewhere in the world.
brush owl
After the preferred type of habitat.
le hibou a longues aigrettes

72
French-Canadian
tail
and the owl
built.
Long-eared Owl
is,
on the whole, rather slenderly
SHAPE IN FLIGHT
The wings are relatively longer and narrower for its
body size than are those of the Great Horned Owl,
and the ear tufts are virtually without exception held
tightly to the head during flight. The tail is quite
evident in flight silhouette.
mm.
(11.3").
Male
Average
285.8
Minimum
Maximum
269.2
mm.
mm.
295.9
mrn
Rank
in
Female
(11.3")
288.3
(10.6")
274.3
II -7")
301.0
mm.
mm.
mm.
(11.4")
(10.8")
(11.9")
wing length among the eighteen species: Eighth.
FLIGHT PATTERN
The
Long-eared
flight of the
Owl
vering in quality and not as certain as
that of the
is
Great Horned Owl. Even when the long wings are

beating, there is the sense that the bird is doing a lot
buoyancy
of gliding, probably because of the peculiar
somewhat erratic and bumpy

flight pattern. Its silhouette from below is stubbyheaded and somewhat long-tailed, resembling in size
and manner the Short-eared Owl (Asio flammeus
of the flight, despite a
flammeus)
but
TAIL LENGTH
somewhat wa-
is
Species average: 15
Owl
flutter
and hover
When
necessary,
1 1
like
Minimum
Maximum
Rank
in tail
154.9
mm
(6.1")
(5.6")
151.
mm.
(6.0")
(6.1")
168.9
mm
(6.7")
length
among
the eighteen species: Eighth.
BEAK LENGTH
mm.
(0.7").
Male
flight.

Female
(5.8")
will
an enormous butterfly or moth.
capable of quite swift
it is
(6.0").
148.1
mm.
mm.
143.
1537 mm.
Average
because the two do not normally range within the same

type of habitat. Occasionally the Long-eared
mm.
Male
should not be mistaken for that owl
it
1.5
birds:
Average
16.6
Minimum
Maximum
15.2
Rank
17.8
beak
in
mm.
mm.
mm.
Female
(0.7")
17.3
(0.6")
16.0
(0.7")
20.6
among
length
mm.
mm.
mm.
the
(0.7")
(0.6")
(0.8")
eighteen
species:
Seventh.
WEIGHT
Species average: 275.2 gr. (9.6 oz
Male
258.5 gr.
9.1
oz.)
282.0 gr.
9.9
Minimum
Maximum
215.4 S1
7-5
oz -)
227.0 gr.
8.0 oz.)
Rank
in
"-
299.4 ST-
weight
oz.)
I0 -5 oz
among
TALONS
LEGS, FEET,
Female
Average
333-4 gr- ("-7 oz.)

)
The
tarsus of the
Owl
Long-eared
slightly longer
is
than might be expected in relation to
its body size,

between 38.1 mm. (1.5") and 46.0 mm.
(1.8"). The legs and feet are very thickly feathered to
averaging
the base of the talons, although the toe feathers, while

thick, are quite short.
TOTAL LENGTH
the
mm.
339-2
Minimum
Maximum
328.9
Rank
352.7
mm.
mm.
mm.
in total length
talons themselves are very
tips.
The
feet
have a powerful
grip.
(14.0").
Male
Average
The
black at the base but becoming a lighter slaty black at
Female
(13.4")
369.6
(13.0")
333.1
(13.9")
407.7
among
mm.
mm.
mm.
(14.6")
(13.1")
EYES AND VISION
(16.1")
the eighteen species: Ninth.
Untroubled by the bright light of day, the LongOwl is occasionally abroad during the daytime,
eared
though preferring cloudy days over clear
WINGSPAN
mm.
956.3
Minimum
Maximum
920.9
Rank
in
1,009.7
mm.
mm.
mm.
Its
(37.7")
Female
1,000.0
(36.3")
964.0
(39.8")
1,098.7
mm.
mm.
mm.
(39.4")
it
is
flying
and
its
vision
is
best adapted to
The
late
evening and early morning hunting.
this
owl have a considerably more staring aspect than
(38.0")
do those of most other North American
(43.3")
possibly
wingspan among the eighteen species: Eighth.
if
bright golden-orange to yellow-orange
irides are distinctive
(38.5").
Male
Average
in daylight.
meus)
Long-eared Owl
the
Short-eared
Owl
(Asio
eyes of
species, except
flammeus flam-
73
,.
EARS AND HEARING
seconds. It
most reminiscent of the screams of a bird
is
caught in the talons of a hawk.
Ear cavities are asymmetrical in shape and positionthough not to as great a degree as in some species.
Hearing is excellent and more an aid in hunting than
is vision, though the two senses complement one aning,
other exceptionally well.
It
is
practically impossible to
When
comes
excited
sounding
calls
wheck!-WHECK!-wheck!
like
given while the bird
ally
be-
tends to voice a three-syllable series of
it
emphasis on the middle
wit,h
Owl
danger threatens and the Long-eared
irked,
This
syllable.
in flight, as
is
call
circles
it
usu-
is
about
creep up undetected on a roosting Long-eared Owl.
the intruder,' interspersing the calling with harsh snap-
At times the head will appear greatly enlarged as the

owl raises and extends the ear flaps, thus enlarging the
pings of the beak. As soon as the danger has subsided,
and pushing them forward. This owl is said

to be able to detect the squeak of a mouse from a
distance of ioo yards and can sometimes be decoyed
squealing whistle.
facial disks
to within very close range
by emulation of
this
however, the owl utters a long, low, seemingly
Sometimes, after the male Asio otus wilsonianus has

brought food to the brooding female, he will perch
nearby and give a
sound.
sounding
pleased
or
is
sound remarkably close
low-pitched
to
utterance
interspersed with a
someone
calling
softly
long and relatively narrow ear tufts are slightly
closer together
toward the center of the head than are
those of the Great
Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus virginOwls (Otus asio sp.) and much
ianus) or the Screech
Owl
larger than those of the Short-eared
(Asio flam-
meus flammeus) They are always tipped with black

and are a distinctive feature of the perched bird, al.
though they are normally
head when the bird
flying.
is
back
laid
There
against
flat
the
a complete an-
is
nual molt of adult plumage beginning in mid-September and concluded by mid-December. This molt
gressive
and has
any, effect
little, if
his
cat in a high, musical tone: kitty-kitty-kitty-kitty-kitty.
Probably the most startling cry uttered by both
The
call
often repeated
frequently accompanied by a
self-satisfied
woo-HUH-KK who-HUH-KK,
of
MOLT
encouraging three-note
softer,
hoooof-HOOOOF-hooof,
like
or six times. This
five
rather
satisfied
upon
pro-
is
flight.
sexes,
though more by the female than the male, comes when

eggs or young are in jeopardy. At such times the owl
on the ground making sharply distressed

These cries sound like a
of overloud catlike mewings. (See Enemies and
flutters wildly
as
cries,
series
if
she were hurt.
Defenses.)
In addition
Long-eared
to
readily
these
Owl can make
identifiable
calls,
the
a variety of other sounds
infrequent intervals; some like the yappings of a
at
puppy
squalls,
at
along
distance,
some
whistlings,
with
deep
prolonged,
shrill
snorting
chucklings,
sounds that are usually accompanied by a raspy
hiss-
and the snapping of the beak. To many of

calls there is a marked ventriloquism.
these
ing
VOICE
While
variety of calls
its
those of the Barred
the
other
number
ever,
species,
Owls
it
is
(Strix varia sp.), or
nevertheless
has
an
some
of
interesting
of calls quite different from one another.
How-
many
other
is
it
certainly not
as
vociferous as
North American owls can be and, except during courtship and nesting season, is rarely heard.
The most common call is a regularly intoned, mellow, and rather soft and musical kwooo-kwooo-kwoookwooo, with the emphasis, if any, on the first note.
This
like:
that
of
the
plumage
col-
pays, they are whiter. Females are a
males and
is
in
almost
bit
larger than
cases the voice of the female
all
somewhat higher pitched and
less
melodious than
that of the male.
Eastern
for
no known reason,
this
The
Facial attitudes of the Long-eared
owl
first
will
cry
and each successive cry diminishes in volume

until the sound eventually fades away
the whole vocal utterance lasting for 30 to 40
intensity
entirely,
74
unlike
series of rapid, piercing shrieks.
loudest
and
birds average generally paler in
but louder and farther-carrying, sounding
and again,
produce a
is
manner not
Owl
KWOOOO-OOO-OOO-OO-OO-O-O.
Now
Male
oration than female birds and, especially on the under-
has a tendency at times to run together in a
call
quavering
Screech
SEXUAL DIFFERENCES:
not as extensive as are
Clockwise from upper
left:
Owl
(Asio otus wilsonianus)
roosting bird startled
awake by
perched bird assuming the elongated, erectile ear

camouflage posture; newly awakened but not alarmed
intruder;
tuft,
bird; defensive posturing
ouflage posturing.
Long-eared Owl
when young
are threatened; cam-
fffff\ $\
it
l.o*c*~<?cA*-e.d
Ouu|
Qti.tvJz
Stêf.ti

Not a great deal
coming broader and more distinct on sides, flanks, and

belly. Lower leg and foot plumage is a deep buff, and
of study has been completed in this
the thighs are buffy white with cross-hatched brown.
aspect of the Long-eared Owl's natural history, although
Undertail coverts have narrow center streaks of slaty
it is
known
that they will survive for well over a decade
in captivity. Mortality
among
the nestlings tends to be
increased through cannibalism

prey, or
if
there
one of the parent birds
if
is
a shortage of
killed
is
and the
brown which become Y-shaped toward the

underwing lesser coverts are plain orangish
sooty-brown
the
greater
The
ends.
and
form a conspicuous
coverts
buff,
underwing mark.
remaining parent cannot bring an adequate supply of

food to the nest. Cannibalism, if it occurs, is usually
limited to the single smallest bird in the nest, though
on rare occasions including the second smallest
as well.
JUVENILE
Facial disks of the juvenals are considerably darker

ADULT
The
entire upperparts
much
are strongly mottled with a
greater dominance, particularly on the back.
There are a few rather indistinct and irregular white

spots on the outer webs of the shoulder feathers.
The
be in adulthood, and the body feathers are mainly

brown, tipped and barred with grayish white. Superwill
brown and grayish white, though the browns are
slaty
in
than those of the adults. They are usually a deep cinnamon red brown. The ear tufts are smaller than they
and
ciliaries
lores are black instead of gray white as in
the adults, but wing and
tail
feathers are no different
than those of the adults.
greater coverts are generally dusky but well pep-
pered with buffy-gray spottings, usually of a transverse
The
nature.
primaries, especially on
are grayish toward the tips
GENERAL HABITS AND
the inner quills,
CHARACTERISTICS
and more buffy toward the
base, with fine dusky mottlings of a transverse nature
and from
five to
nine (usually seven)
transverse rows
of rather square slate-brown spots. Nine to eleven (usually nine)
and the
The
general coloration of the wing coverts
that of the back, but vaguely paler along the
like
is
bands of similar spots cross the secondaries
tail.
wing edges and with the feathers margined

buffy at their
in
white or
tips.
Primarily a nocturnal owl, Asio otus wilsonianus
feathers
of the
black, while those closer to the
pure
ear tufts are
head are plain sooty
in
spent
are
hidden
well
reason the Long-eared
flush easily
slate brown. Very tiny saltand-pepper specklings of black and white are sprinkled
on the forehead and sides of the head. Eyebrows (su-
gaze
which
lores
are distinctly grayish white
in
strong contrast to the generally dark coloration of the
head.
The
lores in particular are so distinctly contrast-
ing that they appear to form something of a shortened
Often
it
quickly
will
area being widest in a semicircle from the supraorbital
sibility,
to the suborbital area.
rich
orange-brown
facial
rim
is
to
The
rest of the facial disk
reddish-brown
is
is
this
is
it
those
perched, because
the
roosts for the day. It does not
goes
from sleepy
indignant.
to
West than
may
to
become rather
characteristic
in
gre-
more
the East, though the
simply be a lack of more favored
and a good many owls taking advantage

that are available. There is the posthat the family group is still together at
roosting areas
and then
it
for
This
but closed.
noticeable in the
reason for this
of
side of the eye
when
The Long-eared Owl tends

garious in autumn and winter
Facial-disk feathers around the eyes are black, this black
around the inner
rarely seen.
is
stare at an intruder with slanted and
slitted eyelids all
walrus mustache on each side of and below the beak.
area, passing
and
cover
dense
in
from such cover when discovered and seems

sit and stare at an intruder with a
inclined to
and
is
morning and
the
in
protective coloration blends so very well with
type of cover in which
more
perciliaries)
wing
Owl
very difficult owl to locate
the center of each feather but with the edges buffy and
with irregular mottlings of
the
evening periods of twilight. Usually the daylight hours
its
The uppermost
often on
nevertheless
areas
too,
this time.
The
coloration.
narrowly black, becoming speckled with
narrow white into a
sort
of vague
collar
across
the
throat.
General coloration of the underparts

to gray white.
The
is
cross-hatchings of a deep sooty brown, with these be-
76
For the most part, the Long-eared
buffy gray
breast feathers have very distinctive
well-timbered
with water
Long-eared
Owl
areas,
streams,
especially
river,
and
in
lakes.
Owl
close
This
keeps to
conjunction
is
true even
in the
more remote
ence
for dense groves of conifers or
is
and evergreen, but
regions of
its
habitat.
no other cover
if
available
is
hardwood or even low-growing
use strictly
prefer-
Its
mixed hardwood
will
it
scrub, espe-
when such growth is in the form of tangled thickSuch areas that are well interlaced with vines are
cially
ets.
a particular favorite, with the roost
normally
site
lo-
cated in the midst of the heaviest cover.
Lacking satisfactory
roost in caves or
ravines.
may
It
brush cover,
tree or
deep cracks
be found roosting
up
tions at elevations
to
this
owl
will
canyons or
in the walls of
favorable loca-
in
The most
,000 feet.
pre-
ferred roost seems to be a low branch in very dense

cover.
may
In such type of habitat there
be
six
or
seven Long-eared Owls roosting in a single tree.
begins
moving away,
still
on the ground and
still
hold-
wings partially open and acting as if it is carrying prey that is too large to be picked up and flown
with. This will continue until the intruder has been
ing
its
some distance away, upon which the owl will

and arrow off soundlessly away from the nest area,
but making a wide, unseen circle back to the vicinity
of the young birds.
lured
rise
Failing in that maneuver, the Long-eared
only the female
sibly
Owl
pos-
emulate an injured bird,
will
dragging one wing on the ground and hopping along

in a stumbling, pained manner. Again the enemy will
be led away in pursuit of her and when it
her to do so, she will rise and fly swiftly away.
While normally
launching
owl prefers such
this
physical encounters,
it
is
safe for
tactics to actual
not terribly hesitant at actu-
is
at an intruder and attacking savand talons, almost always aiming at

face or throat where the most significant and discouraging damage can be inflicted. In this respect, and in
its other defensive tactics, the Long-eared Owl is one
of the most effectively demonstrative of North Amerially
itself
agely with beak

Other than man, the Long-eared Owl's greatest enemies seem to be ravens, crows, and jays, which harass
and the
Horned Owls (Bubo virginianus sp.), which prey upon
it wherever encountered. Pigeon Hawks, too, have been
known to attack and kill them. In rare instances, the
Northern Barred Owl (Strix varia varia) will kill and
devour Long-eared Owls. There is also a certain amount
of pestering from smaller birds such as wrens, blackbirds,
cowbirds, kingbirds, and shrikes. Oddly, magpies seldom
it
severely but rarely inflict
physical
injury,
bother Long-eared Owls.
The
defenses of Asio otus wilsonianus are impressive.
wings so
facing
ground it will spread

widely, with the upper surface of the wings
intruder,
the
in defense of
to the
the
that
wings are
the
of
tips
its
young.
more subdued defense is its protective coloration,

which so well camouflages the bird in heavy cover; a
natural gift enhanced by the bird's ability to draw itself
upward in its perched pose until it becomes almost
impossibly thin
hardly more than three inches in diam-
eter.
In
this pose,
with ear
so closely resembles a
extremely
With head lowered almost

its
can owls
difficult.
tufts fully erected, the bird
broken branch that detection
Often when going into
this
is
up-
drawn "beanpole" stance, the bird will hold one wing

breast and belly to hide the lighter plumage
behind the more camouflaged plumage of primaries
and secondaries.
across
nearly on the ground and the outermost margins of the
primaries and secondaries are pointed nearly directly
much
skyward, giving the impression of a

fiercer
bird
than
it
actually
looking like a torn turkey with

expanse. In this position
at
the intruder, sway
acingly, snap
is
its
its tail
will glare
it
larger
and
and, to some extent,
is
spread to
with great ferocity
head back and forth men-
its
beak, and hiss piercingly. This action
most often seen
in
connection with defense of
its
nest.
The Long-eared Owl
uses with great skill
type defenses, especially where the safety of

are concerned.
One
two ruseits young
make a
of the parent birds will
show of exposing itself in flight and then suddenly

plummet to the ground. Instantly there will rise the
shrill
cry
of
type
different
sounds exactly as
if
some kind of bird
as prey
of
bird
altogether.
the owl has plunged
and
as
if
It
and caught
that bird
is
voicing
accompanied by a good
bit of rustling and feather-rattling on the ground, as
if the owl were struggling with some manner of prey.
Once the intruder has been decoyed in that direction
and away from the endangered young, the parent bird
its
HUNTING METHODS AND

CARRYING OF PREY
fullest
frantic death cry. This
is
While the Long-eared Owl favors timberlands as habitat, most of its hunting is done over open lands bordering woodlands. Only a small percentage of its hunting is done in dense woods, although its flying ability
through tangled areas of brush and trees is little short
of phenomenal. Tending to range back and forth more
than many other owl species, it flies about six or seven
feet off the ground in utter silence, its head usually
canted slightly to one side, better to detect the sound
of prey movements. When prey is detected, the bird
darts to the exact spot and pounces with impressive
skill on the exact spot where its ears have told it the
prey is located, even though the prey may not be visible.
Though it will eat birds, it seldom catches them on
the wing.
The
birds that
it
does catch are normally
taken as they roost on the ground or in low branches.
Long-eared Owl
77
How prey is
Up to the size
depends primarily upon
killed
of a small rat, most prey
the beak; larger prey
is
normally carried
in
ANNUAL BROODS,
size.
its
carried in
is
NEST,
NESTING HABITS
one or both
sets of talons.
Although there
some
is
evidence of double-
slight
brooding in the more southerly portions of
the Long-eared
Owl
throughout
range.
eggs
Rodents make up by far the greatest percentage of

the Long-eared Owl's diet on an annual basis, but
Among small mammals it

meadow voles, squir-
prey can be widely varied.

often eats
wood
its
deer mice,
rats,
rats, chipmunks, bats, gophers, moles and

and sometimes medium-grown cottontail rabbits. These creatures, along with a smaller number of
frogs, small snakes, and some insects, make up virtually
rels,
house
shrews,
entire diet during all
its
when
but
its
nesting season.
It
is
young owls to feed that

the Long-eared Owl attacks birds. At such times it will
take as prey a wide variety of birds quail, ruffed
grouse, English sparrows, European starlings, doves,
horned larks, red-winged blackbirds, towhees, finches,
meadowlarks, juncos, cardinals, brown thrashers, bluebirds, kinglets, and even occasional Screech Owls.
Wherever possible, prey is swallowed whole but, if
too large, will be torn into chunks just small enough to
be swallowed. Digestion is very rapid and pellet regur-
only
there are voracious
gitation
may
occur as quickly as three or four hours
after feeding.
These
pellets are
normally gray, compact
masses averaging an inch and a half to two inches in
nest
largely liquid or semiliquid state

straight
the
is
down beneath
and generally dropped
however, the
If,
clutch of
first
abandoned
later.
Almost invariably
its
nest of a crow, magpie, raven,
hawk, or heron, situated usually about 20
feet
high
near the main stem of a dense tree in the midst of

heavy cover, especially in and around swampy areas.
Unlike most other owls, there
amount
is
evidently a
certain
expended by Asio otus ivilsonianus
of effort
rejuvenating the nest for
own
its
Strips of bark
use.
some mosses or
in
and often
plumage from the female owl. Although it will
are added, as well as

breast
leaves
occasionally nest to heights of 40 or 50 feet in a tree
and
low
as
in
rare
15
and 30
as three or four feet
cases
most
feet in
on protected
rocks, but this
cliff
is
higher altitudes
often
and even on the ground

next
the
height. Nesting
will
is
be between
sometimes done
ledges or in a deep sheltered cleft in
commonly among those birds

of up to about 10,000 feet.
nesting at
In very unusual cases, the owl will actually build
own
nest instead of taking over one that
interlocked sticks
and has
its
was previously
is
flimsily built of poorly
little
uniformity or strength.
used. In such cases the nest
Nests like these are often blown apart by windstorms.
Once
in, it is
Defecation occurs regularly, with fecal matter in a
range,
destroyed, a second laying will be made, be-
is
ginning about twenty days
length and about three-fourths of an inch in width, being
roughly oval in shape.
its
its
essentially a single-brooded bird
is
a nesting has begun and the female has settled
very difficult to
make
her leave. Usually she will
watching and waiting while the male does all

he can to decoy or drive the intruder away. Only if
sit
in
it,
matters become extremely threatening will she actively
the roosting bird.
join in
and help her mate defend the
nest,
eggs,
or
young.

Since the Long-eared
turnal of our owls, few
Owl is among
humans have
the most noc-
ever witnessed
the courtship machinations and, as a result, this aspect

of
the
life
history
of
Asio
been well described. Some
otus
ivilsonianus
has
the male will perform a series of dives
and wing clap-
pings over the perched female, but since
this
closely
{Asio flammeus flammeus)
The male
casionally with
deliberately
but
some
it
is
known
sort
delicately
hers; however, this

tion, as
is
misidentification
As few
a pos-
corded.
to present the female oc-
of prey
takes
animal, which she
from
his
beak with
not always done. Actual copula-
has been witnessed, occurs swiftly, sometimes
on the ground but more often on a low limb

cover, and
tree.
78
is
less
often on
the
in
Number per nesting

Owl will lay four or five
Owl
resembles the courtship action of the Short-eared
sibility.
EGGS
not
observers have claimed that
dense
limb of a well-exposed
as three
and
as
Customarily
eggs and
many
less
the
Long-eared
often six or seven.
as eight
have been
re-
Color Pure white, sometimes slightly nest-stained

with rusty spots, but mostly unblemished and with no
tinge of any other color.
Rounded
Shape
oval, virtually without exception.
Very smooth and glossy.

Based on a sampling of 112 eggs measured,
Texture
Size
the average size
mm.
is
40.9
mm.
(1.6")
in length
(1.3") in width, with extremes of:
Long-eared Owl
by 33.3
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum
Interval
length:
43.4
length:
35.1
width:
37.6
width:
30.0
Almost
egg-laying
of
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
(1.7")
ception
(1.4")
at
(1.5")
about
48
12; latest,
June
Southern Canada:
5; normally
between
April
earliest,
May
May
9 and
is
quite well developed
tooth has disappeared by the seventh day
but the young bird
hours apart.
Egg-laying dates
the facial disk, which
The egg
(1.2")
always
is
hatching and covered with scraggly white down.
now
quite sluggish, though by
still
is
more dense white down. This

begins being replaced by juvenal plumage as early as
well covered in a
the seventh day, but usually not until the eighth day.
At
this stage
the babies
still
tend to cower in fear
if
disturbed.
19-
New
England and
May
latest,
New York
earliest,
31; normally between April
By about the
March
and
May
19
ter. If
15-
East:
earliest,
March
14;
latest,
May
between March 29 and April II.

Midwest: earliest, March 15; latest,
between March 20 and April 24.
West: earliest March 27;
tween April 7 and May 8.
latest
30; normally
to freeze
in
position;
but
if
the danger does not go
away immediately they become very
May
6; normally
actions,
June
2;
normally be-
aggressive in their
snapping their beaks, hissing loudly, and stand-
ing erect with their outstretched
wings inverted and
every feather upraised, in an accurate parody of the

defensive posture of the parents.
During the third week it is not uncommon for at

least one and sometimes several of the young birds to
fall from the nest, but they flutter to the ground and
are not usually hurt. Parental care continues on the
ground for them. At this stage they are about halfgrown, with their primaries and secondaries well emerging from their sheaths. Body plumage is now welldeveloped "soft plumage" which, on the upperparts, is
dusky. These feathers have white tips which give the

CHARACTERISTICS
Data are not conclusive in this regard, but certainly
less than 2
days nor more than 28 probably most
often 24-25 days. The male provides food while the
female incubates and she will sit so tightly on her eggs
that she can usually be approached and touched while
on the nest.
no
fifteenth to eighteenth day the young

undergone a noteworthy change of characdanger threatens at the nest their first act will be
birds have
bird a sort of "frosted" appearance, especially on head

and hindneck. The underparts are generally a pale
buff, again with whitish tips, and with from two to
four dusky narrow bands on each feather. The similar
bands on the feathers of the back are somewhat more
clearly defined. There is long grizzled down on the
thighs, but the tail feathers are still unsheathed. At
this stage the facial disks are becoming very dark.
Around the twenty-fourth or twenty-fifth day (but
possibly not until the twenty-eighth day)
YOUNG AND FAMILY
on crown and hindneck
LIFE
and
tail
feathers
winter plumage
The
birds are hatched at intervals of about two days

and in the larger broods the eldest fledgling is
two weeks of age or older and fairly well fledged before
apart,
The
result
is
that not in-
frequently the youngest one or two in the nest do not

survive.
Within the
first
three days
after
being trod
upon and shoved around by the older fledglings the

youngest become very weak. At this point it is not rare
for them to be killed and devoured by their nestmates.
Again, this occurs most often in overlarge broods, and
in the
normal brood of four or
five
young,
it
be replaced by short,
soot-colored feathers with very bright white
CHARACTERISTICS
the youngest has hatched.
starts to
the frosting
is
un-
common.
At hatching, the eyes of the babies are closed; they
do not begin opening until the third or fourth day.
They are nearly naked, and only on the principal
feather tracts is there a meager white down. The ex-
is
are
tips.
Wings
growing rapidly and the
well on the
way
to
first
replacing the
downy plumage. This is completed first on the back

and then on the underparts.
By this time the young are ready to leave the nest
and venture out onto the nearby branches. They still
cannot fly well and usually wind up on the ground
and being cared for and well guarded there by the
parents. However, by about the thirtieth to thirty-fifth
day they can fly well, their wings and tail are identical
to those of the adults, and all the downy contour plumage has been molted away except for perhaps a few
traces remaining on the crown and lower belly.
The young birds continue to be fed by the parents,
even after learning to fly, until about the end of the
ninth week; even then the family tends to remain together through the remainder of
and perhaps even through
Long-eared
Owl
summer and autumn
the winter.
79
mally,
birds of the race that are going to migrate in
all
any given year will have done so by the beginning of

December, with the return northward well underway
by March.
ECONOMIC INFLUENCE
Although a certain amount of damage
songbird
nesting period, this
mal,
year-round
rodents
during
populations
damage
of
diet
which make
is
large
an economic
is
done to
Owl's
Long-eared
not extensive.
Its
nor-
numbers of injurious
up 80 per cent
prey devoured each year
all
the
to
90 per cent of
make
clearly
this
bird
asset.

(COLOR PLATE XIIISEE
ENDPAPERS)
NAME AND
SCIENTIFIC
LONG-EARED OWL
Asio otus tuftsi Godfrey. Original description:
Asio otus wilsonianus (Lesson)
otus
Volume
Number
61,
(February
The Canadian
Godfrey,
tuftsi
November-December,
6,
Asio
Field-Naturalist,
1947
1948), page 196; based on a specimen

from South Arm, Last Mountain Lake, Saskatchewan,
Canada.
13,
OTHER NAMES
Breeds from southern Manitoba (Shoal Lake), western and southern Ontario, southern Quebec
John),
New
(Lake
Canadian
St.
Brunswick (Woodstock), and Nova Scotia
Oklahoma (Kenand Virginia.

Winters from eastern Canada southward to southern
Texas (Brownsville), Louisiana, Alabama, Florida
(Cape Sable), and the Bermudas, but is accidental in
Cuba.
owl
After
part
of
geo-
graphic range.
long-eared
(Kentville), southward to northern
ton, Gate), Arkansas,
long-eared
owl
Erroneously, since
it
is
the West-
ern form and should always be listed with that descriptive term.
The
MIGRATION
is
decided winterly southward movement
regular with Asio otus wilsonianus, though
some years than
is
far
more
As men-
quite gregarious during these migrational
is
periods, particularly in the western United States. Nor-
So
factor
disks, breast,
tioned,
others.
fairly
in
it
and most immediately apparent differtuftsi and Asio otus wilsonianus
one of coloration. The western race
paler;
pronounced
in
greatest
ence between Asio otus
and
particularly
belly
is
noticeable
generally
much
on the
facial
plumage. The markings on the
underparts of the Western Long-eared
Owl
are
and the
facial
disks
the rufous coloration
which
so distinguishes the
less
distinct
Western Long-eared
Owl
much
have an absence of
Long-
The Western Long-eared Owl's facial

brown which may range from as
eared Owl.
are a pale tawny

as
an
disks
light
brown,
over-all pale buff to a distinct yellowish
but never with reddish traces.
TOTAL LENGTH
Asio otus tuftsi tends to average just slightly
over-all
than Asio
length
wilsonianus.
otus
length for the western subspecies
total
is
less in
Average
mm.
335.3
(13-2").
TAIL LENGTH
though
Surprisingly,
it
smaller than Asio otus wil-
is
sonianus in total length, the

tuftsi
length of Asio
tail
averages slightly longer at 154.6
mm.
otus
(6.1")
VOICE
The Western Long-eared Owl
Owl and
the Long-eared
is
is
less
vociferous than
normally quiet throughout
most of the year except during the breeding season.
Even then
does not call with as great frequency or
it
with as wide a variety of

sonianus.
The
calls
does Asio otus wil-
make
are basically similar*
does
Long-eared
to those of the
pitch, except for a
Owl
in tonal
it
Asio otus
utters
infrequently,
tuftsi
Godfrey
and
quality
few muted, rather mournful moan-
which seem
the repertoire of the Long-eared Owl.
ing sounds
absent in
it
calls as
to
be
Even more
reclusive than Asio otus wilsonianus
and
rarely seen by the casual observer, preferring to spend

all
daylight
hours
in
very
the
deepest
creek
valley
tangles or dense coniferous areas near streams, ponds,

ADULT
swamps, or
lakes.
Generally lighter, especially on the underparts, than

Asio otus wilsonianus, although the ear tufts are
dark brown and conspicuous.
The
EGGS
as
lighter facial disks,
lacking in rusty tone, can sometimes be very pale buff,
though they are normally a tan coloration. All underparts have a good bit of whitish and pale yellowish
buff
as
the
considerably
ground color and the streaks and

less distinctly
sonianus, although by no
soft, pale,
bars,
all
respects
to
and
of Asio
those
is
March
June 10, with the height of the egglaying season falling between March 26 and May 18.
13
latest
is
defined than in Asio otus wil-
means absent. The flanks are

and are generally unspotted.
yellowish sandy
The upperparts
are similar to those of the Long-eared

Owl, although essentially lighter, having less rufous undertone and generally a mottled tawny, gray and blackish, with wings and tail barred as in Asio otus wilsonianus.
Virtually identical in
otus wilsonianus except that earliest laying

Breeds
from
southern
Mackenzie
(Fort
Simpson,
Columbia (Nulki
Lake), and extreme southwest Manitoba (Whitewater
Fort
Western Long-eared
Providence),
Owl
central
British
81
Lake),
central
southeastern)
and
southwestern
(and
narrowly
ern California (including Catalina Island), northwest-
em
MIGRATION
to
Saskatchewan, then southward to south-
30N.), southern Arizona (Bates Well, Pima County, Santa Rita Mountains), New Mexico (Sante Fe) and western Texas.
Baja California
(to
Lat.
Winters from southern Canada south

Baja California, Sonora
(Tiburon
to
Island),
northern
There is a slight migration of the Western LongOwl, especially toward the coastal areas in
Washington State, Oregon, and northern California
during late autumn, but never a truly general movement of the subspecies.
eared
and Du-
rango.
Accidental in Alaska (Taku River).
82
Western Long-eared
Owl
meadow owl
After another type of habitat the bird
likes.
northern short-eared owl

the
SPECIES
more northerly specimens
Especially applied to
race
the
of
within
its
range.
palmetto owl
After the type of habitat preferred
by the owl in Florida, especially during breeding season.
ORDER:
STRIGIFORMES
FAMILY
STRIGIDAE
owl
Another name applied

form of habitat the bird prefers.
prairie
in respect to
swamp owl
Actually a misnomer, since the owl

marsh areas rather than the tangled tree
areas of true swamps.
tecolote orejas cortas de pontoppidan Mexican-
prefers treeless
GENUS:
Asio Brisson
SPECIES
flammeus
Pontoppidan
name
Indian
meaning
"Pontoppidan's
Small-eared
Owl."
SUBSPECIES
flammeus (Pontoppidan)
Essentially about the size of a large crow, the Short-
SHORT-EARED
eared
OWL
eared
Owl
Owl
only very slightly larger than the Long-
is
but with a
much
wider distribution and far more often seen because of

its diurnal habits. The ear tufts, after which it has been
named, are very small and widely separated and not a
reliable factor for identification, since more often than
not they are lying flat against the head and not perceptible. Even when raised they are not especially easy to
SHORT-EARED OWL
{COLOR PLATE XIV)
when
discern but,
mark. These ear
and only
SCIENTIFIC
rarely
discernible,
a positive identity
are
almost never raised in
tufts are
when perched. There
is
flight
a distinctive ob-
long patch of black on the underwing near the wrist, at
NAME AND
the base of the primaries, similar to that on the Long-
Owl and
a good identifying mark. There are also

wing patches which become visible in flight
and provide good identity markings. The facial disks
are somewhat small for the size of the owl, with the
superciliaries extending into the facial disk on each side
ear
large buffy
Asio flammeus flammeus (Pontoppidan). Original de-
flammea Pontoppidan, Danske Atlas,

1763, page 617, plate 25; based on a specimen taken in Sweden. Former scientific names: Brachyotus palustris, Brachyotus palustris americanus, Otus
scription:
Volume
Strix
i,
instead of running parallel with the supraorbital facial
rim
brachyotus, Strix brachyotus, Strix accipitrina, Asio ac-
flammea.
cipitrina, Strix
as in other owls.
Rank
in
over-all
size
among
the
eighteen
species:
Seventh.
OTHER NAMES
SHAPE AT REST
owl Because of its preference
meadow grasses or marsh grasses.
grass
deep
le
hibou
name meaning
oreilles
The body shape
French-Canadian
"Short-eared Owl."
le hibou des marais

ing
courtes
for areas of
marsh owl
frequents.
Because of one form of habitat
perched, although at times

self as
"Marsh Owl."
tends
owl
it
is
rather bulky
when
can and docs elongate itnormal perching it
a camouflaging measure. In
to
American
this
of this owl
lean
owls,
forward more than most other North
and therefore takes on the general
as-
pect in silhouette of a hawk, though with the head far

less distinctly
Short-eared
Owl
outlined and seemingly neckless.
83
SHAPE IN FLIGHT
punctuated by very
sionally
steep,
dives toward
swift
the ground.
Especially as
owl appears very similar to

but can be distinguished from that bird
Marsh Hawk
the
by
ranges back and forth low over marsh
it
and meadows,
grasses
much
its

and 6 females.
tail,
WEIGHT
in flight,
The underparts
Species average
underwing patches all the more distinctive.

When wheeling low over marshes and meadows, these
patches become very evident, even from considerable dis-
286.9 gr.
(10.0 oz.)
Minimum
Maximum
261.3 g r
in
weight
perch
to
perch
(11.8 oz.)
276.0 gr.
9.7
oz.)
oz.)
429.4 gr. (15.0 oz.)

the eighteen species: Seventh.
among
mm.
(15.5").
Male
Average
385.8
Minimum
Maximum
336.3
Rank
usually relatively short, covering a
is
(12.1
the ground
to
9- 2
336.5 gr.
TOTAL LENGTH
and rather
sloppy in character as the bird ranges back and forth in
quest of prey, although the wingbeat is buoyant and
easy, interspersed with long glides. The flight from
low
345.9 gr.
FLIGHT PATTERN
is
oz. ).
Female
Average
Rank
tances.
flight
3ii.7gr. (10.9
Male
the black
Normally,
making
are distinctly light in coloration,
birds:
3 males
blunt-headed and bull-necked

and the absence of the highly diswhite rump patch which the Marsh Hawk wears.
shorter
appearance
tinctive
this
429.2
in total
mm.
mm.
mm.
length
from 200 to 300 yards, but in a

rather zigzagging manner, not too unlike that of the
Nighthawk, but not as markedly agile.
Female
(15.2")
403.2
(13.3")
363.4
(16.9")
among
mm.
mm.
mm.
(15.9")
(14.3")
(17.1")
434-7
direct-line distance of
The wingbeats
During
its
ranging
flight
(See Courtship and Mating.)
flight
terrupted by brief mothlike hoverings as
watch
or a low perch,
ally into the
glide.
When
back,
spills
rises in
is
Average
pauses to
it
detected
it
raises its
into
Rank
normally slightly faster and with
less
Short-eared
Owl
distinctive:
shares
to vary
a flight
much from
plane upon which they are held.
owl were holding
its
characteristic
very
is
It is
tips
and
them-
wings steady and flapping
unusual
flight
tips are
mm
(44- 1 ")
I20 -3
>
characteristics
almost out of sight of unaided
mm.
(12.2").
284.9
in
321.3
mm.
mm.
mm.
Female
(11.8")
318.9
(11.2")
290.8
(12.7")
336.7
mm.
mm.
mm.
(12.6")
(11.5")
(13.3")
wing length among the eighteen species: Seventh.
TAIL LENGTH
human
vision.
This
it
is
is
more common during the breeding season than
other times of the year, and such high flight
is
at
occa-
(5-9")-
Male
Average
Minimum
Maximum
Rank
Asio
of
mm.
brought up
flammeus flammeus is its proclivity for high flight

often 200 to 300 feet high, but sometimes so high that
84
(39.8")
(4 2 -9")
(4 21 ")
the
if
high over the back.

the
Minimum
Maximum
body
sweep of
accomplished and the wing
of
299.1
its
actively ranging close to the ground, while the upstroke
One
mm.
wingspan among the eighteen species: Seventh.
Average
Rank
There is a notable lack of the full

wingbeat so common among most birds of prey. The
downstroke is usually slow and steady when the bird is
swiftly
1,009.8
the horizontal
almost as
instead.
is
mm
(38.2")
Male
the body has the appearance of rising
do not seem
1,067.4
lowering with each wingbeat, while the wing

selves
mm
gliding than that
Snowy Owl (Nyctea scandiaca) which
with the
1,088.9
(41. 1")
is
performed by the Marsh Hawk.
The
in
970.2
Female
mm.
mm.
its
The wingbeat
tall grasses.
(41.6").
first
its
wings over
out the air and drops with unexpected sud-
denness out of sight in the
1,042.8
Minimum
Maximum
a rather hurried manner, usu-
wind and often going quickly

prey
in-
is
mm.
Male
from the ground
for prey. In taking off

it
while hunting, there are fre-
quent times when the forward, zigzagging

listen or
WINGSPAN
are normally silent except during the
courtship maneuverings.
in tail
mm.
(5.8")
154.3
135.9
mm
(54")
39-4
mm
mm
149.9
mm.
(5.9")
158.8
mm.
length
among
variety of field sketches
Owl
acteristic of the species.
Owl
(6.1")
(5-5")
(6.3")
done mostly
in
northern Illinois of
(Asio flammeus flammeus). Note the
seemingly neckless shape of the bird
Short-eared
the Short-eared
Female
146.1
in flight,
which
is
char-
**<~\
,r/'
e^ trt
Tit
Offer!
mom
ouyJ
f\a*t <&+f'1W-e
....
fa.K,
.*
^t^h'o^s
"'Ô
BEAK LENGTH
enormous development of the actual ear parts, with the

and that is as long as
the skull is high
and proportionately broad. It has
ear cavity fully two inches long
mm.
Male
Average
16.9
Minimum
Maximum
15.8
Rank
18.7
mm.
mm.
mm.
beak length
in
(0.7").
Female
(0.7")
17.7
(0.6")
16.8
(0.7")
19.9
among
mm.
mm.
mm.
been stated that the hearing of Asio flammeus flammeus

is so acute that it can hear the footfalls of a beetle at
(0.7")
(0.7")
(0.8")
upward of 100 yards, the running of a mouse at 250

yards, and the squeaking of a mouse at an eighth of a
mile. This owl, incidentally, decoys well to the simu-
lated squeaking of a rodent.
The
legs
LEGS, FEET,
TALONS
and
flammeus flammeus are
feet of Asio
densely feathered to the base of the entirely black

ons.
The
legs are
somewhat longer than might be
pected for an owl of
mm.
44.5
(1.8")
this
size
ex-
the tarsus measuring

but because of the
on the average
usual squatty posture of the perched bird, this
is
not
apparent in casual observation. Leg plumage on the
brown-phase bird
is
warm
buffy coloration, while on
the gray-phase bird the coloration
is
a pure white or
dusky white. The bird's gripping strength with
slightly
the feet
is
and the talons are very sharply
fairly strong
MOLT
tal-
Tending
toward one another, the ear

and inconspicuous, more often than
not held flat to the head and projecting from slightly
closer to the center of the head than do those of the
Horned Owls {Bubo virginianus sp.), the Screech Owls
(Otus asio sp.), or the Long-eared Owls (Asio otus sp.).
The plumage is reasonably tight to the body contour,
though perhaps not quite as much so as in the Longeared Owl. Because of the squat posturings of the bird,
there
pointed.
to lean or curve
tufts are very small
is
an
the impression that the
which
bird elongates itself on
ier;
illusion
plumage
is
when
dispelled
is
much
the
bulk-
perched
perch for purposes of camou-
its
flage.
EYES AND VISION

The Short-eared Owl has excellent vision any time of
day or night and may be seen ranging for food on a
bright, sunny afternoon as well as during the midst of
night, although cloudy days are preferred and late evening
is
tlingly
The
much in
the peak hunting period.
bright lemon yellow,
irides
still
The
Short-eared
probably makes greater use of vision in hunting

the
nocturnal owls, but hearing
strictly
more important
a complete progressive molt of
is
sense in this respect.
all
plumage.
VOICE
Be-
around both eyes, the eyes seem abnormally deep-set

and the general aspect of the bird is one of dissipation.
As with so many owls, quite often this bird will wear a
than the more
is
are star-
cause of the unusual darkness of the plumage close
Owl
ber,
contrast to the
darkness of the surrounding facial-disk plumage.
very distinctly cross-eyed expression.
There are two molts each year. The first is a molting

body plumage only, which begins in January and
is completed by mid-March. The second molt, begun in
late July or early August and finished by mid-Novemof the
The
Short-eared
Owl
much
less
not entirely silent during the
is
non-breeding periods as
sometimes stated, but
is
it
is
compared to the courtship

its more common calls is a
vociferous then as
and nesting
time.
One
of
penetrating barking sound,

very small dog. This call
is
much
like the
yapping of a
repeated over and over for
long periods, but almost always the delivery

of three notes, sounding
much
like:
is
in a series
ANK-ANK-ANK
ANK-ANK-ANK ANK-ANK-ANK ANK-ANK-ANK.

After a series of eight of these triplet yappings there
usually a slight pause before another series begins.
is
Not
EARS AND HEARING

XXI
The
owls,
is
auditory sense, as in the other North American
most acute and well performs
in the predatory habits of the
because of
its
more diurnal
more often used
in
markedly
86
as
vital function
Short-eared Owl. But
habits, the eyes
and
ears are
strictly
nocturnal owls.
The
ear
asymmetrical in placement, though not so

in
Otus
asio floridanus
many
species.
There
is,
however, an
OWL
(Ridgway). Male, female. Gray-phase
male: Amelia Island, Nassau County, Florida, December 2,

1950. Red-phase female: Indian River County, Florida, Sep-
tember
concert for the location of prey
than are those of the

cavities are
its
FLORIDA SCREECH
11, 1939.
A.O.U. Number 373-A

XXII
SAGUARO SCREECH OWL
Otus asio gilmani Swarth. Female.
Ten
Maricopa County, Arizona, November

in the 1957 A.O.U. Check-list
Short-eared
Owl
miles east of Sentinel,

16, 1929.
Not included
aT7rouî
SEXUAL DIFFERENCES:
infrequently there wiil be a prolonged single sound like
A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-N-N-N-K
after the eighth series has
been uttered.
When
solitarily
hunting, the bird tends to issue a
soft,
persistent cooing note that has a pleasing musical qual-
The same
ity.
call
TOOT-TOOT-TOOT-TOOT.
distinct sort of
As
the case with the Long-eared Owl, the Short-
is
eared
sometimes uttered during the
is
Courtship and Mating) as a more
courtship rituals (see
Owl
utters high, shrill distress cries while emulat-
away from the nest area or young birds.

Once in a while this owl, while perched, utters a
muted but shrill series of squeaking sounds similar to
those
made by
made
in anticipation of
a rodent. This could possibly be a call
rodent, although this
ground color of almost pure white on the undertail
and belly, shading into a faint creamion the breast and sides, while the adult females are
a distinct orangish buff on these parts. There is some
speculation that such color differences may be due to
coverts, flanks,
ness
ing an injured bird on the ground to decoy an intruder
time.
There is a surprising difference in coloration between

male and female birds, with the female almost always a
good bit darker in general. Some males will have a
hearing a reply from a nearby

entirely speculative as of this
is
weak, whistling
cry,
two
usually given only
it is
color phase or seasonal changes, but they occur so gen-
on a year-round
erally
that there seems greater
basis
reason to believe that the difference
distinctly sexual.
is
Not unexpectedly, the female is slightly larger than the

male, and her voice is more shrill and squeaky, though
with
less
of the hoarse quality of the
male
bird.
or three times before the bird lapses into silence.
When
approaching the nesting area where there are
young birds waiting, the adults tend

note that sounds
much
as
cut with a hacksaw. This
by a
may
clear, whistling squeal,
to
raspy
issue a
a piece of metal were being
if
may
or
not be followed
Nesting cannibalism has been noted on several occa-
degenerating into a muffled,

sions,
The young birds in the nest

once with a sound much like that of steam
sneezy, half-barking cry.
spond
at
caping from a broken pipe

three seconds
When
and
is
the
sound
lasts
re-
repeated two or three times.
adult then breaks into a scolding note
similar to that of a disturbed sea gull,
directed at the intruder.
subdued manner,
is
given
(The same
and
is
is
evidently far
of
little
more the exception than
consequence in the general pic-
on the
ture of infant mortality. Extensive tabulations
mortality rates, in the nest or out of
though
wide variety of strange cries, usually beginning with a

low sound like KL'K! which evidently warns the young
The
this
es-
for about
danger threatens, the adults give voice to a
to be silent.
but
the rule and
it
is
are lacking;
it,
generally believed that mortality
is
some-
what less than that among owls inclined to nest in

abandoned nests of hawks or crows. Several captive
Short-eared Owls have been known to reach fifteen
years of age, though no data are available on longevity
this cry is.
in the wild state.
more
note, in a
when one Short-eared Owl
inadvertently invades the hunting territory of another.)

It
may
raspy
then be followed by a variety of squeals, shrieks,
cries,
chucklings,
Young and

ADULT
and weird groanings.
adult birds alike snap their beaks and
hiss at intruders.
This sound
is
further varied by the
Asio flammeus flammeus
adults with a "poofing" sound, like a short exhalation,
At
times, while flying at great height, the
male (and
Screech
Owl (Otus
phase and a gray phase.
This
generally a light
call,
and quite
ing
it
may
gives voice to a steady,
strangely enough,
difficult to locate,
is
some degree dichro-
to
extremely ventriloquial
even though the bird
issu-
naevius)
asio
monotonous, four-per-second tooting call which lasts for as few

as 14 notes or as many as 30, but usually around 20.
possibly the female)
is
matic, although not as pronouncedly so as
followed by a sort of purring growl.
warm
SCREECH OWL
iable,
Otus asio hasbroucki Ridgway. Male. Vicinity of Kerrville.

Kerr County, Texas, February 8, 1915. A.O.U. Number 373-I
XXIV
Otus
asio inyoensis Grinnell.
Male. Ten miles south of Inde-
pendence, Inyo County, California, February
Number 373-O
7,
1940.
A.O.U.
brown
widely
legs are
warm brownish
is
white or
a cold gray
tinge.
is
highly var-
not only because of dichromatism, but varying
among
same color phase, ranging
birds of the
from buffy white

excluding those
and
is
In general, coloration of the underparts
HASBROUCK
buff to deep sandy coloration.
Similar plumage in the gray-color-phase bird
without any of the

XXIII
is
In the brown color phase of the Short-eared Owl, the

features of breast, belly, undertail coverts,
only faintly creamy white, and the gray
be clearly in view high above.
the Eastern
is
There
to
of
warm
the
orangish tan. Each feather,
rump,
has
blackish-brown
on the feathers of
the shoulders, nape, back, and breast. Stripes on the
belly and sides are considerably narrower and gradually
center stripe. This striping
Short-eared
Owl
is
heaviest
87
disappear
until,
tail coverts,
on
flanks, legs,
lower
they are entirely absent.
belly,
GENERAL HABITS AND
and under-
The rump plumage
CHARACTERISTICS
more of a reddish buff, each feather with indistinct

brown crescent markings.
The wing coverts are well mottled with irregular
slaty brown and orangish buff. Normally, five bands of
Short-eared
buff or orange buff cross the dusky-brown secondaries.
in
is
The
ish
inner primaries
brown
may
to light buff,
range from markedly orang-
becoming darker near the ends,
but tipped in a broad buffy termination. This buff
ping becomes vague or
may even
ermost primaries, and the
quills
be absent on the out-
here have three to
rather square, irregular splashings of dusky

the outer webs.
The primary
vague
times two)
series of
tip-
five
brown on
coverts have one
orangish-brown spots on a
in
Facial-disk coloration
black.
may
but with each
bristle shafted
much deeper
to a
orange brown, but always with those feathers encir-
brown
to black.
The
the
activities,
is
Marsh Hawk because
and tends
while
It
much
most apt
is
it
favors the
same
sort of habitat
back and forth low
to range
hunting,
Hawk.
to
manner
the
in
to the
ground
the
Marsh
of
be seen in the hours from mid-
afternoon to early dusk, especially on overcast or par-
cloudy days.
tially
Next
species
Barn Owl {Tyto alba pratincola)
to the
among
is
this
the most cosmopolitan of owls.
It
is
found on all continents except Australia, and ranges

from the Arctic Circle to the Antarctic Circle. It is not
particularly bothered by cold weather,
and there
is
lit-
migrational inclination; though during the worst of
tle
may
the owl
winter's inclemencies,
take a temporary'
refuge under a sheltered creek-bank overhang or on
leeward side of fence rows which have become
the
heavily bedecked with tumbieweed.
widely variable and
is
range from a dingy buff white
cling the eyes very distinctly dark
Owl
day-hunting
frequent
its
one of the most commonly seen owls

North America, although it is very often mistaken for
(some-
background of plain dusky brown. The tail may range

from orange brown to light buff and is usually crossed
by five equally wide slate-brown bands on the middle
feathers, but narrower bands on the outer feathers. All
rectrices terminate in an equally broad band of orange
brown or dusky buff.
Throat, chin, and superciliaries are a dull white. The
lores are similarly colored,
Because of
Asio fiammeus flammeus

otus wilsonianus, although
in pairs,
not as gregarious as Asio
is
often witnessed hunting
is
it
even during the non-breeding seasons, leading
to the supposition that
it
mates for
In most cases,
life.
brown,
however, the birds are rarely found closer together than
and blackish, except at the ear coverts,

where they become uniformly slaty black. The beak
and talons are black.
The underwing coverts range from pale buff to pure,
200 yards, even when mates. Some observers have noted
mottling of the facial rims
is
irregularly orange
grayish, dull buff
unblemished white except for the conspicuous blackish-
brown spot
usually
of oval or crescent shape
which
appears on the terminal half of the greater underwing

coverts.
buffy
The
white,
underside of the
primaries
marked with one or two
is
normally
(usually
two
broad grayish or dusky-buff bands.

It is interesting to
note that the plumage of birds in-
lighter than that of birds residing in
more inland
areas.
some extent
will associate to
and,
sp.)
even more surprisingly, with Marsh Hawks. There seems

to be
something of a mutual
well,
among Burrowing Owls, Long-eared Owls, and

Owls
Short-eared
those
in
agreement, as
territorial
areas
where
their
ranges
tend to overlap. In such areas, each bird seems to enjoy
uncontested privilege of hunting in
the
area of terrain
habiting sandy coastal regions tends to be considerably
Owl
that the Short-eared
with Burrowing Owls (Speotyto cunicularius
the
Owl
particular
meadows,
edges; the Burrowing Owl
Short-eared
marshes, and cereal grainfield
in the
and open sagelands; the Long-eared Owl

woodland groves and thickets.
When flushed from cover in marsh or deep grasslands, the Short-eared Owl will take to wing easily the
in the pastures
in the
first
time and
tends to
sit
fly
200 or 300 yards befare
settling,
but
it
rather tightly after that and rarely will flush
again unless nearly trod upon.
flammeus

are generally a rather dark brown or
brown, with each feather tipped quite broadly
The
facial
disks
are invariably a
uniform brownish black. Underparts are generally dull

in
color,
Wings and
88
ranging
tail
from orange buff
characteristic
the fact that
it
seems
of
Asio
flammeus
to take considerable
any intent to kill or even inflict injury, but evidently for

something akin to amusement. This action has been
The upperparts
with orangish buff.
is
unusual
sport in the harassment of large birds in flight, not with
JUVENILE
slaty
rather
to
smoky
are similar to those of adult birds.
gray.
observed
many
times
swooped and struck
as
the
Short-eared
at such flying birds as
Owl
has
Great Blue
Herons, egrets, cranes, vultures, and occasionally even

at
waterfowl resting on pond surfaces.
ably agile
aerial
Short-eared
Owl
flier,
It
is
a remark-
sometimes performing rather astonishing
maneuvers.
picked up and handled. This,
should be noted,
it
common an attribute among the

among nestlings and yearling flying
as
In preference of habitat, the Short-eared
Owl
is
one
of the most varied species. While primarily a bird of

marshland and deep grass fields, it is often found in
open woodlands, desert areas, sagelands, open fields,
pastures,
mountain
park areas, prairielands, lower
city
villages,
arroyos, woodland ravines,

and salt-water bogs, swamps,
canyons,
slopes,
scrub-oak cover, freshtundra, stubble
and other such
More
dunelands, croplands, orchards,
fields,
often than not a ground-roosting bird,
and
often merely alight
roost,
its
it
prewill
at
will roost in
it
it
although
an indistinguishable
or overgrown meadow-
sleep
spot in the midst of a rye field

land. Occasionally
will threaten
it
with
Among
more evident
in
low brush, especially
an
if
ever, will
it
roost in
most often seen when inadvertently

individual progressing through deep
flushed
by
grasses,
particularly
low, wet
is
bad weather during win-
than at other times. Rarely,

is
rarely used the
it
beak
in
most interesting defensive measures are

when its offspring are endangered. At
the approach of an intruder, when it seems that detection of nest and young birds is imminent, one or both
parent birds will feign injury
on the fringe of a marshland or
meadow.
than the other. Probably
earlier
to
flushes
effort to lead the in-
He
30
first.
then in
feet,
it
is
much
who al-
the male
will usually take to
manner
full
wing and
at a height of
lie
fly
about 20
view of the intruder he
will cry
sharply, execute a fluttering tumble to the ground,
and
there with wings outstretched, crying in a piteous
way.
whole variety of
calls
may
be uttered in an effort
to bring the intruder closer to the supposedly injured
with the owl struggling along the ground and
bird,
somehow
just
managing
to stay out of reach
and con-
leading the intruder away. If this ruse
fails,
however, and the intruder continues toward the
nest,
sistently
the bird will take to
an
in
truder away. Usually one adult bird will flush
in a peculiarly injured
It
and
Though
feet.
its
roosting will take place in low conifers, but this
hardwoods.
become
back and
in great agitation,
sharply taloned
beak,
its
ways
ter
its
its
an actual attack.
along the fringes of marshes and streams. Less often,
characteristic
beak
its
lash out effectively with
onto
is
those performed
areas.
a dense grass tussock for
fers
menacingly, snap
hiss
itself
it
however,
birds. If,
the danger continues to threaten, the owl can

aggressive indeed. It will throw
not
is
adult birds as
wing and
circle
above him. At
this
time the second bird, the female, will similarly take
are concerned there are few which bother the Short-
wing and both birds will circle and cry close overhead
while the young birds scatter from the nest into the
deeper surrounding grasses a short distance and then
freeze in place. If the danger to the young persists or
eared Owl. Occasionally one will be struck at by a
worsens, the flying adults
As
man
is
common among
the
more cosmopolitan
of owls,
the greatest enemy, but where natural enemies.
is
Prairie Falcon or
Hawk or harassed by
On the whole, however,
Red-shouldered
a crow, magpie, raven, or jay.
smaller birds do not seem to recognize Asio flammeus
flammeus
as
an enemy and tend not
to pester
it,
despite
the fact that during the nesting season this owl will prey
upon a
not,
if
certain
there
Owl
eared
is
number
of smaller birds.
More
an incident of harassment,
itself
that
is
age
is
harassing a heron, crow, hawk,
amazingly effective in camouflaging the bird as
it
amid dried cattail reeds, meadow grasses, weedfield growth, and the like. In addition, this owl has an
amazing facility for alighting on a short, projecting
branch close to the ground or water and so effectively
molding its body to the configuration of the wood that
may
readily be mistaken for a
continuation of the broken stub.
secondary defensive measure
feign death. If discovered
onto
its
its
side
and
lie
and
completely
is
attack,
still
an inclination
it
plunge almost straight downward very close to the
intruder, causing
him
to flinch in
the expected assault. Rarely
The
is
an
effort to
ward
off
contact made, however.
birds will deliberately miss very closely,
and
at a
away for about 100 feet before landing and voicing the
same anguished cries again. The wings are left open
and flapping weakly as a further enticement to the in-
sits
it
will
the Short-
it is
The mottled orangish-buff-brown plum-
even at close range
at-
height of only a foot or two off the grasses they will
In the matter of defenses, protective coloration plays

role.
then even launch an
often than
or vulture.
a major
may
tack of sorts. Flying at a height of about 50 feet, they
may
to
flop over
on the ground with
eyes closed, even to the point of allowing itself to be
truder. If the intruder approaches the
grounded
sail
bird,
the act continues until only about 20 feet separate them,
which time the adult will fold first one wing, then
the other, take off in low flight to the ground for about
another 100 feet, and repeat the act. Sometimes when
the adult drops toward the intruder from its 50-foot
at
height,
it
will
loudness as
it
clap
falls.
its
If
it
wings together with startling

does not feel
it
is
attracting
enough attention on the ground with its thrashing and

cries, it will smack its wings harshly against its own sides
or breast, again causing a loud clapping. For all its defensive antics where its own offspring are concerned,
however, actual attacks of the owl against an intruder
are extremely rare.
Short-eared
Owl
89
HUNTING METHODS AND

CARRYING OF PREY

The
food
favorite
course, mice
of
primarily
the
Short-eared
meadow
Owl
Mice
voles.
almost the entire bulk of the bird's diet during
The most commonly observed hunting method favored by the Short-eared Owl is a low, ranging pattern
marsh
interspersed with glidings over
and deep
fringes
weedy or meadow areas, much in the manner of the

Marsh Hawk. Its flight is usually level as it hunts, even
broken often with pauses to hover in
in the glides, but
one spot with wings treading
air silently as
listens
it
and
watches for prey. This hovering in a wobbly, mothlike
may
fluttering
last for
a minute before
raising
its
suddenly swoops neatly onto
wings high to
Most commonly this form of hunting

ternoon and early evening.
The
level of
winter
in
ground,
hunting
than
owl tends
this
flight
is
to
is
done
prey,
its
to grasp.
in late af-
somewhat higher
usually
When snow
summer.
in
of half
covers
the
range at a height of about 15
to 20 feet, but zigzagging, pausing, hovering, whirling,
and diving much

ing the wind,
it
as
it
does in summer. Expert at
utiliz-
takes advantage of the air currents over
when
and takes
handled.
in practically
It
flammeus
game
is
during
Quail,
occasional
baby owls;
if
large chunks
Short-eared
example,
down
Then
Owl having caught
feet,
turning
its
branch stub, fence
and
post,
side to side as
will alight
it
manner and
zigzag once
more back and
forth as
resumes hunting in a more active manner.
While the hunting ranges of the Short-eared Owl,

Great Horned Owl and Marsh Hawk overlap, and all
three will patrol the marsh fringes, meadows, stubble
fields, and cut cornfields in search of mice, there is little
in the way of encounters between them, since the Marsh
Hawk hunts mainly by day, especially in the mornings, the Short-eared Owl in the late afternoons and
early evenings, and the Great Horned Owl in late evening and nighttime.
Although normally it prefers the more open areas
for
its
for
holding
it
talons
the smaller birds also taken at this time are rob-
and other thrushes,
sparrows,
kinglets,
meadowlarks, and
pipits, buntings, juncos, various
red-winged
grackles,
sapsuckers,
flickers,
terns.
both hanging and in

beetles,
other small
blackbirds,
Bats are
flight,
roaches,
mammals
cowbirds,
and other woodpeckers,

and
caught,
frequently
larger insects such as
katydids, and
Mice and numerous
grasshoppers,
pocket
are included in the diet:
gophers, ground squirrels, shrews, moles,
rabbits,
rats,
and young muskrats.
quietly, listening for prey, only to rise again in a
sit
hurried
it
it listens and
on an open-ground
hummock, or even bare ground
head from
watches for prey. Often
rail,
into
and jerking savagely with the beak.

the two halves are swallowed whole in turn.
its
large caterpillars are avidly taken.
five to thirty
a black
will generally rip the bird in half,
with
Among
ins
devoured by the adult, they are torn

and swallowed on the spot.
crickets,
from
snipe,
taken to the nest
for the young, they are torn into bits to be fed to the
with consummate
at heights of
pheasants,
will fall prey. If
dunes, sagelands, and grasslands, gliding into the wind

skill
size
numbers of songbirds and some
rails,
and other such birds
times
young
prey expands
which can be
period that Asio flammeus
this
will kill fair
birds.
anything of a
all
there are
owls in the nest. At that time the quest for
out the air and stretching
spill
forward and downward, poised
feet well
its
it
upward
a few seconds or
of the year except for the period
of
is,
constitute
by the Short-eared Owl
Pellet regurgitation
ingly accomplished without
undue
effort;
is
seem-
with one or
two convulsive open-mouth flexings, the mucus-coated

dark-gray pellet, about two inches long and an inch in
diameter, pops from the mouth and is lost among the
deep
grasses
wherever
the
bird
perched.
is
Fecal
wates are vicous in texture, mainly grayish with some

mottling of white or greenish. These latter wastes are
often ejected at the
before
it
moment
rises clear of
the bird takes to flight but
the surrounding grasses.
hunting, Asio flammeus flammeus will frequently
hunt through dense
thickets, heavily
overgrown willow
clumps, and areas of small but densely overgrown evergreens.

it
On
occasion
it
will alight
on the ground where
has seen a rat or mouse pop into a hole and will stand
HARVEST MOUSE AS OWL FOOD
there quietly, straddling the hole for long periods, wait-
ing for the rodent to reappear

often quite successful.
up
its
smaller prey
Most
mice
it
there.
Almost
than the beak.
90
is
all
is
Probably no other creature
in
North America
is
more
quently and consistently taken as prey by almost

it
snatches
without
fre-
is
even
some convenient
the ground and devouring
animal
close to
prey
patience that
often, however,
in particular
alighting, carrying the small
perch nearby that
with a
to
carried in the talons rather
all
owl
species on this continent than the harvest mouse, along with
other mouse species.
The
Short-eared
Owl
in particular preys
very heavily upon this species on a year-round basis. With-
out the control factor that owls exert on harvest-mouse populations,

losses
Short-eared
as
would
Owl
well
result.
as
those
of
other
mice,
great
economic
the male leveled off at great speed just above the reed-
made a wide circle only inches over them, and

then slowed and settled gently to earth close to the
tops,
The
courtship flight of the male Asio flammeus flammeus, usually occurring in late April or early May, is one
of the most spectacular
The
individual,
who
is
among
North American owls.

fortunate enough to witness it, is
invariably held rooted to the spot in
wonderment
as the
The authors have watched this

on three separate occasions and, while there were minor
aerial display unfolds.
variations each
quences
time, a description of one of the se-
be well representative of what occurs. This
will
McHenry County, Illinois,

about a half mile from the west shore of Wonder Lake.
courtship flight occurred in
It
was a breath-taking exhibition.
Owl
Short-eared
female,
all
rising
began with the male

high above a ground-perched
the while repeating a low-toned series of
ing to fluctuate from the horizontal more than his wings.

This was interspersed with some gliding and occasional
came
became more
calling
and
faintly to us.
all
the male merely stood quietly, as
The female began moving

she was
the while the
Gradually the
pattern
and excited and the owl introduced

an irregular series of short dives and recoveries, dipping
swiftly downward for perhaps a hundred feet and then
erratic
recovering the former altitude with
a steep
upward
curve and rapidly beating wings. During both the diving
and the climbing, the wing tips smacked together rapidly

under the bird's body, with a sharp clapping sound quite
clearly audible to us. The sound was, in fact, suggestive
of a large flag rippling and popping in a very stiff breeze.
To make this sound occur, the male's wings not only are
brought down smartly to meet far beneath the bird, but
three or four feet distant from

his
preening her nape with
his beak.
him when
head and walked to her in a

deliberate manner, stood beside her where she had
stopped, and pressed his shoulder against hers. In a
moment he turned his head to her and gently began
The female
moment
shivered rather strongly after a
and suddenly dropped onto her side on the

ground. At once the male partially straddled her, placing one foot low on her side and bringing his vent acof this
curately into contact with hers.
Copulation evidently
took place immediately and accurately and lasted for
no more than twenty seconds. As soon
made
female
the
pleted,
regained
her
feet,
a low cooing sound, and took
the grasses in a swift, direct line.
as
it
was com-
shook
herself,
off, flying
low over
The male
followed
close behind.
monotoned
flight
still
regaining his breath.
if
gradually closer to him, but
he very gravely dipped
It
whooot-whooot-whooot cries at the rate of about four

notes per second and repeated about 20 times. The male
continued to climb in a steady spiral until he had reached
an altitude of a thousand to fifteen hundred feet. Here
he leveled off and, as we watched through binoculars, began circling with slow, even wingbeats, his body seem-
sideslipping maneuvers,
who had been watching closely all this while.

For perhaps two full minutes after coming to a stop,
female,
all
Observations of others indicate that such copulation

will
recur at intervals over the next few days, some-
more
times with
ally
aerial acrobatics
without them
more
or,
by the male, but usu-
likely,
with an abbrevi-
ated and lower-altitude modification of them.
There
good reason to believe that once a pair have mated,
they remain mated for life and stay reasonably close
is
to
one another the year around.
ANNUAL BROODS,
NEST,
NESTING HABITS
are also extended rearward so that the four or five out-
ermost primaries of each wing are the only ones that
Although occasionally double-brooded in the more

portions of its North American breeding
meet.
This action continued for about ten minutes but was

suddenly interrupted by a whole
series of
wild
maneu-
on jerky wingbeats that seemingly were almost out of control, during which the male bird fell,
recovered, tumbled in an amazing series of somersaults
and roll-overs, and finally dropped in a flaccid and
formless fall as if the bird had been struck dead in
mid-flight. Recovering itself after a drop of at least two
hundred feet, the bird returned to its former peak altitude, circled once very widely, and then dropped in a
long swooping dive punctuated all the way down with
wing clapping and a most peculiar chattering cry
verings
quavering, questioning sort of cry with an eerie and

yet appealing quality to
The
it.
plummeting bird came to the ground

the more certain we became that it could never recover
in time to prevent smashing into the ground with
devastating force. But the dive stopped just in time and
92
closer the
southerly
range, the Short-cared
Owl
is
essentially single-brooded
and almost invariably nests upon the ground. Most often the nest is no more than a slight depression in a
little rise
of ground, well hidden by heavy surrounding
and the depression itself is carelessly

lined with some dried grasses, weed stalks, and occasional feathers from the female's breast. At other
times it may be no more than a shallow dip hollowed
out of bare sand and strangely exposed. Only rarely,
however, will the nesting occur in a low bush, and
evidently never higher up in a tree.
Underground nesting in an abandoned mammal burrow is not too uncommon, and occasionally this owl
reeds or grasses,
will
even dig
slant
for
for another
which
Short-eared
Owl
is
its
perhaps
own burrow. This

two
feet,
two or three
usually a bit
feet,
goes
down
at
moves horizontally
ending in a small chamber
then
more elevated than the
tunnel.
padding of some
and a few feathers, from about 9 to 12 inches
diameter, and up to two inches thick. Most com-
The
nest here will usually be a sparse
grasses
in
monly, though, preference
is
for a nest in dry grasses
on ground level, though often immediately adjacent

to wet ground.
Often the nest will be hidden by a covering arch
of reeds or saw grass; less often, the owl will actually
make a tunnel of sorts through the grasses for 10 or
12 feet, through which it must walk after alighting in
if
sometimes small
nest construction
more commonly,
vegetation; but the nest
does have the
It
sticks
virtue,
is
normally
example,
Owl.
other
affect
always quite sloppily
built.
however, of being extremely
owl
nesting
species.
will often destroy the nest of the
and sometimes those
are
that
for
Fire,
Short-eared
constructed
in
meadow
areas will inadvertently be plowed under by
farmers.
In coastal areas the nests built in
are sometimes too close to the sea,
month move
tides of the
est
bogs
salt
and when the high-
these nests are inun-
in,
dated and the eggs destroyed.
Whenever. a
nest
a second nesting
usually with
initial
is
is
any, trace of glossiness.
amdng
those measured were:
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum
nesting.
destroyed in those or other ways,
begun within about two weeks, but
It
44.5
33.0
width:
37.6
width:
29.0
if
the nest
The
(1.8")
(1.3")
(1.5")
(1.1")
eggs are rarely ever laid
48 hours, and often
at shorter intervals of time than
upward
week
of a
apart, especially in the smaller clutches
of eggs.
Alaska and arctic Canada:
Egg-laying dates
ear-
June 5; latest, July 2; normally between June 10

and June 25.
Southern Canada: earliest, April 30; latest, June 22;
normally between May 4 and June 17.
Northern United States: earliest, April 14; latest,
liest,
June 15; normally between April 23 and June 10.

Midwest: earliest, April 4; latest, June 8; normally
between April 16 and May 25.
Southern California; earliest, March 20; latest, May
18; normally between March 26 and April 26.
disturbed, the adults
is
move their eggs to a new location a

away and continue incubation there.
Quite often the nesting adults
will

CHARACTERISTICS
short distance
sit
on a raised
and will
The male
tussock or branch stub fairly close to the nest
doze there during the early and middle hours of the

day. If disturbed while
on the
nest, the adult
a short distance away, then stop
may hop
and
re-
turn part of the distance and stand to face the intruder
with angry defiance.
mostly this
is
will
sometimes aid
egg-laying,
accurate establishment of incubation
in question, especially since
some
the second or third egg
may
be
As few
laid,
laid.)
as four
and
as
from five to seven eggs.

There is some color variation in the eggs,
but only of a vague nature. At times they may be dull
white; sometimes they will have a creamy cast to them,
and on rare occasions they may be faintly yellow. Most
ings contain
Color
In most cases,
never
is
less
it
than
The brooding female
many
but the most usual nest-
is
it
is
is
is
time
possible that incuba-
of the larger clutches until
laid.
(In smaller clutches,
probable that incubation begins with the
period
per nesting
but
her mate supplying food to her at the nest for as long
is
as fourteen eggs
the brooding,
as brooding continues. Because of the staggering of the
is
EGGS
in
a job handled strictly by the female, with
tion does not begin in
Number
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
has also been reported, though not
will
and run
length:
length:
fewer eggs deposited than were in the
substantiated, that
off
with
little,
Average egg size for the species, based on the

measurements of 172 eggs, is 39.6 mm. (1.6") in
length and 31.9 mm. (1.3") in width. The extremes
decomposing
bits of
detect.
to
smooth,
quite
is
are used in the
By the same token, such ground

nesting does allow for certain hazards which do not
difficult
surface
shell
Size
order to get to the nest.

If available,
The
Texture
only the faintest suggestion of granulation and
it
egg
first
believed, the full incubation
days nor more than 28.

loath to leave her nest except
under conditions of extreme danger from natural hazards such as fire or flood, or at the direct-line approach
of
an enemy such
enemy
is
as
man, and even then not until the

away and cannot help but
only a few feet
encounter the
nest.
often, however, they are white, with a faint suggestion
of a bluish tinge.
Shape The eggs of the Short-eared Owl are only

slightly more ovate than those of the majority of other
owl species in North America. Rarely do they give the
impression of being practically globular, as do those
of some species.
YOUNG AND FAMILY
LIFE
CHARACTERISTICS
The
ally
Short-eared
interval
between hatchings of the eggs
about three days, although
Owl
it
may
be as
is
usu-
little
as
93
inches in length and
brown
plumage,
rusty buff.
the
tail
pays
The wing
has not yet appeared.
is
a long,
still
well feathered
is
broadly
feather
feathers have
tipped
with
with
begun growing, but
The down
of the under-
cinnamon buff, and by this

have become a variegated black-
soft,
time the facial disks

ish
back
its
each
brown.
Within the next two or three days the young bird

begins to stray from the nest, but the parent birds keep
close tabs on its whereabouts and continue to tend it
wherever it stops to rest, though this is rarely far from
This away-from-the-nest care continues
the nest
itself.
until the
young bird
is
six
weeks
old.
By the twenty-fourth day the first-winter plumage

has begun to appear through the downy plumage and
the body down is gradually molted as wings and tail
-
continue developing. At the end of the fourth week the
young bird
is
capable of short
flight
but continues to
on the ground, although it now tends to

stray considerably farther from the nest area.
At six weeks of age the fledglings are straying as
much as 150 yards from the nest, keeping to the dense
grasses and causing the parent birds considerable diffistay mainly
culty in
keeping up with them and supplying them
with food.
It
is
at this point that the fledglings begin
catching some of their
#rcpK
own food
principally
insects
and small amphibians.

By the eighth week the young birds fly very well but
remain under the care of their parents. Not until late
September or early October has all trace of down vanished, and then the young birds are fully bedecked in
SHORT-EARED OWL
Asio flammeus flammeus (Pontoppidan'
their first-winter
plumage.

two days or as much, in rare instances, as fourteen
days. The newly hatched young are quite weak for the
first 18 to 24 hours. During this period they are covered with a short, grayish-white natal down which is
inclined to have a buffy tinge on the upperparts, shading into grayish on the sides and to almost pure white
on median line of breast and belly. The base of this
natal down on wings and sides is darker and tends to
form dark narrow patches or dark lines.
By the end of the fourth day (sometimes as early as
the third day) the natal
a secondary
down
down
starts
being replaced by
and, almost simultaneously, with the
downy plumage, which is very soft and

structure. The secondary down appears all over
and
is
generally long,
but the
first
soft,
and cinnamon buff
downy plumage appears
back. At this time the baby bird
is
about
six
Falls),
Missouri,
southern
northern Indiana, southern Ohio

western
New York
(Cape May) and

,
Illinois
(Circleville)
(Brockport, Buffalo),
(Odin),
,
New
northJersey
the tidewater areas of Virginia.
casionally from southern British Columbia, east-central
on the
inches in
By the tenth day the young are quite active and have
if danger nears, and even
to feign
death if the hazard grows worse. By the twelfth or
thirteenth day the nestling has reached about ten
94
Neosho
the bird
length.
learned to freeze
of
Winters almost throughout breeding range and oc-
in color;
initially
Mackenzie (Franklin Bay),

(Cape Eskimo), southeastern
Baffin Island (Greater Kingwah, Kingnait Fiord), Labrador and Newfoundland, south to southern California
(San Diego County), northern Nevada (Lee), Utah,
northeastern Colorado (Sterling), Kansas (Manhattan,
Keewatin
District
in
loose
first
Breeds from northern Alaska (Cape Prince of Wales,

Point Barrow), northern
Washington, Montana, South Dakota, Minnesota, Wis-
and Massouthward to Baja California (Cape San

Lucas), Mexico, Texas, the Gulf Coast, and Florida
consin, southern Michigan, southern Ontario,
sachusetts,
(Cape Sable)
Casual in Greenland (north to Upernavik District),
Bermuda, Cuba, and Guatemala (Volcan de Agua).
Accidental on St. Bartholemew.
Short-eared
Owl
MIGRATION
Only
eared
in
migrational
slightly
Owl
in
its
seem particularly fatigued and which rested only a

short while before taking wing again, alighted on the
habits,
the
Short-
often prefers to remain throughout the year
one area, tending
more snowy areas
to
move southward
foredeck of a passenger steamer in the Atlantic fully
800 miles from the nearest land.
to escape the
in only the harshest of winters.
It
does not like to remain in areas where the snow completely covers the grass
mally a gregarious bird,
ECONOMIC INFLUENCE
and weeds. Although not norit
may
occasionally be seen in
There can be no doubt whatever, despite its tendkill some game birds and songbirds during its
groups of 20 or 30 birds during those irregular migrational periods. It
a score or
more
is
not
uncommon,
for example, to see
of these birds of prey simultaneously
hunting the same California marshland.

ago, concentrations of
corded
in
some
Long
years
more than 200 birds were reno such extensive gatherings
years, but
have been recorded during the past half century. The

bird
is
certainly a powerful
migrations
if
it
so desires, as
enough
is
flier to
make long
evidenced by
its
casual
appearance on Bermuda, Cuba, and other islands. In

one recorded case, a Short-eared Owl, which did not
ency to
nesting season, that Asio flammeus flammeus
estimable economic benefit to
in
its
is
of in-
reduction of
which comprise as much as 94 per

on an annual basis. There have
been a number of cases in years past when there was
suddenly a superabundance of rodents which wreaked
considerable havoc until Short-eared Owls moved into
the areas in large numbers and decimated the rat and
mouse populations.
injurious rodents,
cent of
Short-eared
man
Owl
its
total diet
95
macjarlanei (Brewster)
MACFARLANE'S
SCREECH OWL
maxwelliae (Ridgway)
ROCKY
MOUNTAIN
SPECIES
SCREECH OWL
mccallii
ORDER:
STRIGIFORMES
FAMILY:
STRIGIDAE
GENUS:
Otus Pennant
SPECIES:
asio
swenki Oberholser
NEBRASKA
SCREECH OWL
yumanensis Miller
YUMA SCREECH
OWL
and Miller
EASTERN
SCREECH OWL
aikeni (Brewster)
AIKEN'S
THE SCREECH OWLS
SCREECH OWL
Linnaeus
brewsteri
Ridgway
CALIFORNIA
SCREECH OWL
BREWSTER'S
SCREECH OWL
cineraceus (Ridgway^
floridanus (Ridgway)
gilmani Swarth
MEXICAN
SCREECH OWL
FLORIDA
SCREECH OWL
inyoensis Grinnell
HASBROUCK'S
SCREECH OWL
differences and more nuances of vocal

and delivery, size and coloration than those
falling under the genus and species Otus asio
the
Screech Owls and because probably no owl is more
familiar to more people on this continent, it becomes
necessary to discuss them in a generic way before movsubtle
quality
96
ing into specifics.
Unfortunately there
is
still
great contention
among
how many
subspe-
various ornithologists about exactly
of Screech Owls there are on the North

American continent. As always, there are factions which
cies (or races)
are sometimes disrespectfully called "the lumpers,"
overlooked and
lumped together under one
nomenclature. At the same time, there are
lar
birds
tions
all
branded
quite simisubspecific
those fac-
who tend to seize upon

how slight, as justification
as "hairsplitters,"
any variation, irrespective of
for the establishment of a subspecies.
entirely right
ble
is
really
determination
of
subspecific difference
is
still
is
time as
new standards
by
factions
Owl
nor,
for that matter,
what actually
very
much
sensi-
constitutes
needed.
valid
great deal
required in this respect, but until such
SCREECH OWL
all
wrong
but a closer meeting of minds and
KENNICOTT'S
Screech
who
prefer to see minor physical, behavioral, and charac-
of effort
(Elliot)
(Linnaeus)
Because no other group of owls in the world has
more
Neither group
SOUTHERN
CALIFORNIA
SCREECH OWL
kennicottii
asio
teristical differences largely
SAGUARO
SCREECH OWL
hasbroucki Ridgway
Otus
SOUTHERN
SCREECH OWL
bendirei (Brewster)
GUADALUPE
SCREECH OWL
Moore
suttoni
(Linnaeus)
naevius (Gmelin)
PASADENA
SCREECH OWL
quercinus Grinnell
SUBSPECIES
asio
TEXAS
SCREECH OWL
(Cassin)
of
are established
the
ornithological
and adhered
fraternity,
to
the
American Ornithological
guidelines established by the
Union seem
This
men
eminent
shall,
taxonomical
in the
University
the
of
Jr.,
should be given short
probably justifiably
Otus
fications in respect to
Arizona
Marshall
shrift.
concerned
Joe T. Mar-
field as
of
Tucson,
at
greatly
is
over the present
asio and, in fact, the entire
(some with subspecific dichromatic color phases) and,

ence
vocal
in
nomy
might better be
or
There
among
muted
is
on the other hand,

syncopated
Otus flammeolus
well in
as
the most
asio
territory
limited,
gives
asio
seven
or
notes.
is
the smallest,
the largest.
is
more
Finally,
Of
only a single hoot.
issues
and
vocal
decidedly slower,
utters
three species, flammeolus

slightly larger,
physiog-
distinct
Otus
these
trichopsis
The
and habitat; flammeolus having

the most extensive. Relatively
asio
meolus, while trichopsis requires thick mixed woods of
and hardwoods
generally at
of habitat
creek
the
much
from
bottoms
East,
middle elevations. Asio
at
West
hardwood
desert terrain in the

prairie
lands,
and hammock,
oak,
live
to forested
forests
for
example
there
among
of territorial overlap
interbreeding.
ences
as
irides
and
meolus
There
West Arislight amount
brown and
The problem
for
Owl
West have much more of a "bouncing-ball"

to their calls and a distinctly doubled trill.
the
quality
Further, the Eastern races are dichromatic, with red (or
brown) and gray color phases, while the Western races

are essentially monochromatic in gray. There are other
geographical differences of note as well, which are
pointed out in the specific descriptions of the various
Owl
Screech
But
races.
just as
Marshall urges a
classification of Eastern
and Western races
Owls, other authorities
feel
the Northern
similarly about separating
and Southern
about
strongly
separating
re-
of Screech
and
races,
those
still
others feel
and humid
arid
of
areas.
What
causes difficulty in establishing separate spe-
cies classifications
between the most
distinctly different
Western and Eastern races of Screech Owls is the

that the characteristics among the Western birds
unfortunately, not entirely constant.
so distinct that they
seem
fact
are,
fication effectively for the
Otus
asio
The
exceptions are
to prohibit blanket reclassi-
Western
For example,
races.
Kennicott's
kennicottii
Owl
Screech
of
the coastal area of the Northwest has the lighter beak
and red color phase of the Eastern races, but its voice
and markings are typically Western. Similarly, Otus
has the markasio mccallii
the Texas Screech Owl
color phase,
red
lacks
a
ings of the Western races and
but its voice and beak color are like those of the
Eastern races.
To compound
the problem further,
some of the
races
tend to interbreed and there are considerable gradations in size, coloration, markings, and tonal qualities
among
the
establish
intergrades.
subspecific
To make any
nomenclature for
real
all
to
effort
these
inter-
grades would indeed be a taxonomic nightmare.
Generally
speaking,
subspecies of Otus
ical
and climatic
with
few
but
exceptions,
the
asio exhibit the following geograph-
characteristics:
the toes are well feathered.
Finer markings.
be noted in the specific
Northern Screech Owls
Larger
establish their identity as
Southern Screech Owls
Smaller
Eastern Screech Owls
Yellow or greenish-yellow
to question in
grows much
instance
in size.
strongly
believe
and West are
beaks.
regard to the
more
Western Screech Owls
that
Slate-gray or blackish beaks.
of
in virtually every type of habitat
races of East
in size.
right.
North America. Some taxonomical authorities
Screech
trilled
Coarser markings.
of classification, however,
which can be found

Marshall,
being a sort of
as
Southern Screech Owls
iris
eighteen subspecific races of Otus asio, one or
in
races
Northern Screech Owls
will
own
and open
difficult
of
Eastern
the
of
of flam-
on these owls) well
distinct species in their
more
three species, but no
are, of course, physiological differ-
Other differences (which

sections
all
certain
their feet are naked, while the

soft
considerably
both asio and trichopsis have yellow
well;
is
is
in
cabbage-palm
or
habitat in the deepest South. Yet, in the
zona,
is
lower altitudes and in a wide variety
in
Marshall describes the vocal character-
is
three differ
high-altitude coniferous forests are inhabited by flam-
conifers
differ
races.
trill
only six
of
trill
species.
differ-
which falls pleasantly

highly distinctive. Otus trichopsis,
voice to an extended,
on the ear and
three
the
quite
is
through
through
than
characteristics
coloration.
difference
classified
races
Western
whinnying sound, whereas he says the Screech Owls
All three of these species are essentially gray birds
cases,
from those of the
Eastern
istic
Flammulated Screech Owl.
many
into
reclassification
the fact that the voices of the
is
classi-
in
distinct species
of the
and
Genus Otus.
There are presently three Otus species recognized in
North America north of Mexico. Most abundant, of
the Screech Owls. But
course, are the Otus asio races
there is also Otus trichopsis, the present Whiskered
Owl, which was for so long referred to as the Spotted
Screech Owl; as well as Otus flammeolus, now known
as the Flammulated Owl, which was previously called
the
two
One
time they are not.
this
prime considerations for possible
to be the best.
not to say that the extensive work of such
is
At
rate species.*
Joe
the
so distinct in
their differences that they should be revised into sepa-
Screech
* Because of the importance of his findings in regard to

Screech Owls in the matters of voice, coloration, geographic
variation, and taxonomy, the authors highly recommend Joe
T. Marshall's monograph for the Western Foundation of Vertebrate Zoology (Number I, 1967), entitled: Parallel Variation
in North and Middle American Screech-owls.
Owl
97
Voice, a long, quavering single
AVERAGE WEIGHTS OF THE SCREECH OWLS

(Otus asio)
trill.
Voice, a shorter, bouncy double

trill.
'Number
Increased rufous coloration gen-
and a
erally
Arid Region Screech Owls
kennicottii (16)
235.6
8.3
O.
a.
macfarlanei (11)
227.4
8.0
Decreased rufous coloration and
O.
a.
swenki (6)
225.6
7.9
no red-phase
O.
a.
brewsteri
222.5
7-8
O.
a.
maxwelliae (12)
219.7
7.7
O.
a.
quercinus
(5)
216.3
7.6
O.
a.
bendirei
(10)
215.5
7-5
O.
a.
naevius
(55)
205.5
7- 2
O.
a.
inyoensis
(5)
204.1
7.1
O.
a.
hasbroucki (7)
199.3
7.0
O.
a.
suttoni
19 1.2
6.7
O.
a.
asio
185.7
6.5
18 1.7
6.4
bird.
more
coloration
subtle
Darker, richer coloration and

markings.
Thus, for the purposes of
(14)
(2)
(20)
book, the authors pre-
O.
a.
mccallii
be guided in Otus asio nomenclature by the
O.
a.
aikeni
eighteen races with the strongest and most definitive
O.
a.
floridanus
the
O.
a.
cineraceus
most recent (1957) A.O.U. Check-list by the American
O.
a.
O.
a.
yumanensis (3)
gilmani (2)
fer
to
included
as
traits,
Ornithological
and valid
(with
Union
this
but
two exceptions)
Committee
Check-list
in
as distinct
many
180.3
6.3
(17)
167.4
5-9
(5)
166.1
5.8
164.7
5.8
58-5
5-6
of the characteristics of the Screech
Owls are species-wide and it would be pointless to

reiterate these same characteristics for each of the
eighteen
(2)
(12)
subspecies.
Naturally,
included
subspecies
them most completely
Therefore,
here.
EASTERN SCREECH OWL
ex-
to
{COLOR PLATE XV)
major
characteristics will be discussed under the heading of
the most familiar subspecies, Otus asio naevius
the
Eastern Screech Owl. Other subspecies will be described in detail only insofar as they differ from Otus
press
following
Ounces
a.
Paler,
Screech Owls
parentheses
O.
and markings.
Humid Region
in
Grams
Subspecies
distinct red-phase
bird.
weighed
specimens
of
lames)
yet
succinctly,
all
SCIENTIFIC
asio naevius.
Otus
Strix
AVERAGE WINGSPANS OF THE SCREECH OWLS

(Otus asio)
(Number
specimens measured in parentheses
of
NAME AND
following
(Gmelin). Original description:
naevius
Volume
1,
Part 1, 1788, page 289; based on the Mottled Owl of

Pennant, Arctic Zoology, Volume 2, 1785, page 231;
based on a specimen from Noveboraco, New York.
Former
names)
asio
naevia Gmelin, Systematica Natura,
names: Scops
scientific
asio,
Megascops
asio,
Strix asio, Strix naevia.
Millimeters
Subspecies
g8
O.
a.
kennicottii
O.
a.
brewsteri
O.
a.
O.
a.
macfarlanei (24)
swenki (11)
O.
a.
quercinus
O.
a.
bendirei
O.
a.
(16)
(16)
(9)
(19)
O.
a.
maxwelliae (15)
yumanensis (6)
O.
a.
naevius
O.
a.
cineraceus
O.
a.
inyoensis
O.
a.
O.
O.
O.
(87)
601.
Inches
23.7
599-8
23.6
5857
23.1
574-3
22.6
573.
572.8
22.6
558.8
22.0
554
21.8
than the Screech
551.3
21.7
Eastern Screech
Among
1.2
21.7
5387
21.2
hasbroucki (9)
536-5
a.
aikeni
533-4
21.0
a.
asio
53
1.9
21.0
a.
mccallii
53
20.9
(12)
(9)
(15)
(28)
(5)
55
.4
a.
floridanus
59-7
20.1
O.
a.
gilmani (4)
486.1
19.2
O.
a.
suttoni
480.7
18.9
(4)
No
other North American owl has more
common
names, regional names, and very localized nicknames
Owl (Otus asio) in general and the

Owl (Otus asio naevius) in particular.
the most frequently used are these:
demon owl
.1
O.
(21)
OTHER NAMES
22.6
Since
its
call
in
a darkening woods
has a somewhat unearthly or supernatural quality affecting the superstitious.
dusk owl
For the time of day when
it
is
most
often seen.
ghost owl
For
its
silent,
wraithlike flight through
the dusky woods, so expertly avoiding collision with in-
Screech
Owl
tertwined branches that
owl
gray
appears to go through them.
it
After the coloration of the gray-phase
le petit-duc de l'est
"The Little Duke of the East," (as opposed to "The

Grand Duke of the East," as applied to the Great
Horned Owl [Bubo virginianus uirginianus])
little dukelet Transliteration^ of the FrenchCanadian terminology.
little-eared owl As a contrast to the Long-eared
ing
Owl
wilsonianus)
(-4.no otus
horned owl
little
it
Habits
which can be raised

almost
contrast, because of
miniature,
in
After the prey
owl
it
gives of hav-
name which
most favors.
it
is
actually
Rank
over-all
in
owl
From
quality
more ap-
far
red-phase
the
of
Old World
the
scientific
nomen-
clature.
scritch owl Dialectal pronunciation of "Screech

Owl."
shivering owl For three reasons: i, because of
the shivering tonal quality of
cause "shivers"
ability to
size
among
the
dis-
"eared"
disks,
and lores are very well defined. This

the most amusing of our owls to observe
is
eighteen
super-
one of
species:
Next to the Saw-whet Owl (Aegolius acadicus ac adiwhich has no ear tufts, the Screech Owl is the
call; 2,
its
among
smallest of the Eastern owls.
bird.
scops
are a very
smallest
ciliaries,
when perched,
because of
superstitious
its
people
because young nestling Screech Owls are subject to
severe attacks of shivering.
owl For a combination of the reasons it

Demon Owl and Ghost Owl.
squinch owl For its habit of squinching its eyes
spirit
is
at
It
is
readily identifiable
change its appeartimes. In normal perching posture,
despite
ance considerably
its
ability to
and well-fluffed, with the plumand with the ear tufts usually raised
or half-raised. If there is cause for apprehension, however (though sometimes for no apparent reason), the
owl can elongate its perched body until it has stretched
upward nearly half again its normal perched height,
with the usual bulkiness of the body narrowing proportionately to a startling thinness. At such times the
plumage is held tightly against the body and, with
ear tufts erect, the bird becomes remarkably well camouflaged as a stub of branch an aspect heightened
by eyes squinted to mere slits on a slightly diagonal
this
coloration
the
the
owl) east of the Rocky Mountains. Facial
eus)
For the quavering tonal
After
is
SHAPE AT REST
propriate than "screech" owl.
red
It
its
ing a sort of mottled and speckled plumage.
call
wide-set ear tufts.
Its
Great
the
to
owl For its diminutive size.

mottled owl After the impression
its
is.
to a wholly erect position or laid
characteristic.
little
quavering owl
it
Characteristics.)
gives the impression
against the head at will,
flat
tinguishing
Horned Owl.
mouse owl
and
somehow
Twelfth.
As a
resemblance
superficial
3,
small,
of being a larger bird than
bird.
of
General
(See
audacity.
Though indeed
owl
is
short, thick,
age hiding the
feet
plane.
called
mere
to
slits.
trilling
owl
After the nature of
whistling owl
SHAPE IN FLIGHT
its call.
Inaccurately, after the nature of
its
The wings appear oddly stubby when opened, even
call.
though they are long for the
size of the bird.
probably due to their unusual broadness. In
This
is
flight
it
head tucked
and broad wings, the
exhibits a decided batlike quality; with the
no discernible neck, short
in,
tail,
flying bird has a roughly triangular shape.
Owl
All the Screech
and
in their habits
more
strictly
subspecies are reasonably alike
characteristics.
They
are one of the
only on rare occasions will be abroad in daylight,

less
much
hunt in the daytime, even though their vision
quite
adaptable to the light of day.
Vision.)
It
is
and
Eyes
(See
is
merely an ingrained characteristic of the
bird to remain at roost until after the setting of the

sun, with almost
all
hunting done during the
first
four
has been said that
the Great
if
"feathered tiger," then the Screech

ered
wildcat."
cause, despite
Otus
This
its
is
small
Horned Owl
Owl
reasonable
size,
it
is
is
the
the "feath-
comparison be-
has great courage and
asio naevius has, as
do most of the Otus
asio
and steady wingbeat of about

five strokes per second. It rarely glides for more than a
few seconds at a time and very seldom hovers. The
normally steady wingbeat can become quite erratic
subspecies, a fairly rapid
when
hours of night.
It
FLIGHT PATTERN
nocturnal of North American owls and
the owl
flies
uncanny
ability,
When
is
it
through heavy
hunting insects on the wing, as
quently does, especially around
mercury-vapor
Eastern Screech
Owl
forest cover
and with
dodges through interlaced branches.
lights
which
the
attract
it
so fre-
glow of isolated
numerous
insects,
99
BEAK LENGTH
becomes very jerky but extremely maneuverand in masterful fashion it plucks moths, flying
beetles, and other insects out of mid-air.
Measurements have been based on 87 measured birds
38 males and 49 males.
its
flight
able,
mm.
0.6'
(
Male
Average
15.2
Minimum
Maximum
14.0
Rank
in
mm.
mm.
mm.
16.6
Female
(0.6")
15.4
(0.6")
14.9
(0.7")
18.8
mm.
mm.
mm.
(0.6")
(0.6")
(0.7")
beak length among the eighteen species: Tenth.
WEIGHT
Species average: 204.1 gr. (7.1 oz.)
Male
1998
gr.
(7.0 oz.)
208.3 g r
(7-3
oz.)
Minimum
Maximum
166.0 gr.
(5.8 oz.)
174-5 g r
(6-
oz.)
212.5 gr.
(7.4 oz.)
Rank
in
The
mm.
209.2
Minimum
Maximum
176.3
Rank
233.2
in total
Female
mm.
mm.
mm.
length
(8.2")
233.0
(7.0")
195-2
mm.
mm.
7.7")
(9.2")
264.4
mm
I0 4")
among
9.2")
EYES AND VISION
the eighteen species: Twelfth.
Markedly convex
Owl
mm.
Average
539-5
Minimum
Maximum
479-7
Rank
in
568.5
mm.
mm.
mm.
(21.3")
563.0
(18.9")
499.8
617.2
(22.4")
Screech
are quite large
seemingly impossible
(21.7").
Male
in shape, the eyes of the
and penetrating. They are set quite

firmly in their sockets, allowing for virtually no rolling
of the eyeballs themselves. As a result, the bird often
tilts
its
head into highly ludicrous and sometimes
WINGSPAN
The
and well curved, though not

quite as markedly curved as in some species. The tips of
the talons are extremely sharp and the leg musculature
is very powerful for driving the talons deep into prey.
This owl is a very strong-footed species. It normally
perches with two toes forward, two backward.
(8.7").
Male
Average
are short and partially feathered. Feet and
talons are a slaty black
TOTAL LENGTH
tarsi
talons are of average size for the size of the bird.
222.4 g r (7-8 oz.)

the eighteen species: Twelfth.
among
weight
TALONS
LEGS, FEET,
Female
Average
positions.
The
irides are a bright
Female
yellow and vision
mm.
mm.
mm.
(22.2")
late twilight,
(19.7")
keen during the day. The pupils very swiftly adjust to
(24.3")
existing light conditions, contracting to
wingspan among the eighteen species: Eleventh.
is
extremely keen, especially during
but also very good at night and nearly as
on the brightest days,
mere pinpoints
and expanding on the darkest
nights until only a circular sliver of the brilliant lemon-
yellow
man

(6.5").
Male
Average
163.8
Minimum
Maximum
"54-9
Rank
in
174-0
mm.
mm.
mm.
166.4
(6.1")
156.2
(6.9")
177-8
mm
darkness,
can be thrown into confusion and
it
if,
while the pupils are widely expanded
a bright light suddenly strikes the eyes.
Sometimes when this occurs, the bird will deliberately

swivel its head around 180 and wait for a moment for
Female
(6.5")
;6. 5 ")
can be detected. Like nearly any creature
nearly blinded
in
mm.
iris
included
(6.6")
mm.
mm.
its
(6.2")
vision to readjust before taking flight.
ears
(7.0")
work
The
eyes
and
well together for hunting.
wing length among the eighteen species: Twelfth.
RECONSTRUCTED EASTERN SCREECH OWI.

In the
TAIL LENGTH
autumn
of 1949, the authors
tion trip near VVooddale, Illinois,
were on a
when
field
observa-
they found the nearly
complete skeletal remains of an Eastern Screech Owl. The

mm.
Male
Average
80.6
Minimum
Maximum
75.1
Rank
86.1
in tail
mm.
mm.
mm.
length
(3.2")
88.8
(3.0")
80.5
(34")
among
authors positioned the bones on a bare,
(3.3").
95.5
oak stump as
nearly
mm.
mm.
mm.
(3.5")
and the
(3.2")
thoroughly devoured by ants even to the point where the
(3.8")
between bones was missing and virtually all the bones

were separated. A few bones were missing and some were
slightly gnawed-upon, evidently the work of mice.
ture
the eighteen species: Elev-
enth.
100
flat
Female
Screech
Owl
correctly
artist
as
made
possible,
under the existing conditions,
few sketches. The carcass had been

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EARS AND HEARING
Two
and
The
ear cavities of the Otus asio subspecies are sym-
metrical in size and placement on the skull. Hearing
superb and a
vital factor in
accuracy the
location
strictly
nocturnal
Screech
Owl
Because
prey.
of
auditory
the
habits,
of
more
its
sense
the
of
probably very close to being on a par
is
Owl (Tyto
with the same sense in the Barn
alba pratin-
and Great Horned Owl [Bubo virginianus
cola)
ginianus)
The
ear cavities are of moderate
out-of-nest offspring are
vir-
size.
still
when
Barred
Owl
of calls that the
[Strix varia varia)
the Eastern Screech
Owl
the
being tended.
Not having quite the range
is
pinpointing with extreme
of these are at the onset of the breeding season

for a period following the nesting season
is
Northern
capable of rendering,
nevertheless has an impressive
its repertoire. The comwhich has sometimes been

described as a "wet whistling" sort of sound. Well
within range of human hearing, it begins low and rises
quickly in pitch and quaver, holds at this level for three
to five seconds, then slides back down toward the starting point. The quaver becomes so pronounced at the
variety of vocal utterances in
monest
call
is
the
muted
trill
end that the notes become practically individualized. It

is
a pensive, pleasantly mournful sound and easily
The
identified.
it
The
may
ear tufts are wide apart and form a distinct
erect than laid flat
They
when
more often held
are
the bird
is
perched, though
in flight
they are held rather close to the head.
plumage
is
normally of a fluffed and very
The
appear-
soft
it can become tight to the body contour

when the owl elongates itself for protective concealment.
The softness of the plumage and the distinct fluting of
ance, though
the flight feathers permit remarkably soundless flight.
There
about
plumage beginning
finished by no later than
a complete molt of
is
late July.
This molt
is
is
sense of melancholy or sweet weirdness
more
the effect of the muted, wavering
tone than to the note structure of the
MOLT
characteristic of the bird.
imparts
all
be varied in several ways
call.
This sound
sometimes
beginning
and ending on a higher or lower scale than the call

that preceded it, and occasionally with barely discernible quaver. Sometimes the pitch will remain constant
throughout the call; at other times it may rise two or
three notes before falling at the end.
may
vary by as
Another
common
much
utterances,
most often given by

of the
common
lower than the
final
notes
issued perhaps once for each ten of the
call,
call
The
as three or four tonal levels.
cry.
is
but occasionally on the heels
itself
It
ordinarily four or five tones
is
common
a soft, wheezing ho-ho-ho,
cry (though on rare occasions
and so muted that it is often lost to human

hearing at any appreciable distance. This call, which is
now and then heard during the daytime, tends to remain on the same note, although occasionally the last
higher)
mid-November.
may be just a trifle higher in pitch.

The mating call is generally heard just
note
in very early spring. It
VOICE
A
by labeling
it
stretch of the
with such a name, for
its
call
by no
is
imagination a screech. Rather,
it
is
charming sound, imbued with a pleasantly poign-
quite
ant and plaintive quality.
which
is
It
is
a mellow,
muted
Western
much
trill
quavering and lugubrious and which descends
rapidly in tonal quality toward the end of the
the
Owl
great injustice has been done to the Screech
less
races
of
Otus
asio,
however,
call.
there
In
is
at
twilight
a soft trilling with extraordi-
is
nary ventriloquial delivery. One may be actually watching the bird doing the calling and yet still be almost
convinced that the sound is coming from another owl
one side or the other. It lasts

for about three seconds and tends to end with a faint
upward inflection. (See Courtship and Mating.) The
some distance away and
call
may be
given in a
to
number
consists of a succession of the
of ways, but usually
three-second quavering
notes, often beginning slowly but increasing in speed of
of a tendency for the call to descend toward
Even though there may, in the viewpoint of

some listeners/ be something of an eerie quality to the
call of the Eastern Screech Owl, its voice remains one
of the most delightful of North American bird calls. The
the end.
cry of a heron or gull, rail
sidered
a screech,
or limpkin might well be con-
but certainly not the
call
of
the
xxv
Otus asio kennicottii (Elliot). Male. Northwestern corner of

Ferry County, Washington, January 20, 1971. A.O.U.
xxvi
While older Screech Owls are normally
silent
when
are times of the year
02
when
they become quite vocal.
Screech
Num-
ber 373-D
Screech Owl.
hunting, feeding, and engaged in other activities, there
kennicott's screech owl
macfarlane's screech owi
Otus asio macfarlanei (Brewster). Male. Mouth of Soldier

Creek, Priest Lake, Idaho. October 19, 193 1. A.O.U. Number
373-H
Owl
%J? .?**
whole blends
delivery until the
With extreme
rarity
there
another
is
which
call
cry itself
softly
is
not
known why
this call
is
given, but the
a peculiar sirenlike whistling which begins
is
and, without the usual quavering,
a rather
rises to
piercing cry.
The
calls
heard
in late
summer and autumn
are most
presumably given so the birds can

keep track of one another and remain comparatively
close as a family unit while they range in search of food.
often family
adults.
the parent birds. It has the sound of
R-R-R, rolling slightly at the end.

young bird moves from one perch
KEEEERR-R-
It
continues as the
to
another until
The
first
that of a
the
occurs almost as soon as the baby bird
has emerged from

like
shell
its
chick
little
querulous peeping
lost
much
from the mother hen,
though not cjuite as loud. This is a demand for shelter

and food, since it ceases when the hatchling is fed and
then warmly brooded by the mother owl. Such cries are
heard only during the
weeks of
bird's first three
Just about the time that that
calls,
At such times another fairly uncommon Screech Owl

a rather sharp, demanding cry issued by
is heard
one of the fledglings to signal its own whereabouts to
cry
the nestlings are concerned, there are four vo-
utterances which differ from those issued by
cal
might, at the strain of the imagination, be considered a

screech. It
Where
as a rapid trilling that
long as ten seconds.
las:s as
call
is
life.
ending, another
begins; a peculiar mouselike squeaking which
is
issued
baby bird scrambles about among the other

nestlings in an effort to find the warmest spot. The
the
as
third nestling cry
enough
in tone
is
a sort of vibrant chatter, friendly
but evidently uttered to attract parental
attention. It has been observed that
if
the baby owl does
not give this cry, the parent returning with food ignores
it
and
parents return.
is
the fourth cry, which
Most often the Eastern Screech Owl restricts its calling to the period between sunset and an hour after full
given by the baby birds at night as long as they are
darkness has fallen. Occasionally

after that until
mally
On
it
may
call
around midnight. After that
its
sparingly
it
feeds the baby that chatters. Closely associated

is
a strange
humming sound
hungry. This ceases, along with the chattering,

the nestling
is
fed.
nor-
is
silent.
a seasonal basis, calling
is
most pronounced dur-
and
ing the initial stages of courtship in early spring
SEXUAL DIFFERENCES:
during the family hunting period very late in summer.
In early summer and midsummer there is much less

calling, and in late autumn and winter the birds are
mainly
Although the Eastern Screech Owl
silent.
is
dichromatic,
Otus asio naevius does not normally make any vocal

sound while flying, but occasionally an owl being chased
by songbirds will utter an irritated little trilling cry.
with two sharply defined color phases, these are
Too, juvenile flying birds will utter location calls as they

fly in order to keep in touch with one another and the
female
parent birds.
There are two other
characteristic sounds
made by
the Screech Owl, though they are not actually vocal

callings.
The
first
is
way a
The second
sound,
is
made by
nestlings as well as adults,
given in conjunction with the snapping of the
beak and generally
Otus
asio
signifies anger.
is
about 3 per cent longer than the male's.

Strangely, since this
10,
1971.
Not
included in the 1957 A.O.U. Check-list
TEXAS SCREECH OWL
Otus asio mccallii (Cassin). Male.
Two
miles northwest of
Cameron County, Texas, February
A.O.U. Number 373-B
is
one of the most
easily located
North America, little research

of a comprehensive nature has been done regarding
and observable of owls
in
is
known
Some
incidence of canni-
to occur, especially in larger nestings
where the youngest bird is too small to compete successfully with its older and often much larger siblings.
maxwelliae (Ridgway). Female. Turkey Creek near
Denver, Jefferson County, Colorado, November
Brownsville,
a bit
mortality rates or longevity.
ROCKY MOUNTAIN SCREECH OWL
XXVIII
is
somewhat higher in pitch than his. On the average, the

females of all Otus asio subspecies average about 15 per
cent heavier than the males, and their individual wing
balism
XXVn
no
the sharp snapping of the beak,
a sort of hissing without any real tonal quality. Often
this
in
Male and female birds occur

both the red phase and gray phase. The
larger than the male and her voice is
sexual difference.
haphazardly in
which most other owl species also make. This brittle,

clicking sound can be heard at surprising distances and
is usually made when the owl is irked or threatened. It
is given as a warning to an intruder to keep his distance.
is
when
9,
1910.
The
incidence of cannibalism
is
not frequent, however,
and cannot be considered a truly pertinent mortality

factor. Diseases and parasites also cause a certain
amount of death among the birds (see Enemies and
Defenses) but little is known about such mortality on a
large scale. On at least two occasions captive Eastern
Screech Owls have lived for over twenty years.
Eastern Screech
Owl
103

ADULT
chin in generally dusky white tinged with reddish buff
and narrowly barred from

nape
Markedly dichromatic, Otus asio naevius has two discolor phases

gray and red. The latter color
phase is the result of a dominant autosomal gene. The
term "phase" is actually poor usage, even though commonly the accepted term, since it suggests a transitional
tinct
coloration,
when
in actuality the
genetically permanent.
On
so-called
facial
rim to facial rim with
The upper
mottled streakings of dark gray or black.
"phase"
is
rare occasions an intermedi-
is
band
crossed by a vague
of lighter buff-colored
spots or irregular dusky whiteness, while the lower
occasionally
which
is
of
similar
and these
unmarked
dull
white are on the
spots are often compressed or elon-
The
gated by the stance of the perched bird.

quite
nape
coloration
mostly concealed by overlying plumage. Small
triangular spots of
throat
band
another
has
boldly cross-hatched
with
irregular
breast
is
and
stripes
ate color phase will also occur
unconnected bars of dark gray or black over dull gray
not quite red, and yet
The coloration of the back is the same as on the

crown and nape, but with bolder black markings along
the shafts and heavier dark gray blotchings. The secondaries are streaked with a few narrow bands of dull
which is not quite gray,

with some of the coloration and
markings of both. This
When
phase.
it
evidently a rather recessive
is
does occur, the markings tend to favor
those of the gray-phase bird, but in coloration
has
it
more of the red-phase sienna orange on back and head

and to a somewhat lesser degree on facial disks and unThere was one
relatively well-reported case
gray-phase Eastern Screech
Owl was
where a
captured, caged,
and fed a strict diet of beef liver. It is reported that

owl's plumage subsequently changed from gray to
doubtful but, even
is
if
true,
it
is
this
red.
the only such
on record and cannot be accepted as conclusive

evidence that controlled diet can induce color change.
Dichromatism is a phenomenon for which no really
satisfactory scientific explanation has thus far been offered. It is important to note that in this dichromatism
case
there
not only a change of coloration, but also a
is
change in the pattern of markings.

Gray-phase Coloration and Markings
and
is
Between the
generally a brownish gray with small blotches
streaks of black or dark slate gray.
Each feather has
either a series of small dark gray or black spots along
same color simihead are colored nearly

the same, but include some narrow dusky-white barrings. Facial disks are dusky white with mottlings or
the shaft or an irregular streak of the
The
larly placed.
sides of the
brown in the supraorbital areas. The ear

tufts are colored and marked on the outer sides like the
head and nape, but the inner sides are coarsely mottled
streaks of dark
with grayish white or pale buffy brown.
ways has a
faint greenish cast but
may
The beak
al-
range from a
pale general coloration of dusky, slaty, bluish green to

dull
yellow
grayish
green.
though occasionally with

irides are
mottlings are so broken by the general coloration that
The
a
cere
distinct
is
dull
gray,
The
yellowness.
always a brilliant lemon yellow surrounding the
The webs
of the outer-
most middle coverts and greater coverts have a large

pale buff or gray spot on or near the tip. The outer
webs of the inner primaries each have squarish spots of

reddish buff, and these become larger and paler on the
four largest
quills.
The underwings are

casional random dark
a general grayish buff with oc-
gray streakings.
light to dull grayish white,
The
are
sides
with cross-hatching increas-
ing toward the median
line. Undertail coverts are an

unblemished buffy gray, usually hidden when the bird
is
perched. Sporadically there will be some spottings or
light barrings of black
ear tufts on the crown, as well as on the nape, coloration
grayish buff, each enclosing a dusky-gray bar, but the
the bands are often indistinct.
derpays.
This
white.
The
tail coverts.
belly
and
is
light
brown on
these under-
buffy white, broken by bold but
narrow black bars and with the center feathershaft streaks of the same, these often expanding into
irregular
conspicuous
rusty-edged
spots
at
the
On
sides.
the
same black bar tend to frame the

buffy-brown area. Plumage on the upper parts of the
legs is light rusty buff, fading into dull white on rear
and lower tarsi. The thighs are usually unmarked, but
flanks, pairs of the
the outer leg plumes are always heavily barred with
dark brown on the upper portion and sometimes on the
and
lower. Scales on the unfeathered portions of legs

feet are a
jet
dusky yellowish gray. Talons are sometimes
black or slaty black for their entire length, but more
often range from dusky tan or yellowish gray at the
base to dusky dark gray at the
tips.
Red-phase Coloration and Markings

phase, which
is
In this color
also referred to as the rufescent phase,
the general pattern of barrings and streakings
is
basi-
deep black pupil. The eyelids are sparsely feathered in

jet black, often with the lighter gray flesh color showing
cally similar to that of the gray-phase bird except that
through. There are narrow dusky-white barrings in the
bright rust to chestnut red in the rufescent phase,
and suborbital areas, and the

gray white and bristly, with each feather
the underparts are
superciliaries
black-shafted.
brown
in a
The
narrow
facial
line
circling the facial disk to
104
rim
is
black
distinctly
or very
from behind each ear
are
lores
dark
tuft,
each side of the throat.
en-
brown
the gray or
tend to be
less
phase bird.
of the gray-phase bird
without black.
The
is
streakings
broad and more linear than
Facial
disks
are
usually
replaced by
and
all
in the gray-
plain
rufous of
varying shades, while lores and superciliaries are buffy
The
white.
Screech
Owl
The markings
of
the
underparts in
the
red-
phase bird are
less intricate in
and the
cross-hatching,
blackish to dull-gray barring of the gray-phase bird
is
here replaced by cinnamon-rufous spottings.
JUVENILE
Gray Phase
overcast
tail are the same as in

brown with deep grayish
Wings and
The upperparts
are
and are broadly but rather
with grayish buff.

dull white.
Many
indistinctly barred
of the feathers are tipped with
The underparts
are barred with dusky buff
gray over a dull-white ground color. At
this
age there
is
an absence of streakings on both upperparts and under-
During the first winter the juvenile birds of both

color phases have a more mottled appearance than the
parts.
adults.
Red Phase
and pulled the small yellow bird through

and swallowed it whole. In another case of unusual boldness on the part of an Eastern Screech Owl,
the artist of this volume had a difficult time. At his
suburban Chicago home he had been keeping a number of cocoons of Telea polyphenols and Sarnia cecropia moths in a screened box on his window ledge.
When these large silk moths began to emerge one evening, he opened the lid and reached in to lift them out
canary's cage,
the bars
adults.
Similar to the gray-phase juvenal except
A gray-phase Eastern Screech Owl

down and snatched one out of his
hand and sped off with it. In a moment a second owl
gently one by one.
suddenly zoomed
tion.
one
this
in rufescent
to get inside.
Strangely, in the face of

its
This and other Otus asio sub-
even another hawk or owl, or other
larger than itself if motivated by hunger,

brood protection, or self-defense. The Eastern Screech
creature
Owl
has been
known
to attack
erably larger Long-eared
Owl
and drive
all this,
the Eastern Screech
counterpart subspecies can be remarkably
The Screech Owl

placid
in fact,
is,
disposition
by an intruder
it
more noted
than for
may snap
its
its
for
its
ferocity.
If
beak in a most
menacing manner, but will rarely follow through with

an actual attack. Screech Owls are often kept as pets
and they make very good ones, tending to be affec-
species are audacious in the extreme. It will not hesitate to attack a bird,
To
thing.
it
startled
CHARACTERISTICS
naevius
same
the ledge, bring
gentle.
asio
the
specimens to the birds,
became necessary to unscrew the box from

it inside and close the window to get
the rest of the emerged moths out safely. Even then one
of the owls very nearly broke the window in its attempt
antly,
ordinarily
Otus
did
his
both of which had returned and were circling expect-
Owl and
GENERAL HABITS AND
phase
keep from losing more of
browns are replaced by rufescent colora-
that the gray
entered the front room, flew directly to a
residence,
off the consid-
tionate
and companionable. They seem to delight in

human head or shoulder and very
riding about on a
much
enjoy having their
own heads
scratched or their
plumage gently stroked from head to tail. Often at

such times the owl will gravely and slowly wink first one
eye and then the other, as if sharing some secret with
human companion.
its
,
has attacked and killed birds as large as the
Despite the squalid condition of their nests as a rule,
and piThere are many cases on record where human

beings have been attacked by this little owl, usually in
defense of its young. The renowned ornithologist-artist
Alexander Sprunt, Jr., in a lifetime of observation of
and contact with birds of all kinds, encountered only
one that ever drew blood from him. and this was an angry Eastern Screech Owl that badly gouged his ear with
its talons when he approached too near its babies.
Such savagery is not reserved for other creatures or
humans. If two Screech Owls are caged together with
Screech Owls are clean in their habits, often preening
and
it
ruffed grouse, barnyard hens, domestic ducks,
geons.
insufficient
food provided, there
the likelihood that,
is
even though they be mates, one will ultimately attack

the other,
kill
it,
and
eat
it.
Such cannibalism cannot,
however, be considered a normal
Along with
very often
its
incredibly
Arthur Cleveland Bent

ican Birds of Prey,
Jersey, a Screech
audacious.
In
some years ago
in
is
cited by
North Amer-
case
in Life Histories of
Owl came down
Owl
make frequent
They
are
known
use of birdbaths and, in the days of
the old rainbarrel under the downspout, tragedies some-
when Screech Owls attempting
times resulted
them would instead get

flight and thereupon drown
in
It
comes
as
in the
live in
On more
reasonable
bathe
for
deep water.
something of a surprise
owls will often
to
plumage too wet
their
to learn that these
harmony with unusual
an Eastern
compartment in
a purple martin house. The martins continue to come
and go and even raise their own families in the comneighbors.
Screech
Owl
than
has selected for
one occasion
its
nest a
partments right next door without any evident problems.
trait of the species.
savagery, the Eastern Screech
themselves and regularly taking baths.

to
Mendham, New
the chimney of a
The instinct for protection of her young is pronounced in Otus asio naevius. In one case where a female's mate and eggs were destroyed, she simply moved
farther up the tree to a hollow being used by flickers as
a nest. Inside were four baby flickers not long out of
Eastern Screech
Owl
'5
the eggs. The owl transferred her affections to them and

brooded them for five consecutive days. She made no
objection and did not interfere when the flickers came
young, simply moving back out of the way
to feed their
hollow until the feeding was finished, then gently
in the
young birds again. When at last she left

the nest she was gone for only a short while before returning with a small dead bird in her beak. She deposited it in the nest beside the baby flickers and then
flew away and did not return.
a long-parked boxcar. As long as there are, within

range, hollows in which to nest
The
fact
that
the
owl's
and
it
eyeballs
are
must turn
its
rather
see in different directions has given rise to a

superstition. It
firmly
whole head
to
widespread
believed that this and other owl spe-
is
can turn their heads around in a complete circle if

necessary to watch an observer circling around below.
cies
The
erroneous belief
that
is
if
the person continues to
an abundant
roost,
supply of small prey to catch, and a reasonable lack of

harassment by humans, the conditions are good for the
Where
settling over the
fixed in their sockets
and
its
is concerned,
more often than not
naevius prefers a natural hollow in a large
roosting
Otus
asio
tree.
Abandoned
flicker holes
rank high as a second
choice. If such sites are unavailable, however,
it can be
content in a hollow behind the loose siding of some
farm building. Nevertheless, trees are definitely favored

and it makes little real difference what kind of a tree it
apples, oaks, elms, maples, pines, sycamores, willows,
is;
and many others provide
which
cavities
this
owl con-
siders to be ideal.
During the daylight hours, the Eastern Screech Owl

is
mostly inactive within such a hollow or else well
walk around the owl, the head of the bird will continue
to circle with him until it will eventually become un-
concealed on a perch in some dense evergreen or amid
screwed and
ing in a hollow of a tree and that tree
off
fall off,
whereupon
perch. This, of course,
its
occurs
is
that
the bird will
absurd.
is
when someone does
What
Then,
actually
circle
the head has turned an incredible
until
dead
around below,
remain locked on the intruder
the gaze of the owl will
circle.
fall
in the barest blink of
an
280
eye, the
of
the
head
will
the heavy foliage of a
an owl is roosttapped with a

stick, chances are good that the owl will poke its head
out of the hole and look downward toward the disturbance. It will watch intently for a minute or so and
then withdraw out of sight. Only rarely will it take wing
from such a hollow. Not uncommonly it will sit inside
the hollow with
for hours
was before but with the head having
turned in the other direction. This action
is
performed that
the observer
it is
easily missed,
does continue circling,

has followed
to
so, if
so swiftly
indeed appears that the head
completely around
without pause.
The
head into what

be impossible angles adds greatly to its charm.
ability of the
seem
it
and
owl
to swivel or
cock
its
tree. If
is
its head filling the opening, watching

what is going on outside. Even bright sunlight
falling on its face does not seem to bother it as it
watches the passage of small birds, squirrels, and other
creatures with great care, often turning its head or
sticking it out farther to watch their progress.
If the roost happens to be amid foliage rather than
snap back in the other direction, returning to about the
same spot where
it
hardwood
in a tree hollow, the
trees
Eastern Screech
Owl
prefers oak
during the summer and conifers during the winter,
almost invariably sitting very close to the trunk of the

roost tree.
from
When
hollows are used, these are normally
10 to 20 feet in height, but they
low as 5
feet to as high as
50
feet.
may
be from as
The same
roosts are
used over and again by the individual owl throughout
The
Owl
Eastern Screech
type of terrain, especially

fields,
favors an
when
this
is
open-woodland
adjacent to grain-
meadows, and marshes. Apple orchards are a
particular favorite of this race, not only because the
older apple trees often have ideal nesting and roosting
its
range, though one owl
roosts or hollows that
ing winter
it
it
may have
five or six different
regularly uses in
normally confines
itself
summer. Durone or two
to
roosts.
On
occasion,
when
the weather
is
fair
and shows
hollows in them, but because they are also areas to
promise of continuing that way, the owl
which mice and insects are attracted.

Otus asio naevius is not at all loath to take up residence in or very near barns and outbuildings, in birdhouses where the holes are large enough, in fencerows
along country lanes, and even in the hollows of shade
which faces the sky this is usually a

off by the wind 15 feet or
more above the ground and sleep while clinging to the
trees in residential yards. It
is
quite
common
to see these
owls in the suburbs and in small towns, and not at

rare to find
them
in large cities
such as Chicago, where
they often hunt into the late twilight hours along
road tracks or in
ally
city parks.
hide by day in hollow
tracks. Occasionally
106
one
Such
trees,
dense scrub growth which

will
is
all
large tree cavity

tree that has
will roost in a
been broken
side of the cavity. Generally, though, hollows exposed

to bright sunlight or inclemencies are avoided, as are
those which are regularly used by fox squirrels.
Roosts in areas of relatively sparsely scattered trees

are favored over those located in the midst of heavier
rail-
"city" owls will usu-
water tanks, or in the
often growing near the
even take up lodging inside

Screech
Field sketch of an afterbath drying posture assumed by Kennicott's
Owl
Screech
Owl (Otus
asio kennicottii)
forest growth, primarily because the latter
is
more
the
Prowling cats form a definite hazard, especially
in
heavily frequented habitat of the Eastern Screech Owl's
circumstances where the owl has killed prey too heavy
most deadly natural enemy, the Great Horned Owl.

An odd characteristic about roosting Screech Owls
and carried to a safer perch for eating. The

becomes engrossed in tearing apart
and devouring its prey on the ground and is subsequently somewhat less attentive to its own dangers. This
is the time when cats, and other carnivores as well, may
kill it. Mink, weasels, otters, raccoons, skunks, bobcats,
and even domestic dogs can all be counted as enemies.
to be lifted
is
that at times they appear to be perched in a mesmerized

state
and can be
lifted off their
perch simply by push-
transfer their grip
upon which the feet seem to

instinctively and unconsciously. This
occurs most often
when
ing a stick under their feet,
they are in a state of torpor
while digesting a large meal.
owl
at such times
Tree-climbing carnivores in particular take a
of
toll
roosting Screech Owls.
Now
and again tree-climbing snakes will kill the owl

but far more often they are a danger to the
owl's eggs. If a Screech Owl is killed by a snake, it is
more than likely the result of the owl's own audaciousas prey,

Many
and do prey upon the

Eastern Screech Owl, as well as other Otus asio subspecies, but none so devastatingly and with such frequency
as the Great Horned Owl. This is in part a result of the
fact that Bubo virginianus virginianus and Otus asio
naevius have a preference for essentially the same type
of habitat and their territories overlap. The smaller size
and faster wingbeat of the Screech Owl give it a greater
maneuverability for escaping the Great Horned Owl in
flight, and it also has the opportunity of hiding in holof the larger owls can
lows that are
much
enemy
Horned Owl is
too small for the large
Yet, the attack of the Great
ter.
to en-
so
si-
and unexpectedly launched, that once

the bigger owl has located its target and moved to attack, there isn't much hope for the smaller owl.
Barred Owls (Strix varia sp.), Spotted Owls (Strix
occidentalis sp. ), Great Gray Owls (Strix nebulosa
nebulosa)
occasionally Snowy Owls (Nyctea scandiaca)
Long-eared Owls (Asio otus sp.), and Shorteared Owls (Asio flammeus flammeus) will all take the
Screech Owl as prey, and sometimes even the Barn
Owl (Tyto alba pratincola) will kill and devour one.
Equally, the Eastern Screech Owl is something of an
enemy within its own race, since cannibalism can and
does occur, not only among nestlings but now and again
lent,
so swiftly
ness.
Overestimating
Owl
will
own
its
ability, the
Eastern Screech
sometimes attack a snake simply too large to
be handled well.
stricts its
prey
snake
If the
say
of the type that con-
is
a rat snake or corn snake
the ensuing struggle
manages
it
throw a
to
around the owl's head or body, death
is
and
in
or two
coil
almost sure to
follow for the owl.
Crows, blue jays, blackbirds, and numerous songbirds

must also be considered as enemies, even though their
intent is to harass rather than prey upon the owl. These
birds, upon finding the roosting owl, pester it unmercifully until it is forced to take to wing in an effort to find
solitude elsewhere. In this process of flying elsewhere as
mob
a result of an attack by a darting, shrieking
of
Owl becomes highly vulnerafrom hawks.

Parasites, though they rarely kill the owl, are certainly enemies of a sort. Most Screech Owls are subject
smaller birds, the Screech
ble to attack
to
harboring
fleas
and bird
lice
beneath their feathers,
among
adults as well. This occurs during especially bad-
weather winters when small prey becomes very

to find.
The
individual owl
than normally and
may
is
difficult
the territory of another Screech Owl, which
tionally
motivated by a
difficult
time
not
uncommon
some of the
larger hawks, but this
active
when
well hidden in
hawk does
the
its
kill
hawks have gone

roost
when
the
is
the owl has been disturbed from
its
it
prey
more the
ex-
mainly nocturnal
to roost
hawk
one of these owls,
will fall
far
is
is
is
and
itself
The
as
have been
less
than definitive.
single greatest threat to the Eastern Screech

to
it is
say very
most other owl
many
are
species,
deliberately
is
man. This
with
slain
is
Owl,
not to
guns
(al-
killed this
way) but rather
fatalities.
Because of the
its
shoulders, often running
through areas of rather heavy woodland cover, the

Eastern Screech Owl tends to perch and hunt near such
a thoroughfare.
mouse, shrew, or large insect scam-
pering across a road

in
is
an open invitation
little
quite often struck
heed
and
to
upon
in-
its
approaching vehicles
killed.
In the state of Ohio, where for

mortality counts have been
any Screech
to
the vicinity. But the owl, intent
tended prey, pays
and
is
made
many
years
bird
along highways, East-
When
ern Screech Owls are the bird species second most fre-
usually because
quently killed by vehicles, surpassed only by robins. The

majority of Screech Owl deaths occur while the bird is
is
roost
active.
and
is
seeking
another haven.
108
studies along these lines
Owl
Owl
ception than the rule, since the owl

-
it
for cannibalism to follow.
Occasionally the Eastern Screech

to
such occurs,
possible. If
owl,
itself
is
finding
is
their debilitating effect
is
openness of a highway and
territorial possessiveness, a fatal
encounter between them
upon the
making the bird less able to elude its enemies and
thus more subject to predation. Diseases do kill some, but
of these creatures
upon
enough food. With

hunger strong upon them, and one of the birds addihaving
The danger
internal parasites as well.
though a certain number are

that they become highway
forced to range farther
inadvertently encroach
and a variety of
in flight
Screech
Owl
rather than while on the
pavement with
its
Often the owl
prey.
flies
into the side of the vehicle or
collides with the windshield; evidently this
has been
by the bright
blinded
partially
because
is
it
and
lights
attempts to dart across the road the instant the head-
Time
lights pass.
too,
number
est
comes
is
makes a
difference,
The
concerned.
is
great-
Owl casualties on the road occur

when prey in field and forest bewhatever pertinence it may have,
of Screech
and winter,
And, for
in late fall
it
of year obviously
where highway mortality
scarce.
Ohio highway casualty
interesting to note that in
counts, 75 per cent of
Eastern Screech Owls killed
all
by vehicles were gray-phase birds.
Where
defense
is
animal
concerned, the Eastern Screech
More than one
has
an eye
lost
Owl
intruder
human
in the process,
as well
as
and even more
have backed away with painfully punctured nose, lip,

or ear. Otus asio naevius prefers, however, not to have
to fight for its life,
and
camouflage
ability to
normal
fluffed
In an instant
of branch.
it
enemy
made
illusion,
roost or nest
cate the presence of prey.
When
attacks, the
it
little
owl does so swiftly and un-
upon noting the apfrom
itself closely
pose.
resemble a stub
of
its
prey with outstretched
its
talons before the animal realizes the danger
The
is
present.
made, the owl's feet open

widely and as they touch flesh the talons snap downward and inward, driving deeply with the full power of
instant before contact
is
the leg muscles behind them.

If the
prey
is
small enough,
it
will either
be quickly
swallowed whole on the spot or carried elsewhere
beak
bird's
in the
swallowed whole or torn apart for
to be
the feeding of young birds. If the prey
is
too large for
swallowing (and otus asio naevius can swallow aston-
and somewhat slouchy perching
has
its
will quickly straighten
Even the pattern and coloration
age lend to the
in
lies
in the first place.
bird particularly,
proach of possible danger,

its
greatest defense
incredibly well in order to
itself
escape detection from an
The gray-phase
its
its
erringly, diving silently onto
can be a savage opponent, utilizing its hooked beak,

strong sharp talons, and flailing wings to ward off an
attacker.
and begins its rounds, visiting a

where it has had good luck hunting
in the past
in woodlots, orchards, around farmhouses,
barns, silos, corncribs, stock sheds and other outbuildings, in nurseries, stubbled grainfields and meadows, and
in cornfields where the dried stalks have been allowed to
fall over naturally or have been cut and shocked. At
such times the owl is keenly alert for the slightest movement or sound in the darkness below which may indileaves
succession of places
plum-
it may be carried to some safe place

and there torn part and swallowed piecemeal. Rarely
will this owl carry prey in its talons, and then normally
ishingly large prey)
when
only
it
is
simply too large to be carried in the
beak.
giving the appearance of coarse
an
Only when the bird be-
bark. In such a pose as this, the owl will often allow
come very
intruder to
close.
comes convinced that its disguise has been penetrated

will it reopen its squinted eyes, resume normal shape,
and quickly take flight.
The red-phase bird will sometimes do the same, although, unless it is perched near or amid reddish foliage
of
autumn-touched hardwood,
ble.
it
is
more
easily detecta-
In both color phases, detection does not always
Now
and then a strongly defensive posture will be assumed on the perch, wherein
the bird turns one side or the other of its body toward
the intruder, snaps its beak menacingly, glares fiercely,
and lowers and outstretches the wing facing the intruder in order to cover and protect the vulnerable
breast and abdomen.
Most often, though, Otus asio naevius spends its daypredicate immediate
light
flight.
hours safely in a hollow of a tree where,
threatens,
it
if
danger
quickly drops out of sight inside. Should
it
be caught away from such a hollow and ultimately take

flight in
order to escape, almost invariably
rectly to
some other hollow
quickly vanishes within
it
it
flies
di-
has used in the past and

What
Almost always after sunset, usually

before the
full
fall
just at
eats
depends largely
upon where the bird happens to be and what kind of

is available. Beyond any doubt, however, the most
favored prey
is
small rodents
chiefly the
meadow
vole,
but also such other species as white-footed mice, house

mice, wood rats, and grasshopper mice. In addition, it
consumes great quantities of insects and other invertebrate animals, as well as a certain
number
of
fish,
am-
and small birds. In a survey conducted by John and Frank Craighead in Michigan,
during the years 1942 and 1948, it was determined that
the meadow vole and white-footed mouse alone comprised, respectively in those years, 95.3 per cent and
phibians,
reptiles,
87.2 per cent of the Eastern Screech Owl's prey.
There are times, however again, dependent upon

what is available when it feeds upon insects, birds,
fish,
or other prey forms almost to the exclusion of any-
flight,
Quite frequently it catches insect prey in

swooping down and, without stopping, snagging
else.
with its talons and at other

them on the wing in its beak, maneuvering much in the manner of the nighthawk while doing
so. One red-phase Screech Owl, discovering a large
number of moths circling a barnyard light, was observed to catch 37 of them in flight and carry them
them
HUNTING METHODS AND

CARRYING OF PREY
Owl
prey
thing
it.
the Eastern Screech
off twigs or walls
times catching
dusk but
of night, the Eastern Screech
Owl
Eastern Screech
Owl
109
each
in turn to
nearby apple
its
tree.
proven, that the
nestlings waiting in the hollow of a
rictal bristles
portion of the
nasal
domestic hens, ruffed grouse, pigeons, and even ducks

have been killed and at least partially eaten by the
rictal bristles
hairlike feathers of the
Eastern Screech Owl. Cases are also on record where
perform the
domesticated ring-necked pheasants and golden pheas-
do the enormously wellof the whippoorwill and other
ants have been lost to Otus asio naevius. In the wild,
owl's
same insect-sensing function

developed
means
theorized, though by no
It is
facial
disks
as
the
little
goatsuckers.
and
During a population explosion of locusts in Nebraska

some years ago, the stomachs of eight Screech Owls were
found to contain a total of 2,976 insects, two mice and
one small bird. Oddly, just under 10 per cent of the insects were the extremely abundant locusts.
Fish do not play a major role in the Eastern Screech
These,
Owl's
Usually
avidly.
when
but there are times
diet,
they are eaten
when
occurs in winter
this
terrestrial
known
bird of prey has been
quail,
it
certainly
and was even seen
to kill
woodcock
sparrow hawk.
to kill a
should be noted, are isolated instances and

not indicative of the normal feeding habits
There are also cases, more commonly,

where the Eastern Screech Owl will gorge itself upon
of the species.
one form of prey that becomes suddenly abundant. In
one owl stomach were found

another there were
18
May
large
cutworms;
large
13
beetles;
in
in
a third
there were a total
of
prey becomes scarce and a nearby pond or stream has a
As a matter of
with the exception of the Burrow-
pocket of open water surrounded by
ing
Owl
cies
consumes such a volume
Owl
the Screech
will
At such a place
stand intently on the edge of the
ice.
ice or else circle the hole diligently until a fish rises,
take to wing and

the fish with
its
swoop
across the surface, snatching
much
talons
the
an osprey might. Arthur
as
Cleveland Bent reported that

observer checked
winter of 1877 an
in the
hollow of an
roosting
Owl and found
then
Eastern
horned pout,
was subsequently discovered that all the ponds in the immediate area were
frozen fast and under two feet of snow as well, but at a
Screech
four of which were
inside a total of 16
still
alive.
It
pond about a mile distant, a hole had been cut in the

surface by some ice fishermen and then abandoned. It
was from this hole that the Screech Owl was snatching
the 5-inch-long horned pouts as they rose to the surface.
For those 16
fish in its
roosting hole, the
owl had
little
fact,
50 medium-sized grasshoppers!
(Speotyto cunicularia sp.), no other owl speof insect
as
life
This owl has been observed to walk about
Otus
in the
asio.
more
overgrown meadows, methodically harvesting

night-dormant grasshoppers clinging to stems and
heavily
grass-blades.
Along those same
liably reported that
now and
lines,
has been
it
again the
little
owl
re-
will
wade into the shallows of streams, ponds,

and marshes in search of frogs, tadpoles, minnows,
crayfish, and aquatic insects.
While not normally herbivorous, Otus asio naevius
will sometimes dine on vegetable matter. Certain small
fruits and berries will be eaten, along with some whole
green plants. One witness was nonplussed as he
deliberately
watched an Eastern Screech Owl alight in his garden

after sunset and begin nipping off the tender
new growths from the ends of his nasturtiums and
just
already flown at least 32 miles!

Occasionally, during the breeding season in particu-
Eastern Screech
lar,
Owl
among
depredations
become alarming. Fortunately
birds can
swallowing them.
smaller
depreda-
this
a temporary state of affairs. Dr. Arthur A. Allen,
tion
is
the
famed Cornell University
The
ornithologist,
in
the prey birds
Owls brought
that
a pair of Eastern
Screech
to the trio of offspring in their nest.
prey birds comprised 24 species and totaled at

individual birds. Dr. Allen wrote:
The
least
98
bird of each species, the grand total of birds required

to
feed the three young owls from time of hatching
until left
by the old birds was certainly over one hun-
Amphibians make up a reasonable portion of the

Eastern Screech Owl's diet, especially frogs and toads,
although a
fair
number
of salamanders are also taken.
Some reptiles are caught and eaten,

in number and these are normally
nocturnal
will
at
snakes and
Once
times and
10
some
lizards
though fewer
limited
caught
to
just
small
after
a while a very small soft-shelled turtle
kill
and
eat.
Rather,
is
it
even
dauntlessly attacks creatures as
much
larger.
large
As already mentioned,
Screech
life
included
in
the
not meant to be a com-
is
it
merely representative
analyses or pellet dissection. It does,
from stomach
however, provide
a clear picture of the wide range of prey acceptable to

this
race of Screech Owl.
Mammals Wood rats, Norway rats, house rats, cotrats, meadow voles, white-footed mice, chipmunks,
ton
gophers,
flying
squirrels,
Insects
crickets,
horseflies,
pillars,
Birds
Beetles,
gray squirrels, red squirrels,
mantids,
lish
moths,
noctuid
cicadas,
and other
insect larvae of all kinds.
Downy
horned
woodpeckers,
wood pewees,
larks,
sparrows,
kingbirds,
pigeons,
snipe, blue jays, chick-
blackbirds,
cow-
catbirds, robins, grackles,
Eng-
starlings,
juncos,
and numerous native sparrow
chickadees, wrens, warblers of various

doves, woodcocks, cardinals, etc.
Owl
locusts,
hellgrammitcs, dragonflies. waterbugs, cater-
phoebes, grouse,
ens,
roaches,
etc
grasshoppers,
katydids,
birds, orioles, canaries,
appetite of this owl becomes prodigious indeed
as itself or
1
in
too,
be devoured.
The
animal
spermophiles, shrews, bats, moles,
dred."
sunset.
of
of the species that have been recorded
"Since the feathers
undoubtedly represent many more than one
in the nest
list
plete listing of every type of creature this bird of prey
1924
will
listed
following
Eastern Screech Owl's diet
species,
species,
ducks,
Minnows
Fish
various
of
small
species,
trout,
He may
not he actively seeks her out.
stay silently in
chubs, fingerling carp, horned pouts, bluegills, suckers,
her vicinity, though at a respectful distance, for two
bullheads, catfish, goldfish, small bass, dace, etc.
or three days before
Small
Reptile
snakes,
small
lizards,
soft-shelled
When
Amphibians
Various
frog
including
species,
bull-
Invertebrates
sundown
Crayfish,
scorpions,
spiders,
snails,
Almost without exception

this
animals
cludes
is
how
it
sizable
as
shrews, moles, birds
up
be eaten
portions
of
the
The
pelled as fecal waste.
pacted into the
into
prey
are
else
ex-
become
The
pellets.
pellets are generally
dark gray
be mistaken for animal
to
woo
do
so,
he shows
her.
com-
and can easily

Normally two to
found on the ground beneath a
good indication that the
is
of pellets
roosting place, but the
number
tree
is
regular
of pellets found
is
not
a reliable indicator as to the period of occupancy of

the owl.
gitated
Only
fall
a portion of the owl's pellets are regur-
they
that
so
fall
directly
beneath the
rounds while hunting.

Dissection of such collected pellets
tant in this
and other owl
is
curate
statistical
listings
highly impor-
what
Numerous ac-
species in determining
the owls of any given area are eating.

of
prey
animals
comprising
the food of wild owls have been compiled from close

analysis
and
identification of the skulls
and other un-
digestibles discovered within the pellets.
The
white
fecal
wastes are generally greenish black with
They are moistly viscous and are

well away from the perched owl. Feces
marblings.
usually squirted
are seldom expelled in
on
his perch.
He may
go
in
and out
Within a quarter-hour after the sun has set he takes

wing and flies to a perch more suitably near hers,
where she has been stoically roosting during the day.

Sometimes in flight, but more often immediately after
he alights, the male begins trilling softly. The note is
long and drawn out, pleasantly plaintive and lasting
from three to six seconds. Toward the end of the call
the tone rises slightly and there is almost the sense
call
may be
repeated several times, during which
the male concentrates only on the female, and the fe-
male takes pains
to act as
if
she
wholly unaware of
is
As if to insure that she can't help but

hear him, the male will move from perch to perch
around her, stopping on a fence post, in a tree, on a
barn eave or projecting rafter, on the roof peak of
some outbuilding or on similar perches, making certain to issue the same call at least once from each
place where he settles.
Most of these initial courtship maneuverings are
rarely seen by humans, since by this time night has
fallen. The preliminaries mentioned above may last
for more than half an hour but, with each new perch
he takes, the male has moved closer to her and soon he
is hopping from branch to branch
in the same tree
presence.
his
roost.
and a good many others

here and there as the owl makes its
inside the hollow
are simply cast
still
pellets
four pellets will be cast during each 24-hour period.
number
fluffing his feathers, preening, stretching fre-
fur,
in color
droppings.
to
This
formed by Otus asio naevius average about an inch

and a half in length and half that in diameter. As
soon as the pellet is well-formed inside the owl and
coated with a slippery mucus, it is regurgitated. Such
Some
mind
to
that with this rise in inflection he has asked a question.
undigestible materials
oval-shaped
tight,
in-
or
body or
feathers, claws, bones, teeth, chitin, etc.
rats,
size,
half
in
swallowed
either converted to use in the owl's
this in-
small
sparrow in
torn
is
and
mice,
large
as
to English
and fish. Larger prey

chunks and swallowed.
digestible
the prey can be swal-
if
will
sects,
tree
his
of his hollow a half dozen times or more.
centipedes, earthworms, etc.
lowed whole,
quently while
frogs; toads, salamanders.
making up
he reaches the decision
evidence of growing nervousness or excitement around
turtles.
All
at last
where she
now
is
perched.
He
begins swiveling his
continues singing to her, but
head back and forth
in
ludicrous manner. Soon he starts nodding his head as

well as swiveling it and then begins to bob his entire
body up and down on the perch. Occasionally, in a
rather hilarious way, he stops and stares at her and
then quite deliberately winks at her, first with one eye,
then with the other
long,
slow winks.
All
this
the
female also ignores.
The more
she refuses to heed his calls
more
and bowings. At
the
become
frantic
this
his
and
actions,
bobbings and swayings
time his calling
may
cease.
She
him unless he tries to alight next to

whereupon she will flail her wings savagely at
him until he flits away. Sometimes he goes far off and
the sound of his calling comes again from the distance,
but soon he returns to renew his efforts to interest her.
Not infrequently she will move to another perch, but
he continues following and seemingly acting the part
continues to ignore
her,
flight.
of the love-stricken swain.
The
pairing of unpaired Eastern Screech
Owls be-
gins late in the winter, usually in February at the earliest,
although rarely as early as
late
January.
The male
bird sometimes finds the female of his choice by seeing
her
fly
past while he
is
perched, but more often than
At
last,
all
else
having
failed, the
male
settles
down
on a perch not very far from her (often on the same

branch but out of her reach).
He
fluffs
his
feathers,
couches his head deeply in his upper-breast plumage

until
Eastern Screech
his
Owl
beak
is
lost
from
sight,
and
sits
there
for-
111
ANNUAL BROODS,
and
lornly, all the while giving vent to a barely audible
deeply disconsolate groaning sound.
moment
This becomes the crucial
NEST,
NESTING HABITS
of acceptance or
rejection. If the female intends to reject him, she will
catapult
swiftly
away from the perch and disappear

the darkness, and this time he does not
however, she has decided to accept him
in
follow.
If,
which
always
practically
is
head and looks

as close to him
and
raises
at
him
the
then
directly,
she
sidles
her
turns
over to
sit
Immediately he perks up
as possible.
Sometimes
head.
his
case
their
and not infrequently they
briefly,
touch
beaks
preen one an-
will
nape or breast feathers.

Such courtship is extremely important, for the East-
other's
Owl mates
ern Screech
from
continue
This
for
Their relationship
life.
on
point
this
not to
is
killed,
Eastern Screech Owls have only one brood per vear,
herself
until
however,
imply,
will
broken by death.
that
if
remain
will
and winter, when their

association is most tenuous, the thread between them
remains intact and they tend to stay in one another's
together as mates.
Even
in fall
vicinity.
the pair has
If
families in the past,
it
this
is
first
nest of the previous
majority of cases,
not important
is
return
year.
If
by far the greater
In
Eastern
the
Owl
Screech
chooses
hardwood tree. The type of

Habitat and Roosting), but
to nest in the hollow of a

tree,
first
other
pairing, nest selection does not occur until
mating has concluded.
after
the
if
raised
that they will
likely
is
and reoccupy the same
mated and
(see
the cavity has to meet certain standards in most cases
owl
for the
consider using
to
as
it
For ex-
nest.
usually not face into prevailing winds,
will
it
although there are exceptions, nor will

directly facing the
Most preferred
sky.
be a hole
it
an opening
is
perpendicular to the ground, but there have been cases
where
be on the underside of a large upward-
will
it
The
sloping branch or leaning tree trunk.
size of
open-
ing most preferred seems to be from three to five inches

in diameter.
Courtship
is
phase of the
by no means predicated upon the color
Red-phase birds and gray-phase
bird.
mate without
birds of this species
and there
distinction
is
even a vague suggestion of gray-to-red preference.
It
seems
to
make no
difference
which sex
is
what
color
phase.
The
recorded
highest
Owl was 50
Screech
sycamore, but
encourage her to accept
it.
This
has
of activity
sort
the possibility of
no good reason for negating
is
it.
swiftly
and
in
relative
silence.
is
While the
is
it
Eastern
the
of
large
in
rare to find a
is
over 35 feet high.
Owl [Otus asio floridanus] for

Owl nesting hole of record.) The
Florida Screech
(See
preference seems to be for holes anywhere from as low
ground
as 5 feet off the
Sometimes they
around 20 feet in height.

be even lower and in one case,
will
to
where an Eastern Screech Owl nested

stump, the floor of the hollow was
ground
Again,
level.
When
the nest
this
is
in a cavity of a
actually
below-
the exception.
not in the natural cavity of a tree
is
or in the abandoned nesting hole of a flicker, then

in
Actual copulation between Eastern Screech Owls
performed
hole
above ground
nesting cavity for this race that
never been reliably witnessed between free birds in the
although there
nestinsr
feet
was unusual and
this
the highest Screech
Caged Eastern Screech Owls have occasionally gone

into courtship of sorts, and in such cases it is not uncommon for the male to bring bits of meat or an insect
or some other item of food to the female, set it down
before her and, with a series of bows and noddings,
wild,
destroyed.
is
the one remaining alive will not find another;
but as long as both are alive and well they
is
ample,
one mate
made
but a second laying will probably be
some other type
birdhouses are used
owl
for the
female crouches on the ground or on the broad low
clined
limb of an oak or other hardwood, the male approaches
to
of
use a
it
is
Sometimes
hollow.
the openings are large enough
if
to enter.
protected
The owl
more
tends to be
birdhouse or bird box as a
in-
nest
if
against her side. She then spreads her wings
tilts
on the floor
is
nesting
numerous
of it. In recent years the erection of
approximate
boxes for wood ducks boxes which well
has provided adea hollow in tree trunk or branch
her body slightly to one
tilts
quate nesting
boldly, grasps her
beak and
usually
nape feathers not too gently

places
side.
and
His own lower body
toward hers and their vents are brought

proximity,
in his
one foot on her rump or
though not necessarily touching.
into
close
Immedi-
ately the surprisingly elongated, sharply tapered
penis
emerges from the male and penetrates deeply into her

cloaca. Introduction of the sperm follows immediately
and the birds separate, fluffing

whole act does not usually last
seconds at a
maximum.
occur with the
first
their
for
Fertilization
The
feathers.
more than
re-
if
although
they project
Artificial
more commonly used than birdhouses or
nest
boxes are those to be found behind broken or loose

siding
boards
old
barns,
of
buildings,
deserted
and
other such structures.
Whatever the
is
as well,
from the water, as the majority of them do.

cavities
chosen as nesting
mating, and so copulation
Owls
the owls will usually avoid such boxes
ten
Owl
in exactly the
attempt
is
made
may
hollow
site, it
is
be
that
is
ultimately
used by the Eastern Screei h
condition in which
it
is
found.
No
to construct a nest in the bottom of
the hollow or to improve, in any way, whatever sort of
two weeks.
112
for Screech
sites
does not always
peated, perhaps a dozen times or more, over a period

of
a scattering of sawdust or excelsior
there
Screech
Owl
may
nest
the
eggs de-
March
Earliest,
not
relinquish
possession
May
18.
its
make
such cases are rare. Most often the owl

using the hollow for the rearing of
but tending to return to
year,
Persistent
humans may
Owl abandon
the Eastern Screech
hollow,
the
of
claim voluntarily.
pestering by birds, squirrels, or
it
the nest, but
stays,
not only
family the
its
known where
are
The
first
year after year for
same pair of owls have nested

and other cases are
the

CHARACTERISTICS
possibly
both roosting and nesting. Quite a number of tree cav-
exact term of incubation for the eggs of the
Owl
Eastern Screech
still
is
open
to question
and actual incubation possibly not commencing

the third or fourth egg has been laid.
on record where the same cavity has been used regularly
have claimed that
each year for over twenty years by a succession of three
is
or four owl families. It
quite evident that once the
is
owl has taken possession of a nest hole

for as long as
away or the
driven
when
provided
lives,
it
it
will return to
it
is
not repeatedly
nest disrupted or destroyed.
that owl resident dies,
before another owl moves
is
it
usually not very long
especially
in,
And
if
the hollow
is
an exceptionally good one.
per nesting
it
under
various Otus asio subspecies there

tion in the
number
may
be a slight varia-
some
of eggs laid per nest. In
cases
will be as few as two or, rarely, as many as eight.

Even nine was reported once. But where Otus asio
it
naevius
concerned, there are normally four to
is
eggs per nest, with the usual
Color
All Screech
Owl
number being
six
five.
eggs are pure white or oc-
casionally a bit off-white with a faint creaminess.

ally,
Usu-
however, the eggs become blotched and stained
from the wastes in the

Shape Sometimes
27.
ovoid,
but
more often
laid,
and
Texture
cases,
Moderately glossy and,
with the
smooth
shell
to the touch.
finely
On
in the majority of
granulated but essentially
infrequent layings the gran-
is
more pronounced and the shell will feel
bumpy.
Size
From a measurement of 286 eggs, the average
length was 35.7 mm. (14") and the average width
was 29.9 mm. (1.2"). The extremes of the measured
ulation
faintly
not appear until the

1
seems evident that the term of incubation
not constant; rather,
upon conditions
tends to fluctuate, depend-
it
of weather, the time
and the hours
along with other related factors.
have seen, hatched
when
incuba-
of incubation daily,
The
first
egg, as
we
days, the second in 28 days,
in 31
and the fourth in only 25 days.

The shortest term of incubation on record for Otus
asio naevius was 21 days and the longest was 32 days.
the third in 27 days,
generally accepted figure now for the average

term of incubation is a rather nebulous "25 to 27 days."
While the savagery of the Eastern Screech Owl in
The
hunting
is
well
known,
as
is
its
ferocity at times in the
protection of offspring against even the most powerof adversaries,
An
brooding eggs.
yet
more
this
bird
is
strangely docile
may
human who comes
incubating female
at
too close,
often than not there will be no attack; just a
determination not to leave the eggs.
stolid
when
snap her
On many
occasions incubating females have remained on
their
clutch of eggs so tenaciously that they had to be physically
lifted
for the eggs to be seen
and counted. As
soon as such birds were released they returned to the

nest at once
The
and
resettled over the eggs.
authors once took a gray-phase incubating fe-
male from her somewhat oversized natural hollow in a

northern Illinois oak, made note of the measurements
eggs were:
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum
length:
39.3
length:
28.5
width:
32.0
width:
28.5
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
(1.6")
and then carried the female

bird about 50 yards away from the tree. Here she was
tossed into the air and instantly she found her bearings
and arrowed directly to the nesting hollow and disappeared within it. Evidently, once incubation has beof the six eggs in the nest,
(1.1")
(1.3")
(1.1")
Usually no less than 48 hours

between the laying of eggs, often as much as
72 hours, and occasionally even longer.
elapses
egg was laid the morning
this
beak threateningly
nearly globular.
first
The second egg did

March 30. On April
the third egg was

was followed by the fourth egg on April
4. Both the first and second eggs hatched on April
27, the third on April 28 and the fourth on April 29.
afternoon of
ful
nest.
slightly
that easy. For example, in one nesting
isn't all
tion actually begins,
of the
doesn't begin until the fifth egg
close scrutiny, the
March
of
ing
Throughout the range
until
authorities
these circumstances, could be figured out very quickly,
but
It therefore
Number
it
Some
would seem that incubation time, even under
laid. It
is
EGGS
because
of the problem of eggs being laid at irregular intervals
for six or seven consecutive years,
it
latest,
3;
the offal from prey, regurgitated pel-
the owl has taken
will
ities
dates
27; normally between March 26 and April
and droppings.
Once
it
is
Egg-laying
only contribution the
the chamber, other than
to
posited there,
lets,
The
already be there.
owl makes
gun,
little will
Perhaps
Eastern Screech
Owl
this
discourage
is
it.
part of the reason
why
the male does
"3
evidently quite willing to do

the
female
refusing,
the
in
It
so.
she
briefly
mainly
the male
as she leaves them.
He
practically
of
On
any
the rare occasions
for
water to drink and
settles
over the eggs as soon
leave
will
bathe in
very nearly as tenacious in this
is
and even when she returns he
responsibility as she,
is
simply a matter of
is
face
deterrent, to forsake her duty.
that
though he
actual incubating, even
so little of the
is
reluctant to leave the eggs until she virtually shoulders
him
Of
aside.
course,
as
has
many
times happened,
human
wearing
babies
downward
ing
easily
reluctance on the part of both parent birds
hollow to become so
filthy.
which causes the nest
The
and
the
of wastes,
nest hollow has
no better
their
own
after
become
hatching,
a foul
since
place indeed.
the
It
gets
young birds add
wastes to those already accumulated.
heads
rips
into small pieces, feeding the babies only
it
meat and, herself, swallowing the residue of unThere is some indication, though no con-
digestibles.
clusive proof, that at least a portion of the food
mother during the
the
the
few
first
is predigested to some extent. The food is pulled

from the mother's beak by the young and then swallowed with evident difficulty and no indication of
pleasure. The tiny beaks and natal down, especially on
become blood-stained.
the facial disks, quickly
processes of evacua-
whether these be fecal discharges or

pellet regurgitations, continue unabated during incubation, and by the time the hatchlings appear the
tion
Their
they are fac-
yet, and so the mother bird

mouse or other animal from the food supply
days
It is this
if
swallow prey whole as
to
selects a
low, the male bird will continue incubating until the
to leave the job of incubating
and
beak cannot be seen, they might
so the
babies receive from
are able to fend for themselves.
pajamas.
be mistaken for tiny kittens. They are too small
should she be killed while away from the nesting holeggs have hatched, then care for the young until they
fuzzy
are abnormally large at this stage,
By the end
baby birds begin

severity
day after hatching, the
the second
of
The
to shiver.
and frequency
day, the baby bird
is
until,
shivering increases in
by the end of the fourth
may be
Screech Owl
constantly trembling. It
that the shivering (for which the Eastern

is
sometimes called the "Shivering Owl") is caused by

natal down being too fine to provide adequate
the
protection against the outside temperature. This trembling condition gradually abates until the end of the
second week, by which time a
YOUNG AND FAMILY
LIFE
period and huddle
away from
food. Until the eggs hatch, the female eats only spar-
secondary downy plumage begin
what food he brings, so there always appears

to be an abundance of food during incubation. Though
sometimes she will reach out and take the offered food
from his beak, more often he simply drops it beside
her. Rarely, if ever, will male and female eat together
upperparts
from the same prey.
color phase the
The eggs are first pipped by their occupants a day or

two (sometimes even three) before actual emergence,
remains as white tipping on the
commence hatching
in earnest, the
abundance of food. Dead prey tends to stockpile at

first, but as the baby birds continue growing and eating and their demands increase, the stockpile quickly
disappears and all that remains is a clutter of fur,
feathers, and bones.
Newly hatched, the baby owls are remarkably attractive.
They
are covered with a fine coating of snow-
white fuzz which looks more
This delicate natal
down
ling except talons, beak,
like
covers
all
hair than
//^
in
On
the third or fourth day after hatching, the natal
down
turns to dirty gray as the dingy pinfeathers of a
the
with
base,
this
downy plumage
grayish
sepia,
appearing.
white
toward
the
underparts
while
On
the
a pale olive tan at
is
the
tips
are
and barred
gray
basically
white and not so broadly barred. Even at this young

stage each passing day shows clear evidence of what
young bird
will
be. The natal down

new secondary down,
and now the baby birds begin to be quite unattractive.

By the fifth day the baby birds frequently peck at the
mother's beak as if teasing for food. They still have
bluish-gray eyelids covering the bulging eyes and are
decidedly repulsive in appearance, not only because of
their coloring and physical aspect, but because by
become clotted with

now and continuing
for about a week, the baby birds become subject to
attacks of a peculiar sort of yawning at frequent in-
now
their
new
pinfeathers have
blood and excrement. Beginning
tervals.
feathers.
parts of the hatch-
and eyes (although the
latter
could be considered as bring covered, too, since at this

stage they are still sealed). Struggling feebly to crawl
about
this
the mother
the nest.
is
male bird redoubles his hunting efforts and brings

back to the nesting hollow what seems to be a super-
when
together
tightly
While the female is incubating and as long as she

continues to brood the young after they have hatched,
the male Eastern Screech Owl acts as purveyor of
ingly of
is
the brooding
mother. All the nestlings sleep a great deal during
CHARACTERISTICS
but as soon as they
coat of plumage
warmth beneath
the nestling seeks
ever,
new
Until the shivering passes, how-
protecting the bird.
the hollow, they look strangely like
minute
Screech
Nesting hollow scene

area of
-k<t
DuPage County,
li<cl
of a family of Eastern Screech
Owl
from
southwest
densely
wooded
Bensenville,
Illinois,
in
life
<>f
Owls (Otus
asio naevius)
The young birds are at their ugliest by the tenth to

The not-yet-fully-opened eyes are a milky
bluish in color and quite bulbous. The prominent beak
twelfth day.
and looks considerably like a

and demand
food constantly. By this time it is taking the combined
efforts of both parents to hunt down food enough for
them, and this food is now merely brought to the
hollow and dropped inside without the parent bird
even entering. This procedure can have tragic ramifications. Most of the nestlings will snatch at the prey at
the same time and begin struggling for possession,
their little hooked beaks tearing the meat in a sort of
tug-of-war melee. At such a time one of the young
birds may be mistakenly bitten by one of the others,
who tugs just as hard as before. A chunk of flesh
torn from one of the babies signals his death knell,
is
a slightly deeper blue
hooked
nose.
for the fresh
They
are filthier than ever
wound
continues to attract the attention
of the others, even after the prey
upon
fall
the prey,
the
wounded
and devour
bird, pull
gone.
is
They
will
apart as they did
it
Fortunately, this sort of thing
it.
on the twenty-fifth day, and these develop rapidly.

color phase is undeniably apparent now, and a
curious fact emerges: while the offspring of two different-color-phase parents, or two red-phase parents may
in
The
be
all
red or
corded of two gray-phase parents having in their nest
an offspring with even the

birds
during the fourth or
leave
the
will
hollow
nesting
enter,
lock his
enough,
large
is
talons
male
the
spongy wall about
the
in
levels of
size
the interval
hatching can be readily noted.
At the ninth week the fledglings are more than

and a molting of the body plumage occurs, beginning with the back and followed in succession
by the underparts and head. The first-winter plumage
half adult size
appearing rapidly,
lowed by wings and
the
the
is
a branch, that the different
begins
if
fifth
This
nest.
During the period when the female is still brooding

the baby birds, the male will perch near the nest hollow or find another hollow for himself close by, there
during the daylight hours. Sometimes, though,
slightest trace of red.
week that the juvenal

age at which the
young birds are most often seen. Normally they align
themselves on a branch and continue their same demands for food from their parents, who remain close
at hand to protect them, since they are still quite vulnerable. Now is the time, too, as they perch in a row on
It is
does not too often occur.
to rest
mixed red-phase and
gray, or even
all
gray-phase young, not a single case has ever been re-
more
like
Markings:
until the
tail.
first
in
and
fol-
is
is
(see Coloration
and
worn by the young
bird
that of the adult bird
Juvenile)
scapulars,
the
This first-winter plumage
postnuptial molt, which occurs the next
first
summer.
The matter
of the
brood leaving the nest
tree does
for the Eastern Screech Owl.
halfway between nest and entry, and remain clinging
not end the family
there as he sleeps.
For a period of another five weeks beyond this, the

young are closely tended by their parents. In the initial
Nest observations have indicated that the
first
ing of the day usually comes at about 8:45

9 p.m., though rarely any earlier than
feed-
p.m.
to
8:30 p.m. nor
stages
of
life
out-of-the-nest
this
adults
the
togetherness,
them to
parents and
are vigorously protective of the >oung and feed
later
than about 9:15 p.m. Feeding tapers off sharply

about midnight but continues sporadically until about
some extent, but as the young observe the

begin to emulate their hunting methods, the care
3 a.m. or, rarely, until as late as 4:15 a.m. During this

period the parent birds may bring food to the nest
minishes.
as
few
as only 10 or 12 times,
but there are also times
many
By
di-
August the family finally splits up.

The parent birds remain in their established territories and close to one another; the young birds go their
late
60 times in
own way,
striking out to establish their individual ter-
a single night. In one carefully recorded case the parent
ritories at
some
when
they
may
return with prey as
as
distance.
one
moths
birds returned to the nest with food 75 times in
young birds 73 fair-sized

The young birds at this age
stretch their bodies rather amazingly, and so great is
their elasticity that they seem to be made of rubber.
It is at this time, too, that they begin swallowing whole
night, delivering to the
and two
large
beetles.
prey and regurgitating their
By the twentieth day
alert,
lemon
and
yellow,
staring at each
with intense curiosity.
young owl's
have become bril-
after hatching, the
eyes are completely open, the irides

liantly
other
They
fledglings
the
and
are
thick, generally grayish or rusty
their
are
quite
surroundings
now covered
with a
(depending upon color
downy plumage which almost hides their limbs

and makes them look like soiled clumps of wool with
eyes. The young are now becoming rather attractive
phase)
again.
The
/;6
third
covering
YOUNG OWLS OFTEN MISS THEIR PREY
first pellets.
flight
feathers
begins
coming
Screech
Until they
become
well experienced in their hunting, young
owls frequently miss the prey they dive
when
the full
moon
near Elk Grove,
after.
On
woods
the authors watched with interest
Illinois,
as a first-winter Eastern
night
quite brightly lighted a snowy
Screech
dives after a white-footed
Owl made
three successive
mouse and missed each
time.
The
mouse, running and dodging erratically, successfully made it

to a mouse tunnel leading beneath a pile of brush. Such
misses rarely occur among any of the owls after the first year,
although the
first
winter
is
apt
to
be a
difficult
time for
young owls that have not yet very well developed their hunting techniques and are more eager than skilled.
Owl
^ "*- n /
9
Elk!
y-^
ô, i?
/"
"
-^
ECONOMIC INFLUENCE
Otus
asio naevius does destroy a certain
game
damage
songbirds,
but the
enormous
the
number
of
and some poultry each year,

may do is far more than offset by
birds,
it
benefit
bestows in destruction of in-
it
Much depends upon

wHere the owl is located if one is to determine its
ecological and economic value or detriment. In a bird
and
jurious rodents
sanctuary,
clearly
insect pests.
example, the Eastern
for
detrimental, for
songbirds
that
are
will
it
themselves
for their insect-eating habits.
make up
Screech
large
economically
On
Owl
is
numbers of
valuable
the other hand, birds
a relatively small percentage of the normal
annual diet of Otus

prey
its
kill
are
and the majority of
asio naevius,
creatures
detrimental
distinctly
agricul-
turally.
analyses compiled from throughout
Pellet
range
its
indicate that at least 75 per cent of the Eastern Screech
Owl's food on an annual basis consists of injurious
mammals and
is
insects, while only about 7 per cent

comprised of birds, including not only songbirds,
game
birds,
such as
and
poultry, but equally
The comparative
Owl can best be
Screech
tical
information.
It
has
Otus
asio naevius
in prey daily
and
(Gmelin)
pest birds
seen through projected
been
owl consumes 25.3 per cent of

EASTERN SCREECH OWL
many
and English sparrows.

economic value of the Eastern
starlings, blackbirds,
10.3
determined
its
statis-
that
this
own body weight
during the autumn and winter months,
per cent daily in the spring and
summer
months. Since the average weight of the adult male

Eastern Screech
in
Owl
is
7.1
ounces,
this
means
that
one year's time the average male bird consumes
about 28.75 pounds of prey. Of this total, almost 22

is comprised of injurious rodents and insects.
pounds
Therefore, from the standpoint of both ecology and
Northeastern Minnesota, northern Michigan
(Che-
boygan County), southern Ontario (Lake Nipissing),

southern Quebec (Montreal), and Maine (Franklin
County), southward to eastern Kansas, Missouri, central
Illinois,
Ohio, and Virginia.
Winters somewhat southward, sometimes to Alabama

(Ardell)
and Georgia (Newton County.)
economics, the Eastern Screech
Owl must
being of great benefit. Not only does
it
be rated as
provide a real
service in the destruction of agriculturally detrimental
rodents and insects,
it
explosions
forms
of
life
also acts as a
check on population
which might otherwise
crease to the point where the natural balance
Like
all
other owls, Otus asio naevius
is
is
in-
upset.
a vital link in
the balance of nature.
MIGRATION
Primarily
Screech
bird.
resident
Owl cannot
Eastern
within
its
range,
rightly
be
termed a migratory
the
Yet there are times when some degree of seasonal
movement can be noted

severity
of
the
winter
largely
dependent upon the
and the
availability
of
prey.
XXIX
Otus
PASADENA SCREECH OWE
asio quercinus Grinnell.
Kern County,
373-K
About the most extensive migrational movements of

record, as determined from recovery of banded birds,
has been less than 500 miles and usually no more than
Gilberto, Mexico, April
200 miles.
A.O.U. Check-list
118
Screech
XXX
Otus
Owl
Female. Southeastern border of
California, February 17, 1969.
asio suttoni
A.O.U. Number
GUADALUPE SCREECH OWL
Moore. Male. Vicinity of Coahuila Noria de

2, 1945. Not included in the 1957
XJll.yL~A>*'
AIKEN'S SCREECH
OWL
TOTAL LENGTH
[COLOR PLATE XVI)
SCIENTIFIC
Subspecies average
209.7
mm.
(8.3")
WINGSPAN
NAME AND
Subspecies average: 533.4
Otus asio aikeni (Brewster). Original description:

Megascops asio aikeni Brewster, The Auk, Volume 8,
No. 2, April 89 1, p. 139; based on a specimen from
mm.
(21.0").
El Paso County, Colorado.
mm.
(6. 5").
OTHER NAMES
great plains screech
TAIL LENGTH
owl
After
geographical
its
distribution.
mm.
(3.5")
d' aiken
le petit-duc
ing "Aiken's Little Duke."
BEAK LENGTH
smaller
Slightly
and somewhat darker
coloration than the
Owl (Otus
15.0
mm.
(0.6")
asio
Rocky Mountain Screech Owl (Otus

maxwelliae) It is larger than the Mexican Screech
HABITAT
Owl (Otus
more
general
in
or the
naevius)
asio
Eastern Screech
Subspecies average
cineraceus)
asio
but with the underparts
coarsely mottled or vermiculated
and the blackish
Confined primarily
to the
cottonwood margins along
streams.
medial streaks broader and more strongly contrasted
The
with the general coloration of the bird.
blackish
pencilings of the underparts are also heavier but some-
what
less
numerous than
Aiken's Screech
Owl
Owl (Otus
Screech
is
in the
Mexican Screech Owl.
about the
asio bendirei)
size
,
FOOD
of the California
but more generally
Almost
entirely
mice and grasshoppers.
ash-colored and with the dark markings considerably
and more numerous on both upperparts and
coarser
underparts.
NEST
WEIGHT
Natural hollows or abandoned woodpecker holes from

8
XXXI
Otus
asio
gr.
(6.3 oz.
feet
high,
especially
xxxn
asio
22, 1962.
Two
YUMA screech owl
yumanensis Miller and Miller.
cottonwoods
along
A.O.U.
A.O.U. Number 373-L
to five, but usually three or four.
measurements of 28
Male.
Colorado
River Basin, vicinity of Ripley, Riverside County, California,

20, 1971
in
EGGS
swenki Oberholser. Female. Five miles north of Bas-
Brown Rock County, Nebraska, October

Number 373-N
January
35
NEBRASKA SCREECH OWL
sett,
Otus
to
streams.
mm.
(1.4")
in
making them
eggs,
average egg
length by 30.7
just
trifle
mm.
larger
Based on the
size
(1.2")
than
was 359
in
those
width,
of
the

Aiken's Screech
Owl
"9
OTHER NAMES
bayou owl
From
habitat in Louisiana bayou coun-
try.
shoe owl
superstitious application derived
the belief that in order to

owl's call
and turn
ward
off evil spirits
from
when
the
heard, the individual must get out of bed
is
his left
shoe upside down.
The red-phase and gray-phase
in tone than
Otus
more arched.
the beak
The Southern Screech Owl

phases
birds are both darker
but smaller and with
asio naevius,
than
floridanus)
the
is
lighter in both color
Owl
Screech
Florida
(Otus
asio
but larger.
Barrings and markings in the red phase are more

abundant and blacker in tone, and the dark mottlings
in the gray phase are in
much
greater contrast to the
background color than in the Eastern Screech Owl.

But in the red phase they are less numerous and not so
dark as
in the Florida
Screech Owl, and the dark mark-
ings in the gray phase are not so clearly delineated.
AIKEN
SCREECH OWL
Otus asio aikeni (Brewster)
WEIGHT
gr. (6.5 oz.)
Northwestern North Dakota and northwestern Min-
southward
nesota
into
extreme
Oklahoma
western
(Kenton), extreme western Kansas, and eastern and

central Colorado
(El Paso County), into central
TOTAL LENGTH
New
Mexico, central and western Texas, northeastern Arizona, and southward to northern Durango, Mexico.
Subspecies average
{COLOR PLATE XVII)
Otus
Volume
Noctua
page
120
asio
asio
asio
(Linnaeus).
Original
531.9
mm.
.o'
NAME AND
Strix
(8.5").
WINGSPAN
SCIENTIFIC
mm.
Subspecies average: 158.
mm.
(6.2").
description:
Linnaeus, Systematica Natura, Edition
10,
TAIL LENGTH
1758, page 92; based on the Little Owl,

aurita minor Catesby, Carolina, Volume 1,
1,
from a South Carolina specimen.

Screech
Owl
mm.
(3-i")-
BEAK LENGTH
Subspecies average
mm.
15.2
(0.6")
FEET
Very densely feathered.
VOICE
The
principal call has occasionally been
the soft, far-distant
compared
to
whinnying of a horse.

ADULT
The beak
coloration
may
vary from a dull blue gray
There
to a rather bright pistachio greenish.
is
a brown-
intergrade between the red-phase and gray-phase
ish
birds
which
is
not
uncommon
in
some parts of the

The mark-
South, particularly in northern Louisiana.

ings of the
brown intergrade
are an intermediate blend-
ing of the markings of gray phase and red phase.
Otus
asio asio (Linnaeus)
HABITAT
Primarily
lowland bird, preferring sparse wood-
lands and marshy
meadows
from coastal areas

Appalachian slopes.
try
as well as
to the higher
open bayou counwoodlands of the
CALIFORNIA SCREECH
{COLOR PLATE
OWL
XVIII)
EGGS
Usually four to
six eggs,
SCIENTIFIC
many
March or
but as few as two or as
These eggs are normally laid in late

From the measurements of 77 eggs, the
average length was 35.0 mm. (1.4") and the average
width was 30.0 mm. (1.2").
as eight.
NAME AND
early April.
Otus
asio bendirei
(Brewster). Original description:
Scops asio bendirei Brewster, Bulletin of the Nuttall

Ornithological Club, Volume 7, Number 1, January
1882, page 31; based on a specimen from Nicasio,
California.

Common
in every state
southward and eastward of a
OTHER NAMES
line from the northern Virginia coast westward to central
Kansas, then southward to the eastern Texas coast.
However,
and absent
it
in
is
uncommon
in
northwestern
Arkansas
both central and southern Florida.
bendire's screech
thologist
Major C.
Southern / Calif ornia Screech
Owl
owl
After the esteemed orni-
E. Bendire.
121
TOTAL LENGTH
Subspecies average
mm.
226.1
(8.9").
WINGSPAN
Subspecies average
572.8
mm.
(22.6").

Subspecies average
167.6
mm.
(6.6").
TAIL LENGTH
Subspecies average
80.5
mm.
(3.2").
BEAK LENGTH
Subspecies average
CALIFORNIA SCREECH
Otus
Owl
singularly uniform in
has no red color phase and

its
color tone. It
gray phase of the Southern Screech

asio)
is
down
Screech Owl
Owl
(Otus asio
and belly, whereas the California

is more notably ashy white and both
barred and streaked thickly across the median line of
breast and belly without break. These barrings and
streakings are rather fine and tend to give a somewhat
smoky appearance to the general coloration of the
line
mm.
(0.6").

ADULT
is
similar to the
except that the Southern race has an unmarked
median
15.2
asio bendirei (Brewster)
This Screech
OWL
The shaft streaks of black on both belly and breast

plumage are quite heavy, but the underparts are not as
conspicuously crosslined as in the gray phase of the
breast
underparts.
The
ate elevations
Southern Screech Owl.

It
is
Screech
It
is
darker and vaguely browner than the Saguaro
Owl (Otus
brewsteri)
asio gilmani)
and both smaller and a
and normally
Owl (Otus
bit paler in
coloration than MacFarlane's Screech
asio
general
Owl (Otus
roosts in
located from 20 to 60 feet high in conifers.
hollow of a hardwood tree
smaller than Brewster's Screech
moderwoodpecker holes
Prefers the timbered foothills of mountains at
ear tufts are not quite as long as those of the
natural
hollow
rather
is
When
used, the preference
than
an
is
for
abandoned wood-
pecker hole.
asio
macfarlanei)
FOOD
WEIGHT
Preys heavily
upon house sparrows and mice, but
is
less of an insect eater than most of the other Screech
122
Owl
gr. (7.5 oz.
Screech
Owl
races.
NEST
although occasionally there
Most often
Almost invariably
indifferent
effort
woodpecker
in old
On
times in natural cavities.

to
occasion
partially
holes, but
the
line
some-
may make an
it
bottom of the
it
is
warm
is
a brownish-gray phase.
gray and not considered as
Owl
being dichromatic. Brewster's Screech
Owl (Otus
Kennicott's Screech
is
smaller,
grayer,
paler,
is
similar to
but
asio kennicottii)
and with
less
brown.
Owl (Otus
than the Eastern Screech
It
it
is
nesting cavity with a few bits of pine-needle clusters,
slightly larger
dried grasses, and a few feathers.
naevius) and the shaft streaks on upperparts and underpays are more in contrast with the general coloration,
although the crosslining on the undcrparts is less conspicuous than on the Eastern Screech Owl. It is a
smaller and darker owl than MacFarlane's Screech Owl
EGGS
asio
(Otus asio macfarlanei)
As few
more than
as two, but not
They average
smaller than those of the
slightly
just
five; usually four.
Eastern Screech Owl. Based on measurements of 45

eggs, averages were 31.2 mm. (1.2") in length and
29.9
mm.
late
March and
(1.2")
in
as
WEIGHT
width. Eggs are laid as early as

as
late
mid-May, but most often
(7-8 oz.).
gr.
during April.
TOTAL LENGTH
South-central Oregon (in Josephine, Jackson, Curry,
and Klamath counties), and northwestern coastal region
of California
exclusive of the narrow coastal strip in
Del Norte and Humboldt counties), from Trinity
County south to Monterey Bay, and inland to the edge
of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Valley. In the OregonCalifornia border area it tends to intergrade with Brew-
Subspecies average
ster's
Screech Owl. making
it
the intergrading
as
Otus
most
is
distinct)
asio bendirei or
northward
to
Otus
Mount
the
brewsteri.
Extends
(9.1").
mm.
(23. 6")
(where
should be referred to
asio
mm.
questionable as to whether
area
229.8
WINGSPAN
specimens from the Eureka, California,
Subspecies average
171.4
mm.
(6.8").
Shasta area on the western
slope of the Sierras.
VOICE
BREWSTER'S SCREECH
OWL
of the most silent Screech
Owl
races; not partic-
and nesting
periods.
[COLOR PLATE XIX)

SCIENTIFIC
One
ularly vociferous even during the courtship

ADULT
NAME AND
Almost always with brownish or buffy markings on

Otus
Otus
asio
brewsteri Ridgway.
asio brewsteri
Bulletin,
Number
Ridgway, U.
50, Part 6, 1914,
Original description:
S.
National
Museum
the underparts, and sometimes the entire ground color

of the underparts suffused with a buff coloration.
page 700; based on a
specimen from Salem, Oregon.
GENERAL HABITS AND

This owl, named after the famed ornithologist, William Brewster, by Robert Ridgway, has no red phase,
CHARACTERISTICS
Brewster's Screech
Owl
the state of Oregon, but
Brewster's Screech
Owl
is
it
the most
is
common
owl
in
not very often seen be-
123
EGGS
As few
two on rare occasions and, even more

as ten. Normally three to six eggs are
laid, and most often four. Measurements of 10 eggs
averaged 37.3 mm. (1.5") in length and 31.2 mm.
as
many
rarely, as
(1.2") in width.

Brewster's
Owl normally
Screech
altitudes than does
resides
higher
at
MacFarlane's Screech Owl. Found
in Oregon (west of the Cascade Range and south of the

lower Columbia River Valley), and a narrow coastal
belt
northwestern California
in
County).
Humboldt
'Carlotta,
northward
Continues
to
Chelan
Washington, and westward from there
to
County,
the
Pacific
coast.
MEXICAN SCREECH OWL

(COLOR PLATE XX)
BREWSTER
Otus
SCREECH OWL
asio brewsteri
SCIENTIFIC
Ridgway
NAME AND
cause of
its
highly nocturnal habits. If seen at
daytime,
it
will
almost certainly be in
the
all
in
midst of
the nesting period and even then only on a heavily overcast day.
Otus
Volume
on a
Prefers the
grown
in
somewhat lower
slopes
asio
Number
cineraceus Ridgway,
The Auk,
October 1895, page 390; based

specimen from Fort Huachuca, Arizona.
12,
HABITAT
well
(Ridgway). Original descrip-
cineraceus
asio
Megascops
tion:
4,
OTHER NAME
and creek
valleys
ARIZONA SCREECH
oaks and cottonwoods.
tion in the
FOOD
United
OWL
After
its
geographic distribu-
States.
Primarily mice and insects, but including a certain
number
Closely related to the Saguaro Screech
of small birds during the nesting season.
asio gilmani)
and
still
Owl (Otus
claimed by some authorities
to
be the same race; there are nevertheless some significant differences.
NEST
Though
their breeding ranges closely
Mexican Screech Owl

somewhat more conspicuous at all times, the wings
are a little longer, and the tail a trifle shorter. Too,
intermingle, the ear tufts of the
are
Usually in old woodpecker holes, but occasionally

suitable
natural
tree
hollows.
rarely less than 20 feet high or
124
The
nesting
more than 35
cavity
in
is
feet high.
Screech
whereas the Saguaro Screech

slopes
Owl
and
hilltops, the
Owl
tends to inhabit the
Mexican Screech Owl shows a
preference
Screech
for
Owl
valleys.
races, the
One
of
the
smallest
Mexican Screech Owl
of
is

ADULT
the
some-
what smaller than the Eastern Screech Owl (Otus asio

naevius) and is generally an undistinguished gray brown
Strictly
in over-all coloration.
monochromatic
in the gray
phase only.
The
upperparts are a distinct ashy gray, sometimes with just

cast, and with numerous black shaft
on the back. The shaft streaks on the underpays are narrower but are also very black, and there
a vague brownish
streaks
WEIGHT
are no clear white interspaces in the delicate crossbars

and vermiculation. The vermiculation on both upperparts and underparts is considerably more delicate than
Subspecies average: 166.1 gr. (5.8 oz.)
those
of
Though
Aiken's
Screech
this bird often
Owl
(Otus
asio
aikeni)
tends to give the impression of
being somewhat brownish in general coloration, close
examination invariably indicates that
an
There is
little trace of real brown anywhere in the plumage and
no brown-phase or red-phase bird has ever been found.
TOTAL LENGTH
mm.
illusion created
(7.3")
551.2
mm.
this
warm
is,
instead,
grays.
WINGSPAN
Subspecies average
by the shading of
JUVENILE
(21.7'
Ordinarily
much more narrowly
juveniles of other
Otus
crossbarred than the
asio subspecies.

Subspecies average
163.2
mm.
GENERAL HABITS AND
(6.4").
CHARACTERISTICS
The Mexican Screech Owl
TAIL LENGTH
is
more openly
habits than most other Screech
its
Owl
sociable in
races. It
is
in-
clined to begin calling just after sundown,
Subspecies average
87.7
mm.
and soon upward of from four to ten birds will be calling back and
forth. They begin moving gradually closer together and
gather in loose groups for a short while before moving
(3.5").
off generally together in the
deepening
twilight.
BEAK
Varies from greenish yellow to deep slate green; most
often
is
HABITAT
a dull shade of dusky yellow green.
Most fond
the
desert,
foliage
heavy scrub-growth areas of
near moist creek valleys where
tends to remain greener and thicker than in
surrounding areas.
EAR TUFTS, PLUMAGE

The
of moderately
especially
ear tufts tend to be a shade wider at their base
than those of other Otus asio subspecies, and perhaps

just slightly longer
eyelids
is
distinctly black.
When
watching.
the
Superbly bark-camouflaged and well able to mimic
eyes without irides are
equally a knob on the limb of the giant saguaro cactus
the eyes are closed there
odd impression that very black

still
on the average. The plumage of the
a bit heavier than in other races and quite

is
or a stub of branch on an oak or willow.
Mexican Screech Owl
The Mexican
'
25
EGGS
Normally there are three or four
while five eggs will be
laid.
Though
an individual
to
Once
nesting, but very occasionally only two.
in a great
these eggs are pure
they often seem to be reddish-brown
white,
speckled
eggs of a sparrow hawk, but the speckles are
like the
merely stains resulting from the parasitic
activities
of
which infest the parent birds. On the basis of

measurements of 37 eggs, the average length was 34.3
mm. (1.4") by 28.7 mm. (1.1") in width.
the fleas

Southern Nevada
(Grapevine Mountains, exclusive
Colorado River Valley), and central and southern Utah, southward through central and eastern Ari-
of the
zona, southwestern and southern
New Mexico
to central
Sonora, Mexico, southern California, Baja California,
and mountainous west-central Texas.
FLORIDA SCREECH OWL
{COLOR PLATE XXI)

MEXICAN SCREECH OWL
Otus
asio cineraceus
NAME AND
SCIENTIFIC
(Ridgway)
Otus
tion:
Screech
Otus
Owl seems
asio var. Fioridanus
the Essex Institute,

to be
one of the most susceptible of
(Ridgway).
fioridanus
asio
Scops
Volume
5,
Original
descrip-
Ridgway, Bulletin
Number
2,
P a g e 20 ; based on a specimen from
1873,
asio races to infestations of fleas.
of
December
Indian
River, Florida.
OTHER NAMES
FOOD
beach owl
Primarily mice, rats, and insects, but the diet varies
widely according to season and
Quite readily feeds upon
kangaroo
rats,
ground
availability
lizards,
frogs,
of
small
prey.
birds,
cially
owl
perches with
For
its
death owl
its
call
will
is
its
is
not
uncommonly
seen at
grasses, espe-
coast.
superficial catlike
appearance as
ear tufts upraised and eyes
For the superstitious
it
slitted.
belief that
when
heard, someone of the hearer's acquaintance
soon die.
ii\mmock owl
NEST
it
on the Florida Gulf
cat
squirrels, crayfish, scorpions, grass-
hoppers, locusts, and beetles.
Because
dusk hunting along the fringe of beach
For the hammocks
it
inhabits,
es-
pecially in the Florida Everglades area.
Hollows from 10
to
30
feet
high in oaks and willows
along creek margins are especially favored, with no detectable
preference
between natural
cavities
and old
woodpecker holes. Quite frequently takes up residence

in the abandoned hole of a Gila woodpecker or gilded
flicker located relatively
126
high
in a
saguaro cactus.
Screech
oak owl
of the live
Because
oak
palm owl
it
often nests and roosts in hollows
tree.
After
its
use of
abandoned woodpecker
and flicker holes in palm trees as nesting

sand owl For the same reason that
as the Beach Owl.
Owl
sites.
it
is
referred to
This
the smallest of the Florida owls,
is
even the Florida Burrowing

floridana)
asio.
It
is
it
is
also the smallest eastern
is
is
form of Otus
and gray phases, although the red-
considerably
smaller and
less
common
more deeply colored
either the Eastern Screech
Owl (Otus
the Southern Screech
in
Owl (Otus
Most
including
(Speotyto cunicularia
very markedly dichromatic with deeply and
richly colored red
phase bird
Owl
VOICE
than the gray.
It
both phases than

asio naevius)
are virtually identical with those of the
calls
Eastern Screech Owl, the difference being that those of

the
Owl
Screech
Florida
tend
to
be
slightly
more
tremulous and not quite as far-carrying. In addition,

bird
this
Otus
has been
drumming
pitched
known
utter
to
peculiar
low-
note unlike anything uttered by other
asio subspecies.
or
asio asio).

ADULT
WEIGHT
Although
Subspecies average: 167.4 g r (5-9 oz -)
-
it
is
classed as dichromatic, there are actu-
ally three color phases,
with the gray phase predominat-
more
much
phase occurring
ing, the red
brown-phase
rarely, a
less
often and, even
bird. In the red
phase the
underparts are white, but quite heavily mottled with
tawny and streaked with very dark brownish gray, and

the same streaking is on the upperparts, which are
TOTAL LENGTH
generally a distinct russet in general coloration. In the
Subspecies average
211.0
mm.
(8.3").
gray-phase bird, the upperparts are a rather dark drab
somewhat indistinctly marked with brownand the underparts have narrow

streaks of the same over a general coloration of gray
brown. The rare brown phase replaces all ground-color
reds or grays with a fairly deep brown on the upperparts
and buffy brown to medium brown on the underparts.
coloration
black
WINGSPAN
mm.
(20.1")
streakings,
GENERAL HABITS AND

mm.
CHARACTERISTICS
(6.0"}
As with the other Screech Owl
Owl
Screech
is
subspecies, the Florida
primarily nocturnal, spending practically
daylight hours perched in a well-camouflaged posi-
all
tion close to the trunk of heavily foliaged orange trees
BEAK
mango
or
trees, or else
hidden
in the
hollow of a
live
oak or palm.
Rather horn-colored, but with a pale greenish

and becoming whitish at the tip.
cast
HABITAT
May
FEET
be found equally well
in various types of Florida
and cover, from oak hammocks and citrus

groves to relatively open pine and cypress forests, palmetto scrublands, and tree-scattered grasslands along
terrain
The
toes of the Florida Screech
sparse, bristly
Owl
are covered with
plumage.
beaches.
FOOD
EAR TUFTS
Slightly longer for the size of the bird than are those
of the Eastern Screech
Owl.
In addition
the bulk of
Florida Screech
Owl
its
to the
mice and
diet, the
insects
which make up
Owl consumes
Florida Screech
127
EGGS
Otus
floridanus lays fewer eggs than do most
asio
Owl
Normally there are only

most common number,
but two eggs much more often than four. From the
measurements of 57 eggs, the average egg size came to
other Screech
two
subspecies.
to four eggs, with three the
33.7
mm.
(1.3")
length and
in
mm.
28.8
(1.1")
in
width.

The range
of this interesting
considerably over recent
little
owl has increased
Although
decades.
still
northward
to
Gainesville
the
area,
it
also
is
pri-
Key West
marily confined to the Florida peninsula from
found
along the Gulf coast to eastern Texas, along the At-
South Carolina, and north-
lantic coast to east-central
ward
in the Mississippi
Ohio River.
of the
whether
this
It
River Valley as far as the mouth

has not been clearly determined
has been an actual increase in the Otus
asio floridanus population with
resultant expansion of
was over a larger region

when Robert Ridgway originally described
range, or whether the form
than realized
the race in 1873.
FLORIDA SCREECH
Otus
asio floridanus
OWL
SAGUARO SCREECH OWL
(Ridgway)
{COLOR PLATE XXII)

numerous salt-water crustaceans, lizards (mainly skinks
and anoles), frogs, toads, fresh- and salt-water fish,
spiders, and scorpions. Much prey is taken crossing
NAME AND
SCIENTIFIC
little-traveled roads at night.
Otus
asio gilmani
Swarth. Original description: Otus
asio gilmani Swarth, University of California Publica-
COURTSHIP
tions
Condor, Volume
May
begin as early as late
but more
ally
commonly
in
November
or December,
men from
and The
1916, page 163: based on a speci-
Volume
Zoological,
18,
Quite often
1,
January and February; occasion-
in the natural cavities of live oak, pine,
more commonly in abandoned

woodpecker holes 8 to 30 feet high
cypress, but
or pileated
trunks of sabal (cabbage)
holds the record
palms.
among
The
flicker
in the
Florida Screech
the species for nest height,
Florida Screech
Owl
Englewood, Florida,
above the ground.

Screech
SKETCHES
gray phase of coloration was
summer
of 197
live
The
oak near
bird at
first
but then settled down, at one point seeming almost to fall

asleep, while portrait sketches were made. Finally, placed
on the top wire of a fence,

growth.
feet
FIELD
struggled vigorously against being held firmly about the body
palm hollow
80
in the
in the
seconds before winging
fully
OWL
captured by the authors in the hollow of a
with a well-documented nesting having occurred in a
128
page
Blackwater, Pinal County, Arizona.
FLORIDA SCREECH
Owl
19 10,
not until March.
NEST
and
7,
Owl
it
remained there
off swiftly into
for about thirty
some dense
sabal
palm
>.yo
...
"^g? ^j##
<*>-;
j;.
a 4>
fV^'
*u
Vn-
fcA
J
AS.
m^J
*ffX
same
tone
basic
though
gray,
of
sometimes
faintly
darker above than below. Plumage on legs and toes is

white with a faint grayish touch and sparsely patterned
with dusky. Recent accounts
extreme
in a line of
Owl (Otus
this race as
list
being the
divergence from the Eastern Screech
asio naevius)
WEIGHT
gr. (5.6 oz.).
TOTAL LENGTH
mm.
(7.1").
WINGSPAN
mm.
(19.2").

SAGUARO SCREECH OWL
mm.
(6.1").
Otus asio gilmani Swarth
TAIL LENGTH
OTHER NAMES
Arizona screech
owl
Subspecies average
92.5
mm.
(3.7").
Because of geographical loca-
tion.
Mexican screech owl

infringing on the
For the same reason, though

of Otus asio cineraceus.
BEAK LENGTH
common name
TECOLOTITO CHILLON DE LOS SAGUAROS Mexicanname meaning "Little Screech Owl of the
Subspecies average
13.3
mm.
(0.5").
Indian
Saguaro."
VOICE
Differs considerably
from the voice of the Eastern
Screech Owl, having the distinct bouncing-ball double
Although
it
is
included
in
many
older
listings
as
trill
with
less
being identical with the Mexican Screech Owl, more
dividual notes
recent descriptions substantiate the findings in the origi-
of the call
Swarth that the differences are significant and constant and that it should be listed, as a
separate race. The Saguaro Screech Owl, which occurs
nal description by
only in the gray phase,
is
slightly
smaller
more
clearly separated.
duller than
this subspecies,
is
that of
considerable calling occurs
groups as the fledgling owls begin
among
flying.
than the
Mexican Screech Owl, though with tail a bit longer. In

its darker markings it is more restricted than the Mexican Screech Owl, and the ground color is a paler gray.
Underparts and upperparts tend to be very nearly the
130
is
and with the inThe whole tone

Otus asio naevius. In
of a melodious quality
Screech
HABITAT
Almost
Owl
strictly
keeps to very arid desert terrain.
family
ENEMIES
ward through
southern
Colorado River Valley

Rarely,
if
ever, harassed
by smaller birds, as so often
HUNTING METHODS
catch
consistently
to northeastern
enough food during the
night to lay aside a small store of
it
be fed to the
to
in
the
extreme southern Nevada,

Baja California and extreme
northern Sonora, Mexico.
occurs with the Eastern races.
Adults
southward
northward
Arizona,
to
It
is
plentiful
in
the
lower
plains from Santa Rita and Santa Catalina Mountains

westward. The distribution on the whole is quite a bit
like that of the Mexican Screech Owl except that the
Saguaro Screech Owl is more inclined to inhabit the
hotter valleys and desert flatlands, while the Mexican
Screech Owl prefers the foothill slopes and oak-grown
canyon areas.
when
nestling birds at intervals during the day, even
the nestlings are at an advanced age.
HASBROUCK'S SCREECH OWL
FOOD
{COLOR PLATE
XXIII)
Mice in abundance, but even more insects than mice

and considerably more lizards than are caught and eaten
by other
(Otus
races, including
asio floridanus)
even the Florida Screech
Scorpions also
make up
Owl
a sub-
SCIENTIFIC
stantial part of the diet.
NAME AND
Otus asio hasbroucki Ridgway. Original description:
Otus asio hasbroucki Ridgway, U. S. National Museum
NEST
Number 50, Part 6, 19 14, page 694; based on

a specimen from Palo Pinto County, Texas.
Bulletin,
Hardly without exception the nest is in a woodpecker

hole in saguaro cactus, from as low as 4 feet high to
about 35
feet.
Sometimes
in similar holes or (less often)
natural cavities in creek valley live oaks, sycamores, and
cottonwoods.
in
On
an old magpie
extremely rare occasions
it
may
nest
nest.
Owl was named by RobM. Hasbrouck. It is similar in its

Texas Screech Owl [Otus asio mccallii)
This generally gray Screech

ert
Ridgway
markings
EGGS
but
As few as three, but usually four or five. Eight eggs

have been recorded. Based on a sampling of 1 1 eggs, the
average size is 34.1 mm. (1.3") in length and 29.0 mm.
(1.1") in width.
is
No
case has been recorded
to the
a considerably larger bird, rather darker in gen-
eral coloration
and not
as buffy gray
on the upperparts.
more
plumage has mottlings
that are considerably darker brown than those of the
Texas Screech Owl. A rare red phase occurs about 5
per cent of the time and is a dark red like the Eastern
In addition, the underparts have broader and
numerous barrings and the
Screech
FAMILY LIFE CHARACTERISTICS
after E.
Owl (Otus
asio
leg
naevius)
but with a heavier
pattern of markings.
where the male has shared
the nesting hole with the brooding female, as sometimes
occurs with other Screech
Owl
subspecies.
He
roosts in-
WEIGHT
stead on a nearby branch or in another hollow not far

distant.
Subspecies average: 1993
gr. (7.0 oz.).
TOTAL LENGTH
Southwestern California
especially the lower Colo-
rado River Valley and the Imperial Valley) and
east-
Saguaro I Hasbrouck' s Screech Owl
mm.
(8.3")
'3'
NEST
Mostly
in natural tree hollows
and woodpecker
holes,
but on occasion in martin houses.
EGGS
Sometimes three, usually four, occasionally five, rarely
Based on the measurements of 27 eggs, the average
size of the egg is 34.8 mm. (1.4") in length and 30.0
six.
mm.
(1.2") in width.

Confined to an area from southeastern Kansas
(Greenwood County, Cedar Vale) and northwestern
Arkansas, through central and eastern Oklahoma to
central Texas. In Texas it is well distributed from
Travis and Kerr counties to Palo Pinto and Dallas
counties, but less abundant in the counties of Lampasas, Cooke, Eastland, and McLenna.
HASBROUCK
Otus
SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA SCREECH
SCREECH OWL
asio hasbroucki
OWL
Ridgway
{COLOR PLATE XXIV)
WINGSPAN
Subspecies average
mm.
536.5
SCIENTIFIC
(21. 1").
NAME AND
mm.
Otus asio inyoensis Grinnell. Original description:

Otus asio inyoensis Grinnell, The Auk, Volume 45,
Number 2, April 1928, page 213; based on a specimen

from Independence, Inyo County, California.
(6.2").
BEAK
Usually somewhat lighter greenish to dull greenish

yellow.
Named
Joseph
by the noted California ornithologist, Dr.
Grinnell,
after
the
Inyo
Mountains
of
Cali-
GENERAL HABITS AND

Two common
CHARACTERISTICS
Owl (Otus
posturings of the Southern California Screech
asio
inyoensis)
perching pose and
Hasbrouck's Screech
ture
and
it
is
humans when
may
132
noted for
it
Owl
its
has a very pugnacious na-
unusual belligerence toward
has eggs or young, even
when
these
be in no particular jeopardy.
Screech
(right)
including
(left)
normal relaxed
elongated camouflaging posture
assumed when disturbed. The individual shafting of each

feather is black, the feet and legs arc barred with dark brown,
and the underside of the wing is somewhat darker than customary among Screech Owls.
Owl
c,
&*
i'.*
%*^
V;n*tet~W \*<K
Co. ;
<*'
\<^
To
r\wO
> C1
a/
^-oh
<))<+
c*"
yek-j
davK
bkou/î
WINGSPAN
mm.
(21.2").

mm.
(6.4").
TAIL LENGTH
Subspecies average
81.3
mm.
(3.2").
BEAK LENGTH
Subspecies average
15.2
mm.
(0.6")
HABITAT
Primarily oak-grown slopes and minor low-elevation
canyons, especially where there
is
standing or running
water.
Otus asio inyoensis Grinnell
FOOD
Mainly mice,
Owl
which is fairly large

as compared to most other southwestern Otus asio subspecies, is a somewhat paler ashy gray in general coloration than the Rocky Mountain Screech Owl (Otus asio
maxwelliae) and has less of a brownish cast. The pattern of markings is similar to those markings on the
Rocky Mountain Screech Owl except that the white
spots on the closed-wing outer primaries are a good bit
smaller and the vermiculations of belly, breast, and legs
are almost black rather than a medium dark brown.
fornia, this Screech
insects,
and
lizards.
subspecies,
EGGS
From
three to
six,
with four being the most
and five not unusual. Average egg

on measurements of 17 eggs, is 36.0 mm.
length and 30.1 mm. (1.2") in width.
clutch
common
size,
based
(1.4")
in
WEIGHT
Subspecies average
XXXIII
:
204.1 gr. (7.1
oz.
WHISKERED OWL
Otus trichopsis trichopsis (Wagler). Female. West slope of
Huachuca Peak, Cochise County, Arizona, May

included in the 1957 A.O.U. Clin k-list
XXXIV
TOTAL LENGTH
Chiricahua
Subspecies average
'34
218.5
mm.
ARIZONA WHISKERED
Otus trichopsis asperus
(8.6")
rg
Screech
[O.
Owl
(Brewster).
8,
Not
OWL
Male.
South slope of
Mountains, Cochise County, Arizona,
A.O.U. Number 373-I
1969.
May
10,
7,
Via***
C ys\jQj,.
Screech
Otus
Nevada
Central
Owl and
near relatives are
its
still
considered as
asio subspecies.
and northwestern Utah to

Nevada
(Fallon)
the Inyo region of California between the Sierra
and Death Valley, onto the western slope of the Inyo

Mountains, southwestwardly to the southern San Joa-
quin Valley, and southwardly west of the deserts to
Named
northwestern Baja California.
this
Owl
is
(COLOR PLATE XXV)
Otus
kennicottii
asio
NAME AND
of
Original description:
(Elliot).
Elliot,
Proceedings of the
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Volume
June-September (November
3,
based on a specimen from Sitka, Alaska.
ber
1867,
Robert Kennicott,
Owl (Otus
of
all
asio macfarlanei)
and considerably
Owl (Otus
Owl (Otus
or California Screech
the Screech
than MacFarlane's
asio
asio naev-
bendirei)
Although a western owl, Kennicott's Screech Owl has a

distinct rufous phase which occurs occasionally, but
most often it is a very dark bird, with a general colora-
Scops kennicottii
slightly larger
is
larger than the Eastern Screech

ius)
SCIENTIFIC
Elliot after
and most northerly
subspecies. It
Screech
KENNICOTTS SCREECH OWL
by Daniel G.
the largest
Academy
19,
1,
tion of deep brown. It is among the darkest of all North

American Screech Owls, being considerably darker
brown than either MacFarlane's Screech Owl or the
California Screech Owl and much more heavily marked
and spotted than the Eastern Screech Owl, with the
spottings more buff than white.
Num1867)
WEIGHT
Subspecies average
235.6
gr. (8.3 oz.).
OTHER NAMES
owl
coastal screech
For
habitat
its
along the
TOTAL LENGTH
Pacific coast.
le
petit-duc
kennicottii
de
French-Canadian
name meaning "Kennicott's Little Duke."

little horned owl For its small-size similarity to
the Northwestern Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus lagophonus) which is sometimes called "The Grand Duke."
puget sound screech owl After part of its geo-
study
is
Subspecies average
After part of
its
is
601.
mm.
(23.7").
currently in progress toward the possibility
being
made
to establish
it
An
as a separate species
from Otus asio, with the new species to

be called Otus kennicottii, and with the numerous
Screech Owl subspecies of the West falling under this
entirely, apart
new
range.
of revising the nomenclature and status of this bird.

effort
(9.2").
WINGSPAN
graphical location.
Washington screech owl
mm.
classification.
At
this writing,

Subspecies average
181.4
mm.
(7.2").
however, Kennicott's
TAIL LENGTH
xxxv
flammulated owl
Otus flammeolus
flammeolus (Kaup). Male. Vicinity of

Mimbres, Grant County, New Mexico, April 1, 1887. A.O.U.
Subspecies average
99.3
mm.
(3.9").
Number 374
XXXVI
BEAK LENGTH
Speotyto cunicularia hypugaea (Bonaparte). Male. Four miles

southwest of Oshkosh, Garden County, Nebraska, February
19 14.
A.O.U. Number 378
2,
Southern Calif ornia / Kennicott's Screech
Owl
mm.
(0.7")
'35
dark cinnamon buff. The sooty-brown upperparts are

mottled and streaked with deep Vandyke brown to
black and the scapular streaks and spottings on
wing edges range from pale buff
deep
to
the
The
buff.
underparts are quite heavily streaked, barred, and some-
what mottled with a brown so very deep

virtually black. The plumage of legs and
in tone
it
is
has fine
feet
buff mottlings over a richer buff-brown ground color.
Individuals
from the more southerly portions of
its
range tend to be somewhat lighter in coloration, with

the gray tones
tinct
and
more apparent. The red phase

subdued cinnamon buff.
is
a dis-
attractive
GENERAL HABITS AND

CHARACTERISTICS
A
unaggressive Screech Owl. Otus asio

on occasion take up residence near farm
buildings and become surprisingly tame.
relatively
kennicottii will
kennicott's screech
Otus
owl
asio kennicottii (Elliot)
Seldom found
higher
in the
altitudes,
marked preference
VISION
large
oaks,
more densely
for
especially
prairie
when
forested areas or at
Owl
has highly developed day-
Owl
time vision and unlike most other Screech
which are almost
entirely nocturnal,
this
bird
races,
is
ground with scattered
these
trees
close to streams, lakes, or the ocean.
Kennicott's Screech
Owl shows
Screech
Kennicott's
densely leaved maples and oaks for

occasionally rest for the day in thick
are
Though
its
young
relatively
it
roost,
favors
it
will
firs.
fre-
quently seen actively on the hunt on cloudy days.
VOICE
Unexpectedly, considering
to the other races of Screech
cott's
Screech
Owl
and tremulous than

races. Its calls are
autumn than
is
its
FOOD
large size as
considerably
more high-pitched
common among the

much more commonly
is
in spring
compared
Owls, the voice of Kenniother western
heard during
and summer.
Primarily an eater of rodents (especially mice)

insects,
Kennicott's Screech
Owl
also
and
shows a peculiar
and caterpillars. It frequently eats

and earthworms and, especially in spring when
there are young to feed, it will attack and kill many
varieties of birds, including even ducks now and then.
taste for ants, beetles,
crayfish
Some
poultry, too,
is
killed
during
this season,
but in
such cases the owl normally eats only the head of the
prey. In

ADULT
one case a Kennicott's Screech Owl
one of the bantams. Bird-killing activity

however, almost nonexistent when the owl has no
of the breast of
Ground coloration of upperparts is a rather deep

tawny brown and that of the underparts tends to be a
'3*
killed six
bantam hens and a golden pheasant over a

two-day period, eating only the heads of each and part
full-grown
Screech
is,
nestlings to feed.
Owl
OTHER NAME

Otus
asio kennicottii likes a natural
oak tree or dead
tively isolated
fir
hollow in a rela-
stub, with the hole
le petit-duc de macfarlane French-Canadian

name meaning "MacFarlane's Little Duke."
being from 10 to 15 feet in height and the hollow itself

six or eight inches deep. Unlike most
being at least
other Screech
keep
its
Owl
races,
it
nesting hollow neat
makes a concerted
and clean.
effort to
Owl only slightly smaller

Owl (Otus asio kennicottii)
This quite large Screech

than Kennicott's Screech
was named by William Brewster
EGGS
Farlane.
Its
after
R.
Mac-
R.
general coloration ranges from a normal
dark brown to a dark, slaty gray brown, though never
From two
to five eggs are laid;
usually four, often
and only very rarely five. The

egg are most often laid between April 7 and May 15
and, based on the measurements of 33 eggs, average
three, infrequently two,
mm.
37.8
(1.5") in length by 32.0
mm
(1.3") in width.
quite as dark as Kennicott's

searchers
Screech Owl.
contend, as a matter of
still
fact,
Some reMac-
that
Farlane's Screech Owl is merely an intergrade form

between Kennicott's Screech Owl and the California
Screech Owl (Otus asio bendirei) It is indeed simi.
lar in color to the latter,
larger
asio
INCUBATION AND
The incubating female seems always
turbance on the nest
ally
lethargic at best.
is
She
to
much
larger, as
it
is
also
and darker than the Eastern Screech Owl (Otus
naevius)
Its
beak, surprisingly,
is
Owl and even
than Kennicott's Screech

that of the Eastern Screech
wear
to
markedly sleepy expression, and her reaction
but
much
smaller
smaller than
Owl.
dis-
WEIGHT
will usu-
allow herself to be freely handled, and her greatest
reaction seems to be merely to close her eyes tightly.
TOTAL LENGTH
From
southeastern
Alaska
(Situk
gr. (8.0 oz.
mm.
(9.0")
Juneau),
River,
southward through coastal British Columbia and western Washington to the Columbia River Valley
side,
Clatsop County,
(Sea-
WINGSPAN
Oregon, and Kalama, Cowlitz
County, Washington). Occasionally strays as far north-
westward
as Sitka, Alaska.
MACFARLANE'S SCREECH OWL
mm.
(23.1"

mm.
(7.0").
(COLOR PLATE XXVI)

TAIL LENGTH
SCIENTIFIC
NAME AND
Subspecies average
97.6
mm.
(3.9")
Otus
tion:
asio
macfarlanei
Megascops
Volume
8,
asio
Number
2,
(Brewster). Original descrip-
macfarlanei Brewster,
BEAK LENGTH
The Auk,
April 1891, page 140; based on a
specimen from Fort Walla Walla, Washington.
Subspecies average:
MacFarlane's Screech Owl
14.
mm.
(0.6")
'37
scapulars having creamy to buff-colored stripes. Under-
pays are numerously crosslined with black, and these

are bisected by rather heavy dark-brown shaft
streaks. There is usually a slight mottling of duskiness
on the generally buff-colored plumage of legs and feet.
lines
HABITAT
Tends to keep pretty much to the arid lower river
and seldom moves very far up the mountain
slopes. It has never been recorded above an elevation
of 4.000 feet. Shows a preference for timber fringe
areas, especially where these wooded borderlines are adplains
jacent to densely brush-covered lower slopes or grassy

valleys.
FOOD
Although
it
is
known
other birds up to the
to
domestic pigeons and
kill
this
is
normally
food
is
primarily
size of a flicker,
only a springtime manifestation and
its
rodents and insects. This subspecies shows more of a
preference for frogs
particularly
tree frogs
and
and whitefish up to about eight inches

than do most Screech Owl races.
trout
MACFARLANE
Otus
SCREECH OWL
both
in length
asio macfarlanei 'Brewster)
COURTSHIP
MacFarlane's Screech Owl normally begins courting
VOICE
Not uncommonly,
seems to
leaving
rests
human
its
this
in very late
owl tends to mutter
ears a rather petulant
roost in the evening
and
while hunting. This muttering
spersed with rather distinct

rated at
first
calls,
is
way
in
what
prior to
at intervals as
it
Owl
Owl
the notes clearly sepa-
evening immediately after sunset for about a month

prior to and during the mating season, but generally
silent
Since
but becoming more rapid and closer to-
deeper in tone than that of the Eastern Screech

and even more mournful. MacFarlane's Screech
voices a long series of quite doleful notes each
becomes
NEST
sometimes inter-
gether toward the end until they merge into a sort of

trill
when incubation
Februarv or earlv March.
it
is
flicker holes,
too large an owl for most woodpecker

its
preference
for natural
is
and
hollows, es-
pecially in willows or cottonwoods along a watercourse.

It
does not care for a cavity located lower than 10 feet
above the ground, and the nest

as
60
is
quite often as high
feet.
begins.
EGGS
Three

ADULT
38
but usually four or
five,
Eggs are normally laid between March 26 and May 7.

Based on the measurements of 39 eggs, the average egg
Upperparts are generally brownish gray to dark sooty

brown, with black shaft streaks and edges of wing and
i
to six eggs are laid,
with an interval of 48 to 72 hours between layings.
Screech
size
is
width.
Owl
37.6
mm.
(1.5") in length by 31.9
mm.
(1.3") in

From
the interior of southern British
Columbia
Sica-

mous), through eastern Washington, eastern Oregon,

and western Montana, west of the Continental Divide,
Shasta County), northern
to northeastern California
mm.
(6.8").
TAIL LENGTH
Nevada (northern Washoe County) and southern Idaho

(Cassia County
.
Subspecies average
ROCKY MOUNTAIN SCREECH OWL
89.0
mm.
(3.5").
BEAK LENGTH
{COLOR PLATE XXVII)

Subspecies average
SCIENTIFIC
Otus asio maxwelliae (Ridgway). Original descripScops asio maxnelliae Ridgway, Proceedings of
the L'. S. Xational Museum, Volume 3. 1880. page 191,
Xumber 402-c: based on a specimen from the vicinity
of Denver, Colorado.
named by Robert
Maxwell, the noted taxi-
This rather large Screech Owl,
M.
A.
dermist and hunter of Boulder, Colorado,

coloration
than
other
races. Especially light
is
lighter in
more northerly Screech
specimens are
among
Owl
(0.7").
Owl (Otus
Although one extremely light-colored red-phase bird

was once taken, this has been deemed an aberration
and the Rocky Mountain Screech Owl is rated as a
monochromatic form in the grav phase. The upperparts
range from buffy brown gray to decidedly ash gray,
with narrow streaks and vague mottlings of blackish
brown. The underparts are almost unmarked white or
buff white on lower breast and belly and narrowly
barred in dark-brown crosslines on upper breast, sides,
and flanks. The white streaks on the scapulars and
wing edges are large and may show a faint trace of
buffiness.
the lightest
and most faintly marked of all races of Otus asio. The

browns are generally paler, the whites purer, and in
some specimens the underparts greatly predominate in
white or very pale buff, especially on the lower breast
and belly. It is somewhat larger than the Eastern
Screech Owl Otus asio naevius) though smaller than
MacFarlane's Screech
mm.

ADULT
tion:
after Mrs.
16.8
NAME AND
Ridgway
asio macfarlanei)

Prefers
well-wooded
creek
foothills,
and
Rocky Mountains
bottoms,
plains along the easterly foot of the
and, unlike the majority of Screech
Owl
forms, enjoys
roosting on branches in heavy tree foliage during the
warmer months, although

tree hollows
it
generally roosts in natural
during the winter.
WEIGHT
gr.
7.7 oz.)
FOOD
Primarily frogs, mice, crayfish, and some
fish.
TOTAL LENGTH
Subspecies average
223.5
mm.
8.8").
NEST
Most often
WINGSPAN
occasion
dense
mm.
'22.0")
but on
an abandoned magpie nest in
bordering slow-moving or stationary
in a natural cavity of a large tree,
will
willows
nest
in
water.
Rocky Mountain Screech Owl
39
TEXAS SCREECH OWL
COLOR PLATE
SCIENTIFIC
XXVIII)
NAME AND
Otus
Original
(Cassin).
mccallii
asio
description:
Scops McCallii Cassin. Illustrated Birds of California,

Texas, etc., Part 6
September 12), 1854, P a 2^ 180;
based on a specimen from the Lower Rio Grande
Texas.
Valley,
lu,
Mt âscops
Former
scientific
names: Scops McCal-
asio mccallii.
OTHER NAMES
owl After Colonel George A. McCally.
whom it was named by John Cassin.
western mottled owl For its geographic location
mcxally's
ornithologist, for
and the pattern of markings on its plumage.

tecolotito chillon de tejas Mexican-Indian
name meaning '"Texas Screech Owl."
ROCKY MOUNTAIN* SCREECH OWL

Otus asio maxuelliae
Ridgway)
Larger than the Southern Screech

asio)
Owl Otus asio naeiius) It is listed as a

monochromatic subspecies in the gray phase, but un-
EGGS
a
minimum
monly
five.
of three to a
maximum
Occasionally there will be
what more elongated

Screech
Owl
The
of seven.
eggs, the average size
54
by 30.2
mm.
six eggs,
those
of
mm.
.4"
re-
corded and are currently under investigation. This owl

very coarsely mottled and the lighter markings are
most conspicuous. The ground coloration is a buffy dark
is
crav.
other
on the measurements
36.3
is
but only
eggs tend to be some-
shape than
in
subspecies. Based
authenticated reports of red-phase birds have been
Usually there are three or four eggs, but not uncomvery rarely are there seven.
asio
but slightly smaller and paler than the Eastern
Screech
From
Owl (Otus
of
in length
WEIGHT
(1.2") in width.
Subspecies average: 181. 7
gr. (6.4 oz.)
TOTAL LENGTH
Southeastern
to central
Montana and western South Dakota
Colorado along the
east slope of the
Mountains: may range as far northward
Rocky
as central
Subspecies average
189.6
mm.
(7.5").
or
even northern Montana and adjacent plains (probably

extending into
much
tana
the
east
of
of the northern portion of
mountains)
southern Saskatchewan
to
also
Eastend,
extending
Regina)
Monfrom
southward
Douglas County, (Colorado, and probably westward
through southern
140
'
Wyoming
to northeastern
Utah.
S,
reech
Study of the
S<
I- re
Owl
Automcris
flight
maneuverability of the Rocky Mountain
Otus asio maxwelliae)

io).
X<>te
in
widely spread
pursuit of an Io
to promote braking action as pre) is

approaches point of snatching moth with talons.
wings
Owl
moth
and cupped
neared and owl
rectrices
gray-buff ground
The
color.
shaft
and
streaks
cross-
barrings on the underparts are sharply in contrast with

the pale-gray to gray-buff
ground coloration.

JUVENILE
plumage with the exception of primaries and
is barred or banded with grayish or whitish
All
rectrices
and the black
streaks are absent.
HABITAT
Otus asio mccallii most prefers willow creek bottoms
and somewhat more open mesquite plains.
NEST
The nesting holes abandoned) of golden-fronted
woodpeckers are very often used, as are natural cavities
in
hardwood
trees.
used as nesting
TEXAS SCREECH OWI.

Otus
Holes in cactus are rarely,
if
ever,
sites.
EGGS
asio mccallii (Cassin)
There are normally four eggs, but on occasion there

be as few as two or as many as five. Measurements
will
WINGSPAN
mm.
of 43 eggs give an average egg size of 33.5
long by 29.0
(20.9")

Subspecies average
150.
mm.
mm.
mm.
(1.3")
(1.1") wide.

From southern Texas in Kinney. Bexar, Comal, and
Refugio counties, and the area of the lower Rio Grande
(5.9")-
River upstream to the vicinity of Del Rio. Texas, and
TAIL LENGTH
eastward from there to Comal County, then southward
Southward from the Texas range to central

south-central Tamaulipas (Forlnn
to the Gulf.
Subspecies average
mm.
84.5
Xuevo Leon and
(3.3").
Mexico, to the Gulf of Mexico.
BEAK LENGTH
Subspecies average:
the Texas Screech
15.2
Owl
is
mm.
(0.6").
PASADENA SCREECH OWL
The beak on
usually a pale green,
but
[COLOR PLATE XXIX)
sometimes shading into a very distinct turquoise.

ADULT
On
the
dark and
142
upperparts
in
distinct
the
shaft
contrast to
streakings
the
arc
SCIENTIFIC
NAME AND
Otus
quite
Otus
underlying light
<
Owl
asio
asio
quercinus Grinnell. Original description:
quercinus Grinnell,
The Auk, Volume
32,
Number
i. January 191 5. page 60; based on a specimen

from Pasadena. Los Angeles County. California.
OTHER NAMES
oak owl
and
After the
which
for
it
live
oak
was given
this
trees
owl favors
subspecific
its
name
of
quercinus by Dr. Joseph Grinnell.
tecolotito
Mexican-Indian
KNCiNKRO
chillon
name meaning "Live-Oak Screech Owl."
The Pasadena Screech Owl. much
lighter gray than
the gray phase of the Eastern Screech
naeiius
is
fornia Screech
coloration
Owl
Otus
'
drab.
On
either
There
is
it
is
asic
its
genera]
more brown-
a lighter ashy-
the underparts the dark markings are quite
clearly outlined, but the
are
but
asio bendirei
Otus
like the Cali-
slightly lighter. Instead of the
is
coloration of the upperparts.
ish
Owl
probably most in appearance
ruddy margins on the markings
absent
entirely
a distinctive
only
or
though
slight
barely
suggested.
amount
of rufous
plumage around the facial rim and

There is some speculation that this
Otus
race intergrades with the Saguaro Screech Owl
coloration in the
on the ear
tufts.
PASADENA SCREECH OWL
asio gilmani)
Otus asio quercinus Grinnell
BEAK LENGTH
WEIGHT
gr.
7.6 oz.
227.3
mm.
Rarely,
^9.0").
if
ever, fewer
and again there
will
WINGSPAN
:
573.
mm.
common
is
clutch
than three eggs are
be as
four or
eggs gave an average egg
Subspecies average
0.6"
EGGS
TOTAL LENGTH
Subspecies average
mm.
length by 30.2
mm.
many
five.
size
as six.
laid.
Now
but the most
Measurements of 46
of 35.8
mm.
1.4"
in
(1.2") in width.
^22.6").

mm.
''6.6").
California west of the Sierra
Nevada and west
of
the deserts, but excluding the northern coastal districts,

vicinity of Redding
from the Sacramento Valley
c
and Monterey Bay south to about Latitude 3o 3o'
North in coastal Baja California: and from Mount
Shasta in northernmost California southward along the
TAIL LENGTH
west slope o{ the Sierra
Nevada
to
southern California
west of the desert regions and then coastally to Baja

Subspecies average
80.8
mm.
^3.2").
California.
Texas iPasadcna Screech Out
143
the upperparts a deep blackish gray. It is both boldly

and densely marked with black on upperparts and
underparts, though individual specimens tend to become slightly paler in the more southerly reaches of its
range. The Guadalupe Screech Owl is fairly small, be-
ing not quite as large as Aiken's Screech

asio aikeni)
Owl
Otus
WEIGHT
Subspecies average: 19 1.2
gr.
'6.7 oz.)
TOTAL LENGTH
Subspecies average
152.7
mm.
(6.0").
WINGSPAN
Subspecies average
GLADALCPE SCREECH OWL

Otus
asio suttoni
480.7
mm.
(i8.g"i
Moore
Subspecies average
152.0
mm.
6.0").
GUADALUPE SCREECH OWL

TAIL LENGTH
COLOR PLATE XXX)
Subspecies average
SCIENTIFIC
73.6
mm.
(2.9").
NAME AND
BEAK LENGTH
Otus
asio
asio suttoni
Moore. Original description: Otus
suttoni Moore.
Proceedings of the Biological So-
Washington, 1941 page 154: based on a specimen from Portezuelo. Hidalgo. Mexico.
ciety of
Subspecies average:
Sutton's screech owl Honorary name after bird

and ornithologist, George Miksch Sutton.
(0.5").
The beak
is

ADULT
OTHER NAME
artist
mm.
13.4
black.
As noted, birds
in
the
more southerly parts of the

Durango areas of Mexico,
range, in the Chiricahua and

are
much
oration
paler in color, almost approaching the col-
cincraceus)
This
is
the darkest of
all
Otus ano
ground coloration of the underparts

1
jj.
races,
with the
heavy gray and

Screei h
Mexican Screech Owl (Otus asio

and there is only a small region where a
the
of
,
color overlap tends to occur
Mountain
Owl
this
in southeastern Arizona.
being at Chiricahua
WEIGHT
HABITAT
High-altitude pifion and oak: low-altitude mesquite,
willow,
Subspecies average: 225.6 gr.
(7.9 oz.
and greasewood.
TOTAL LENGTH
EGGS
Subspecies average
Xo
data are available on egg
would
they
probably
smaller,
slightly
than
be
relatively
those
of
mm.
225.1
(8.9";
but
sizes for this race,
though
similar,
Mexican Screech
the
Owl.
WINGSPAN
Subspecies average
574.3
mm.
(22.6").

Chiefly in the central portion of the Central Plateau
Mexico from Hidalgo northwest through Queretaro

to Durango, the Big Bend area of Texas, southeast
corner of Arizona at Guadalupe Canyon, and Las
of
New
Cruces.
mm.
(7.3").
Mexico.
TAIL LENGTH
mm.
(3.8")
[COLOR PLATE XXXI)
SCIENTIFIC
BEAK LENGTH
NAME AND
Otus
Otus
ton
gust
at
(o.
7"
swenki Oberholser. Journal of the Washing-
Academy
15,
mm.
swenki Oberholser. Original description:
asio
asio
of Sciences,
Volume
27,
Number
8,
Au-
FOOD
1937. page 354; based on a specimen taken
Chadron, Dawes County, Nebraska,
at
an elevation
Grasshoppers, along with some other insects, com-
of 3,450 feet.
prise
about half
making up most
this
owl's
of the
with mice and frogs
diet,
remainder.
few birds are
taken during the nesting season.
The Nebraska Screech Owl, named by H. C. Oberin honor of ornithologist M. H. Swenk, is a
NEST
holser
dichromatic
race
both color phases than

I
Otus
asio
more subdued
but considerably
naevius)
is
the
fairly
surpasses the Eastern Screech
Eastern
large
Owl
in
quite as large as MacFarlane's Screech
Owl
Screech
Screech
in
Owl.
but
it
is
not
Owl (Otus
asio
size
macfarlanei)
It
Owl
is
not
uncommon
nesting behind
find
the Nebraska
outbuilding, or derelict home, but
Screech
more often the
and roost will be in old flicker holes

and willows along creek valleys.
Guadalupe Xebraska Screech Owl

;
to
the loose siding of an old barn,
in
nest
cottonwoods
'45
YUMA SCREECH OWL

COLOR PLATE XXXII)
NAME AND
SCIENTIFIC
Otus
asio
yumancnsis Miller and
Original
Miller.
description: Otus asio yumanensis A. H. Miller
The Condor, Volume
Miller,
53,
Number
and
L.
July 26,
4,
page 172; from a specimen taken 10 miles west of

Pilot Knob, one mile south of the United States border
in Baja California.
1
95
1.
OTHER NAME
gila screech
owl
After part of
its
range along the
Gila River of Arizona.
A

Otus
asio
generally pale ashy-colored Screech
Owl
with a
pinkish-sandy cast, but with individual specimens from
swenki Oberholser
the
more northerly portion of its range (in and near the

where Nevada, Arizona, and California meet)
area
having
much
sence of
it.
of the pinkish coloration or
less
Normally
it
upperparts with a sort of pinkish "blush."
Screech
Owl
is
very
nearly
Mexican Screech Owl (Otus
EGGS
its
markings
much
cases
have been reported of fewer than three
eggs being laid at an individual nesting.

casions there will be as
less rarely six.
many
Most often
the measurements of 31
37.0
mm.
(1.5")
in
as seven,
On
and only a
there are four or

eggs, the average
length
by 32.5
rare oc-
mm.
five.
egg
little
From
size
(1.3")
identical
The
medium
well
contrasted against the ventral
they
are
numerous,
ground color
they
in
The Yuma
size
are
of the underparts
to
the
but with
asio cineraceus)
narrower.
underparts are very thin,
No
an ab-
a clear cool gray on the
is
barrings across the
brownish, and not
quite
surface.
Although
diffuse
and therefore
into
less
the
con-
spicuous than in any other Otus asio subspecies.
is
in
width.
WEIGHT
gr.
(5.8 oz.).

From southern Manitoba (Winnipeg), eastern North
Dakota (Grafton, Hankinson), and western Minnesota
Roseau County), south to western and central Nebraska, western Kansas, and western Oklahoma (Ar-
they are also on breast plumage and rectrices, the latter so
nett).
numerous
14.6
Screech
variety of field study sketches of the
Yuma
Screech
Owl
{Otus asio yumanensis) near the mouth of the Gila River,

southwestern Arizona. Barrings on the wings are very fine, as
as to
Owl [Nebraska /Yuma]
make
the
tail
appear a
solid ashy gray.
75;
iff*
0*1
Wi1<
owl
-*//" Jokc/C
Toes
(\
vnrt\v\rl 5J ^
^r>^ ec^t^ eH j
"Jail UlrMl)
So !** e.r> se.
as To
i>
pf* U
H
<j\-a
<
i-
<
m
</^
'
*V
"M

Subspecies average
165.
mm.
(6.5").
TAIL LENGTH
mm.
(3.5")
BEAK LENGTH
Subspecies average:
17.
mm.
The beak
(0.7").
is
black.
FOOD
Almost exclusively mice,
lizards,
insects,
and
scor-
pions.
NEST
Normally an abandoned
YUMA SCREECH OWL
flicker
hole
in
saguaro
cactus.
Otus
asio
yumanensis Miller and Miller
TOTAL LENGTH
Subspecies average
184.6
mm.
(7 .3").
Lower Colorado River Valley and Gila River
Valley,
along with adjoining deserts in extreme southern
WINGSPAN
vada, southeastern California

ley),
Subspecies average
if8
554.0
mm.
(21.8").
southwestern
fornia,
Screech
Arizona,
(west to Coachella Val-
northwestern
and northwestern Sonora, Mexico.
Owl (Yuma)
Ne-
Baja
Cali-
The Whiskered Owl, formerly classed as a Screech
similar in many aspects of general physical
is
Owl,
SPECIES
characteristics
and
size to
the Otus asio races, but there
are differences of note. (See the preliminary section on
Otus
[Linnaeus],
asio
The Screech Owls.) Decidedly
dichromatic in red phase and gray phase,
ORDER
it
is
some-
what like the Texas Screech Owl (Otus asio mccallii)

and Mexican Screech Owl (Otus asio cineraceus) but
smaller and quite a good bit darker, and with a heavier
and longer beak. The upperparts are much more
coarsely mottled, and there are large whitish spots on
the scapulars, greater wing coverts, and hindneck.
These spots, in fact, practically form a collar across
the lower hindneck. Most distinctively, the facial feathers are a variegated brown and white with greatly developed bristly tips, especially in the malar region, giving the suggestion of whiskers, from which its name is
derived. These "whiskers" are longer and more numerous than in the Otus asio races.
STRIGIFORMES
FAMILY:
STRIGIDAE
GENUS:
Otus Pennant
SPECIES:
trichopsis
(Wagler)
SUBSPECIES
Rank
over-all
in
size
among
eighteen
the
species:
Fourteenth.
trichopsis
WHISKERED OWL
(Wagler)
ARIZONA
(Brewster)
aspcrus
SHAPE AT REST
WHISKERED OWL
When
ear
them
WHISKERED OWL
backward
considerably,
tends to
not
quite
against the head, but rarely holding
flat
distinctly erect as
subspecies.
(COLOR PLATE XXXIII)
Owl
perched, the Whiskered
tufts
has
It
is
common among
an inclination
its
tilt
putting
them
the Screech
as
Owl
assume a more
to
crouched and forward-leaning position on a perch, not

unlike a modified version of the perching pose of one
of the goatsuckers.
SCIENTIFIC
NAME AND
SHAPE IN FLIGHT
Otus
trichopsis
scription:
3
(Wagler).
trichopsis
Scops trichopsis Wagler,
Isis
Original
de-
von Oken, Heft
(March), 1832, Column 276; based on a specimen
Otus trichopsis
trichopsis,
in
has
flight,
taken at an unspecified location in northern Mexico.
wings a shade narrower and shorter and the
Former names: Scops
quite as proportionately long.
trichopsis,
Megascops
trichopsis.
owl
Former common name
be-
fore revision.
tecolotito
name meaning
manchado
"Little
llanero
Spotted
Owl
Mexican-Indian
of
the
Grassy
before revision.
not
Ordinarily a fairly direct flight line
Former common name
is
taken, rather
low to the ground, with wings seeming to beat more

rapidly and with a somewhat greater effort than one
might expect.
Its
flight
is
almost
always
with a short glide, angling smoothly
Plains."
whiskered screech owl
tail
FLIGHT PATTERN
OTHER NAMES
spotted screech
slightly
greater sense of heaviness than the Screech Owls, with
perch
done
Whiskered Owl
it
in
has selected. There
normal
level flight,
is,
and
upward
however,
rarely
terminated
little
to
the
gliding
any hovering.
'49

4 males and
measured
BEAK LENGTH
birds:
7 females.
Species average:
from
very
mm.
15.0
light
The beak
(0.6").
yellowish-green
ranges
very
to
dark
yellowish green-gray drab coloration.
Male
WEIGHT
gr.
Male
(5.6 oz.)
l69-7 gr-
(5-9
7 -)
Minimum
Maximum
'45-6 gr.
(5.1
oz.)
155-8 gr.
(5.5
oz.)
1737
(6.1
oz.)
186.7 gr-
(6.5
oz.)
weight
Minimum
Maximum
13.4
Female
160.6 gr.
in
14.7
(5.8 oz.
Average
Rank
Average
Rank
mm.
mm.
mm.
16.2
beak length
in
Female
(0.6")
15.2
(0.5")
13.8
(0.6")
18.
among
(0.6")
(0.5")
(0.7")
enth.
gr.
among
the eighteen species: Thirteenth.
TALONS
LEGS, FEET,
Though
TOTAL LENGTH
mm.
(7.0").
Male
Female
feet,
which
are a dingy sand color, can be clearly seen.
The
tarsus
fairly
is
176.8
mm.
(7.0")
1796 mm.
(7.1")
mm.
Minimum
Maximum
166.4
mm
(6.6")
(6.9")
in
180.5
mrn
mm.
mm.
(7.5")
still
Rank
total length
(7-
")
among
74.
190.6
the eighteen species: Thir-
teenth.
the toes are not heavily
distinctly bristled,
covered with plumage, and the scales of the
Average
in
mm.
mm.
mm.
long for the
size
of the bird, averaging 29.7
(1.8"), but the feet are
comparison
much
smaller and weaker
to the smallest races of
Otus
asio,
though
powerful enough to handle any prey the Whisk-
Owl
ered
slate
normally
takes.
The
are
talons
gray at the base, darkening to
jet
deep
black at the
tips.
WINGSPAN
mm.
Male
Average
453-3 rnm.
Minimum
Maximum
Rank
375-3
478.3
Female
(17.9")
mm.
mm.
EYES AND VISION
(18.3").
476.0
(14.8")
476.0
(18.8")
509.0
mm.
mm.
mm.
(18.8")
(20.1")
wingspan among the eighteen species: Four-
in
The
(18.8")
sis
trichopsis,
unlike
seen hunting in
teenth.
a bright yellow, with
are
irides
sometimes a
vague tinge of yellow-orange coloration. Daylight vision is quite as good as night vision, and Otus trichop-
days.
the
late
Screech
afternoons,
Owls,
is
frequently
even on very clear
perched owl has been seen
to
watch
intently
the flight of a locust 50 or 60 yards distant in the day-
time and arrow to the attack as soon as the insect

mm.
(5.5").
Male
mm.
124.3 mm.
1378 mm.
Average
133.7
Minimum
Maximum
Rank
lands.
Female
(5.3")
143.8
(4.9")
136.2
(5.4")
148.8
mm.
mm.
mm.
EARS AND HEARING
(5.7")
(5.4")
(5.9")
wing length among the eighteen species: Thir-
in
teenth.
While the Whiskered Owl's hearing
the primary
TAIL LENGTH
mm.
Male
Average
58.5
Minimum
Maximum
57.2
Rank
teenth.
'5
65.3
in tail
mm.
mm.
mm.
length
73.5
(2.3")
67.4
(2.6")
76.3
among
excellent,
of prey location.
cunicularia
FLORIDA BURROWING
floridana
Ridgway.
The
mm.
mm.
mm.
it
ears are not
OWL
Male.
Five
north of La Hollo, Hendry County, Florida, June
Female
(2.3")
means
XXXVI!
Speotyto
(2.6").
is
not be quite as superbly developed as in the more

highly nocturnal species. Nevertheless, hearing is still
may
\.o.l".
9,
miles
1971.
Number 378-A
(3.0")
xxxviii
(2.7")
(3.0")
Whitney's elf owl
Female with young.

Micrathene whitneyi whitneyi Cooper
South Bank of Rincon Crook. Pima County. Arizona. Octo.
the eighteen species: Four-
ber 22. [955,
Whiskered
Owl
AOL*. Number
381
..
^--*v
abnormally asymmetrical
so
many
in
and placement
size
as
in
other owl species.
and then one longer concluding
pause,
sound
is
The
note.
very similar to the sound produced by gently
blowing across the mouth of an empty pop
bottle.
EAR TUFTS. PLUMAGE, ANNUAL
SEXUAL DIFFERENCES:
MOLT
The
Otus
ear tufts are slightly narrower than those of the
and not
asio subspecies
When
dicularly to the head.

erect, they
appear
they are on occasion held
when
an-
each ear
tuft
to be single-pointed, but
more normal
gled back in the
perpen-
as often raised so
position,
with
size,
the
The
in
female a
bit
coloration
or
voice of the female bird
normally more high pitched and a
more
bit
is
harsh.
have
to
relatively
in
but no detectable difference
pattern of markings.
two distinct tips. The plumage is

and soft but can be tightened against
the body as a camouflaging behavior when the need
arises. (See Enemies and Defenses.) There is one annual molt of the adults which begins about mid-July
and is concluded by early November.
appears
difference
slight
larger,
loose

any
Little of
real value
the Whiskered Owl's
mens have been known

captivity: one of
VOICE
is
known
history.
life
of this aspect of
At
to live longer
two
least
speci-
than a decade
in
which was a fledgling when captured,
the other an adult.
Perhaps
most
the
distinctive
call
what nervous and rapidly delivered
is
series
some-
of
six
to

ADULT
with usually a distinct emphasis on the
notes
eight
Otus
by
issued
trichopsis trichopsis, voiced by both sexes,
and sounding like whootzihoot-zihoot-whoot-WHOOT-iihoot. This seems to

be some sort of recognition call, normally given as the
note
next-to-last
sun
uttered
As
setting or shortly thereafter.
is
Another
syncopated
common
call
is
muted, musical, rather
run quickly together but with the
trill
dividual notes detectable and not very
tremulous wavering
call
the
of
much
like
in-
the
Owl
Eastern Screech
call,
evidently
first
uttered by the male
in a fairly deep voice and then echoed by the female

on a higher tonal level, is a slightly tremulous fournote lyrical delivery with emphasis on the first note
and sounding somewhat like WHOOO-hoo woooo-woo.
Along with
a
this call the birds, especially the
number of chuckling or clucking sounds.

More often heard in autumn than in
after
OOO
sunset,
,
which
is
is
soft
yet
rather
male, utter
many
the case with
Otus
asio, the
trichopsis appears to be
In
red phase.
of the dichromatic
sub-
gray phase of Otus trichopsis
much more common
than the
gray phase the upperparts are
this
very bold brownish gray, with a distinctly heavy mottled effect
(Otus asio naevius)
The mating
is
species of
oration.
and the
feathers fringed with a dusky col-
The ground
color of the underparts
grayish
is
white, boldly splashed with deep-gray shaft streakings
and multiple
parallel crossbars
on each feather; these

margin
crossbars cross the shafts but do not reach the
webs on either
of the
of
two
distinct lines,
side.
The
facial
rim
is
normally
the inner one very dark
brown
much lighter and ranging from

white. The facial rim is not as
or black, the outer one

spring,
far-earning
just
HOO-
issued in a cadence of three short notes,
buffy gray
to
gray
smoothly round as
in
most species and there tends
to
be
a distinct inward dip of the dark brown rim toward the

eye at about the mid-outer cheek area. Brownish-black
markings form something of a broken collar across the

throat and sides of the neck, this continuing in broken
XXXIX
TEXAS ELF OWL
white markings across the hindneck. In the red-phase
Micralhene uhitneyi idonea (Ridgway). Female. Vicinity of
bird,
Rio Grande City, Starr County, Texas, December u, 1939.

A.O.U. Number 381 -A
quite boldly
XL
Syctea scandiaca
Heights,
Linnaeus).
Cook County.
Number 376
SNOWY OWL
Illinois,
Male. Vicinity of Arlington
December
8,
1968.
A.O.U.
the upperparts are a dull-to-bright
marked with black
The underparts
boldly streaked. The
mottlings.
are a reddish
also
general
upperparts and underparts
is
rufous tone
and dusky
tawny gray,
shaft streaks
coloration
of
than in the red-phase birds of the Eastern Screech
Otus
Whiskered Owl
both
lighter but grayer in tone
Owl
asio naevius)
'5'
JUVENILE
In addition to falling prey to the Western Horned
In the gray phase, the upperparts are a general dull
brown,
gray
rather
mottled
indistinctly
may and with gray-white tips

The underparts are a dusky white and
with a murky
ers.
and barred
on the feaththe feathers
are broadly barred with slate brown. In the red-phase

bird, the juvenal
plumage
much
is
as in the adult red-
phase bird, but with the black streaking quite indistinct
and sometimes absent
in places.
The underparts
are a
very dingy chestnut buff which becomes deeper in tone
Owl, the Whiskered Owl
indistinct bars
Owl
(Asio otus sp.)
Tyto alba pratincola)
W hiskered
Owl is often plagued by extremely

heavy infestations of Mallophaga lice. This may occur
7
such degree that severe debilitation of the bird
to
and its survival

Undoubtedly the
ability
sults
trichopsis
in
lies
is
much
Otus trichopsis
greatest defense of
protective coloration. Its
its
perches quietly in
CHARACTERISTICS
the- trunk
trunk
sleeps
When
Strangely, Otus trichopsis trichopsis seems markedlydisinclined to perch or roost in any kind of pine trees,
even though
its
plumage camouflage resembles some
pine barks very closely.
much
It
white oak (Quercus arizonica)
and
and
roosting, but for nesting
prefers
as a place for tearing
apart and devouring larger prey.
seem
to care to
the Arizona
not only for perching
This owl does not
perch very high in any
normally
tree,
as
it
perching at night
often
it
tends to
move
plumage blends well with the bark
tree, so too
does
when
invisible.
away
farther
stance
with the
the limb
range,
limb.
the bird occasionally perches in the
more dense
when
Here again
tends to
foliage
finding a convenient limb only about a dozen feet off
of the outer branches.
the ground. Only on very rare occasions has
a crouched pose with the body leaning forward, as
up
seen to alight higher than 30 feet

far
more often
Whiskered Owl
temperament
15
is
feet
not
as are the
the
is
so
generally
Otus
in
uppermost
been
it
and
tree,
bird
sit
in
if
flight.
The
limit.
fierce
poised to take
it
it
As
roosting
of a
serve admirably as camouflage
it
it
even leaning against
becomes almost
it
from the trunk on a large limb and sit in

something like that of the nighthawk, parallel
branch with head held low and tail touching
so that in silhouette, even from very close
appears to be no more than a bulge on the
its
plumage
Arizona white oak on a low
the
branch close to
the
re-
decreased.
has such incredibly barklike patterning that
GENERAL HABITS AND
and,
Now
and again territorial affrays will take place with the

Saw-whet Owl (Aegolius acadicus acadicus) and in
such altercations, even though the Whiskered Owl is
the larger, it is usually the Saw-whet Owl that triumphs.
Not especially bothered by small-bird harassment,
the
on the upper breast and throat. Dusky,

crossed the flanks, sides, and breast.
Owl
the Barn
less often,
become
will also occasionally
the prey of the Long-eared
in
asio subspecies.
HUNTING METHODS AND CARRYING

OF PREY
The Whiskered Owl
some
likely
This
prey.
For the most part, areas of from scattered

heavy growths of deciduous
and
trees
to rather
Pine
are preferred.
an
enemy, the Western
Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus pallescens) which favors such habitats. While the sort of cover most favorfir
forests are scrupulously avoided, possibly in
effort to avoid the greatest natural
spot
and
prey,
upon, snatched up
and carried back

has just
left,
when
in
flight,
listen
detected,
in the talons
(usually)
is
and watch for

swooped
swiftly
almost without pause,
to the
same
tree
the bird
there to be swallowed whole or torn into
chunks for devouring.
up
prefers to perch in a tree near
patiently
When
larger insects are snatched
as often occurs,
they are carried in the
able
Whiskered Owl includes oak-scattered

and canyons, the species is rather
regulated by elevation
rarely venturing below
for
the
beak.
More
ried in
often than not, however, the prey
one foot back
is
car-
to a convenient perch.
slopes, glades, valleys,
tightly
an altitude of 4,000 feet or above 7,000 feet.

most abundant at elevations of between 5,500
6,500
feet.
In
such areas
it
roosts
primarily
It
is
in
the
some degree in junipers,

emory oaks, walnuts, mountain ash, and sycamores.
Arizona white oak, but also
152
to
and
Although mice and other small mammals make up a

certain portion of the Whiskered Owl's diet, by far
Whiskered
Owl
the greatest percentage

especially
nesting
during the
food
of
invertebrate
is
Otus
season.
trichopsis
shows a fondness for a diet of black
moths and
prey,
Small birds are rarely taken, even
insects.
beetles,
trichopsis
large
crickets,
grasshoppers and locusts,
praying
mantids, roaches, and cicadas. Large caterpillars, fleshy

or hairy, are eaten avidly, as are mole crickets and large
Such
beetle larvae.
Whisk-
insects are the staples of the
There seems
pecker.
such holes located
than
in the
a large branch or stub, rather
trunk of the tree
stub holes
or
be an especial preference for
to
in
not
are
although
itself;
available,
trunk
branch
if
cavity
will
Almost invariably the nest is located in a white

oak tree and normally from 10 to 20 feet above ground.
Usually there are some dried oak leaves in the bottom
suffice.
of the cavity, but
it
known whether
not
is
or not the
ered Owl's diet most of the year, but during the winter
owl
months when they are not so abundant, scorpions and

centipedes become important as prey.
Since so few vertebrate animals are ingested, there
is less of a need for regurgitation of numerous pellets
containing hair, bone, teeth, claws, and other such
materials, and thus the Whiskered Owl is nowhere near
best that they are the residue of the former occupant.
to
is
responsible for bringing these
relatively
deep hole
chances are
with the bottom
preferred,
is
in;
about 14 to 16 inches below the entry.
being the pellet-casting owl that most other species
are. Nevertheless, a certain
formed
tinous
are
pellets
of
bits
Such
insects.
quickly as they dry.
amount
mainly
cast,
stiff
of small
and poorly
containing
pellets
the
chi-
disintegrate
very
breeze will blow
them
apart.
Fecal wastes tend to be more liquid than are com-
monly seen among other owl species. They are generallystraight down below the small-branch perch
the bird alights on for that specific purpose, and they
are generally gray brown with some gray-green mardropped
blings of a
more
EGGS
X umber per nesting
more than four eggs are
Rarely
laid,
than
fewer
though
three
or
just as often three
as four.
Color
Shape
Very
close to being globular:
never notably
ovoid.
viscous nature.
Quite smooth but without
Texture
Size
glossiness.
Smaller than the eggs of the Texas Screech
Owl (Otus
asio mccallii)
The average
the measurements of 13 eggs, was 32.9
length by 27.3
mm.
(1.1") in width.
size,
mm.
based on
(1.3")
in
The extreme meas-
urements of these eggs were
Some
been done on the courtship activities of the Whiskered Owl, but hardly anything in respect to the actual mating. Courtship is not
interesting study has
erally similar.
among the Screech Owls, but is

The principal difference seems to be
the female
just
as
prolonged as
is
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum
gen-
length:
33.7
length:
28.7
width:
31.6
mm.
mm.
mm.
width:
(1.3")
(1.1")
(1.2")
1.0")
that
about as vociferous as the male, and
makes as he woos
At sunset the birds begin calling back and forth,
and as twilight deepens they draw closer together, all
she will echo nearly every call he
her.
This
tain,
is
not
known
for cer-
but eggs are probably laid two or three days apart.
Egg-laying dates
normally between
Earliest, April 22; latest,
May
and
May
May
19;
9.
the while repeating at irregular intervals a rather harsh
note that sounds almost like the clanging note of a

heron.
call
This
scribed
then becomes interspersed with the
call
sounding
like
earlier.
WHOOO-hoo
See
Voice.
begin wandering great distances

peating these
Little
as
de-
in
early
spring,
INCUBATION AND
re-
they have located a receptive
calls until
unmated female.
iloooo-woo,
Young, unmated males
male-to-male rivalry has been
noted, even over territorv.
There has been no recorded instance of the male

bird aiding in incubation, although he provides food
for the
ANNUAL BROODS,
incubating female and remains very close at
roosting times while incubation
NEST,
male
NESTING HABITS
sits
a natural cavity or
Owl normally
abandoned hole
in progress.
The
fe-
with the greatest of reluctance and returning to them

very quickly
Single-brooded, the Whiskered
is
very closely on her eggs, leaving them only
nests in
of flicker or
wood-
when danger
have allowed themselves
is
past.
On
occasion females
to be lifted off the eggs with-
out protest.
Whiskered Owl
'53
MIGRATION
Not migratory.
ECONOMIC INFLUENCE
Probably of benefit because of insect-eating habits.
ARIZONA WHISKERED OWL

{COLOR PLATE XXXIV)
SCIENTIFIC
NAME AND
Otus
trichopsis asperus (Brewster). Original descrip-
Megascops asperus Brewster, The Auk, Volume

i,
January 1888, page 87; based on a
specimen from El Carmen, Chihuahua, Mexico.
tion:
5,
Number
WHISKERED OWL
Otus trichopsis trichopsis (Wagler)
OTHER NAMES
TECOLOTITO MANCHADO DE BREWSTER
Mexican-In-
name meaning "Brewster's Little Spotted Owl."

whiskered screech owl Erroneously, as the same
name formerly applied to the Whiskered Owl (Otus
dian
YOUNG AND FAMILY
LIFE
trichopsis trichopsis)
CHARACTERISTICS
Very
little
concrete data have been gathered about
this aspect of the
what
little
Whiskered Owl's
has been recorded
resemble similar characteristics
life
cycle,
although
seems very closely to
among
the
Otus
Otus trichopsis asperus
asio
is
primarily located at higher
Otus trichopsis trichopsis, usually occurring only within a few hundred feet of the 7,000-
elevations than
subspecies.
foot altitude. It
is
somewhat
gray bird generally than
which
Primarily in a small portion of southeastern Arizona
and Huachuca moun-
bufhness
distinct
is
lacking
streakings of both
of
in
the
larger
and much darker
the Whiskered Owl. with a
is
plumage
Otus
around
trichopsis
the
face,
trichopsis.
back and breast are
much
The
bolder
The range extends southward
and more distinctive than are those of the Whiskered

Owl. The Arizona Whiskered Owl remarkably parallels
the Mexican Screech Owl (Otus asio cineraceus) in
Guatemala, and Honduras, though

not in Baja California. In Mexico, Chihuahua, Durango, Puebla, Oaxaca, Guerrero, west to Michoacan,
and both that owl and the Saguaro Screech Owl

gilmani) in coloration, though it more
closely approximates the markings of the Whiskered
Jalisco, Nayarit.
Owl. There
in
the area of the Chiricahua
tains
at
elevations
of
from 4.000
usually below 6,500 feet.
through
*54
Mexico,
to
7,000
feet,
but
size,
(Otus asio
Whiskered
Owl
is
no known red phase.
WEIGHT
Subspecies average
166.1 gr. (5.8 oz.).
TOTAL LENGTH
mm.
(7-3")-
WINGSPAN
mm.
^20.8").

mm.
(6.2").
TAIL LENGTH
mm.
(3.2").
ARIZONA WHISKERED
OWL
Otus trichopsis asperus (Brewster)
BEAK LENGTH
mm.
(0.6")
VOICE
Quite similar to that of Otus trichopsis trichopsis
except that the female not infrequently issues a
short, whistling
like
sound which
rises at
NEST
brittle,
the end, sounding
kiEW! kiEW!
Much like Otus trichopsis trichopsis except that

woodpecker and flicker holes are much less often used,
the preference being for natural cavities in oak.

Evinces the same preference for deciduous
pecially the white oak, as does
sis,
Owl
and
but at higher elevations.

rarely ventures
prefers
times,
Otus trichopsis trichop-
below an elevation of 6,800
most abundant
es-
The Arizona Whiskered
7,000 feet or slightly more.
to 7,700 feet, but has

trees,
at elevations of
been known
It
feet
seems,
from 7,500
at
feet
to reach 8,100 feet.
mountains of southeastern Arizona (Baboand Santa Catalina Mountains to

the Chiricahua Mountains) and of northeastern Sonora, Chihuahua, and Durango, Mexico, south to
Nayarit (Sierra Madre) and San Luis Potosi (AlIn
the
quivari,
varez)
Arizona Whiskered
Parajito,
Owl
'55
owl
least screech
Same
for
Dwarf
scops owl Former Old World designation.

tecolotito de flamulas Mexican-Indian
meaning "Little Flame-colored Owl."
name
reasons
as
Screech Owl.
SPECIES
ORDER
STRIGIFORMES
FAMILY:
STRIGIDAE
GENUS:
Otus Pennant
Quite a small owl having red- and gray-color phases,
with ear tufts that are distinctly rounded, very short,
and barely
visible
even when held
fully erect.
The
tufts
tend to give more of an impression of the head
SPECIES:
having a couple of points, rather than the bird being
flammeolus (Kaup)
"eared" as in the Otus asio races.
Owl
has longish wings and tiny
The Flammulated
feet.
Its
gentle-appearing dark-chocolate-colored
very soft and

give
eyes
the
owl a very appealing expression. Hardly larger than a
SUBSPECIES
sparrow
(though
slightly larger
brasilianum
FLAMMULATED
flammeolus (Kaup)
itself
dish
ridgwayi)
Its
running down
bars
phase and
its
is
only
V-shaped
distinctive
the
it
Owl (Glaucidium
scapulars
in
the
red-
gray
variegated rufous color pattern in the
red phase give
OWL
tends to look larger),
it
than the Ferruginous
it
warm ruddy
name results.
Rank in size among
look from which
its
the eighteen species: Fifteenth.
FLAMMULATED OWL
SHAPE AT REST AND IN FLIGHT
{COLOR PLATE XXXV]

When
perched it tends to resemble a very small

Owl, except for the distinctly modified ear
Screech
tends also to
tufts. It
SCIENTIFIC
NAME AND
groundward. In
Owl
in Jardine's
less
more rapid
in
Contributions to Ornithology, 1852 (1853),
Hi; based on a specimen from an unnamed
FLIGHT PATTERN
rather
jerky type
OTHER NAMES
ings as
it
nervous,
of flight,
former
Because of
oration and the small
"The
first few moments

and angles toward the ground
in
Former name
after the
Dwarf Duke."
Normal perching (left) and roosting right postures of the

Flammulated Owl (Otus flammeolus flammeolus) showing
the abundant and fine barrings and penciling* on the plumage,
especially of the breast and belly. The car tufts, unlike those
of Screech Owl subspecies, are tiny and often difficult to dis(
Former name when
with the Screech Owls.
Little
a high perch
done
size.
flammulated scops owl

Old World designation.
le petit-duc nain
left
is
after the bird has
After the red-phase col-
flammulated screech owl

classified
small size and
and sometimes actually
Screech Owls.
classification with the
flammulated dwarf owl
its
darting,
interspersed with occasional hover-
pauses to check for prey. Little gliding
except during the
dwarf screech owl
156
pointing
proportion to the body than do those of the Otus asio
ing
as the wingbeats are
distinct,
tail
resemblance to a Screech
subspecies.
locale in northern Mexico.
its
rather erect, with

the
and the wings themselves seem narrower and longer
Otus flammeolus flammeolus (Kaup). Original description: Scops (Megascops) flammeola "Licht" Kaup,
page
is
sit
flight
cern.
The
feet are not feathered.
siderable variety of coloration
Flammulated Owl
This species evinces a con-
and markings.
J
\M
^
5<-
V<V^
*ftff
*e sAr^
J)
\ Co1
00
7 /??7
sweeping curve. A shorter glide occurs with a slight

upswing just prior to alighting. Normal flight is on a
BEAK LENGTH
comparatively level plane.
Species average:

13 birds
measured:
9.7
mm.
(0.4").
The beak
slate
is
black.
Male
Average
9.4
Minimum
Maximum
8.7
WEIGHT
Rank
in
mm.
mm.
mm.
10.5
Female
(0.4")
10.0
(0.3")
9.9
(0.4")
1.1
mm.
mm.
mm.
(0.4")
(0.4")
(0.4")
beak length among the eighteen species:
Fif-
teenth.
Species average: 13
1.7 gr. (4.6 oz.).
Male
Average
126.3
Minimum
Maximum
Rank
in
gr-
3.6 gr.
143.4 g r
weight
Female
(44
oz.)
137.
gr.
(4.8 oz.)
(4.0 oz.)
122.4 g r
(4-3
oz -)
(5 oz -)
H9-3 g r
(5-2
oz.)
among
LEGS, FEET,
the eighteen species: Fourteenth.
The
a slaty gray in coloration and often with the faintest
The
tinge of yellow.
mm.
(6.5").
157.3
Minimum
Maximum
Rank
173.6
(5.9")
163.6
(6.5")
188.7
among
total length
in
Female
(6.2")
mm.
mm.
mm.
entirely
muscles are strong and, for the
(6.8")
and rather
Leg and foot
talons are very sharp
and
curved,
well
long,
Male
mm.
1510 mm.
163.8 mm.
Average
relatively
but the feet are naked, with the toes
lightly feathered,
TOTAL LENGTH
Flammulated Owl are
the
of
legs
TALONS
black.
size of the bird,
it
has
a powerful grip.
(6.5")
(7.4")
the eighteen species: Six-
teenth.
EYES AND VISION
WINGSPAN
Otus flammeolus flammeolus,
only
the
small
owl
with dark-brown eyes, seems to have a very placid and

Species average:
4575 mm.
Male
(18.0").
is
Average
4526 mm.
(17.8")
Minimum
Maximum
379-1
mm.
mm.
(14.9")
Rank
in
462.9
friendly look
Female
(18.2")
462.3
450.7
501. 1
mm.
mm.
mm.
(18.2")
which can be deceiving,
since
the
bird
rather ferocious in the protection of nest and young.
The
eyes are large
and
(17.8")
Vision
adults.
as
brown
in the
good day or
quite
is
young
as in
but espe-
night,
(19-7")
wingspan among the eighteen species: Fifteenth.
cially
adapted
to
deep
twilight.

EARS AND HEARING
mm.
Species average: 134. 2
(5.3").
Male
Average
132.7
Minimum
Maximum
Rank
128.3
138.6
mm.
rnm.
mm.
Female
(5.2")
(5
")
(5.5")
135.6
130.8
1
45.
mm.
mm.
mm.
The
(5.2")
(5.7")
wing length among the eighteen species: Four-
in
auditory sense
is
extremely acute. Ear cavities
(5.3")
are
size,
and
this
capabilities.
The
teenth.
asymmetrical
lated
to
some degree
in
owl has well-developed
placement and
sound-location
Eyes and ears synchronize well
authors,
in hunting.
using binoculars to observe a
Owl perched
Flammu-
near the top of a conifer fully a
quarter mile away just after sunset, noted an instant
mm.
(2.4").
Male
Average
61.0
Minimum
Maximum
57.8
Rank
in tail
teenth.
'58
62.9
mm.
mm.
mm.
length
Female
(2.4")
62.2
(2.3")
60.9
(2.5")
64.9
among
on the bird's part when the squeaking of a

mouse was simulated. With one quick jerk of the head
the gaze of the bird was directed at the source of the
sound. A second squeak was given, even more faintly,
and the owl immediately left its perch and arrowed
toward the sound. Only at the last moment, as the
authors flinched, did it veer off and take a perch in a
reaction
TAIL LENGTH
mm.
mm.
mm.
(2.5")
(2.4")
(2.6")
the eighteen species: Seven-
nearby
tree. It
remained there for a considerable while,
wholly unafraid.
Flammulated Owl
SEXUAL DIFFERENCES:
MOLT
The
less
points
on each
They tend
owl
is
peak
to
sharp
in
crown, but can be
the
of
side
laid practically fiat to the head.
giving
even the smallest
size of those of
subspecies of Otus asio.

little
more than rudimentary and
ear tufts are hardly
than a quarter the
The plumage
of this
There is no evident difference in coloration or markbetween the sexes, but the female is slightly the
larger bird and her voice is very dissimilar to the
ings
being much more highly pitched, quavering,

and with the underlying quality of a whine.
male's,
somewhat tighter than that of the Screech Owls,

more of an appearance of trimness to the bird.
There is one molt annually, beginning

and completed before November, and
at this time of
molting the bird tends to increase
calling.
its
mid-August
in
This
male birds, although the

not known.
especially true of the
cance of
this fact
is
is
signifi-
Captive birds have lived for thirteen years, and one

wild bird was recovered eight years after
as a fledgling.
where
this
There seems
species
is
to
be
little
it
was banded
nest mortality
concerned, and no incidence of
cannibalism has ever been recorded.
VOICE

ADULT
The most commonly heard call of the Flammulated

Owl is a single, quite mellow-toned U'HOOOP repeated over long periods at about
five-
grace notes distinctly lower in
tone.
remarkably ventriloquial that
is
Though
it
is
it
This
call
is
so
virtually impossible
by following the sound of
to locate the bird
a rather low-toned call,
it
voice.
its
has far-carrying
and is a delight to hear. Occasionally it is

preceded by two rapidly issued low-er notes.
The mating call, on the other hand, is not at all
ventriloquial. It is uttered in two notes with the emphasis strongly on the second. This call, too, is voiced
over prolonged periods and tends to become monotonous. Higher pitched than the single note described
qualities
above,
the
sounds
it
note
first
is
like
whoo-WHOOOT.
not
given.
stages of courtship,
In
the
Occasionally
more advanced
the double-note call
broken at intervals with
sometimes
is
chuckling or chattering
soft
sounds.
Another
call
given primarily by the male but on oc-
by the female
sound,
not
unlike
is
the
kittenlike
of
call
MEEEeee-ooooo
Whitney's
Elf
Owl
When
disturbed,
especially
Flammulated Owl sometimes

sounding
little
shriek
lated in print but which,
The
it,
it
if
nesting,
the
female
gives vent to an outwhich cannot be emuhad greater volume be-
would be a most decidedly frightening sound.
male,
Most
if
when
disturbed, issues a single gruff
HOOT!
done in the spring, and the majority

of it by the male bird; but after a relatively quiet
summer, the birds tend to become more vocal at the
calling
is
time of the molt and the calling

eral
weeks after the molt has
this calling is
by the male bird.
is
one of the most

describe or
to
difficult of all
paint
insofar
markings are concerned. There
and
colors
is
as
North American
coloration and
great
variation
in
two color phases,
patterns, not only in the
but between individuals of the same color phase as

well.
The
differences between the actual color phases
are often extreme. For example, a red-phase bird
may
have a very distinctive cinnamon-red general coloration with
little
mottling or pattern (or sometimes with
a great deal of both), while the gray-phase bird
may
have no trace whatever of rufous tone, not even on the

V-shaped scapular markings. There seems to be an infor gray-phase birds to be more heavily
marked with dark mottling than among the red-phase
clination
but
birds,
this
is
no hard-and-fast
both phases on the underparts
broad and heavy
to
rule.
may
Markings of
vary from quite
surprisingly finely
drawn
pencil-
can be determined, the color and pattern

variations are not induced by sex, age, geographical
So
far as
location, or season.
The
only exceptions are that the
most decidedly red birds are from the more southerly

primarily in Guatemala
parts of the bird's range
but even there the gray-phase birds, as well as some
of the red-phase, cannot be distinguished from more
(Micrathene whitneyi whitneyi)
hind
Owls
ings.
casion
raged
This
to ten-second
the hoot sometimes followed by one or two
intervals,
may
northerly specimens.
Some
seem to tend distinctly toward melanism,

on the belly, but with all plumage being
very dark. Others will have almost a marbling effect
of silvery plumage intermingled with the gray or red.
Still others have a decidedly tawny aspect. Quite often
birds
especially
in
the
gray
phase,
even
when
rufous
coloration
is
continue for sev-
absent from most of the plumage, there will be a de-
most of
cidedly reddish coloration to that portion of the facial
finished. Again,
disks
immediately surrounding the
Flammulated Owl
eyes.
'59

much variation among
as among the adults, but
color phases
more coarse and regular barrings on
and
with somewhat
individuals
the back.
plumage
of the upperparts,
and gray-phase
of both red-phase
as
is
by the variegated
The plumage
wears.
JUVENILE
There
afforded
flage
bird
this
particular,
birds blends remark-
The markings
ably well with pine or oak bark.
of the
underparts blend extremely well with the trunk of the

white oak; so much so that when the bird is perched
close
the
to
trunk and
against the trunk,
below.
It
in
is,
fact,
becomes
it
makes a concerted
also
leaning
virtually
back
its
from
keep a
invisible
effort
branch or other obstruction between
GENERAL HABITS AND
in
itself
to
and an ob-
server.
CHARACTERISTICS
More
Owl is
or
reclusive in
less
habits, the
its
Flammulated
not often seen, even by trained observers,
HUNTING METHODS AND

CARRYING OF PREY
al-
though it frequently flies by day. Essentially a twilight

and nighttime hunter, it is most often observed as the
bird takes a perch high in a conifer prior to hunting
in the evening, or
during the early morning hours be-
fore sunrise.
As with the Whiskered Owl (Otus

a great deal of prey
sis)
in
a tree
snatches
it
slightly
more
devour
its
often the very perch

Flammulated
the
inclined to land,
when
it
it
attacks,
and
Owl. Prey seems
to be just as often carried in the
and
dense
cover close
thicket-type
to
open
relatively
to
prey on the spot than does the Whiskered
as in the talons,
Preference seems to be most pronounced
left
Owl seems
but has been observed as high as elevations of
if
10,000 feet.
for
perch
However,
eating.
ever seen at elevations lower than 3,000
Rarely
feet,
and the owl skims swiftly downward and

up in its talons while still in flight, carrying
to a convenient
for
it
trichopsis trichop-
spotted from a high perch
is
there
is
beak
some evidence that small
prey snatched up in the talons in
flight
may
be trans-
ferred to the beak almost immediately while flying.
areas at elevations of from 4,500 to 7,800 feet.
Otus flammeolus flammeolus
among deciduous
be found equally
will
or coniferous trees, although
it
avoids
ponderosa pine and areas of extensive forest
forests of
cuttings.
It
likes
forests
of spruce
and
fir
intermixing of aspen and Arizona white oak.

Pine
seem
trees,
to
with white oak a close second choice,
be the favored
settles for the
day on a
and the bird normally

if ever, a dead
roosts,
live
with some
limb (rarely,
Approximately 90 per cent of the Flammulated Owl's

annual diet consists of insects and other invertebrate
prey such as spiders, scorpions, and centipedes.
and has been known
surprising taste for ants
It
has a
to stand
limb) close to the trunk of the tree but only about a
on a small
quarter of the tree's height from the top.
then pluck up and swallow the insects as they come
roost in
emory oak, madrona, and dense
during the nesting season,
it
It will
pirion.
rarely roosts in
also
Except
any kind
of hollow.
anthill, scratch the surface
with
its
feet,
and
within reach. In addition to insects and other vertebrate
life,
however,
this
varieties, shrews, moles,
only, a
few small
owl
will
eat
mice of many
and, during the nesting season
birds.
Pellets are small
and poorly formed, largely made up

from insects. Fecal wastes
and dull grayish brown.
of bits of chitinous material

Horned Owls (Bubo
small
extent,
virginianus sp.)
Long-eared
Owls
(Asio
are relatively solid
and, to some
otus.
sp.)
are
dangerous enemies. Because of the rather secretive habits
of this bird,
man
is
not as
much
a threat as he
is
The Flammulated Owl
can,
Very
however, become furious when aggravated at the
nest,
mating
with other owl species.
and there are cases on record where parent birds have

attacked humans about the face and neck with talons
and beak.
The greatest defense seems to be the superb camou160
and
little
is
known about
activities,
this bird's
courtship and
mainly because of the bird's shyness
seclusion. This
is
probably abetted by the fact that
while even though the owl becomes more vociferous
during
this
make
extremely
it
Flammulated Owl
season,
its
highly
ventriloquial
abilities
difficult to locate for observation.
ANNUAL BROODS,
NEST,
NESTING HABITS
Single-brooded, Otus flammeolus flammeolus almost
always nests in a flicker hole in an aspen, oak, or pine.
an abandoned hole
If
own
its
not
is
from
forcefully evict a flicker
owl
the
available,
will
and
in-use nest
its
lay
What
eggs atop or beside those of the flicker.
known, although it is
young flickers are
eaten. The nest itself does not have to be very high in
the tree to satisfy this owl; holes anywhere from as
happens
low
eggs
those
to
supposed that
is
not
they hatch,
if
the
One
as 7 or 8 feet to as high as 25 feet are used.
female was observed nesting in a flicker hole 40 feet
On
above the ground in a pine stub.

if
a suitable hole
known
has been
is
rare occasions,
not available, the Flammulated
to nest in the holes of
Owl
bank swallows.
EGGS
Number
Two
per nesting
to five eggs are laid,
but
most commonly three or four.

Color
Usually pure white, but occasionally with a
faint creaminess.
From
Shape
almost globular to slightly ovate.
Very
Texture
finely
granulated and with some gloss-
FLAMMULATED OWL
iness.
Size
Just
Whitney's
about midway in
Owl
Elf
'
size
Micrathene
between those of
whitneyi
and the Mexican Screech Owl (Otus
On
Otus flammeolus flammeolus (Kaup'
whitneyi)
asio cineraceus)
the basis of 44 eggs measured, the average egg size
was 27.7
wide.
mm.
(1.1")
in
mm.
length by 23.6
0.9")
YOUNG AND FAMILY
The extremes were
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum
length:
32.7
length:
26.4
width:
28.0
width:
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
21.6
CHARACTERISTICS
'1.3")
(1.0")
When
1.1")
egg-laying
of
^0.9")
Unknown,
but
probably
about two days.
Southern areas: earliest, May 6;

June 24; normally between May 18 and June 1.
Northern areas earliest, May 2
latest, July 2
nor-
Egg-laying dates
latest,
mally between June 4 and June
first
hatched, the owlets have flesh-colored feet
and beaks, but these darken within

babies
Interval
LIFE
are
six days.
covered with a rather dense,
The
tiny
snow-white
down. Because of restricted in-hole nesting, observation of nestling young is sketchy at best; but in their
first
full, imperfect plumage of autumn,
the young
birds have wings and tail similar to those of the adults.
Elsewhere they have transverse dusky gray-and-white
which are narrow on head and breast but

wide on belly and flanks. The facial disks are decidedly
ruddy in coloration and lores are usually somewhat
rufous, though the superciliaries are white, bordered
barrings
INCUBATION AND
Incubation probably is by the female entirely, and
though the exact term of incubation is not known, it
supposed to be about 25 days. The female sits tightly

on her eggs and will usually refuse to budge even if
with dusky gray.
is
disturbed.
However,
the eggs, she
is
if
attempt
is
made
to
apt to deliver a most painful
lift
bite.
her off
Breeds from southern British Columbia (Kamloops),
Ketchum), and northern Colorado (Estes

southward
through the mountains (except near
Park),
Idaho
Flammulated Owl
161
the Pacific coast)
to southern California
MIGRATION
San Bernar-
dino Mountains; and the highlands of Mexico to the
Mexico (Chimalpa) and Veracruz (Las

and south to the Guatemalan highlands.
State of
gas
Winters chiefly south of the United
States
in
The Flammulated Owl
\'i-
of
the
Mexican and Guatemalan highlands, but also rarely

in the San Bernardino Mountains of southern California and in the Guadalupe, Franklin, and Chisos
North American owls
ward movement
flocks
Almost
rin g in early
is
all
is
one of the more migratory
but, even at that, the south-
and never occurs
quite loose
migratory
autumn and
flight
is
in large
nocturnal, occur-
late spring,
mountains of the Trans-Pecos. Texas.
ECONOMIC INFLUENCE
Probably valuable as a destroyer of injurious insects
and, to a lesser extent, rodents.
162
Flammulated Owl
owl
gophf.r
Because
it
underground
lives
go-
as
phers do. and sometimes in reconditioned gopher holes.
ground owl
For
habit of living on and in the
its
ground.
owl
hill
SPECIES
mound
Because of the
of earth
the
at
entrance to the burrow, upon which the owl customarily stands
ORDER
STRIGIFORMES
FAMILY:
STRIGIDAE
watch.
la choi ette a terrier de l'ouest French-Canadian name meaning "Western Burrowing Owl."
lechlcilla llanera Mexican-Indian name meaning "The Little Barn Owl (or simply Owl") of the
Fields."
GENUS:
owl
prairie dog
Speotyto Gloger
Because of
SPECIES:
(Molina)
cunicularia
propensity for using
its
the burrows of the prairie dog for
its
own underground
and because of the erroneous
nesting
belief that
will
it
share such a hole with the prairie dog.
rattlesnake owl
SUBSPECIES
snakes, for
Because superstition has
that
it
underground burrow with rattlereasons to be explained. (See Enemies and
owl shares
the
its
Defenses.)
snake owl
Because
it
frequently
kills
and
eats
small snakes, and probably for the same reason
tunnel owl
Because
nests
it
at
the
end of an
underground tunnel.
OWL
FLORIDA
Ridgway
florid ana
is
often called rattlesnake owl.
WESTERN
BURROWING
hypugaea (Bonaparte)
it
BURROWING
OWL
The Speotyto
COLOR PLATE XXXVI)
cunicularia subspecies, including both
Owl
Burrowing
Western
the
(Speotyto
hypugaea) and the Florida Burrowing

cunicularia floridana
habitually resides
NAME AND
SCIENTIFIC
nal description:
Strix
Volume
Ornithology,
more heavily grassed
Bonaparte).
1825, page 72
(note)
on a specimen from the plains of the
Origi-
Piatt
based
River,
Nebraska.
Burrowing Owls.
Very distinctive
burrow,
before
its
stance
and
as
stands
it
this
swivels
facial disks are rather poorly developed.
its
one of the more comfor both the Western Burrowing Owl and
seems
the Florida
Burrowing Owl,
right stance.
is
its
derivation and
mean-
ing are unclear.
cuckoo owl
of
which has a decided cuckoolike
its
more
quality.
distinctive calls,
1
See Voice.)
Eastern
the
and
From one
on the small mound
its
mon names
this
favored by the
owl has a gangly, knock-kneed
ing a very rounded head,
Although
places.
head back and forth almost constantly

and. upon seeing anything of a suspicious or dangerous
nature, goes into a curious bobbing motion. A small,
generally darkish-sandy owl without ear tufts and hav-
OTHER NAMES
owl
open
areas, generally disliking the bare
or only lightly grassed sandy ground
It
billy
in very
hypugaea Bonaparte, American

i,
on the ground
The Short-eared Owl (Asio flammeus flammeus) for

example, is a much larger owl and it inhabits much
Speotyto cunicularia hypugaea
Speotyto
the only small owl species that
is
cunicularia
Owl
much
Screech
it
Owl
larger because
It
is
interesting to
is
only slightly larger than

asio
of
long legs and up-
its
one of the most
watch
of
but
(Otus
naevius)
easily observable
the owls of
North Amer-
ica.
Rank
Western Burrouing
in size
Owl
among
the eighteen species: Eleventh.
163
SHAPE AT REST
TOTAL LENGTH
The Western Burrowing Owl has an uncommonly

awkward appearance when standing on the ground or
on a fence post, but seems much less gangly when
perching on a telephone wire or low branch and crouch-
own
awkwardand the fact that

the bird stands with a seemingly abnormal erectness.
ing on
ness
its
Part of the illusion of
legs.
created by the very short
is
mm.
Species average: 24.1.4
(9.5").
Male
Female
Average
229.6
mm.
9.0")
253.2
Minimum
Maximum
212.9
mm
8.4")
225.8
mm.
mm.
267.9
mm.
(10.6")
284.5
mm
Rank
in total length
among
(10.0")
(
8.9")
(11.2")
tail
enth.
SHAPE IN FLIGHT
The wings
and narrow and cervery reminiscent of the wings of a sparrow hawk,
tainly
WINGSPAN
of this bird are long
because of the uncommonly short
on the shoulders
well couched
and the head

The wing tips
tail
in flight.
more sharply pointed than those of

most other North American owls and its body seems
considerably smaller in flight than when perched.
considerably
are
Just as
Average
577.6
Minimum
Maximum
558.9
Rank
markedly similar
that of the
to
get the impression that
and
irregular.
flight,
falcon.
It
is
though one might
it
is
591.5
mm.
(23.3")
(22.0")
5748 mm.
(23.7")
(23.5")
616.3
mm.
(24.3")
at
Minimum
Maximum
mm.
1750 mm.
a quite distinc-
enth.
usually fairly close to the ground
bo-2>
6.4").
Male
mrn (61")
Average
Rank
with
it
mm.
the
compare
rate,
Female
(22.8")
wingspan among the eighteen species: Twelfth.
in
also
is
rather labored, jerky,
is
observers
woodcock. At any
flight of the
tive
Some
it
owl
this
little
strong, easy, powerful flight, even

first
of
flight
596.9
mm.
mm.
mm.
outstretched wings bear a likeness to those
its
sparrow hawk, the
the
'23.0").
Male
FLIGHT PATTERN
of
mm.
but with the similarity to the sparrow hawk lessened
147.5
Female
1
.5
(5.8")
160.2
(6.9")
184.3
mm.
mm.
mm.
(6.8")
(6.3")
(7.3")
wing length among the eighteen species: Elev-
in
and highly
maneuverable. Also in keeping with the sparrow hawk
image
it
bird does, frequently hover while
will, as that
scanning
ground below
the
makes rather
uncommonly
long,
for
prey.
low-level glides,
agile turns
It
frequently
TAIL LENGTH
interspersed with
and rapid wingbeats. At such
downward
wing, of taking a long
mally
level,
it
makes only short
flights
While norrelatively low
glide.
at
the powerful wingstrokes can carry
tances without
rest,
it
(3.2").
Male
82.6
mm.
mm.
mm.
tail
length
Average
76.3
Minimum
Maximum
73.4
great dis-
attested by the occasional
as
mm.
times the wings will sometimes flap asynchronously. It
has the habit, after having caught an insect on the
Rank
re-
in
Female
(3.0")
85.3
(2.9")
82.3
(3.3")
89.1
among
the
mm.
mm.
mm.
(3.4")
(3.2")
(3.5")
eighteen
species:
Ifth.
portings of the owl alighting on the rigging or decks

of ships far out at sea.
Measurements have been based on 39 birds measured:

and 21 females.
18 males
BEAK LENGTH
WEIGHT
Species average:
13.9
mm.
(0.5").
The beak
is
a dull
but light grayish yellow.
Female
Average
202.6 gr.
(7.1
oz.)
213.9
Minimum
Maximum
180.5
^6.3
oz.)
194-9 S r
212.0 gr.
Rank
164
in
weight
gr.
among
!? r -
(7-5 oz
(6-8 oz.)
Average
13.5
Minimum
Maximum
12.5
222.7 S r ^7-8 oz.)

the eighteen species: Eleventh.
(7.4 oz.)
Female
Male
gr. (7.3 oz. ).
Male
Burrowing Owl
Rank
tet
in
nth.
14.0
mm.
mm.
mm.
(0.5")
14.3
(0.5")
(0.6")
15.3
;.-,
mm.
mm.
mm.
(0.6")
(0.5")
(0.6")
beak length among the eighteen species: Thir-
TALONS
LEGS, FEET,
winter. This begins in mid-February
and
lasts for
about
one month.
Very long legs for the

somewhat the appearance
of this bird,
size
Barn Owl (Tyto alba

in the body and a
of the
but rather stubbier
pratincola)
more knock-kneed and gangly
good
bit
pect.
The
imparting
are lightly feathered with short,
legs
immaculate plumage and

though with small, very
the
toes
almost
are
bristly feathers
more
fine,
tarsus
is
like sparse
repertoire of calls
its
is
nowhere nearly
Barred Owls (Strix varia
ied as that of the
mm.
as long as the
middle
(1.9"), scantily feathered in
and almost bare behind. Where scales of legs and

can
be seen, they are from dull gray or yellowish
feet
gray to horn-colored. The feet are not especially powerfront
them are of a rather soft and

mellow nature. One of its more common calls, in fact,
is responsible for its nickname of Cuckoo Owl
a deep,
melodious
the
COO-COO-O-O-O
not unlike the call of
European cuckoo. Generally voiced while the owl

its burrow mound, this song may be con-
perched on
tinued for several hours at a time.
though not exactly

sounding
livered,
OOO.
This
though not
The
lemon yellow and vision is

excellent, probably even better on cloudy days or at
twilight than on a dark night, since this owl does a
considerable amount of diurnal and crepuscular hunting.
to
It
irides are
is
likely,
that vision
is
hearing in the location of prey for
equally important
this species.
asymmetrical in
placement, but not pronouncedly

is
acute,
hear the
so.
The
size
auditory sense
and observers have
stated that the bird can
grasshopper at well over
through the rustling of
great
deal
of
prey
Coo-COO-OOO COO COO-
like:
similar to that of the road runner,
is
The
is
located
sounds something
call
TO OO -whit-tit-tit,
When
and
flight of a beetle or
one hundred yards.
is
softly de-
as penetrating in character.
TICKA-tit-tit
slightly
more
Owl
often en-
TOOO-u hitTWEEECHIKIT-CHIKIT-CHIT CHIKIT-CHIKIT and. less

TWEEE, TICKAoften,
with
TWEEE-ticka-tit
EARS AND HEARING

are
little
to,
on their own burrow mounds nearby. The calls are

somewhat harsher and more abrupt. Normally issued
at an even, conversational pace, they can become emphatic and irregular if the bird becomes excited or
tit-tit
cavities
similar
is
song which
gages in a sort of conversation with other owls perched
alarmed.
Ear
is
In addition, the Western Burrowing
a bright
too.
call
It
the courtship
like,
voiced by the male only and
EYES AND VISION
the
differ-
ent calls and most of
is
ful in their grip.
as var-
sp.),
Western Burrowing Owl does have a number of
more than twice
averaging 47.2
toe,
While
bare,
hair than plumage.
The
VOICE
in general as-
TWEEEE
tit-tit.
badly alarmed, there
the bird disappears into
KAK! KAK! KAK!
its
If.
like:
interspersed with a
is
a cry given just before
burrow
however,
a
it
raucous
KAK!
nearby
flies
to
burrow mound or fence post, the call modifies in flight

and becomes much less harsh, sounding like Kl'KKUK-KUK-KUK! and this may degenerate into a
,
grasses.
continuous rapid rattling noise.
Beak
when
and
snappings
the bird
is
hissings
disturbed at the nest,
and adults have a most
fensive call
issued
disturbing or
The head
of the
with no trace of ear

to the body,
Burrowing Owl is very rounded,

tufts. Plumage is reasonably tight
though tending
to
at
entering
sound remarkably
like
snake. (See Enemies
when
when perched
plumage is much
not
are
interesting
times
the
uncommon
but both young
and unusual de-
when an
mouth of
intruder begins
the
burrow
the angry buzzing of a rattle-
and Defenses.)
be fluffed slightly
standing on the ground and even more so
on a wire or branch. In
flight
the
body than that of the Screech Owls, thus

imparting a more streamlined appearance. All adult
birds have one complete annual molt which begins in
late July or early August and is completed by the end
of September or early October. While it is evidently
not an annual trait of the species as a whole, numerous individual birds have been observed to undergo
another molt, primarily of body feathers only, late in
SEXUAL DIFFERENCES:
closer to the
There
is
very
little
difference in size on the whole,
although on very close measurement the female is just

barely the larger. As nearly as can be determined, there
is
no difference
in coloration
between the sexes and no
distinguishable difference in vocal characteristics.
Western Burrowing
Owl
16-

Because Speotyto cunicularia
cies,
it
more prone
is
which
do
normally
not
nibalism
tree-nesting
owls.
and badgers make

onslaughts against eggs and nestlings. Canferrets,
not a notable infant-mortality factor except
is
during times of famine, but
in
recent years mortality
and even among adult
the nest
in
from many predators
molest
Skunks, weasels, large snakes,

significant
a ground-nesting spe-
is
to attack
birds
has sharply
man
increased because of the extensive use by
and upper breast are buff, barred with narrow dark

brown, the bars sometimes merging at the sides and
continuing as a dark area behind the light buffy plumage of the ear region. The center of the breast is more
sparsely barred, with
barring sometimes verv in-
this
The
definite
or even
absent.
coverts,
and
plumage are usually unmarked me-
dium buff
paling
of
leg
to
bufTy
light
colors
all
has
belly,
Some
white.
been
thighs,
undertail
slight
observed
general
during
late
spring and summer.
of bi-
sulphides to poison ground squirrels and other rodent
Eating rodents that have ingested such poisons
pests.
subsequently cause the death of the owl too. either
will
directly or
through such malfunction of bodily
that the owl can
ties
no longer function
as
must
it
order to survive. In such a case, starvation
activi-
is
JUVENILE
in
usually
Wings and
the result.
Numerous
captive specimens have lived for well over
and band recoveries indicate that some wild

birds live nearly as long. Large clutches of eggs laid
by this species help to some degree in offsetting a
higher rate of infant mortality than most other North
American owl species suffer.
tail
are identical to those of the adult
but the crown, hindneck, and back are mainly
birds,
brown with spotting absent. Underparts are

unmarked light buff in the center, shading to a
buffy gray
a decade,
plain,
deeper brownish buff toward the
band a
solid
sides,
with the throat
deeper brown.
GENERAL HABITS AND

CHARACTERISTICS

ADULT
Although most actively on the move from about the

period of just before sunset until
Generally a speckled, dark sandy appearance at a

distance, with distinctive
narrow barring on the throat
and upper breast. More specifically, the upperparts are

generally brown with buff to buffy-white spots. These
spots are very small on the crown and mingle with
streakings
slight
spots
of
the same.
On
become more elongated oval
larger.
The
hindneck the
the
in
shape and slightly
on the wing
largest of the spots are
coverts,
back and shoulders, and these are mainly roundish

shape.
The
in
secondaries have similar spottings, but these
are arranged in four or five regular transverse series.
Larger whitish spots occur on the outer webs of the
becoming most apparent on the three or
primaries,
four
longest
quills.
The
are
rectrices
transversed
by
four (occasionally five or six) rather narrow and some-
what
irregular
with a vague
bands of
medium
narrowly tipped with

superciliaries are
the
dull
light
grayish
buff brown. All

light
buff
to
buff,
tail
suffused
quills
brown white and the
are
disks
sides of the
lores
Sometimes they
night.
head are narrowly and

light
buffy
coloration
The
more
often
from
with
just
their
heads
observed perched on their burrow mounds in the early

morning hours and from midafternoon to late afternoon. Their actions on these mounds are most distinctive and very interesting. They stand quite erect with
little body movement, but with the head almost continuously moving slowly from side to side as they scan
their surroundings. Anything noted that is out of the
ordinary causes an immediate reaction. The bird will
stand staring gravely and almost regally at the disturbance for a moment, and then it will suddenly bow
with
sense
of
courtliness,
recover
its
erect
pose
and begin rolling (or, more rarely, jerking"!

head about in a strange and rather comical manner
while uttering its alarm cry. (See Voice.) This may
quickly,
its
A narrow line of intermingled black

and buff across the upper throat is evident. The throat
AMERICAN
HAWK OWL
Surnia ulula caparoch (Muller). Male. Vicinity of Okanagan

Landing,
\.(
.1
British
Columbia,
Canada,
November
\.
1913.
Number 377-A
the
chin area and malar region to behind the lower half

of the ear region.
sit
are
indistinctly streaked
extends
will
these
day or
the
protruding from the burrow, but most often they are
XI. I
are a slightly deeper sandy buff.
with buff over deeper brown. Whitish or
commonly)
166
owls can be seen at almost any time of
same color but with each feather black-shafted.
Facial
darkness,
The
white.
buff
full
XIII
ROi
KV MOUNTAIN PYGMY OWL
Glaucidium gnoma pinacola Nelson. Male. Bear Creek near

Priesl Lake. Bonner County, Idaho, October 26, 1931. A.O.U.
Number 379
Burrowing Owl
'
/97c
*~<
be repeated several times or more, along with some
half-opened
with
gesticulation
At
wings.
bowings are so low that the breast
times
the
on
practically
is
the ground. If the danger appears to be approaching,

the bird will usually
a short distance to another
fly
burrow mound, a cattle-shed roof peak, or a fence

post, and perform the same grave bowings again. Less
often
simply disappear into the burrow.
will
it
danger
of a
is
more
severe nature,
the
If
calling will be-
its
come more alarmed, and immediately after it flies off,

one or two or even more of these owls will emerge
from the burrow and similarly move off.
Speotyto
cunicularia
undoubtedly the most con-
is
tinuously gregarious owl species in North America. It
has a very peaceable disposition toward other Burrowing Owls, even outside the immediate family
among
trait
ground
prairie dogs or other
much
very
rare
the raptors. In years past the birds often
amid
lived in distinct colonies close to or
Owl
dislikes cultivated
colonies of
The Burrowing
squirrels.
ground, and so in-
creased agriculture with the resultant extermination of
many
burrow around will be used as

power lines, fence
wires, poles and fence posts, the Burrowing Owl never
perches to avoid detection. Concealment is invariably
threatens, the handiest
a haven.
often perches on
it
sought underground.
The Burrowing Owl
has the peculiar habit of collect-
and ends of items which attract its attention,

bringing them back to the burrow where they are scattered about equally on the ground surface near the entrance and also in both the tunnel and main chamber
of the burrow. Some of the items recorded in these odd
ing odds
collections include bits of charcoal, bird feathers, frag-
ments of colored rags, lost mittens, tufts of hair or hide

from decomposed winter-killed cattle, corncobs, fairsized chunks of bone, and other matter.
Although resident within their range and active all
winter, Burrowing Owls tend to remain secluded in
their burrows during especially bad weather and perch
outside or actively hunt only on the milder days.
Throughout their entire range they are relatively abundant, probably because of their mobility and adaptability.
of these rodents has caused a reduction in the
Burrowing
Owl
although
colonies,
toward gregariousness
still
exists
inclination
the
among them.
Scores
them once lived in close conjunction, but they now

reside in more scattered groups of four or five families
of
large as a dozen families.
or, less often, in colonies as
In winter particularly, these owls tend
communal groups
little
Though
of
An
within a single burrow.

tion with this
is
many
as
as
gather in
to
twenty birds
unusual habit in conjunc-
that they will store an
abundance of
Expansive,
treeless,
unbroken
prairies
and
virgin
plains are most preferred, but the bird shows a distinct
aversion to cultivated lands and almost equally to the
more
like
arid desert regions. Surprisingly, in view of

for cultivation,
the bird will sometimes
its
take
dis-
up
underground for communal subsistence during

periods of severe weather when prey is scarce or un-
residence well within city limits, roosting in sidewalk
available.
house mice and
There are numerous strong superstitions and many

more erroneous beliefs in regard to the Burrowing Owl.
Foremost among such stories is that it coexists in the
same burrow with prairie dogs and rattlesnakes. To
in
food
the
contrary,
there
ever with either the
snake
is
no friendly relationship what-
is
mammal
an enemy which
search of Burrowing
Owl
or the reptile.
may
enter the
The
eggs or nestlings,
on the hunt for young prairie dogs or ground
The
rattle-
burrow
in
or while
squirrels.
when young, is prey for the Burrowing

Owl, and certainly the mammal, young or old, will not
prairie dog,
willingly associate with the owl.
when an owl and

the
prairie
same burrow,
XLIII
it
is
On
dog happen
moths and other large insects that have been attracted

by the glow. Such behavior, though, is far from common and most often the bird seeks wide-open places,
from sagebrush plains to extensive natural prairies, although it is found in scattered numbers in the lightly
timbered areas of California, from the western foothills
of the Sierras to the Pacific coast. Roosting (as opposed
to perching) is almost invariably done underground.
Perching, with some occasional light napping, occurs
primarily on burrow mounds, telephone wires and poles,
fence posts and fencing wires, on isolated cattle sheds,
to disappear into
and sometimes on a roadside billboard or the low

branch of a leafless bush or tree.
when danger
PYGMY OWL
Glaucidium gnoma californicum Sclater. Female. Vicinity of

Okanagan, British Columbia, Canada, November 9, 19 13.
A.O.U. Number 379-A
XLIV
rats in alleys and vacant lots, or flying

nighthawk manner around arc lights to capture
the rare occasions
simply because
CALIFORNIA
drains during the day and emerging at night to catch
ARIZONA PYGMY
OWL

After the
chattering
Glaucidium gnoma gnoma Wagler. Female. Vicinity of Bernardino, Cochise County, Arizona, October 22, 19 17. A.O.U.
Number 379-D
Wc stern
mound
initial
when
(see
it
grave bowings, head turnings, and

spies
an enemy from
its
burrow
General Habits and Characteristics), the
Burrowing Owl flies low and swiftly to the mound of

another burrow not far off. Here it mav stand and re-
Burrowing Owl
167
peat the bowing act and bob
way, or
it
may immediately
particularly severe threat of
munal group,
some
come from
most bowl one another over
an agitated
When
its
their
in
a com-
has pinpointed the source and
and
al-
to
get
anxiety
instant's
pause
uncanny accuracy
with
Upon
contact with
with an
While
this
hasten
off to
another burrow-
Where enemies
balance and
for
(if
uses
man is responsible for

many Burrowing Owls through
rodent control. Also, a great many are
burrow.
Natural
enemies
include
on the highways.
prey
weasels,
ferrets,
occasional
than to adult birds. In
passing,
will attack the
animal simultaneously and drive
often harassing
it
it
Owls
away,
unmercifully for fully one hundred
it
has no other choice, Speotyto cunicularia hy-
pugaea
attack
will
even man, with
an enemy,
con-
siderable ferocity. Uttering a shrill shrieking sound,

will roll over
onto
back and
its
accuracy and effectiveness with
strike
it
out with great
talons. If the bird
its
is
wounded, the shriek becomes a weird rattling sound

and the talons are used with surprising violence and
strength to inflict severe injury on the attacker.
Perhaps the most unusual and certainly one of the
most highly
mechanisms used by the

an intruder's attempt to enter, reach into, or dig up the
Burrowing Owl, both young and adult, is reserved for
burrow. At this time the bird can give an incredibly
accurate vocal mimicry of the buzzing rattle of the
diamondback rattlesnake. Few, if any, predators will
continue coming down the burrow and few men will
effective defensive
continue reaching in or digging
when this sound has

been given. Often the rattling is accompanied as well
by a hissing which is also reminiscent of a snake.
Owl
hypugaea
will
extent,
the
adult
Speotyto
prey.
watching and listening

it
for
will take a
rodents
cunicularia
and
insect
perch on some slight
and wait until a prey animal on the ground,

usually a mouse or ground squirrel, inadvertently be-
elevation
trays
168
its
own
to the
may
it
Only
if
take
underground
it
the prey
too large for
is
launch
in
itself
instant
to a height of 150 feet or
more without taking
off the insect.
At
will
this point
it
With
pursuit.
it
climb at a steep angle
will
go into a
gaze
its
relatively
it
overtakes the prey and grasps
There
talons.
the prey
is
is
it
in
mid-air with
then a brief spate of level
flight
its
while
being killed by the talons, followed by a
sometimes circular gliding as the dead prey

ferred to the beak.
Having accomplished
is
this,
trans-
the owl
itself with its own burrow, and

makes a long gliding approach on set wings.
At times the Burrowing Owl will circle casually
above a moving ground animal cow, deer, dog, fox. or
coyote
waiting to swoop down and snatch up any
mouse or other rodent or large insect the animal
turns adroitly, aligns
flushes.
is
In most cases
when
this occurs, the
prey animal
snatched up from the ground without pause, often
to the bafflement of the
been
animal which
may
itself
have
in pursuit of that very prey.
While most hunting is done during late afternoon

and twilight, the parent owls hunt virtually 24 hours
a day when there are young birds to feed, pausing only
at intervals to take brief naps.
SOME BURROWING OWL PREY
range back and forth across the prairie-
More commonly
back
it
rapid, irregular wingbeats
presence with a sound. Instantly the owl
Burrowing Owl
The Burrowing Owls
-especially the Florida
most
themselves to small prey
their
land,
with
fly
glances skyward and spies a large insect
will
it
HUNTING METHODS AND

CARRYING OF PREY
To some
to
steep dive, gliding during the last portion of the dive as
yards before giving up and returning to their burrow.

If
beak
Quite often when a mound-perched Western Bur-
rowing
the ferret or weasel, four or five adult Burrowing
its
to transport the carcass.
with enemies as fierce as
with
convenient carrying in the beak will the talons be used
mink, skunks, opossums, snakes, and armadillos though

most of these are more dangerous to eggs and young
fact,
the
wings
its
devour the animal there while perched
It will
for eating then or later.
catch
brief
kill
demise by snapping the vertebrae at the

nape. The owl will then pick up the dead animal, if not
use of poisons in
they
and
the
on the mound outside, or
by cars as
first
of devastating bites
series
the animal has not expired at once
the deaths of a great
killed
in
that
prop against the
as
tail
its
too large, in the beak and will
are concerned,
and
deeply
sink
occurring the owl spreads
is
the adult birds will wait until the young scurry under-
not far distant to take refuge there.
in
clutch usually penetrate the vital organs

prey.
flies
location,
talons
and
jerk,
ground, then administers a
fly
the
flesh,
on the mound to see what the danger is.

At times when the still-flightless young are on ground
surface near the burrow mouth and danger threatens,
ground and then themselves
precise
talons.
spasmodic
initial
takes to wing,
it
the
to
pounces with outstretched
alarm cry and
directions
all
burrow without even an
into the
in
sort occurs for
the sentinel bird issues
other owls will often
down
head
its
dive underground.
habitat;
reptiles
craw
often confine
amphibians such
as
moths, grasshoppers, beetles, and
found on the slope of the
all
the
mound
creatures
common
to
and salamanders,
such as small snakes and skinks, small
fish,
well-broken remains of
fish,
scorpions.
crabs,
The
shown here were
before the burrow of a nest-
ing pair of Florida Burrowing Owls.
Burrowing Owl
frogs
^ M
A'
fO^.
t*.*-
k^V
6\nc(
Ca ***4
(fWj
Green
FOOD, FEEDING HABITS. WASTES

The
Western Burrowing Owl
diet of the
widely
is
run
in
the
parent
eagerness.
bowling each
bird,
The parent
the
mice make up by far the majority of what it eats on an

annual basis, but pellet analysis has also shown that it
row, pespite their avidity, there
will eat the following::
enough
Grasshoppers, cicadas, locusts, black crick-
Insects
ets,
roaches, dragonflies, beetles of
moth and butterfly adults and larvae, mole

and Jerusalem crickets, praying mantids, water
larvae,
crickets
and
bugs,
kinds and their
all
others.
Additional
Scorpions,
invertebrates
and
centipedes
other myriapods, crayfish, snails, slugs, earthworms.
Minnows
Fish
other small
of
many varieties, suckers, carp, and

when they become marooned
especially
fish,
and amphibians
Reptiles
Lizards of
venomous
salamanders, and toads.
small snakes (but not

frogs,
Mammals
Banner-tailed
ground
squirrels
house
mice,
meadow
and house
young birds turn and run back
varieties,
horned toads,
young
prairie
dogs,
it
grasshopper
mice,
young
all
sparrows of
larks,
grosbeaks,
vireos,
own
to their
when
only in the nesting season
western
but
size,
the food
demands
of
remains of other Burrowing Owls in their stomachs, but
whether this is the result of direct-attack cannibalism

or the devouring of highway-killed owls is not known.
Some
succulent
the
fruits
and seeds are eaten,

the Tesajilla and
of
fruits
prey
Large
prey
is
ripped
into
swallowing, the head always being eaten

in turn
hypugaea
cunicularia
perpetually hungry of the owls.

siderably
more than
available. Therefore,
its
chunks
first,
for
followed
it
one of the most
is
It
more
is
consume con-
will
own weight
than most other species. Even
prey daily,
in
persistently
when
littered
it
One burrow opened
and a ground
Young owls
nevertheless
that
wait
jo
flight
in
than
has taken wing.
bird
droppings are somewhat
Fecal
like short, twisted twigs of
charcoal.
Some aerial maneuverings occur on the part of the

male over the ground-perched female, but these are
usually brief and not especially spectacular in nature.
They
are
more
nature of circling
in the
When
spersed with gliding.
it
female and walks up beside her on a burrow

mound, she tends to move toward him and they stand
side
by side with shoulders touching for several minutes.
Then
the
interval
there follows a short
of
rubbing their
heads together. Actual copulation almost always occurs
underground,
but
there
walk
are
When
occasional
mound
off the
instances
of
takes place, the two
this
onto
ground
level
and copulation follows, swiftly accomplished.

lieved
that copulation
for
from several days
ing
Owl mates
for
is
is
be-
repeated several times daily
week.
to a
life,
It
but
if
The Western Burrow-
the
mate of one
is
killed,
the survivor will seek another.
ANNUAL BROODS,
NEST,
NESTING HABITS
is
two sparrows,
The Burrowing Owl
is
single-brooded, but will usu-
ally lay a second set of eggs
not yet able to
outside
inter-
the
will
squirrel.
are
flights
the male alights close to
if
burrow,
fly
keep
well
but
sharp
watch for parent birds returning with prey for them. At

sight of an adult approaching with prey, the young will
I
performed more often
for study yielded the
carcasses of 68 mice, one small rabbit,

rats,
is
while standing, usually occurring immediately after the
catches for de-
vouring at a later time, especially when bad weather
four
with pellets in various stages of decomposition.
on the hunt
not hungry
continue to hunt and store what prey
in the offing.
pellets are relatively small
its
by the viscera, then chunks of the actual meat.
Speotyto
fortunate
is
alone to devour
and are usually smooth and brown. They are regurgitated without any apparent difficulty anywhere the bird
happens to be, in the burrow or outside, and as a result
the main chamber and tunnel as well as the outside
area around the mouth of the burrow are usually well
birds normally
Burrowing Owl swallows
possible, the
whole.
left
about an inch long and three-fourths of an inch wide
above-ground mating.
prickly pear cacti.
Whenever
usually
is
many
the young owls are so extreme. There have been cases

where Burrowing Owls have been examined with the
Vegetable matter
first
it
mice,
such feeding on birds normally taking place
especially
claim
to
cottontail rabbits, chip-
meadowlarks, and other birds up

with
fighting over
little
sandpipers,
least
is
rats as large as themselves,
Black terns, horned
species,
their
in peace.
munks, shrews, moles.

Birds
in
prey at any time; whichever young bird
dry and quite dark, looking
rats,
white-footed
voles, sage rats,
many
species),
in
mound, and
the same way;
they never seem to learn to stand and wait at the bur-
Defecation
drying pools of streams or ponds.
in rapidly
intercept
to
over
other
directly to the
flies
and what it eats usually depends upon what

happens to be available at any given time. Insects and
varied
manner
a comical hop-and-flutter
and
if
the
sometimes even a third laying
also destroyed. If a second or
are normally smaller than the
The
Burrowing Owl
nest itself
is
if
first
is
destroyed,
the second set
third set is laid,
is
the eggs
first.
invariably underground in an en-
chamber
larged
end of a tunnel which may have
at the
been constructed by the owl
may have been
mammal which
own
burrow
the
more likely,
dog or other
far
itself or,
of a prairie
the owl has enlarged or modified for
The burrow entrance
its
somewhat
oval-
shaped, about six inches by four or five inches.
The
use.
is
usually
minimum of five inches

often as much as eight inches, though
Although the hole may sometimes go
tunnel
is
downward
often angles diagonally
for
in
diameter and
usually about
six.
down,
straight
two or three
it
feet
before leveling off and continuing for another five or six
chamber. Tunnel lengths tend
feet to the nest
greatly,
much
and though
nesting
in
some birds a tunnel may be
for
as eighteen or twenty feet, for others
mere four or
chamber
many
from entry
five feet
to vary
it
may
chamber
be a
to nest. Close to the
the tunnel begins angling upward,
cases the
as
will
itself
and
be only ten or
twelve inches below ground. Sometimes the tunnel will
make
a sharply angled turn
at other times
it
will follow
a sort of U-curve for ten or twelve feet and the nesting
chamber
moved
liberately
Even
is
cubated. Yet, hatching
chamber
nesting
eight inches to as
and about
chamber to
The
nest
to
six
its
much
usually
is
Color
Pure white
flea
somewhat domed
floor
always pretty disreputable. In addition to
is
in
considerable
may be
there
quantities
a layer of
of
as
it
bottom of the den. With
dried
deep
as
The
cattle
to bring in
also brings
dung
until
two inches on the
this material,
along with
bits
of bone, cloth, grasses, pellet debris,
and other material,

the nest more often than not has an extremely unpleasant odor and practically without exception is infested with fleas.
it
in-
ioo per cent
eggs are often stained with
Shape
Usually a rounded oval but frequently very
nearly globular.
Texture
Quite variable. At times they can be very
smooth shelled;
other times they
at
But they are either
granulated.
The
other within a single clutch.

glossy;
more
so
than
all
may
be heavily
one way or the
eggs are always very
any other North American owl
in
species.
Size
Roughly about the size of pigeon eggs, a
measurement of 42 eggs yielded the averages of 32.9
mm. (1.3") in length and 27.3 mm. (i-i") in width.
Extremes included
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum
length:
33-1
length:
28.4
width:
28.0
width
24.8
the strange odds
that
can be effectively
sometimes, white with just the
or,
the
roof.
and ends the owl finds

see General Habits and Characteristics), it
all
of
formation.
them
excrement.
from a minimum of
from the
all
of
nearly always
is
faintest tinge of bluish.
as eighteen inches in diameter
eight inches
number
successful.
hole.
The
how
understand
difficult to
horseshoe
a sort of
into
there are often such a
so,
be within a couple of feet of the entry
will
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
(1.3")
(1.1")
(1.1")
(1.0")
While two eggs may be
laid
on the same day, the interval is more often at least 36

hours between layings and sometimes as much as 72
hours apart.
Egg-laying dates
Northern area (Dakotas)
April 22; latest, July 18; normally between
earliest,
May
and
June
Middle area (Kansas/Colorado) earliest, March 29;
normally between May 14 and June 6.
latest July 1
Western area 'California) earliest, March 20; latest,
June 17; normally between April 14 and May 2.
16.
Western Burrowing Owl is improving the exburrow or constructing its own, which it may do
If the
isting
on rare occasions,
it
will loosen the dirt of the
tunnel
INCUBATION AND
and feet and then kick this dirt

backward, gradually moving it toward the mouth of the
burrow and then kicking it outside, in much the way a
walls with both beak
chicken will scratch in the

raised
mound
of
in of nest-bed material,
The
This results in the well-
around the entry hole. Both

at the digging and the bringing-
earth
male and female work

owl.
soil.
when such
is
introduced by the
preference seems to be for level ground for the
hole, but this
is
not a prerequisite, since nesting burrows
are often located on slopes.
Incubation
is
almost
equally
divided
parent birds and there are times on a
when
basis
side
by
both birds are brooding at the
side.
However,
term of incubation
is
have stated
as short a time as 21
it is
egg, the
Some
days, but
either 28 or 29 days.
YOUNG AND FAMILY
LIFE
CHARACTERISTICS
S umber
per nesting Normally at least six eggs are

and sometimes as many as twelve. Seven, eight, or
nine eggs seem to be the most common-sized clutches.
These eggs are usually laid in a single layer, but de-
not begin
fifth
not accurately established.
the consensus seems to be that
EGGS
regular
same time,
may
since incubation
until the laying of the third, fourth, or
authorities
between the
fairly
laid
Newly hatched
primarily
Western Burrowing
Owl
on
the
birds
are very scantily feathered
main feather
tracts
with
soft,
'7'

Breed from southern interior British Columbia (Okanagan
southern Alberta
Munson
Saskatchewan
(Livelong; Rush Lake; Nipawin), and central southern
Manitoba (Kildonan), south through eastern Washingi
ton and
Oregon (Rogue River Valley) and California

Guadalupe Island), east-
(including coastal islands and
ward
to the eastern border of the Great Plains in

Minnesota (Swift and Martin counties), northwestern
Iowa (Paton), central Kansas (Sedgwick County),

Oklahoma, central Texas (Bonham; Austin), and
Louisiana (Baton Rouge ), southward to at least central
Mexico, but southernmost extremity of breeding range
May
has not been definitely established.
include Baja
California.
Winters over
much
of the breeding range except in
and Great
the northernmost Great Basin
In what migration actually occurs,
southern
Louisiana,
southern
it
Plains regions.
will
move
into
and
the
Mississippi,
western panhandle of Florida, and southward through

southern Mexico and western Central America to west-
Panama
ern
(Chiriqui), Chile,
and Argentina.
Accidental in Indiana, Michigan, southern Ontario,
New
New
Hampshire, Massachusetts,
York, and Vir-
ginia.
MIGRATION
Speotyto cunicularia hypugaea (Bonaparte)
Migrational to some extent, though not at

regular annual basis.
Most
birds
in
the
all
central
on a
and
southern portions of the breeding range are year-round
Northern birds make a
residents.
southward
in
midautumn,
movement
definite
migrating
at
night
only.
Generally speaking, birds located southward of a line
down which
short gray-white
fairly
darker at the
is
base, but so sparse that the bare skin
shows through,
even after the juvenile plumage has begun sprouting.
By about
plumage appears on
from Oregon
to
northern Kansas do not migrate
though, oddly enough, the owl

northeastern Arizona from
is
said to be absent
November through
al-
from
April.
the sixth to eighth day. the first soft juvenile
feather
until,
This
tracts.
wings,
and the principal

and broadens
tail,
gradually
spreads
by the fourth week, the young bird
distinctive
juvenal plumage
first
Markings: Juvenile)
August. At
the contour
this
which
time there
plumage
is
(see
is
worn until about early

begun a complete molt of
sides, scapulars,
The young
to first-winter
and wing
birds are
still
Because of the enormous numbers of rodents and

eaten by Speotyto cunicularia hypugaea, it is
is
plumage, beginning
By the time this

molt is completed in mid-September, the young birds are
virtually indistinguishable from adults.
on the
ECONOMIC INFLUENCE
well clad in
Coloration and
coverts.
flightless
when they
insects
ranked as the second most economically beneficial owl

of North America, surpassed only by the Barn Owl
first
and they tend to gather in a circular

formation on the mound around the hole, ready at an
instant's notice to tumble back into the hole if danger
leave the burrow,
threatens or to rush to meet a parent bird approaching
with food. They are most comical in their actions and
ing
very interesting to watch.
its
172
variety of attitudes
Owl
burrow
Burrowing Owl
and posturingS
of the Florida
(Speotyto cunicularia floridana)

in
De Soto County,
Florida.
at
the
Burrow-
mouth
of
i-o'i^
/.e^^.
I/O
1
-]
*.#.
BURROWING OWL
FLORIDA
Florida Burrowing
Owl
distinctly undulative
(COLOR PLATE XXXVII)
considerably
is
not
less
direct
and
as strongly so as that of the
pileated woodpecker, but with
more expansive wanderings.
more
and
dips
rises
and
does not glide as often
It
or for as long distances as does Speotyto cunicularia
hypugaea, although
SCIENTIFIC
NAME AND
for prey location. Rarely will
or
Speotyto cunicularia ftoridana Ridgway. Original description: Speotyto cunicularia var. Floridana
American Sportsman, Volume
4,
Number
yards in one
fifty
from the mound
manner
more than forty
does hover in a similar
it
it
Most
flight.
in front of its
for
fly
when
often,
burrow,
it
startled
will fly in a
semicircular pattern, returning to another burrow per-
haps twenty yards from
its
own.
Ridgway,
(n.s.
14
No.
40), July 4, 1874, page 216; based on a specimen taken
Manatee County,
16 miles east of Sarasota Bay,
WEIGHT
Florida.
In recent years there has been considerable discussion
concerning the possibility of reclassifying

species distinct in
cunicularia
tyto
its
own
subspecies,
the
since
this
owl as a
Subspecies average
186.7 gr. (6.5 oz.]
than as a Speo-
right, rather
differences
are
quite pronounced. Should such a change in the classi-
made, the new name proposed
fication be
would be Speotyto
TOTAL LENGTH
for the species
floridana.
Subspecies average:
222.6
mm.
(8.8")
nearly
an
inch shorter than the Western Burrowing Owl.
OTHER NAMES
cattle
owl
Because
its
WINGSPAN
habitat in Florida coincides
with beef-producing ranches and
it is
often seen close to
mm.
cattle.
palmetto owl
Since
it
often nests in open areas
to 590.6
mm.
(20.9")
as
compared
(23.3") for Speotyto cunicularia hypugaea.
adjacent to extensive growths of low palmetto.
sandhill owl Because of the mound of sand it deand stands upon at the entrance to its burrow.
posits

mm.
(6.2").
The upperparts
sandy-colored
less
of this owl are
much
darker and far
than those of any other form
TAIL LENGTH
of
Speotyto cunicularia, and the spots and general colora-
mm.
(3.0").
tion of the underparts are a dull white rather than buff-
colored.
The
only distinct buffiness of the underparts
occurs on the thighs and underwing coverts, and these
brown toward
coverts are spotted with
The
the
than those
of Speotyto cunicularia hypugaea, but they are
feathered, the
less
beak
is
tail
and wings are
BEAK LENGTH
wing edges.
legs are not only considerably shorter
shorter,
much
and
the
Subspecies average: Slightly broader than that of the
Western Burrowing Owl, and longer, averaging
mm.
larger.
fo.6")
as
compared
to
13.9
mm.
(0.5")
15.5
for the
Western form.
FLIGHT PATTERN
LEGS
Burrowing Owl
differs in many respects from that of the Western Burrowing Owl. Where the flight of the latter bird is rela-
The
flight
tively level
'74
pattern
and
direct,
of
if
the
Florida
somewhat
irregular, that of the
The
naked.
What
than that
Burrowing Owl
mm. (1.5") and are nearly

plumage there is, is much shorter
worn bv the Western Burrowing Owl.
average 36.8
tarsi
little
GENERAL HABITS AND
VOICE
Essentially similar to Speotyto cunicularia
except that the alarm cry has a
and
much
higher quality
being a series of one long note
differs in structure,
WH1I1-
followed by two short notes and sounding like:
IIT whit-whit, or by two

a
stuttering
of
sort
following,
whoodle-oodle-oodle-ittt! ,
with
more emphatic. Sometimes

final
and
short notes to begin with
cry
the
as
in
is
whit-whit
note
final
this call
CHARACTERISTICS
hypugaca
slightly
given with the
Considerably more diurnal
hypugaca, but
cularia
still
than
Communal
afternoon and evening.
Speotyto
is
principally
active
cuni-
in
late
some extent, but

not as numerously as in the Western Burrowing Owl.
There arc rarely more than two to five families in a
colony, and often a bird will make an isolated nest and
to
establish only a single-family group.
note absent.
Generally speaking,
Another slightly different call from those given by

the Western form is a tremulous ploverlike cry often
more
therefore
voiced at sight of a distant, unfamiliar object.
easily
approached and observed.
inclined to take flight from
less
more
bend
inclined to
Burrowing Owl
Florida
the
is
than the western subspecies, and
easily frightened
less
its
burrow, but
It
is
much
far over after standing erect,
and
then run a dozen feet or more as a robin might, before

standing erect again.
SEXUAL DIFFERENCES: SIZE,

COLORATION, VOICE
and often
the
size,
little
or voice,
quite definitely
It
tends to preen
sexual difference in color, markings,
the Florida Burrowing
Owl
more deeply reddish on
the upperparts,
female
itself
more
extensively
mound,
stands on the burrow
it
gives the impression of being
Unlike the Western Burrowing Owl, which shows
remarkably
as
yet
it
actively alert than
Western Burrowing Owl. Curiously,
Florida
this
subspecies has the habit of gaping widely, as
if
yawn-
during the day.
ing, frequently
is
and
especially in the center of the back, than the male,
her spottings on breast and belly have more distinct
margins and are therefore

In
HABITAT
sharply defined.
the female appears generally darker, particu-
flight
larly
much more
Mostly prefers
on the upperparts, than the male.
expansive areas of sand and
treeless,
sparse grasses. Although often nesting within a dozen

feet of the standing
burrow
MORTALITY
which are
spotted here and there with small marshes, hammocks,
and interconnecting ponds.
line.
Considerably more cannibalistic in the nest than the
is
water of a lake, pond, or canal, the
always on a high point well above the waterespecially
It
likes
wide-open
tracts
Western Burrowing Owl. Because the young birds are

such voracious feeders, they will tax their parents to the
utmost to provide enough to reasonably

appetites.
If
one parent bird should be
satisfy
killed,
their
almost
certainly the remaining parent will not be able to supply
enough food
for the young. In such a case, the larger
nestlings will fall
can and
will
sufficient
food
upon
the smallest
and devour
it.
This
continue until only one bird remains,

is
if
not provided by the parent.
The male
Florida Burrowing
away and stand

several
among
All upperparts are a rather

in the
in whitish.
mainder
male birds
The
throat
deep brownish
and both
themselves.
is
far
adult
The
manner
murmuring softly
to be a worried
females,
male, on the other hand, will

is
often aided in this
re-
rows with
and
loose
soft,
soils of
the nesting grounds are generally
the nests are
more vulnerable than
those
Burrowing Owl, and numerous eggs are

destroyed by skunks, opossums, raccoons, and armadil-
of the Western
los.
brown and white, becoming less distinct toward

mid-belly, and practically indistinguishable in the area
ranchers
of the vent.
cattle
grayish
generally
endeavor by neighboring males.
grayish
narrowly white and the
what seems
attack the intruder with vigor, and
spotted and barred
of the underparts are barred in equal
in
other
Because the
brown
is
aggressive than the female, especially
with

ADULT
Owl
where protection of young birds is concerned. When danger

threatens, the female is apt to move some distance
more
many of these little owls are shot bywho object to the holes they make, into which
may step with resultant injury.
Unfortunately,
Florida Burrowing
Owl
'75
begun during the first half of March, and the sand

scratched out by the bird makes a quite conspicuous
mound
is
it
struck
rarely
more surprising
quently
Unafraid of
at the entry hole.
nevertheless
in
will dig
view of the fact that not

its
owl
vehicles, this
by one. This
burrow within a few
is
the
all
at all infre-
feet of a busy
road. In 1971, the authors closely observed the nesting
pair of Florida Burrowing Owls which

burrow exactly 28 inches from the edge of
the pavement of State Route 74 in the vicinity of La
Belle, Florida, a highway heavily used by cross-state
activities of a
built their
truck
traffic,
including tractor-trailer
rigs
high speed. At times the sentinel owl would
blown off its

semivan but,
preen
feet,
It
feet
was possible
human
be
would immediately regain its

and continue standing guard.
stop an auto less than fifty feet away
it
carefully
to
without alarming the bird into

ing
at
literally
by the blast of wind from a passing
unruffled,
itself
moving
flight,
although a walk-
could get no closer than about 100 feet be-
fore the bird chattered
its
warning cry and
fled.
EGGS
Generally, fewer eggs are laid by Speotyto cunicularia
floridana than by Speotyto cunicularia hypugaea, with
five or six
being the most
ever, fewer than four or
The average egg

FLORIDA BURROWING
by 26.3

OF PREY
small snakes,
feeds
mostly on
in-
and grasshoppers, along with

some anoles and skinks, and occasional
especially
sects,
floridana
Rarely,
if
based on the measurements of
size,
mm.
(1.0")
in
about March 15 at the
cunicularia
clutch.
eight eggs are laid.
50 eggs, was slightly smaller than that of the Western

Burrowing Owl, averaging 32.5 mm. (1.3") in length
OWL
Speotyto cunicularia floridana Ridgway
Speotyto
common
more than
width. Egg-laying dates from
earliest to
May
25 at the
latest,
the height of the egg-laying occurring between April 4

and April 23.
beetles
This owl will also stand in shallow water at times

and snag fish up to six inches long with its talons. Some
mice are eaten, along with spiders, centipedes, and
scorpions. Unlike the Western race, which swallows
whole whatever prey it can, the Florida Burrowing Owl
has a strong tendency to dissect its prey and eat it in
smaller bits, as a sparrow hawk does. It rarely regurgitates well-developed pellets but coughs up small bones
or other undigestibles by themselves, and these materials
frogs.
In the prairies of central and southern Florida, from

the upper St. Johns River area westward through the
and southward through the Kissimmee

area, in the area surrounding Lake Okeechobee, to the
Miami and Coral Gables area, and westward to the
vicinity of Immokalee, and northwesterly from there to
the area of Punta Gorda. It is also found in the Bahamas from Grand Bahama Island to Great Inagua
Gainesville area
Island.
MIGRATION
are often scattered about the entrance to the burrow.
Non-migratory.
NEST, NESTING HABITS
ECONOMIC INFLUENCE
Differing considerably from the Western Burr6wing
Owl,
Owl
far
digs
more often than not

its
own
the Florida Burrowing
nesting burrow, although sometimes
it
Of
benefit in
its
predation upon mice and insects,
but disliked by cattle ranchers because of the holes
mammal
makes, which can cause cattle to break

owl also causes some problems by interfering with
are so
craft at
abandoned armadillo holes. It has few helpful

associates to compare with prairie dogs, which
helpful to the Western race. Burrowing is usually
will use
176
their legs.
Burrowing Owl
major Florida
airports.
it
The
air-
This
being
SPECIES
ORDER:
STRIGIFORMES
FAMILY:
STRIGIDAE
GENUS:
Micrathene Coues
SPECIES:
whitneyi (Cooper)
the smallest owl species in North America,
is
much
smaller in over-all size than the Screech
Owls (Otus asio sp.) and even smaller than the Pygmy
Owls {CHaucidium gnoma sp.). It is distinctive from the
Pygmy Owls in that the tail is much shorter and, though
coloration is similar, it is generically more like the Burrowing Owls (Speotyto cunicularia sp.). It is dichromatic, with a brown phase and a gray phase. Whitney's
Elf Owl is little larger than a chickadee and can comfortably perch upon a drinking straw.
Rank
among
in size
the eighteen species: Eighteenth.
SHAPE AT REST
Owl
Whitney's Elf
SUBSPECIES
sition
perches in a relatively upright po-
and, though hardly the
a house sparrow,
size of
seems larger than that bird because of the

of
whitneyi (Cooper)
WHITNEY'S ELF
OWL
idonea (Ridgway)
its
plumage. The head
is
it
nature
quite round with no trace
of ear tufts and, while
it
the Burrowing Owl,
has the same knock-kneed stance.
it
does not stand quite as erect as
Whether perched or on the wing, the

and rather square-cut in appearance.
TEXAS ELF OWL
fluffy
tail is
very short
SHAPE IN FLIGHT
In flight the
OWL
WHITNEY'S ELF
{COLOR PLATE XXXVIII
appears especially stubby and the
tail
wings have distinctly rounded
tips.
the impression of being a bat
when
not quite as erratic in
its
This
little
owl gives
in flight,
although
movements.
FLIGHT PATTERN
SCIENTIFIC
NAME AND ORIGINAL
The wings
DESCRIPTION
before
Micrathene whitneyi whitneyi (Cooper). Original deAthene whitneyi Cooper, Proceedings of the
scription:
California
Academy
of Sciences,
Series
I,
Volume
Arizona.
Fort Mojave, Lat. 35
Former
scientific
swiftly
then
fly,
from one
perch
its
wings quickly
or no gliding and fairly low to the

rise as
nears the next perch-
it
ing spot.
Athene
little
it flies
tends to drop slightly from
ground, making a slight
Colorado River Valley,
names:
It
beginning to
actually
along with
(before December), 1861, page 118; based on a speci-
men from
beat very rapidly as
perch to another.

birds:
whitneyi,
Micropallas whitneyi whitneyi.
WEIGHT
Species average: 25.7 gr. (0.9 oz.
).
Female
Male
OTHER NAMES
owl For its diminutive size.
tecolote enano de cooper Mexican-Indian name
meaning "Cooper's Dwarf Owl."
elf
Whitney's Elf
Average
25.2 gr.
(0.9
Minimum
Maximum
17.0 gr.
(0.6 oz.
Rank
in
28.9 gr.
weight
oz.)
(1.0 oz.)
among
the
26.1
gr.
(0.9
17.3
gr.
(0.6 oz.)
30.6 gr.
eighteen
(1.1
oz.)
oz.)
species:
Eight-
eenth.
Owl
TOTAL LENGTH
naked.
ally
yellowish
mm.
(6.0").
Male
Average
Rank
mm
(5-8")
'55-0
1355 mm.
(5.3")
152.4
mm.
(6.2")
167.
Minimum
Maximum
Female
47-9
57
mm
(6.1")
mm.
mm.
(6.6")
The
gray
talons
are
quite
weak
The
slate-gray-to-black
only moderately
(6.0")
EYES AND VISION
eenth.
The
are a bright
irides
lemon yellow, occasionally
.shading into orangish yellow. Because of the wide
WINGSPAN
(14.7").
369.7
Minimum
Maximum
353.1
Rank
379.7
mm.
mm.
mm.
Female
(14.6")
377.2
(13.9")
373.8
(15.0")
a constantly startled expression.
nowhere nearly
quite good, but
Male
Average
man-
ner in which the eyes are usually opened, Whitney's Elf
Owl wears
mm.
and
curved,
an owl.
for
length arnong the eighteen species: Eight-
in total
coloration.
short,
fairly
and rather weak and
are small
feet
in
382.3
mm.
mm.
mm.
in
(14.9")
the location
of prey.
as
Vision
This tiny owl can see well
enough during the day and probably even better
(14.7")
night, but twilight
is
is
important as hearing
the ideal condition for
its
at
vision.
(15.1")
wingspan among the eighteen species: Eight-
in
eenth.
EARS AND HEARING

mm
Female
99.1
Minimum
Maximum
98.8
100.4
mm.
mm.
mm.
Rank
icing
length
markedly asymmetrical, though place-
cavities are
is very nearly the same on both sides.

There is a slight difference in size of the ear coverts, and
the owl seems to have great control over the degree of
extension of the ear coverts, to aid in sound locating. As
3-9")-
Male
Average
in
Ear
ment on the head
(3.9")
100.3
(3.9")
100. o
(4.0")
102.0
among
the
mm.
mm.
mm.
(40")
(4.0")
a result, hearing
(4.0")
eighteen
is
superb.
species:
Eighteenth.
MOLT
TAIL LENGTH
mm.
Whitney's Elf
(2.2").
Male
Average
53.0
Minimum
Maximum
50.8
Rank
56.6
mm.
mm.
mm.
in tail length
56.5
(2.0")
54.4
(2.2")
60.3
among
mm.
mm.
mm.
has no ear tufts whatever, and the
head shape seems almost perfectly round. Plumage is

not quite as tightly held to the body as in the Pygmy
Owl and, as a result, the Elf Owl tends to look more
bulky, even though smaller. Well-fluted feathers and
Female
(2.1")
Owl
(2.2")
(2.1")
(2.4")
the eighteen species: Eight-
eenth.
soft
plumage
flight
than
is
give
it
a somewhat more silent
true of the
Pygmy Owl. There
plete annual molt of the adults
September and
is
which begins
style
of
one comin early
usually completed by late October.
is
BEAK LENGTH
mm.
(0.3").
Male
Average
8.5
Minimum
Maximum
9.2
Rank
in
8.1
mm.
mm.
mm.
Female
(0.3")
8.7
(0.3")
8.2
(0.4")
9.3
mm.
mm.
mm.
(0.3")
(0.3")
Very little banding has been accomplished with these

owls, and not a great deal is known in respect to infant
(0.4")
beak length among the eighteen species: Eight-
or adult mortality or longevity.
few captive birds have
eenth.
lived for over five years.
LEGS, FEET,
TALONS
A
The
legs are rather sparsely feathered
have only scattered hairlike

178
bristles
and the
and appear
toes
virtu-
Elf
field
study of a family of Whitney's Elf
whitneyi whitneyi)
Mexico border.
Owl
Sketched on the
Owls [Micrathene
New
Mexico-Arizona-
^^
&*-
**
\V
l^l^^
r
*w
'/is;.'

ADULT
proach close
from
the
XXXVIII.) The
(sometimes
conspicuous
seven)
which do not touch the
spots
(See
that.
shaft.
The
six
buffy- reddish
rectrices are
bands of pale whitish buff which do not touch the
on either web. Superciliaries and
lores are white,
each feather barely tipped with black. Facial disks are

buffy to
cinnamon
darker around the eyes and
buff,
in the outer-eye corner area
malar
areas.
cheek.
The
There
throat
more pronounced
is
sometimes a whitish spot on the
some individuals than
in
and
in the suborbital
buffy with a reddish cast
is
The underparts
than
are
generally
duskily
much
with
barred
and creosote bush growing
cacti, mesquite,
hard, stony ground, but often ventures to slightly
in
higher elevations to the canyons, ravines, and grasslands,
among well-grown
oaks on the more northerly
much
at elevations of as
more often
cially to
sycamores, and
walnuts,
While
rises.
can be found
it
as 7,000 feet, this
belly
buff.
Undertail coverts are white with narrow, some-
is
and
rare
found below 5,500 feet and seems espefavor areas between 3,000 and 5,000 feet in
it
is
and
elevation. It frequently inhabits creek valleys
roosts
a hole during the day, either a natural tree cavity
in
or an old woodpecker hole. Just as often, though,
it
spends the day perched amid very heavy foliage in dense

thickets.
Generally the holes
finds
it
saguaro cacti
in
are not used except during the nesting season. While
females brood the eggs and young, the males become
somewhat gregarious and perch together
in others.
on the reddish feathering, but breast and

are primarily unmarked buff to dusky or cinnamon
narrow
by
Prefers very arid, low-elevation desert terrain over-
grown with
Plate
crossed by four or five narrow and often interrupted
shaft
insects attracted
especially
Color
outer webs of the primaries have

or
five
of
tip
and chase
a strong dislike for flying during brisk
winds.
Gray phase: The upperparts are generally grayish

brown to brownish gray, with irregular small spottings
of buff, shading to a more ruddy buff on the forehead.
There is an interrupted collar of whitish-buff spotting
across the lower hindneck. Outer webs of the shoulder
feathers are white with thin black margins. Middle coverts and greater coverts have largish half-oval spottings
on the outer webs of each feather, causing a tearshaped white outline with a comma-shaped line extending
to campfires
Has
the glow.
well
hidden
in thick cover.
lines
what dusky center
streaks or irregular spots.
Underwing
coverts are whitish buffy, irregularly spotted with slaty
The
gray to slaty brown, but pure white on the wing edges.
Brown phase: markings
are quite similar to those of
the gray phase, but generally
of
a dark-brownish
more
considerably more
particularly
coloration,
on the
greatest defense of this petite owl
tive coloration,
close range, as
which makes
it
it
its
protec-
virtually invisible,
even at
is
perches in heavy foliage.
threatens, the roosting bird straightens
If danger
and brings one
at the wrist, and spread so that

and primaries shield the light underparts, which would be much more visible. It tends
to turn slightly sideways on the perch, but still facing
wing forward, bent
back.
the speckled coverts
the intruder, with only the tops of the pupils peering
over the wing edge.
While
JUVENILE
it
generally prefers to flee rather than fight,
will occasionally attack the larger
Like adults, but with the crown unspotted and deep
brownish gray. The

grayer without
facial disks in particular are
ruddy
buffiness.
much
Marbled and rather
cloudy gray or gray-brown underparts, narrowly barred
trichopsis trichopsis)
in
it
Whiskered Owl (Otus
territorial
dispute.
Almost
al-
ways the smaller owl emerges triumphant. Oddly, such

disputes
have
almost
invariably
been
witnessed
in
stands of well-grown sycamore.
Now
with darker gray.
and again Whitney's
with woodpeckers over
who
Elf
Owl
will
squabble
has the right to inhabit a
particular hole, but for the most part there
is little
har-
assment by other birds.
GENERAL HABITS AND

CHARACTERISTICS
Quite
decidedly
habits, spending the

this
180
and nocturnal in its

rest. Throughout the year
at dusk and will often ap-
crepuscular
day
at
owl becomes very active
Elf
Elf
Owl {Micrathene
and near
Owl
its
made
in
Arizona of the Whitney's
whitneyi whitneyi)
nesting hole in a saguaro cactus.
in
posturings
at
l^-
Ow
uihit^cif*
'1
T.A^j,
u/lrttntî
S^t'-ta.W
:<Nb
Tend To be
Tailed
*.f.X
Un^

OF PREY
Because of
much
of
rapid and highly maneuverable
its
prey
its
almost
entirely
insects
is
EGGS
Number
off trees, brush, or the
captured
and somewhat
ground without the bird
These are almost always carried
alighting.
in the talons
a nearby perch to be eaten. Likes to perch relatively
to
low
in tree
advertise
its
movement
or sound, at which
Usually there are three
four.
Color
Roundly
On
ovate.
Finely
and moderately
granulated
glossy.
rare occasions the eggs will be highly glossy.
Size
egg-size
measured eggs yielded average
of 31
total
figures
mm.
23.5
attacks at once.
it
commonly,
less
Shape
Texture.
or bush or on cactus and wait for prey to
presence by
to five eggs are laid, but
five.
flight,
in flight in the outstretched talons. Insects are also often
plucked
Two
per nesting
only rarely either two or
of
(0.9")
mm.
27.5
(1.1")
in
and
length
Extreme measurements
in width.
in-
cluded:
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum

Most
fore
being swallowed,
prey
jority of
brate
little
30.1
25.0
width:
26.3
width:
22.5
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
(1.2")
(
1.0")
(1.0")
(0.9")
prey, even smaller insects, are ripped apart be-
much
a sparrow
as
hawk
life
owl
is
made up
such as scorpions, spiders,

will occasionally
and very
of insects
and other inverteand centipedes, this
Egg-laying dates
normally between
Mainly
it
and
relatively dry
larvae.
loose,
54 hours between
Earliest, April 28; latest,
May
14
May
and
June
16;
28.
eats caterpillars,
moths, beetles, crickets, grasshoppers, cicadas, locusts,

insect
to
eggs-
prey upon small mice, shrews,
rarely a small bird.
and various
From 48
eats
prey piecemeal. Although by far the greater ma-
its
length:
length:
Pellets
and
are

CHARACTERISTICS
poorly formed,
disintegrate quickly after
regurgitation. Light brownish to grayish, they contain
mainly of the undigestible chitinous materials of the

sects
in-
and other invertebrates devoured.
Fecal wastes are viscous, gray brown, and generally
dropped below the bird during
It is
egg
flight.
very likely that incubation begins with the
laid, since
of the parents
from the time

is
on the
equally between them.
it is
nest,
The
laid
first
one or the other
with incubation shared
incubation period of 14 days
the shortest of any North American owl species. The

male rarely brings food to the incubating female, allowis
ing her to hunt for herself while he takes his turn at in-

Because of the almost
strictly
cubating.
nocturnal or late cre-
puscular habits of the bird, data on courtship and mating are
still
largely wanting.
Some muted
calling origi-
nates during this time from the males, but these calls
are rather ventriloquial, increasing the difficulty of close
COAST PYGMY
XLV
observation.
OWL (Above)
Glaucidium gnoma grinnelli Ridgway. Female. \
King County, Washington, December

Number 379-C
Seattle,
ANNUAL BROODS,
NEST, NESTING
XLVI
Single-brooded, Micrathene whitneyi whitneyi almost
abandoned woodpecker holes, favoring

those in hardwoods
sycamores, oaks, willows, walnuts
but using those in saguaro cactus when nothing else
is
The nest hole is generally about twenty feet

may be as low as ten feet or as high as
This little owl has been known to nest without
available.
in height,
thirty.
woodpeckers
182
XI.VII
in the
same
nesting
flickers
and
tree or cactus.
Glaucidium brasilianum ridgwayi (Sharp). Male. One mile

Dog Springs, Hidalgo County. New Mexico,
November
19, 1970.
Number 380-A
XLVm
CACTUS OWL
Glaucidium brasilianum cactorum van Rossem. Male. San

Bias Territory, Tepic, Mexico, April 19, 1905. A.O.U.
ber 380
Elf
FERRUGINOUS OWL
northwest of
but
aggression only a few feet from
VANCOUVER PYGMY OWL (Below)
A.O.U. Number 379-B
in
of
A.O.U.
Glaucidium gnoma swarthi Grinnell. Male. Cedar Hill, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada, November 30, 1922.
HABITS
always nests
icinity
25, 19 16.
Owl
Num-
W%xv/4&
?{J.?UJL^
?(***l
pucxî^-
YOUNG AND FAMILY
LIFE
CHARACTERISTICS
Disappointingly
this
dainty
about the
little
known about
is
When
owl.
little
first
the nest
life
of
hatched the babies are
size of the first joint of
a man's
are well covered with a short, pure-white
thumb and
down. The
intermediate plumage begins to appear before the end

of the
week, with the
first
clinging
to
plumage
is
the
down being pushed out and

new feathers. This new
the
of
tips
head and body
usually pure gray on the
(both upperparts and underparts), with some very in-
and barring of slightly darker gray on

no indication of buffiness or
brown anywhere on the young bird. A final postnuptial
molt occurring in June and July results in plumage
distinct mottling
the underparts. Practically
from that of the parent
indistinguishable
practically
birds.

This
is
the most abundant owl in Arizona,
and
it
breeds from the lower Colorado River Valley of Cali-
and Arizona (Fort Mojave), southern Arizona

Oracle), southwestern New Mexico, and
Chisos Mountains), southward
southwestern Texas
(Guirocoba),
Guanajuato, and Puebla, MexSonora
to
fornia
i
Prescott,
WHITNEY
ELF
OWL
Micrathene whitneyi whitneyi (Cooper"
ico.
Winters primarily south of the United States.
On
rare occasions
it is
found
in the Big
Bend country
of Texas.
em
Mexico. Spring migration northward commences in
late
February and earlv March. As far as
migrational flying
is
done
is
known,
all
at night.
MIGRATION
Migratory in the more northerly parts of
Almost
all
birds of this species in
move southward
into
Mexico
in late
its
range.
the United
States
ECONOMIC INFLUENCE
Although Whitney's Elf Owl
October and prob-
ably winter as far south as the Rio Balsas Basin of south-
injurious
since
its
insects,
range
the
effects
is
a useful destroyer of
are
relatively
negligible
mostly confined to non-agricultural
is
areas.
GREAT HORNED
XLIX
Bubo
virginianus
rirginianus
OWL
(Gmelin).
Male.
Dayton, Montgomery County, Ohio, January
i,
Vicinity
1970.
TEXAS ELF OWL
of
A.O.U.
Number 375
[COLOR PLATE XXXIX)

L
Bubo
of
ST.
MICHAEL HORNED OWL
virginianus algistus
Tubutulik
Peninsula, Alaska. A.O.U.

LI
Bubo
Moses Point, Seward
SCIENTIFIC
Number 375-G
LABRADOR HORNED
virginianus heterocnemis
of Charlottetown, Prince
1938.
Oberholser). Male. Near the mouth
River at Norton Bay,
DESCRIPTION
OWL
(Oberholser). Male. Vicinity
Edward
A.O.U. Number 375-F
NAME AND ORIGINAL
Island,
Canada, March
Micrathene
7,
description:
Texas Elf
Owl
whitneyi
Micropallas
idonea
(Ridgway).
whitneyi
idoneus
Original
Ridgway,
183
Considerably grayer in general coloration than WhitOwl (Micrathene whitneyi whitneyi), with all
ney's Elf
light
mon
markings considerably whiter and without cinnaand with all grays generally darker
or buffy traces,
and more contrasting against ground coloration than

the gray phase of Whitney's Elf Owl.
in
GENERAL HABITS AND

CHARACTERISTICS
Without doubt this is the least known of all North
American owls. Robert Ridgway had only two specimens of this owl to work with when he named and described
April
5,
the
and while a
since
race.
The
type
specimen was taken
on
1889, just five miles outside Hidalgo, Texas,
then,
fair
number
little
of specimens have been taken
comprehensive
study
natural history has been accomplished.

believed to be considerably
of
It
the
is,
more aggressive
bird's
however,
in
nature
than Whitney's Elf Owl.
TEXAS ELF
OWL
Micrathene whitneyi idonea (Ridgway)
U. S. National
Museum
Bulletin,
Number
near Hidalgo, Texas.
184
Resident in the lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas
50, Part 6,
(in key), 810; based on a specimen from

1 9 14, pp. 807
Hidalgo. Brownsville), southward to Guanajuato, Val-
ley of
Elf
Owl
Mexico, and Puebla (Tehuacan)
WHITE TERROR OF THE
NORTH
For
ferocity
itS
with prey of the arctic regions.
SPECIES
ORDER
Nyftea scandiaca is not only the largest North American owl, but one of the most strikingly beautiful owls in
STRIGIFORMES
the entire world.
STRIGIDAE
FAMILY:
Though
ably, there are only
differing
from both consider-
two other birds within
its
range for
it might be mistaken. One of these is the Arctic

Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus subarcticus) which, in
which
GENUS:
Nyctea Stephens
SPECIES:
scandiaca (Linnaeus)
lightest
its
some resemblance
Horned Owl, however,
coloration, bears
Snowy Owl. The
Arctic
erally darker, has highly distinctive ear tufts
SNOWY OWL
lacking in the
erect posture.
the
is
SNOWY OWL
White Gyrfalcon (Falco
aquiline shape.
[COLOR PLATE XL)
which
rusticolus obsoletus)
more
The Willow Ptarmigan (Lagopus
lago-
its
winter garb has a similar coloration,

all
like
the
Streamlined in a rather bulky way, the

essentially
which are
much narrower wings and
but really looks nothing at
is
gen-
Snowy Owl, and has a considerably more

The other bird to some degree similar is
a smaller bird with
pus albus) in
the
to
is
pure white, more or
less
Snowy Owl.
Snowy Owl
speckled with slate-
upon age and sex. (See Sexual

Coloration, Voice and Coloration and
colored spots, depending
SCIENTIFIC
NAME AND ORIGINAL
Differences: Size,
Markings: Juvenile.)
DESCRIPTION
Rank
in
over-all
size
among
the
eighteen
species:
First.
Nyctea scandiaca (Linnaeus). Original description:

Strix scandiaca Linnaeus, Systematica Natura, Edition
10,
Volume
i.
page 92; based on a specimen
1758,
from Alpibus Lapponiae (Lapland). Former scientific

names: Strix nyctea, Strix arctica, Nyctea nivea, Nyctea
nyctea, Nyctea scandiaca arctica.
SHAPE AT REST
The Snowy Owl
ground or on a
is
most often seen squatting on the
slight
rise
(except during migrations
when it tends to perch on low

mounds of earth, stumps, and fence
OTHER NAMES
American snowy
owl
Used more
in
former times
than at present, to show difference between American,
European, and Asiatic
although
birds,
all
are of the
same race without subspecific classification.

arctic owl For geographical location.
ermine owl Probably as much for black-and-white
ermine colors as for the fact that it frequently dines on
rooftops,
posts
It
haystacks,
has a very
heavy but smooth-lined shape and though there are

vestigial ear tufts, the head appears perfectly round
and very large. It rarely perches in the stiffly upright
posture so often assumed by the Horned Owls (Bubo
virginianus sp.) but rather tends to lean its body well
forward, sometimes to the extent that the belly and even
lower breast are on the ground.
as
It actually
squats rather
and practically never stands high on

does the more slender White Gvrfalcon.
than
sits
its
legs,
ermine.
ghost owl
flies
For
its
ghostly white appearance as
it
or perches in the twilight.
great white
owl
le hibou blanc
For
its
coloration
and
SHAPE IN FLIGHT
size.
French-Canadian name meaning
'The White Owl."

ookpikjuak (also okpik)
Again there
Eskimo name
for this
owl.
tundra ghost For its appearance and habitat.

white owl After its general coloration.
is
that sense of great
heaviness
along
with streamlining; the head melding smoothly into the
bodv and no
visible
neck shape.
The extended wings
are
remarkably broad, very long, and rounded at the tips

rather than narrow and decidedly pointed, as are those
Snowy Owl
'85
White Gyrfalcon. In flight it might be mistaken

Horned Owl, but the wingbeat is considerably different and the body of the Snowy Owl in flight
undulates more than does that of the Arctic Horned
Owl.
of the
WINGSPAN
for the Arctic
mm.
(63.5").
Male
Average
Minimum
Maximum
Rank
in
Female
mm.
mm.
mm.
1,577.4
1,316.7
1,656.4
(62.1")
1,643.8
(51.9")
1,567.5
(65.3")
1,81 6.5
mm.
mm.
mm.
wingspan among the eighteen species:
(64.8")
(61.8")
(71.6")
First.
FLIGHT PATTERN
Snowy Owl's
In most circumstances the
flight
quite
is
and steady, and not unlike that of a

though much slower. The wings make a long,
powerful, and deliberate downstroke, but the up-
direct, very strong
full,
is
much
which, at times, can be surprisingly swift, but
most always as
flights,
it
its
head
so far
Minimum
Maximum
Rank
and
it
will
it
(17.3")
477.3
its flight.
When
When
emy, the wings are abruptly folded
mm.
appears to be fac-
mm.
mm.
mm.
(17.2")
(16.3")
(18.8")
First.
(9.5")
Male
it
Average
233.7
Minimum
Maximum
230.4
Rank
240.3
in tail
mm.
mm.
mm.
length
Female
(9.2")
250.3
(9.1")
248.3
mm.
mm.
(9.5")
261.7
mm
among
9.9")
9.8")
I0 -3")
the eighteen species: Second.
attacking prey or enin flight
and the bird
drops with surprising speed. Often during hunting
hover over one
414.0
TAIL LENGTH
from the ground the wingbeat is very steady,

but soon the owl goes into long glides low to the
ground and sweeps upward, still in a glide, to some
will
(15.6")
and
rises
slight rise of the landscape.
437.4
far
is
forth
Not uncommonly
around that
ing in the exact opposite direction of

first
in
Female
(16.1")
easy sailing nature. Al-
the head constantly swivels back
its
409.0
even during the migrational
flies,
the eyes are ever watchful.

swivel
it
mm.
395-3 mm.
4397 mm.
Average
faster
more often characterized by
(16.7'
Male
and not as smoothly executed. The

body will at times seem to undulate in flight, sinking
slightly with each upstroke of the wings and rising with
each downstroke. It is a very silent and graceful flight
stroke
mm.
falcon,
it
BEAK LENGTH
sound of
spot, waiting for sight or
suspected prey.

birds
mm.
wide and black,
short for the size of the bird
it
is
Although the beak
(1.1").
almost hidden by the dense feathering of the
Male
WEIGHT
Average
25.5
Minimum
Maximum
24.6
Rank
beak
25.7
in
mm.
mm.
mm.
is
and
lores.
Female
(1.0")
27.9
(1.0")
26.7
(1.0")
28.2
length
among
the
mm.
mm.
mm.
(1.1")
(1.1")
(1.1")
eighteen
species:
Fourth.
gr. (58.1 oz.).
Male
Female
Average
1,612.9 gr.
(56.5 oz.)
1,706.7 gr.
(59.7 oz.)
Minimum
Maximum
1,448.0 gr.
(50.7 oz.)
1,593.0 gr.
(55.8 oz.)
1,839.9 g r
(644
2,002.6 gr.
(70.1
Rank
in
weight
among
oz.)
oz.)
SNOWY OWL
TOTAL LENGTH
large
FIELD
Snowy Owl observed perched on a low stub near

O'Hare International Airport
the south end of one of the
runways, not far from Chicago,

mm.
(24.7").
Male
Average
592.8
Minimum
Maximum
53 1.
Rank
J
86
707.2
in total
mm.
mm.
mm.
length
gratory
(20.9")
629.9
mm
when
(27.9")
766.9
mm.
while
2 4-8")
(30.2")
it
flight,
field
sketches
the artist
Obviously fatigued from
artist to
the owl sat quietly for fully twenty minutes
Female
mrn (26.1")
-
allowed the
closely.
663.4
Illinois,
approach very
(23.4")
among
SKETCHES
were made.
moved
It
showed
to within six feet;
its
long mi-
agitation
only
shortly afterward
took wing and, flying low to the ground, disappeared from
sitjht to
Snowy Owl
the southwest.
(1,
k\
'^-^-4lw
f
\n
TALONS
LEGS, FEET,
The leg muscles
Snowy Owl is quite
and yet
opposed
and the grip

powerful. Legs and feet, right
are very strong
of the
to the
base of the talons, are heavily covered with quite long,
reasonably tight to the body contour (as
still
Owl
Great Gray
to the notable flufhness of the
nebulosa nebulosa}) so as to permit the smoothlv

streamlined appearance. Adults have a complete molt
[Strix
each year, beginning as early as
June (but more
late
white plumage; so long that even the long,
often in early July) and completed by early October to
curved, jet-black talons are nearly hidden from view.
mid-October. The four outermost primaries are quite
The
distinctly
hairlike
abnormally large for
feet are not
though the
this bird's size, al-
In not-so-distant
toes are rather thick.
emarginated.
his-
made anklets and

from numerous talons of these birds strung on
rawhide. The birds, incidentally, were killed by the In-
tory, the
northern Indian tribes often
bracelets
VOICE
dians as a source of food, not merely for the decorative
value of the talons.
Nyctea scandiaca has a very
distinctive voice, uttering
booming notes which carry phenomenal
great
over the barren tundra. Mostly the
EYES AND VISION
the bird
The
vision of the
Snowy Owl
is
probably as good at
is
perched on the ground.
out
swells
rather
raises
four
out
belches
violently
well forward,
It leans
enormously,
throat
its
distances
given while
calls are
and
tail,
its
bellow-
(usually)
night as that of almost any other North American owl,
ing hoots,
bowing deeply with each note given and
and undoubtedly better
sounding
like:
owl has
in the
startlingly
brilliant,
daytime than most. This

lemon-yellow
deep black pupils. The eyes are
set
slightly
the top of the head than in other species,
they can be opened widely at
will,
irides
and
closer to
and though
more often than not
they are partially lidded, tending to give the bird a

sleepy or
an
dreamy appearance
insipid,
fatuous,
according to some,
or,
or even stupid expression.
angry, the owl narrows
its
When
eyes in a distinctly glaring,
WHOOOO,
ume. The sound
rather wild and often frightening in
is
the wastelands of the tundra. At times, dozens of the

birds will be calling back
is
ing the nest or young. It

ing growl with
ameter, which
especially
is
rather small for the size of the bird,
when compared
to the diminutive
owl (Aegolius acadicus acadicus)

are not
much
ment on the
smaller.
The
hearing of
whose ear openings

and their place-
ear cavities
this
owl
is
is
is
cry,
this
threaten-
is
a loud, gravelly sort of barkthe
at
but degenerating into a hoarse
at the conclusion, sounding like WHOOO-uh

WHOOO-uh WHOOO-uh WHOOO-uh WUH-WUH-
WUH-WUHWUHWUH.
will
preceded
be
If
Not
slaught
is
sound
something
by
boy whistling
the bird decides to
fingers.
infrequently
succeeded
or
whistle, almost like a
no anterior ear flap; yet the
extremely keen.
made by
the cry of anger
quaver
asymmetrical as in
skull are not nearly so
other species, and there
Saw-whet
is
notes distinctly separated
the
beginning of the
ear openings are only about one-half inch in di-
it.
actually calling from.
most often heard when an intruder
bird,
The
and
forth simultaneously
These hoots, incidentally, can be quite ventriloquial if

the owl wishes them to be and will sound as if they are
coming from high in the sky above the spot where the
Even more disturbing
EARS AND HEARING
and
the crisp air seems to throb with the resonance of
bird
horizontally elongated oval shape.
WHOOOO-WHOOOO-WHOOOO-
with each note of equal pitch and vol-
piercing
through
shrilly
attack,
call
this
very
his
actual on-
the
most often preceded by a guttural and
fierce
KRUFFF-GUH-GUH-GUK,
like
when the bird or its young

make an unwritable sound simi-
rapidly sounded. Less often,

are endangered,
it
will
lar to that of teeth
occasionally
in
MOLT
its
One
scandiaca
may
be considered as being a tuftless owl.
plumage is probably the most luxurious of any North

American owl's, being very heavy, remarkably dense,
Its
88
ally
this
with a rattling sound deep
throat.
note. It
Although there are indeed rudimentary ear tufts,

they are very tiny, practically buried in the head plumage, and rarely raised even a little. For all intents and
purposes, insofar as external appearances go, Nyctea
grinding together heavily and will
accompany
in
other
call,
possibly a
mating
cry,
is
worthy of
a series of remarkably doglike barkings, usuthree syllables but repeated numerous times
is
and sounding
like
WUFFF-WUFFF-WUCK WUFFF-
WUFFF-WUCK.
Despite these distinctive
cries,
the
often a rather silent bird throughout

It
Snowy Owl
much
appears to be particularly mute during
grations southward.
Snowy Owl
is
most
of the year.
its
cyclic mi-

COLORATION, VOICE
JUVENILE
The
There is a more distinctive sexual difference among

Snowy Owls than among any other owl species on the
sooty gray,
North American continent. Adult males are decidedly
Young
smaller than adult females and, as a rule, the males are
spotted than adults of the
much
entirely lacking in spots.
The males can almost always
barred on the
lighter.
CHARACTERISTICS
just a bit
but the difference
and
voice of the
and undependable
intruders are concerned, especially in
usually taking flight while the person
is still
dred yards distant. But otherwise
is
Often
place
rocks while the owl
will quietly alight close
Nyctea scandiaca
roughly 30 per
Young and Family

Snowy Owls have been known to
(See
Adult birds
for nearly 35 years in captivity.
in the
Life
live
wild
-
much
as
7 years later.

ADULT
adult male
Pure white occasionally, with no marks
whatever; more often some scattered or transverse spots

or bars of slate gray (sometimes with a brownish cast)
on crown, back, and greater coverts, with primaries and

rectrices having dusky spots close to the tips. Usually
some narrow and indistinct barrings on the sides, flanks,
and belly, but on occasion these can be rather clearly
on the male
defined. Spotting
more
extensive than usual.
a male bird will
On
much
extremely rare occasions
become suffused over
its
entire
with a clear lemon-yellow coloration. This
and the color
aberrative in nature
be
will occasionally
is
is
plumage
distinctly
so fugitive that
it
disappears entirely soon after the bird's death.
adult
female
Decidedly
everywhere except on the

chin,
throat,
where
slate
center
of
darker
facial
breast,
disks,
legs,
the
sides
and
male
of neck,
feet.
Else-
and speckled with deep

gray which sometimes has a vague brownish cast.
it is
rather heavily barred
for example,
si-
sometimes attack and
will
it
has been
size.
known
ani-
kill
On
to
numerous occasions,
kill and eat foxes that
and there are even unverified reports that it will attack animals as fierce and large
as badgers and young wolverines
though how successful such attacks might be, if they occur, is a matter of
conjecture. It is not at all unusual for Snowy Owls to
rip apart and devour great quantities of fur-bearing animals which they find dead in traps, and for this reason
they are not held in very high regard by professional
trappers. During the periodic southward migrations
they have been known actually to enter chicken houses
and kill full-grown hens which outweigh them by two
traps,
or three times.
powerful
Snowy Owl
in
flier,
especially
most cases
is
during migrations,
nonetheless inclined to
rather short, hopping flights from one
rise in
the
make
the ground
to another. In the tundra, these rises are called pinga-
They
luks.
ground up
are frost-heaves
which
a section of
raise
to several yards in diameter as
or three feet above the surrounding

also ordinarily
flat
on such pingaluks that
much
this
two
as
terrain.
It
is
owl species
nests.
Individual birds have territories that encompass several square miles,

sive
than
watching, the bird
is
by and stand waiting in utter
mals of surprisingly large
have been caught in
which were captured and banded, have been recaptured

as
hun-
a very bold, ex-
lence for hours for the animal to reappear.
Characteristics.)
very shy,
a mouse, lemming, or hare finds a hiding
if
among
is
several
and sometimes extremely ferocious
traordinarily patient,
a rather high mortality rate
it
as
bird.
nestling birds.
Snowy Owl
the treeless tundra areas, the
deeper than that of the female,
slight at best
is
The
rectrices.
Where human
a device for sexual indentification.
is
molt of
which occurs about thirteen or
GENERAL HABITS AND
Adult birds with heavy markings are
the tips of the primaries
of
this coloration
fourteen months after hatching.
from a distance. The males, when not pure white, usually have a scattering of slaty spots on the back and near
There
and
persists until the first postnuptial
almost always females and they tend to look grayish
cent
heavily barred and
sex,
females will be reasonably alike in
lightest of
male may be
same
are
coloration and marking, but most often the males are
much
much more
birds are always
to
feet.
much more heavily spotted and

body and wings. The very darkest males
(and juveniles)
very
only slightly lighter on legs and
is
the first-winter plumage,
be easily recognized at a distance because the females
and the
which
and marking
purer white, sometimes to the point of being
brown
juveniles are generally a uniform dusky
among
ritories
but they are not territorially aggres-
themselves and
of several birds
to
it
is
not unusual for the ter-
overlap.
owl, though not exclusively so, most of

the north country
and
much
of
it
in
highly diurnal
its
hunting in
the
south
done during daylight hours, often when the sun
is
is
brightly shining.
Snowy Owl
189
While
it
can be ferocious on occasion, the Snowy
Owl
acts as a protective device, too, in case a
hunter gets
tends to have a reasonably gentle disposition where hu-
near. Extra-heavy shotgun loads must be used to pene-
mans
Bubo
bring the bird
concerned
are
and,
virginianus sp.
Horned Owls
the
unlike
submits without great protest
),
confinement as an adult and soon becomes gentled

enough to be fed by hand, stroked, and even carried
about on the arm.
When squatting on a pingaluk, this owl wears its
seemingly dreamy, sleepy expression and appears wholly
devoid of interest in anything around it, but this is deto
ceptive because
it
always very
is
sounds. Almost constantly

side as
it
send
will
head swivels from
and watches. The
listens
it
its
especially
alert,
for
side to
slightest hint of prey
arrowing to the attack with startling abrupt-
plumage; ordinary bird shot
trate the
will not
normally
unless one of the pellets chances to
penetrate the brain through eye or ear.
Man, as usual, is the worst enemy of the Snowy Owl.

Great numbers of these magnificent owls are killed as
trophies by hunters while the birds are making their
southern migrations, and even in the normal northern
habitat
The Eskimos
they are not entirely safe.
regularly seek the owl's eggs as a source of food
the bird
itself
for
its
and
still
kill
meat. Trophy hunting remains the
greatest threat, however.
At one time
was fashionable
Chicago to
mounted Snowy Owls. Many still have
it
for practically every tavern in the city of
have several
ness.
down
them.
Where
has
little
natural enemies are concerned, the adult bird

to fear,
but such
nestlings. Arctic foxes
Roosting, as noted,
when
the bird
tions,
however,
roof peaks of
is
is
in the
it
almost always on
pingaluks
northern barrens. During migra-
favors any abrupt rise in the ground,
low buildings,
posts,
low tree
stumps,
branches, haystacks, earth mounds, and similar prominences. Its habitat preference
lichen-covered
is
for treeless, moss-
and
tundra flatlands which are reasonably
mounds. As a matnorthern areas where
well dotted with scattered pingaluk

ter of fact,
it
remain
will not
in
such mounds are absent. While
now and
again
it
will
nests
and
is
not the case with eggs and
and husky dogs
will
destroy the
eat the eggs of absent parent birds, although
them
the adults can usually drive
off
if
their presence
is
menace to
more successful in
their depredations against Snowy Owls than are the
four-legged predators. There have even been cases
detected in time. Skuas and jaegers are also a
eggs and young alike and usually far
where a pair of jaegers will simultaneously attack an

adult Snowy Owl and peck it to death. Equally, there
have been cases where an adult Snowy Owl. caught in
the act of stealing nestling duck hawks, has been killed
hunt in wooded areas during the southern migration.

even during those periods it prefers more open areas
by the parent falcon as
such as prairies, marshes, lakeshores, riverbanks, weed
currences are rare, however.
stoops
it
head a crushing blow with
its
and
strikes the owl's
tight-fisted foot.
Such
oc-
and pastures, and (particularly while migration

coastal beaches and the shores of small
is in progress)
islands. Its most normal habitat, however, is north of
the tree line in circumpolar arctic tundra areas where
the ground is not perpetually covered by ice and snow.
and where there is an abundance of prey.

OF PREY
Even though much of the hunting done by Nyctea

scandiaca, both day and night, is accomplished by simply perching on a pingaluk and waiting for prey to come
fields
within sight or hearing, the owl will sometimes hunt lem-
most often displayed when nest,

and young are threatened, and this is more true of
Aggressiveness
eggs,
is
the
male Snowy Owl than of the female, although both
will
be actively defensive in protecting the young. Par-
ent birds will often
fall
onto the ground and perform
away from the

and refuses to be
the broken-wing act to lure intruders

nest area; but
if
the intruder persists
lured away, direct attack by one or both adult birds
a distinct likelihood, and both are formidable

attacking owl will
fly
directly at the
head
foes.
of the
is
The
mings by ranging back and forth on the wing, much in

the manner of the marsh hawk, relatively low to the
ground, occasionally hovering and then plunging swiftly
downward with outstretched talons when prey is detected. The owl has also been known to watch hunters
from a distance, and when a grouse or ptarmigan is
downed by a shot, to fly in swiftly, snatch up the bird
and carry it away before the hunters can reach it. Al-
in-
truder from a considerable distance away, and the pow-
jury.
There is a considerable difference in the markings between

male and female Snowy Owls [Nyctea scandiaca). The male
bird (left
is normally much less heavily marked and may
be completely white at times. The female (right) and imma-
At times other than the nesting season, however, the

birds will more often fly away from potential danger
long before it gets too close to them. Dense plumage
and may tend to look

from a distance.
erful talons
and beak
will slash viciously
and with great
accuracy as the bird whizzes past, inflicting severe
igo
in-
ture birds tend to have considerably
Snowy Owl
more extensive markings
light gray rather
than white, especially
KM
vc
^ 0k
"""I* 5?
e.i
though it is neither agile enough nor swift enough to

pursue and catch a bird like the ptarmigan on the wing
distances while
(though on rare occasions
been known to
flushes such a bird
When
ally.
the prey bird flushes,
carefully until
and puts
it
repeated
until
then
alights,
it
the
at
flies
it
once
it
eventu-
the owl watches
it
quickly to the spot
Over and over
to flight again.
any more,
flush
does occur),
this
almost always catches
it
act
this
ptarmigan becomes too weary

which time the owl launches its
is
Owl
will
keep a regular watch on
the snares set by Indians for snowshoe hares. Its strug-
animal out
gles to get the captive
will usually destroy
the snare. Similarly, fur bearers caught in steel traps are
quickly killed by the owl in a fierce attack.

the trapped animal
owl
itself
Even when
example, an Arctic fox. the
for
make repeated
will
while
is,
attacks
on the animal's head
staying out of range. As the fox weakens, the
become bolder and even more savage
attacks
nally the fox
is
killed, usually
until
fi-
by the talons penetrating
the brain.
itself is little
in the talons
its normal hunting method of perching on a pingawhere it sits quietly for hours watching and listening, the slightest sound will cause the head to snap and
lock the gaze on the exact spot the sound came from,
and at once the attack is launched. Sometimes the owl
In
its
hunting methods.
It will
perch
on a pingaluk and watch a mouse or lemming approach.

As long as the little animal is heading in its direction
the owl will remain still. As the animal gets closer to
the edge of the mound the owl will leap at it, scarcely
using its wings, and pursue it with comical hops and
runs until it snatches the animal by one foot. At that
point the owl may fly off with it, but most often it is
simply transferred to the beak and swallowed whole.
Ground squirrels are caught in the same manner, except that the owl will use its wings more.
When
grown
attacking
larger
animal,
on the
hare, the owl lands
such
as
a fully
fleeing animal's
back
with the talons of one or both feet outstretched. As the

feet
make
flesh. If
contact, the talons drive inward through the
the owl
an anchor
same time
still
has one foot free,
it
will flap
its
it
may
use
it
as
plunging of the hare. At the
to help stop the
wings with reverse strokes to
stop the hare's forward progress and, as soon as the
animal
is
exhausted and stops, the owl breaks
its
neck
with a savage bite at the nape.
Nyctea scandiaca quite often
When
feet are
702
it
fishes as well as hunts.
will lie
put to use and the
with ease while carrying below them
fly
a full-grown hen twice their
much
own weight
as the owl.
or
Once
one was seen earning a half-grown emperor goose

which it had evidently killed.

Although lemmings and mice are eaten
dance, a wide variety of other
ability of the bird to fly long
mammals and
in
abun-
birds
make
up the diet of the Snowy Owl. It is probably one of the

most destructive of North American owl species to birds,
game
especially waterfowl,
mammals,
birds,
and
Among
poultry.
owl has been known
and eat
mice of many varieties, lemmings, rats, moles, ground
squirrels, prairie dogs, Arctic hares, snowshoe hares, cottontail rabbits, muskrats, woodchucks, entrapped foxes,
squirrels, and jack rabbits.
Birds known to have been killed and eaten include
the
ring-necked
geons,
this
pheasants,
domestic
and guinea fowl; curlews,
to kill
ducks,
chickens,
plovers, snipe,
pi-
young
mourning doves,
squaw ducks, mallards, longspurs, buntings, grebes,
geese, coots, sage grouse, ruffed grouse,
old
crows,
Owls,
Short-eared
Long-eared
Owls,
Screech
Owls, fledgling gyrfalcons, and duck hawks; ptarmigans, ravens, quail;
and other
game
varieties of shorebirds,
and gulls.
any type
marine
animals
almost
Fish and small
of
that the owl can catch will be taken readily, and the
Snowy Owl is known to seek out and devour carrion,
songbirds, upland
birds, waterfowl,
meat scraps, fish refuse, and animal matter of almost

any kind, fresh or not.
All prey up to the size of a small rabbit is swallowed
whole. Prey larger than this
is
torn apart to be swal-
enormous chunks. A full-grown snowshoe hare

may be devoured in as few as five or six huge swallowings. Often the facial disks and breast plumage of the
bird are badly bloodstained from tearing apart large
prey. This is particularly true of the female who, durlowed
in
ing the nesting season, does most of the feeding of the
young, ripping up the prey brought by the male and

feeding chunks of
it
(without bones, fur, or feathers)
to the hatchling owls.
In swallowing prey whole, the owl mouths
it
a few
around usually to a headfirst position,

then throws its own head back and swallows the prey in
convulsive gulpings. Often the bird will gape widely
times, turning
on a rock with its body parallel

to the water's edge, head held very low but facing the
water. The eyes are very nearly closed and the bird
seems to be asleep, but it is watching carefully. As a fish
rises close by, the leg of the owl which is closest to the
water darts out with amazing speed and the talons close
on the fish, dragging it flopping from the water. The
owl will also fish this way through holes in the ice.
Most smaller prey, if not devoured on the spot, is carried away by the owl in the beak. For larger prey the
fishing
more
Snowy Owls have
short of incredible.
a hare weighing half again as
luk,
acts strangely lazy in
carrying creatures weighing far
to
at-
tack.
Often the Snowy
than
it
several times after swallowing, as
and throat
if
clearing
its
mouth
of residue.

Beginning about mid-May, the unmated male begins
meandering
actively seeking a female, often flying long
distances
among
the tundra pingaluks as he searches.
Occasionally he voices his booming
Snowy Owl
call as
he
flies
and
if
a receptive female
reply.
and
within hearing, she will usually
is
At once the big white bird
alights within a
few
where she is
Here he bows in a
to
flies
feet of her.
rather courtly way, fluffs his feathers, struts about a bit
(sometimes dragging his wing
he does so), and
tips as
pausing often to issue his great throat-swelling hoots.
Courtship
is
and copulation
brief
is
not prolonged, nor-
mally occurring on the pingaluk where the owls met.

is
repeated numerous
times for about
week.
and converge at the longer axis. What signifimay have is not yet known.
Size
The eggs of Nye tea scandiaca are the largest of
all owl eggs in North America. Based on the measurements of 59 eggs, they average 59.5 mm. (2.3") in
length and 45.5 mm. (1.8") in width, with extreme
measurements of:
the shell
cance
this
It
It
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum
is
mated for
remain more or less in com-
believed that the birds, once mated, remain

life,
since pairs of the birds
pany the year around, even during migrations. The

same pair will also return to the same pingaluk to nest
year after year
if
Interval
not disturbed.
60.5
47.8
width:
50.6
width:
41.6
hours, but
41
is
and eggs may be
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
(2.4")
(1.9")
(2.0")
(1.6")
The average
egg-laying
0/
tween eggs
length:
length:
duration
varies
this
laid as close together as several hoi.rs,
or as far apart as one week. As a rule, the
ANNUAL BROODS,
NEST, NESTING
laid
Egg-laying dates
HABITS
Snowy Owls
if
the
rest.
May
earliest,
28;
July 6; normally between June 8 and June 25.

Arctic Canada: earliest, May 19; latest, June 30; nor-
latest
and
are single-brooded
second clutch of eggs
Arctic Alaska:
egg to be
last
deposited from 15 to 16 days after the
is
be-
considerably,
first is
will rarely lay a
destroyed. Nesting
mally between June 13 and June 23.
is
almost invariably done in a shallow depression atop a
may
pingaluk. This depression

feathers
and a few

CHARACTERISTICS
be lined with scattered
more
grasses or bits of moss, but
of-
is no real attempt at nest-building.

There are cases on record where the Snowy Owl has
used the abandoned nest of an eagle high in a tree,
but this happens so infrequently that mention is made
of it only as a matter of curiosity. Sometimes eggs are
laid on a gravel bank, on a tidal flat, or on the slopes
above a salt-water marsh or lake. At times the eggs are
laid on a bare, flat outcrop of rock which has a small
depression that will prevent the eggs from rolling. Such
ten than not there
water in them, so that the eggs
nests often get
much
sitting in as
seems
have
to
little
may be
an inch of icy water, yet this

on their hatching. The earlier
as half
effect
layings of eggs are often covered by late snowfalls, but

this too
seems to have no deterrent effect on the hatch-
ing of the owls.
On
the whole, the
nester, regurgitating pellets,
Snowy Owl
defecating,
and
is
Incubation
some
said to begin with the
is
authorities hold that
the third egg appears.

ter of
some
it
Term
first
of incubation
made
dispute, with claims
laid,
is
also a
but
until
mat-
of as short a du-
Most
ration as 28 days, or as long as 39 days.
now
egg
commence
does not
authorities
32 or 33 days. There is said to be

some inadvertent brooding of the later eggs by the heavcite the figures of
downed
ily
nestlings, the oldest of
which may be two
weeks old before the
last
incubation
by the female, while the male pro-
is
strictly
vides food for her
egg hatches. For the most part,
and takes care
of most of the defense
of the family.
a messy
YOUNG AND FAMILY
scattering
LIFE
prey refuse in and around the nest with abandon.
CHARACTERISTICS
EGGS
The newly hatched young

weak they can
Number
laid,
As few
per nesting
as three
but normally there are not fewer than
while as
many
that there are
from seven
Color
as thirteen
more than
have been
ten.
laid,
may
eggs
it
The average
be
Equally,
five.
unusual
is
clutch
is
to ten eggs.
Pure white to rich creamy white, but invari-
Rather more elongated than those of most

They are generally an ob-
other owls of this continent.
Texture
Quite roughly granulated in

glossiness.
seven out of every ten

raised corrugations
this early age, as
soon as they can
and
moving them, they tend to wander.
Many will fall off the pingaluk and perish from exposure. The mortality rate among young birds from this
cause alone
for
shell
texture
peculiarity exists in that about
Snowy Owl
which begin
eggs will bear a few
close to the center of
may
run as high as three or even four birds
each clutch of eight or nine eggs
The
late oval.
and without
At
use their stubby wings to push along the ground
aid their feet in
ably badly nest-soiled.
Shape
feeding and by the end of the third day are able to
relatively erect.
sit
so
and then only
However, they gain strength with the
for brief periods.

first
downy white and
are
scarcely raise their heads,
babies are clad in their white
nine days, at which time the
down
thighs.
Snowy Owl
down
for about
begins to be pushed
deep sooty-gray
on the sides, flanks, and
The natal down remains on the tips of this sooty
out by the appearance of a long,
down.
laid.
It
is
fluffy,
particularly long
193
"
,.--
northern Quebec (Fort Chimo), northern Labraand northern Greenland (south to Hum-
chill
dor
Okak
boldt Glacier on the west and Scoresby
Sound on
the
east).
Irregular winter migrant to northern Alaska, Saskatchewan, North Dakota, Minnesota, Ontario, New
York, southern Quebec, southern Labrador, and New-
1m,
foundland.
Occasionally migrates as far south as southern Cali-
Nevada Clark County),

Utah (Provo), Colorado (Denver), Oklahoma, central
fornia fLos Angeles County),
Texas
gia,
Austin), Missouri, Louisiana, Tennessee, Geor-
South Carolina.
Casual
in
Bermuda.
MIGRATION
Sometimes the migration of the Snowy Owl
extensive and far-reaching, but mostly
even absent. Migration
very
is
negligible or
is
it
extremely cyclic and predi-
is
cated upon availability or nonavailability of prey.
normal cycle
The
once about every four years, but this

does not always hold true. The migrations have been as
much
two years
second migration
this occurs, the
worn
until finally
babies, but even before
off
it
is
by the movements of the

completely worn away, the
plumage begins emerging apparent first at

the wrist of the wing and around the eyes, then followed
by the wing quills and a general spread of new body
first-winter
be mi-
tier
made by conmany of the

of states that
they create newspaper headlines. Occasionally they will
summer
down
is
In some years so
white owls descend into the northern
Xyctea scandiaca 'Linnaeus)
will
although as a rule
succession,
in
siderably fewer birds.
SNOWY OWL
Sometimes there
as eight years apart.
grations
when
is
plumage. The sooty plumage, however, is not lost; it

remains beneath the first-winter plumage until the following summer when it finally disappears with the first
the first-winter
The young birds are fully fledged in

plumage by the end of the seventh week
after hatching.
The
this
normal breeding range, but
far south of their
usually follows a heavy southward migration the
preceding winter. Migrating birds anywhere near the
ocean
will usually follow the coastlines
wander
southward.
Some
and often they have landed

on ships 300 miles or more from land. It is believed that
a certain number are lost at sea when they become confused in heavy fog.
will
far out to sea,
postnuptial molt.
gether during the remainder of summer, but the young
wander
off
on
their
ECONOMIC INFLUENCE
family tends to remain loosely to-
own
with the coming of autumn.
Snowy Owl does
Indisputably, the
age to
game
populations in
bird
considerable
the
sometimes causes extensive economic
dam-
north and
far
to
losses
profes-
sional trappers because of the trap-robbing proclivities
of the bird. Equally, heavy
damages may sometimes be
incurred by poultry raisers along the migrational routes
Circumpolar
in
its
Arctic distribution, Nyctea scan-
diaca in North America breeds from northern Alaska

('Point
ville
Hope, Barrow), Yukon (Herschel Island), Mel-
Island,
northern Devon Island
sula), northern
Ellesmere
northernmost Greenland
Island
(Grinnell
Penin-
Fort Conger), and
(Peary Land), southward to
These bad features, however,

enormous amount of good
of the big bird of prey.
are rather well offset by the
the owl does in reducing populations of lemmings, mice,
and
rats
throughout
to serve a useful
who
still
rely
on
its
range.
purpose
its
flesh
The
to the
and eggs
which it
Hall Island, Bering Sea, the coastal area of western
it is
Alaska to Hooper Bay, across northern Alaska, northern
In most areas of North America,
Northwest Territories, northeastern Manitoba
species.
'94
(Chur-
Snowy Owl
a truly beautiful bird
bird also continues
Indians of the North

for food. Esthetically,
is
shame
it
is
now
to destroy.
a protected
d'amerique
eperviere
chol'ette
la
French-Ca-
Hawk Owl
nadian name meaning "The Sparrow
of
America."
owl
stub
SPECIES
After
predilection for roosting on bare
its
stubs, especially at the very top of a tree.
ORDER
STRIGIFORMES
FAMILY:
STRIGIDAE
GENUS:
Surnia Dumeril
SPECIES:
ulula
The most hawklike owl
and
flight
{Linnaeus)
but tends to
It
SUBSPECIES
somehow
rarely
tail, it
a good bit larger.
erect like
sits
also
It
many
times vacant expression adopted by
is
AMERICAN HAWK
the
alert.
and
owls. Breast
and regularly barred,
as
tail.
Rank
OWL
most owls
the vague or some-
lacks
belly are distinctly, neatly,
tight
gives the impression of being formally
impeccably dressed.
and
head,
hawklike pose, intent and
in a
sit
is
it
owl with small
streamlined
rather
neat,
although
at rest,
plumage, and long
caparoch (Muller)
appearance and
in general
North America, Surnia ulula caparoch is a

medium-sized, slender bird which bears quite a remarkable resemblance to the sparrow hawk both in
habits in
over-all
in
among
size
the
eighteen
species:
Ninth.
SHAPE AT REST
AMERICAN HAWK OWL

Decidedly falconlike in aspect, the American
Owl
{COLOR PLATE XLI)
long
has no ear
held at an angle to the body rather than
tail
downward when
straight
Hawk
a very small head for an owl, a
tufts,
the bird
is
perched. Even
its
habit of perching adds to the hawklike similarity, since
SCIENTIFIC
NAME AND ORIGINAL
it
to
likes
sit
uppermost
hawks do. It
when perched and lacks the
daylight atop the
in bright
dead stub of a pine or other
DESCRIPTION
frequently
flicks
its
tail
conifer, as
sedate nature of most perched owls.
Surnia ulula caparoch

tion:
Strix
caparoch
P.
(Muller).
L.
S.
Original
descrip-
Muller, Natursystema,
Supplement, 1776, page 69; based on the Little Hawk

Owl of Edwards, Natural History of Birds, Part 2,
The
not in a regular cadence but performed

to be a rather absentminded manner: it
jerkily
tail
in
is
jerking
is
what seems
raised rather
and then slowly lowered, and most often held
at
a distinct angle to the body.
page 62, plate 62; from a specimen of the Hudson Bay

Former scientific names: Strix caparoch, Strix
area.
funerea, Strix hudsonica, Strix canadensis, Strix ulula
SHAPE IN FLIGHT
hudsonica.
Here the
similarity
outspread wings have
OTHER NAMES
Canadian
owl
its
tail
in
silhouette
Because of general geographic
lo-
flight
it
to
hawk
continues,
tips that are rather
decidedly wedge-shaped.
is
resembles
most
an
since
its
pointed and
overgrown
In flight
sparrow
hawk, or a prairie falcon.
cation.
day owl After its normally diurnal habits.

falcon owl For the superficial resemblance
to
FLIGHT PATTERN
falcon.
hawk owl
Without
specific
hudsonian owl
The wingbeat
geographical location
is
quite suggestive of that of a falcon,
with rapid and somewhat erratic strokes, and the line
name.
After
its
life-zone range.
of
American
flight
Hawk Owl
is
with
straight-line
directness.
Although
*95
occasionally
mal
When
throws
it
leaving
rapidly only a few feet
arc
which
carries
another conifer.
woodland
is
much
the
to
it
Its flight
rises in
it
stub-top
(7.0").
Male
a smooth, grace-
leafless
mm.
and then skims along

above the ground until it nears
next perch, at which time
ful
perch high atop a
its
forward and down, drops
itself
nearly to ground level
swiftly
its
TAIL LENGTH
a sparrow hawk, in nor-
like
wings beat almost ceaselessly and there
gliding.
little
is
conifer stub,
hover
will
it
flight the
mm
Female
786 mm.
Average
177.9
(7-")
Minimum
Maximum
1730 mm.
(6.8")
175.5
mm
mm.
(7.1")
184.8
mm.
Rank
of
180.4
in tail
length
among
(7.0")
(6.9")
(7.3")
when hunting through dense
like that of the
sharp-shinned hawk,
The
with a highly developed maneuverability.
flight
is
BEAK LENGTH
always quite strong and direct, rarely meandering even
when it is skimming low over

meadows as it hunts.
the borders of bogs or
mm.
(0.8").
Male
Measurements have been based on 28

birds
measured
Average
19.2
Minimum
Maximum
18.2
20.0
Rank
beak
in
mm.
mm.
mm.
Female
(0.8")
19.5
(0.7")
18.3
(0.8")
20.1
among
length
mm.
mm.
mm.
the
(0.8")
(0.7")
(0.8")
eighteen
species:
Eighth.
WEIGHT
Male
Average
225.6 gr.
Minimum
Maximum
265.8 gr.
Rank
in
194.1
weight
Female
(7.9
oz.)
(6.8 oz.)
gr.
LEGS, FEET,
251.6 gr.
(8.8 oz.)
202.3 g r
(7
oz
among
oz.)
The
273.5 S T (9-6 oz.)

(9.3
American Hawk Owl are

plumage of the feet
even though thick. The legs are compar-
and
legs
TALONS
feet of the
quite fully feathered, though the

is
quite close,
atively
short,
with the tarsus not quite equaling the
length of the middle toe. Talons are not quite as dis-
curved as in most owls and are of an almost

uniform coloration of deep slate gray.
tinctly
TOTAL LENGTH
mm.
16.9")
Male
Average
423.2
Minimum
Maximum
363.5
Rank
424.0
in total
mm.
mm.
mm.
length
Female
(16.7")
432.3
(14.3")
401.2
(16.7")
446.7
among
mm.
mm.
mm.
(17.0")
EYES AND VISION
(15.8")
(17.6")
The
lemon yellow in most birds, but

with some specimens having a vague suggestion of
irides are clear
orange
the
in
iris
coloration.
The
are
eyes
slightly-
smaller than one might expect for an owl of this
WINGSPAN
which
pression
mm.
^33.0").
Male
Average
835.9
Minimum
Maximum
777-5
Rank
in
mm.
mm.
mm.
Vision,
Female
the
of
especially
(32.9")
841.0
mm.
(33.1")
833.3
mm
(3 2 -8")
11.8 mm. (35.1")

859.5
(339'
wingspan among the eighteen species: Ninth.
hawklike
in
the
characteristic
in
daytime and
at
this
size,
imbird.
twilight,
is
good at night as that of

most of the other North American owls. Very likely,
vision plays an even more important part in the American Hawk Owl's hunting than does hearing.
excellent. It
(30.6")
another factor lending to the over-all
is
is
not, however, as

mm
AMERICAN
-
Male
Average
218.4
Minimum
Maximum
224.5
Rank
ig6
in
212.7
Female
For ten days,
(8.6")
227.3
mm
(9-")
Owl
mm.
mm.
(8.4")
213.6
mm.
(8.4")
(8.9")
229.7
mm
(9
mm
HAWK OWL
FIELD STUDIES
(8.8").
")
wing length among the eighteen species: Ninth.
American
Mud
was
as the artist has observed, the
American Hawk
pictured here fed on lemmings and red squirrels near
Lake, Labrador, during the autumn of 1953.

finally
meat and
Hawk Owl
captured by one
set
The owl
foot, in a steel trap baited
atop a pole about eight feet high.
with
5,
oM*
N*"
\\N
-V^N
ft
o^th* mud Uo\H>

po
^- f^c<
/>/?
c/
InchaiS
K i'lt*d
<**<:/
dec.,
co^
<
r
EARS AND HEARING
many
them
variations of
as well as a
wide variety of
numerous to attempt to
record here, but essentially similar to one another and
universally more hawklike than owl-like in tone and
single or multiple-note calls too
Although the hearing of Surnia ulula caparoch

good,
lacks
it
much
is
extreme acuteness of the
of the
North American
owls. The ear cavities are not covered by an operculum
(ear flap) as in other owls, and the ear cavities themselves are no larger than in any other bird of similar
auditory- sense possessed by the other

COLORATION, VOICE
neither are the cavities particularly asymmetrical
size;
in size or placement.
made by
sounds
at
delivery.
This owl
prey, but
it
is
is
sensitive to the faint
not so remarkably adept
pinpointing the exact sound location as other owls.
The female
slightly the larger,
is
but there
is
no ap-
parent color variation nor vocal difference between the

sexes.
MOLT
There
are
no
ear
tufts,

head
the
being
small,
The plumage is
body contours, and much
rounded, and hawklike in structure.

closely
tight,
the
to
fitted
harder than the plumage worn by the majority of other
The
on the leading edges of the flight

feathers are minute and sometimes virtually absent;
thus, the flight of the American Hawk Owl is not as
silent as that of the more nocturnal owls, although
neither is it particularly noisy. On the whole, the plumage has more the crisp, well-laid aspect of the hawk,
especially on back, wings, and tail, than the general
soft fluffiness of appearance in the other owls. The
complete annual molt begins in late June or early July
and is finished by mid-October.
owls.
flutings
Infant
among American Hawk Owls
mortality
quite low,
and most
is
nestings are completely successful.
The
birds have lived to ten years of age in captivity,
and
several
banded specimens have been recovered
that also survived for a decade.

ADULT
In
general
coloration,
the
upperparts
are
very
deep, rich, pure brown, well flecked with neatly aligned
The
spottings of white.
ranged
in rows,
spottings
on the scapulars are
and
loosely or rather irregularly ar-
much
smaller near the shoulder than
particularly thick
screaming sounds. The most
White tippings on the near terminal

outer web of the primaries and secondaries, and middle
and greater coverts, also create about five rows of
white spots, these becoming somewhat more irregularly
placed on the folded wing primaries and secondaries
than on the coverts, where they are quite neatly ar-
pitched
ranged.
toward the
VOICE
This owl has a rather wide variety of vocal utterances and, as might be expected, most of them are
hawklike
in quality,
being harsh, high-toned, and rather
common cry is a hightuh-WITTA-WITT tuh-W ITT A-tuh-W ITT

tuh-WITTA-WITTA-WITTA, which is reminiscent of
a call from a soaring falcon. Another relatively common
call
is
hawk's
cadence
whistled
cry,
ILLY. This
sounding
latter
call
is
not
unlike
the
sparrow
ILLY -ILLY -ILLY -ILLY -
like
sometimes modulated
to
rear.
The back
is
pure brown,
but
the
rump
is
speckled with irregular, narrow, rather broken white

barrings; these becoming more regular and distinct on
the uppertail coverts. The dark brown rectrices are
marked with seven or eight narrow white lines on each
web, but broken by the brown
quill in the center.
Each
deeper, rolling tone not too unlike the call of the Long-
eared
Owl
(Asio
otus
and without the

end of each note, sound-
wilsonianus)
final uplifted inflection at the
ing similar to a steady, not quite tremulous
ILL-ILL-OOOOOOOO,
with the
last
taking two or three seconds to fade away.
wing, the American
Hawk Owl
ILL-ILL-
note sometimes
When
on the
hwkKWHEEEEEEEE!
In addition to these more

i
98
common
NORTHWESTERN HORNED
.
A.O.U. Number 375-I

LIII
Bubo
there are
American
MONTANA HORNED OWL
Wind River in
Wind River County, Wyoming, DecemA.O.U. Number 375-J
virginianus occidentalis Stone. Female.
vicinity of Dubois,
calls,
OWI.
Bubo virginianus lagophonus (Oberholser) Male. Vicinity of

Spokane, Spokane County, Washington, November 4, 1926.
often issues a single
harsh scream not very different from that of the redtailed
LII
ber 30,
96 1.
Hawk Owl
siL+
tail
feather terminates
a narrow margin of dingy
in
caught by hand.
man
where
buff white.
Irregularly
edged semicircles of deep brown black
is
portions of
its
seems to have an utter lack of fear
It
concerned, especially in the more remote

range. While
it
is
almost entirely diurnal
begin at the outer edge of the facial disks and encircle
or crepuscular in
below the middle

point on each side, giving the appearance of dark
sideburns. Facial disks are buffy white, becoming very
night to a campfire and hover for long periods a dozen
the
imperfect facial
disks
to
just
and
dark around the eyes,

showing some faint degree of concentric circling of
deeper buff. Superciliaries and lores are white to grayish buff white, but with the dark brown of the foresupraorbitally,
especially
head very narrowly separating them
feet
its
habits, occasionally
above the flames.
If
perched on a conifer spike,
shot
it
will
it
at
fly
and missed while
at
will take
a short, circling
and return to the very same perch. This may

be done over and again until either the perch is struck
and shattered or the bird itself is shot.
flight
to the base of the
beak.
The
chin
is
dark brown with tiny vague pepperings
The
an unblemished
white, wide but not deep. The upper breast is very
densely barred in dark brown, with the barrings becoming more widely spaced toward the lower breast
and belly and the white becoming clearer, though
of lighter brown.
gular area
broken in each feather by narrow central shafting of

brown. Thighs,
legs,
and
tawny buff
feet are
to light
The American Hawk Owl shows
a decided prefer-
ence for more brushy, tangled areas of tamarack and
swamp
of
as well as forest fringe.
dead
trees as well,
and most open
seems to
It
like areas
almost always finding the highest

branch, or spire as
stub,
lookout
its
perch. Burnt lands choked with scrubby second growth
mottled with deeper buff.
buff, indistinctly
is
The owl
are also well favored.
muskeg, swamps,
likes
scrubby spruce growths, forest glades, and well-grown
woodlands of mixed hardwoods and
When
JUVENILE
finds a perch
it
Hawk Owls
is
very
similar to that of the adult birds, but with considerably

less
spotting on the upperparts.
The
rectrices are
more
foliage
and the brown of the underparts is more a chestnut

red brown than deep-umber brown black.
hollow stub.
Because of
graceful owl
and recognizable habits

its proclivity to perch on
of the most distinctive
the uppermost spike of a
tall
living
fir
or spruce, or
on the uppermost stub or spike of any dead conifer.

An extremely bold and fearless bird, it can be approached quite closely without its taking alarm and
fleeing
even to the point where at times it has been
LIV
HORNED OWL
Bubo virginianus pacificus Cassin. Female. Six miles upstream

on Witch Creek from the mouth, San Diego County, California, December 5, 1906. A.O.U. Number 375-D
LV
Bubo
WESTERN HORNED OWL
more, Bee County, Texas, February
for a period
fir.
of years.
it
roost
will
in
large
A.O.U. Number
375-A
this
who
very frequently killed by hunters
and shoot the bird
perch.
Some
are
as
as
killed
trophies, others as "sport," or merely because they are

at
which
to
shoot.
Fortunately
the
bird
and so it is not
this form of vul-
resides in primarily uninhabited areas
particularly
endangered because of
nerability.
especially
frequently
natural enemies, larger owls
the
kill
Horned Owls (Bubo virginianus sp.)
adult roosting American Hawk Owls at night. Martens,
fishers, and weasels kill a certain number of fledgling
birds,
although the furious attack of the enraged parent
bird will usually discourage any such interloper.
human
Even
disturbing the nest or young will be attacked
without hesitation by one or both parent birds,
though the male

tector.
American
almost total lack of fear of man,
its
is
atop an exposed
rests
something
virginianus pallescens Stone. Male. Vicinity of Skid27, 19 10.
Rarely
are able to approach very close

it
Among
PACIFIC
and
will return
CHARACTERISTICS
is
it
it
will sit
or branches.
GENERAL HABITS AND
of Surnia ulula caparoch
especially likes,
on such a perch for several consecutive hours. Actual roosting is done almost entirely
at night, in the same type of trees but usually lower,
closer to the trunk, and somewhat more hidden by
it
broadly terminating in white than on the adult birds,
One
it
there regularly, often using
Sometimes
Plumage of young American
conifers, including
willows, poplars, spruce, tamarack, birch, pine,
When
Hawk Owl
is
al-
more often the most vigorous pro-
attacking, the bird arrows in with rapid

J
99
and accurately snatches
wingbeats
the
at
intruder's
head with its talons as it flashes past.

The American Hawk Owl is less often bothered
with fleas and bird lice than most other owls.
prey, but with

lets
more swallowing
of undigestibles.
Pel-
are relatively small, grayish in color, coated with
mucus, and regurgitated
They
easily.
Fecal wastes are more
than viscous and rather dark chalky in color.
liquid
are usually expelled as the bird leaves
its
perch.
OF PREY
Hawk Owl
Despite the fact that the American
Uncommonly
ulula caparoch
much
the
in
and certain
swift
the
of
attack, Surnia
its
through brushy cover
tends to range
manner
in
hawk
Cooper's
or
the
hawk, with spectacular exhibitions of

it dodges obstructions in its path.
Almost all hunting is done in the daytime and especially in the morning until about nine o'clock, and
again in the afternoon from about three o'clock until
sharp-shinned
maneuverability as
sunset.
on one of
often done in the ranging
is
more often
described above,
this
movement
of prey below.
the bird drops from
seen,
the spot,
owl prefers
to
its
high
back
it
miss in
blueberry
its
barrens,
its
carried in the beak.
and
melodious
is
followed
by a
tinctly uttered musical series of two-syllable
lowed
closely
as
a high-pitched,
dis-
notes fol-
by a single note at almost the same tonal
like:
WITTA-TIT
WITTA-TIT WITTA-TIT. It may
W1TTA-T1T
sounding
and
much more
WHUT-TU-TU-OOO-ooo-ooo.
gentle
late in the day, give voice to a
owl-like call similar to:
especially
also,
it
ANNUAL BROODS,
up and
Rarely
NEST, NESTING
HABITS
Hawk
Again unlike most other owls, the American
Owl more
often than not will construct
its
own
nest;
hunting techniques are closely

almost never
and much plumbird,

and located
the
female
of
from
the
breast
age
or, more
living
tree
sometimes in a low crotch of a
tree
dead
often, in the hollow stub or a crotch of a
Only
on
about ten or twelve feet above the ground.
The
weighing several times

occasions American
whistle
trilling
sometimes
but
call
usually a rather poorly built affair of interlocked twigs
owl can
this
His mating
attack.
emulative of the sparrow hawk. Prey
strong,
about mid-March,
early as February.
rather
courtship or mating habits.
outstretched talons
the perch without pause.
to
usually
begins,
its
does become quite vociferous as courtship
prey
Not uncommonly it will streak

in and speed away with snipe or woodcock that have
been downed by hunters.
When it is ranging over plains, muskeg areas, and
does
The male
is
little
perch and bullets to
nailing the animal with
it
sit
When
large or, with smaller prey, snatching
carrying
method
favored perches and watch with great
its
intensity for the
if it is
has been recorded about
level,
While hunting
is
primarily diurnal and easily observable, strangely
is
talons
grip of the
is
quite
and carry with ease prey

own weight. On numerous
Owls have been seen flying
lift
its
Hawk
lined with a few grasses, bits of moss,
it use an abandoned nest of a hawk

own, though more often it will nest in an
rare occasions will
and well while carrying in their talons fullgrown ruffed grouse much larger than themselves. Although it rarely kills and eats small birds, those that
old pileated woodpecker hole or natural hollow, usu-
are taken are often caught on the wing.
ally in a
rapidly
or crow as
its
dead
tree.
This owl shows a marked preference for the hollow

end of a broken-off dead tree leaning at an angle of
with the top of the stub about eight to
fifteen feet above ground. Occasionally it will even
about 45
nest in a hollow
In summer, the diet of Surnia ulula caparoch con-
ground squirrels, chipmunks, and rabbits, along with lesser numbers

of squirrels, hares, weasels, and insects. In winter the
ptarmigan is the most important prey, along with sharptailed grouse, snowshoe hares, and mice, and in the
sists
primarily of lemmings, mice,
more southerly
parts of
its
rats,
range, cottontail rabbits.
less
ravenous eater than most owls,
not
swallow
whole
it
Bigger prey, and often even the small prey,

piecemeal,
200
much
in
the
manner
of a
generally does
any prey larger than
hawk
mouse.
a
is
eaten
eating
its
American
ground.
The
stump within four or
five feet of the
female bird will often pluck her lower
breast nearly bare, line the nest with the feathers,
incubate the eggs against her bare skin. In

the
American
Hawk Owl
is
all
and
cases,
single-brooded.
made near Goose Bay, Labrador,

(Surnia ulula caparoch). Note
Owl
American Hawk
of the
the unusually long
tail
owl the aspect of a
from a specimen skin

tory in Chicago.
Hawk Owl
which, especially in
kestrel.
The
in the Field
profile, gives this
sketch at upper
Museum
left
was
of Natural His-
^
A*U*d&w
Canada)
tic
earliest,
mally between
Southern
May
Areas
April 25;
May
4 and
(Alberta
latest,
June 26; nor-
18.
and central
to
March 22; latest, June

mally between March 30 and June 5.
Canada):
earliest,
southern
nor-
22;
Eastern Areas (Labrador and Newfoundland)
ear-
May
April 21; latest June 30; normally between
liest,
9 and June

CHARACTERISTICS
Mainly, incubation
taken care of by the female
is
while the male bird brings food and defends against

intruders.
first
Incubation
egg to be
laid
is
believed
to
begin
and has a duration of 25
YOUNG AND FAMILY
with
the
days.
LIFE
CHARACTERISTICS
AMERICAN
Newly hatched American Hawk Owls are very downy

and their eyes are sealed. Almost immediately after
hatching they begin issuing an irritated wheezing hiss
and high-pitched little whistlings. These sounds can
be heard quite distinctly by someone standing as far
as 20 or 30 feet away from the base of the nest tree.
HAWK OWL
Surnia ulula caparoch (Muller)
They
are uttered almost continuously during the day-
time for the
first
week but then begin
though the wheedling nature of the
EGGS
even as the birds have reached fledgling
Number
As few as two eggs (but very

two eggs) and as many as nine, but usually
between four and eight, and at most five or six.
Color Pure unblemished white. Infrequently the
eggs may have a vague yellowish tinge.
Shape Rather variable; sometimes an oblate globe,
per nesting
rarely only
sometimes
an elongated oval.
Very smooth without trace of granulation,
distinctly oval; less often
Texture
but with only a slight
From 56
Size
was 39-3
mm.
mm
gloss.
eggs measured,
the
average
length
and the average width was 31.5
('-5")
to slacken, alcries
size.
continues
An
angry
fledgling will issue a brittle cackle followed by a startlingly
loud hissing and some beak snapping.
Before the nestlings are fully grown

or early
and
July the wings and
tail
similar to an adult's as the
about
late
June
are well developed

first-winter
plumage
begins to sprout on back and sides. The last of the

downy plumage to be replaced by first-winter plumage
is the grayish-drab plumage of the crown.
Family groups tend to remain together until the
following
early
spring
when
the
parent
birds
begin
nesting activities again.
1.2").
Extreme measurements included
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum
Interval
of
length:
43.9
length:
34.3
width:
36.6
width:
30.3
less
(1.7")
(1.4")
(1.4")
Breeds
(1.2")
positively
ably closer to twice that duration.
Egg-laying dates
202
from
northern
Alaska
(Jade
Mountains,
Coldfoot), Yukon (La Pierre House),

and central Mackenzie (Good Hope, Lake Hardisty),
(Fond du Lac), northern
northern Saskatchewan
(Whale River, Fort
Manitoba, northern Quebec
Chimo), Labrador (Okak), and Newfoundland, south-
northwestern
known, but
than 24 hours apart and prob-
egg-laying
believed to be no
Not
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
Northern Areas (Alaska and Arc-
American
Hawk Owl
ward
to
northern
British
Columbia
(Atlin),
(Jasper,
Glenevis), east-central
Quebec
(Lochaber),
tac). Casual in
Montana
MIGRATION
central
Saskatchewan
(Hudson Bay Junction), northern Michigan (Isle Roysouthern
ale), central Ontario (Lake Temiskaming)
Alberta
and
summer
in
New
Brunswick
(Tabusin-
Idaho (Stanley Butte) and
Surnia ulula caparoch

habits, but
its
is
not regularly migratory in
during especially severe winters or when

it gradually moves much
normal breeding range.
a great scarcity of prey occurs,

farther southward than
its
Summit, Madison River)
Winters southward to southern Canada and northern United States; casually to Washington
ECONOMIC INFLUENCE
(Martin;,
Montana, northeastern North Dakota

(Grafton), Nebraska (Raymond), Minnesota, Wisconsin (Lake Koshkonong), Illinois (Chicago), southern
Michigan fPort Huron), northern Ohio, western New
York (Conquest), and New Jersey (Mercer County),
northwestern
and
New
Wintertime feeding on ptarmigan and grouse
more than
on rodents and
set
is
in largely
sufficiently
insects.
by
its
is
off-
summertime feeding
Since most of the bird's range
uninhabited area or in areas of grain pro-
duction where rodents are a distinct economic threat,
England.
the bird's economic influence
Accidental in Scotland and England.
is
either
immaterial or
leaning toward the beneficial side.
American
Hank Owl
203
OTHER NAMES
pygmy owl
Without
specific
geographical
signifi-
cance.
mountain pygmy owl
After the
type of
terrain
inhabited.
SPECIES
DISTINCTIVE FEATURES
ORDER
STRIGIFORMES
FAMILY:
STRIGIDAE
GENUS:
Next to the Elf Owl {Micrathene whitneyi

Pygmy Owl (Glaucidium gnoma sp.) is the
Glaucidium Boie
SPECIES:
owl
in
Elf
Owl
smallest
North America, but considerably unlike the
many
in
Pygmy Owl
gnoma Wagler
sp.), the
aspects of
a pert
is
little
its
natural history.
bluebird, with an alert, intelligent expression,

tail
long
normally held at a distinct angle to the body, and
a generally excitable
this
size,
SUBSPECIES
The
bird, scarcely as large as a
attitude.
Despite
diminutive
its
one of the boldest, most aggressive, and
is
of North American owls. The Rocky MounPygmy Owl is the easternmost race of the five
Pygmy Owl subspecies north of Mexico, and it is generally much lighter in coloration than the more westfierce
tain
ROCKY MOUNTAIN
PYGMY OWL
pinacola Nelson
erly forms.
Rank
over-all
in
among
size
eighteen
the
species:
Seventeenth.
californicum Sclater
CALIFORNIA
gnoma Wagler
PYGMY OWL
ARIZONA PYGMY
SHAPE AT REST
OWL
grinnelli
Ridgway
The Pygmy Owl
quite
OWL
such an expressive angle
The
its
is
rarely recognized
even when seen by good observers, since

flier
held at
is
wings, too, are often flicked open briefly at
such times. This bird

a day
tail
when the bird is perched and

and flick when the bird becomes ex-
tends to twitch
cited.
from the
distinguishable
only slightly smaller Elf Owl, in that
VANCOUVER
PYGMY OWL
swarthi Grinnell
is
COAST PYGMY
and
swiftly whisks out of
it
an owl,
as
is
primarily
heavy cover upon
being disturbed and disappears rapidly from view.

smaller than a robin,

XLII)
(Surnia ulula caparoch)
joys sitting high atop the
or dead tree.
tuftless
SCIENTIFIC
Glaucidium
uppermost
Hawk
it
en-
spire of a conifer
of
its
round,
NAME AND ORIGINAL
gnoma
Glaucidium
pinacola
gnoma
Nelson.
pinacola
SHAPE IN FLIGHT
Original
Nelson,
de-
Pro-
at
The rounded wing

twilight, when it
sky,
ume
flier.
Much
like the
lofty
perch
with
June 24, 19 10, page 103; based on a specimen

from Alma, New Mexico.
204
American
Like that bird,
The perching movements
ceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, Vol23,
head are very quick and constant.
DESCRIPTION
scription:
Much
has perching habits quite simi-
lar to those of the considerably larger
Owl
{COLOR PLATE
it
Pygmy Owl
it
is
tips
is
become very
most often mistaken for a

a
noticeable, but
merely silhouetted against the

bat. It
is
not a silent
American Hawk Owl, it leaves its

swift plummeting action, leveling
off just
curve to
a sweeping
in
rise
on the next suitable treetop.
settle
has been compared to that of the sparrow

the shrike, but
flight
TAIL LENGTH
above the ground and skimming along with
unusually rapid wingbeats, only to
it
probably a
is
than the former and a
less
little
little less
Its
direct in
mm.
flight
(2.5").
Male
hawk and
its
undulative than
the latter.
Average
61.0
Minimum
Maximum
58.8
Rank
Measurements have been based on 18 birds measured:
64.0
in
tail
Female
mm.
mm.
mm.
length
(2.4")
66.9
(2.3")
63.6
(2.5")
among
mm.
mm.
mm.
71.3
(2.6")
(2.5")
(2.8")
teenth.
BEAK LENGTH
WEIGHT
mm.
The
(0.4").
coloration of
the beak varies from a dull yellowish green to a rather
Species average: 42.8 gr.
1.5 oz.),
Male
pale greenish yellow, but always darker at the base
Female
than at the
Average
40.8
gr.
(1.4
oz.'
44.8 gr.
(1.6 oz.)
Minimum
Maximum
34.6 gr.
(1.2
oz.]
36.9 gr.
(1.3
Rank
46.8 gr.
weight
in
(1.6 oz.)
among
50.7 gr.
Male
oz.)
9.4
Minimum
Maximum
8.6
(1.8 oz.)
Average
eighteen species: Seven-
the
tip.
teenth.
Rank
0.1
in
Female
mm.
mm.
mm.
(0.4")
9.8
(0.3")
8.9
(0.4")
10.3
mm.
mm.
mm.
(0.4")
(0.4")
(0.4")
beak length among the eighteen species: Six-
teenth.
TOTAL LENGTH
mm.
Male
Average
165.5
Minimum
Maximum
160.0
Rank
mm
Female
(6-5")
184.9
mm.
mm.
(6.3")
181.3
(6.9")
190.6
in total length
among
174.1
TALONS
LEGS, FEET,
(6.9 oz.).
mm.
mm.
mm.
The
but the toes are covered
legs are fully feathered,
(7.3")
only with fine bristlelike feathers and the scales show-
(7.1")
ing through are usually a dull greenish yellow, not un-
(7.5")
the eighteen species: Fif-
like the
feet
beak
The well-curved
teenth.
colored
at
although there are times when the
color,
tend toward
the
light
talons
base,
yellowish-brown
coloration.
sharp
and horn-
needle
are
shading into a very deep
slate
gray, almost black, at the tips.
WINGSPAN
mm.
EYES AND VISION
(15. 1").
Male
Average
377-7 mrn-
Minimum
Maximum
Rank
in
368.4
Female
(14-9")
mm.
(14.5")
3790 mm. (14.9")

wingspan among the
386.3
381.
400.9
mm.
mm.
mm.
(15.2")
Glaucidium gnoma pinacola has very keen vision
(15.0")
the daytime and at twilight, but not as sharp as the
(15.8")
more nocturnal owls
eighteen species: Seven-
at
night.
The
in
are a pale
irides
yellow.
teenth.
EARS AND HEARING

mm.
(4.0").
Male
Average
100.9
Minimum
Maximum
Rank
in
enteenth.
99.8
106.0
mm
mm.
mm.
Female
U-")
I0I
(3.9")
101.3
(4.2")
106.8
-5
mm
The
Owl is
than
work
mm.
mm.
in
the
location
well in concert.
Pygmy
and probably more
very well developed
vision
senses
-
auditory sense of the Rocky Mountain
of
prey,
There
is
useful
although
both
only a vague sug-
(4-")
(4.0")
(4.2")
wing length among the eighteen species: Sev-
gestion of asymmetricism to the placement

size
from
of
the ear cavities.
quite
considerable
and
relative
This bird has been decoyed

distances
by
the
simulated
squeak of a mouse.
Rocky Mountain Pygmy Owl
205

COLORATION, VOICE
MOLT
This
little
owl has no ear
The plumage
tufts.
quite tight to the body contour
much
more
is
than
so
most other North American owl species but not

much as that of either the Barn Owl (Tyto
in
quite as
or the American
alba pratincola)
ulula caparoch)
There
Hawk Owl
(Surnia
one complete annual molt
is
which takes about three weeks, beginning
Au-
in late
There are more sexual differences between the male

and female Rocky Mountain Pygmy Owls than is usual
among most other owls. The female not only tends to
be a good bit larger, her general coloration has a more
reddish tone than the male's
are the same)
and her voice
(although the markings
lower pitched and
is
emphatically staccato than the male's.
gust or early September.
less
recent study
has also indicated that for some reason not yet fully
understood, males feed
an annual
much more
often on birds (on
than do the females.
basis)
VOICE
The
voice
of
this
owl
little
by a
characterized
is
strong ventriloquism, general mellowness and musical-
Even
and
surprisingly
far-carrying
qualities.
the softer calls can be heard for a mile,
and some
tone,
of
ity
two or three
of the louder calls can be heard for
As with most owls,

early
summer than
more vocal
slightly
it
is
more vocal
at other times of the year,

in
miles.
in the spring
autumn than
the
and
though
majority of

There are reports
of
some occurrence of cannibalism
in the nest, but evidently of
such infrequency that this

cannot be rated as a significant infant-mortality factor.
known
how
It is
not
other owl species on the continent. Calls from this owl
live
in the wild,
are apt to be heard at any time of the day or night, but
perfect health for six years until
morning or evening.
Many of the notes uttered by Glaucidium gnoma
pinacola have a distinctly dovelike cooing quality to
them, though more penetrating. The most common of
these is a low trill with rolling timbre and sounding
like OOOOoooo-oooo-ooo-oo-o-o-o-o-o.
Another sound, more distinctive to this species, is a
peculiar wood-knocking sound, not too unlike that of a
was an adult bird when captured.
most often
in the twilight of
wooden mallet tapping on a short length of two-byfour, and making the sound of POOOK POOOK
POOK POOK POOK, and sometimes continuing virtually without pause for hours.
more
the
of
ventriloquial
of
This, however,
calls,
its
and
it
is
one
is
ex-
tremely difficult to locate the bird by trying to follow

the call to
its
source. This call
is
not too unlike the
Saw-whet Owl (Aegolius acadicus

is higher pitched and with a more
similar call of the
acadicus)
but
it
the male brings food
he often gives a three-note

nest
call
to
as
the nesting female,
he approaches the
and takes a perch somewhere nearby. She
the nest immediately,
returns with
The
it
flies
in
leaves
to him, takes the food,
and
kind by the female)
The Rocky Mountain Pygmy Owl (as well as the

Pygmy Owl subspecies) has on the hindneck
and nape a
plumage pattern unlike that of

North America. The illusion
given by this pattern is that of two huge dark eyes
rimmed with white and separated by a white beak.
Evidently this serves some function as a protective device. (See Enemies and Defenses.)
Other than that,
this owl is dichromatic, with a gray phase and a reddish phase
and the female, as noted, more inclined to
distinctive
any other owl species
in
reddishness
than
the
male.
is
(and possibly an-
a series of PHOOOOT
pause, followed by three similar final notes that are a
phase
of
to overlap
Pygmy Owl (Glaucidium gnoma calif ornicum) but its

is
much more distinctly gray than is the
,
gray phase
phase
is
in
the
California
and occasional
by the Rocky Mountain
whistlings
these do not lend themselves to trans-
pronounced
I'yg}'
and the reddish
Generally, the
The
as they are in the Coast
Pygmy
grinnelli)
underparts are white, streaked with

sides
(but
not
the
flanks)
are
lighter olive-brown speckled with buffy-white or gray-
ish-white
feathers
are dark slaty
having black
brown
in
chestnut in the red phase.
literation.
race,
not as intense. In neither color phase are the
dark brown.
bit
squeakings are issued
reddish
the coloration of the grayish phase of the California
more extended.
A number of other odd
The
Glaucidium gnoma pinacola has a tendency
these notes will be sounded in succession, then a slight
206"
It
other
colors as
Pygmy Owl, but
finally escaped.
it

ADULT
sounds with mourning dove quality. Usually eight of
shrill
owl can
little
gray phase
to the nest.
courtship call by the male
swered
long this
but a captive specimen was kept in
whispered quality.
When
for certain
Owl
the
The
tips.
The upperparts
gray phase and

tail is
almost
very dark brown,
almost black, distinctly but narrowly barred with white.

forehead, and sides of the head are liberally
The crown,
speckled with white over darker brown. Superciliaries
and the
are white
The
lores slightly duskier.
facial disks
dark brown, spotted in four concentric cirwhite

the innermost circle usually being imwith
are fairly
cles
The brown
perfect.
into
narrow bars
of the upper sides tends to stretch
approaching
at the throat, these bars
each other from opposite sides but not touching, and

the center of the throat area
it
away
so swiftly
When
it.
If
seen at
so
it
it
except
adult plumage
The
top
the
of
young bird's head is a plain, unspotted, dull gray. A

few indistinct spots may be on the forehead, but nowhere else, and the plumage of upperparts and sides
is
entirely unspotted.
The
spots
likes
and suns
it
to
is
head about nervously
turning
often
it
naps
Owl (Otus
likes
it
And,
fitfully.
naevius)
asio
to
time to bathe
itself
toundingly bold
it
cause of
its
found
many
will
it
and
fierce
not
As-
size.
its
hesitate
own
to
size.
Be-
quite innocently harmless,
and
times
its
have a very gentle disposition. This is

a mistake. Without a moment's hesitation this little
owl will hurl itself at the throat of a bird as large as
fully grown quail, flickers, and doves, and sometimes
one expects
it
to
even half-grown chickens, or at
mammals
thoroughly and sometimes for pro-
rats.
its
fowl over 64 times
own
its
weight. This
would be equivalent to a man weighing about 200

pounds attacking an animal that weighed over six
The Pygmy Owl

sufficient, dauntless
real terror to the

lives. It is
is
extremely determined and
almost beyond
community
belief.
of bird
almost entirely diurnal.
It
life
Its flight
self-
can bring
wherever
is
it
noisy for
an owl. and the whirring of its wings can easily be

heard from about a dozen feet away. For these reasons,
as well as the fact that the long tail and tiny size of
the bird
make
the observer confuse
it
is
almost always
forests
to
open areas with
it
likes these to
well-scat-
meadows and over
be adjacent to roosting
Daytime perches are more often

than not well exposed, but at night when most of the
areas of forest growth.
actual roosting
ermost
tips of
Occasionally
is
done,
it
prefers perching at the out-
dense conifer branches, but well hidden.
it
pecker hole in a
will roost in a natural cavity or
wood-
tree.
with a songbird,
rarely recognized
by the casual observer, especially since the
little
owl
not
Probably no other owl
(Bubo
virginianus
sp.)
is
so
even the Horned

thoroughly
Owl
hated
by
many as a dozen
times each day the Rocky Mountain Pygmy Owl will
be wildly harassed by a shrieking mob of wrens, humsmall birds. At least once and often as
juncos, blackbirds, and

orioles,
However,
because
of its speed and maneumany
well-developed
ability to
its
verability in flight and
camouflage itself, the little owl can usually escape its
mingbirds,
tons
the
grasslands, but
One
was observed as it arrowed directly to the throat of a

full-grown hen weighing just over six pounds, plunged
its talons home and grimly held on until it had killed
is
between 5,000 feet and 10,000

range, especially where there are trees
as large as
good-sized ground squirrels and full-grown
the bird
very fond of
does not take
at elevations of
feet within
most
the
of
and savage,
size it looks
is
it
longed periods.
from dense pine
birds in the world for
attack creatures a great
perch in deep
just like the Eastern
tered trees. It frequently hunts in
little
far
CHARACTERISTICS
undoubtedly one
incredibly
it
everywhere gradually
GENERAL HABITS AND
is
apt to
uppermost tip
Although not particularly
The Rocky Mountain Pygmy Owl
This
is
it
in the
probably when the bird
bathing. Rarely does a day pass that
appear as the bird grows older.
bloodthirsty
hidden
do, atop the
itself.
During the midday hours
like
so well
will, if disturbed, jerk its
shade, where
being mainly unspotted.
for
all,
continuously,
Screech
essentially
danger threatens,
If
foliage that even the sharpest-eyed observer
miss
to
around.
JUVENILE
is
way from branch
its
top. It rarely lands right at
the top where it intends to sit.

becomes perfectly immobile and
and
plumage
and then works
branch until reaching the
wary,
Juvenile
when
so well camouflages itself
taking a perch, the bird generally lands in a
low, leafy bush
of a low tree
and
alights.
perches, as
white.
is
flits
titmice,
others.
tormentors
itself
easily.
In addition to being able to conceal
peculiarly well in foliage, this owl can also stretch
out lengthwise on a rough branch and seem almost to

merge with the bark. Jays, crows, ravens, some hawks,
and larger owls are all enemies that have been known
to kill the Pygmy Owl, but none is able to catch and
kill the little owl with any degree of regularity. The
20J
distinctive, rather frightening illusion of a face
hindneck of the Pygmy
Owl undoubtedly
on the
helps
dis-
with
it
its
beak before beginning
be
full
air will
courage would-be attackers coming up from behind,
Similarly,
and
and
must be
it
listed as
a protective device.
At times the
to eat.
of lightly drifting feathers as
many
mammals
small
skin before being
are
it
does
so.
of
fur
stripped
consumed.
The Rocky Mountain Pygmy Owl
slowly and
eats
rather delicately, taking dainty bites and pausing often
around casually
to look

OF PREY
as
it
eat the
will
or perhaps not return at
Because of
its
great
robin size or smaller within
range
its
any bird
hardly
ferocity,
is
safe
of
when
destructive
though
far fewer birds annually
it
nevertheless
is,
actively hunting. Yet,
is
kills
to
bird
life
Even many larger birds are killed by

Rocky Mountain Pygmy Owl flickers, meadow-
calif or nicum)
the
occasional
larks,
ground
squirrels,
grouse.
Similarly,
shrews,
rats,
chipmunks,
mice,
and even weasels are
It
all.
can and
will eat twice
food daily.
in
Nearly always,
it
will
it
take wing immediately
feeds, discharge glistening white feces as
and
after
does
it
There
is
very
if
the bird
is
alarmed.
formation in
pellet
little
this owl.
They
often falling apart even as they are regurgitated.

rarely,
anywhere
regurgitated
ever^
if
but
formed are very small and unstable,
that are
pellets
are
so,
to a favored perch to doze for a while. Defeca-
fly
tion also very often occurs
than the California Pygmy
own weight
its
the

this little owl, savage and
Almost without ex-
feeds.
it
head of its prey first. If not

hungry enough to eat all of the animal, it may hide the
remainder in a hole or crotch and return for it later
ception
near
the
nest.
attacked and killed.
In hunting, Glaucidium
gnoma
pinacola sometimes
arrows back and forth across the meadows
manner, bulleting
seen. More often than
like
in a shrike-
to the attack the instant prey

not, though,
is
prefers perching
it
on a high, isolated branch and watching carefully until prey comes into sight, then speeding to the attack
with great directness and savagery. It almost always
attempts to drive its talons deep into the throat of its
intended prey, and once attached it is most difficult to
dislodge, despite the violent thrashings of the victim.
Most hunting is done in the earlier hours of the morning and from midafternoon until sunset.
Now and then insect prey will be carried in the beak,
With an owl
the
in
information
that the male
the feet.
The
is
and
fly
carried by
even three times as

prey
it
much
as
often will take short
to rest until
it
has finally
to the nest tree,
itself.
flights,
managed
and then go up
possibly-
With very heavy
prey branch by branch.
known
The male
When
time for copulation
usually inside a
is
but he emerges at
has
this
flies
woodpecker
inducement, after
to
repeating the
her
side.
little
He
first
same
snuggles
shoulder against hers for a brief while before the
actual copulation begins. There is no protest whatever

from the female, and following copulation they will
often snuggle together some more.

mammals already menRocky Mountain Pygmy Owl will
kill
and eat moles, bats, young rabbits, numerous
insects (especially grasshoppers), and other invertebrates such as spiders, scorpions, and centipedes. It
will also prey upon small snakes, lizards, toads, and
is
the female attracts the male with a soft
note she issued to call him,

his
to bring the carcass
It
snuggle close to-
food to the female and,
looking out for a moment, and,
pausing frequently
to the nest with the
will often
bits of
At such times he
owl has unusual strength and can
with dead prey weighing two or
what we know about
of the species.
frequently, she to him.
hole,
lift
and mating
and female
been observed passing
call.
little
lacking in
gether in a shoulder-to-shoulder manner.
less
much
perhaps understandable that
is
still
is
even identify
so difficult to observe or
it
the courtship
nears,
but most often any prey to be transported
field,
ANNUAL BROODS,
NEST, NESTING
HABITS
In addition to the birds and
tioned as prey, the
This owl
is
more
Not infrequently
fastidious eater than

it
will
hold a bird
against the branch with one foot
208
a hairy
it
most other
has caught
and completely pluck
are single-brooded.
woodpecker or
uses the
The Rocky Mounabandoned hole
flicker as a nest,
of
usually about
15 feet off the ground, but as low as 8 feet or as high

as 24.
frogs.
owls.
Pygmy Owls
tain subspecies ordinarily
in
The same
nest will often be used several years
succession. Almost
above 6,000
feet
8,000 and 9.000
Pygmy Owl
all
nesting
and below 9,500
feet.
is
done
at elevations
feet, usually
between
EGGS
Number
Three
per nesting
to six eggs, but usually
four.
Pure white to occasionally creamy white.
Color
Shape
Very nearly globular.

Normally smooth, but now and again
pitted with odd little pocks which look like puncture
marks. The shells are normally dull, but on some occasions have a vague gloss to them.
Size
Twenty-one measured eggs yielded average figures of 26.7 mm. (1.1") in length and 23.8 mm. (0.9")
in width, and the extremes were:
Texture
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum
length
mm.
mm.
254 mm.
22.6 mm.
3-5
length
24.1
width
width:
(1.2")
(i-o")
(i-o")
(0.9")
Believed to be in the vicinity
of 30 hours apart.
Egg-laying
dates
normally between
May
Earliest,
May
and June
2;
July
latest,
4;
24.

CHARACTERISTICS
The term of incubation is not defiknown but is believed to be about 22 days. It be-
Incubation
nitely
Glaucidium gnoma pinacola Nelson
gins with the first or second egg laid and is carried

on primarily by the female while the male procures
food and guards the nest area.
YOUNG AND FAMILY
female will occasionally house-clean and carry awav
LIFE
accumulated
CHARACTERISTICS
young Rocky Mountain Pygmy
Owls are practically all head and stomach and very
repulsive in appearance, being naked and very weak,
with their bulbous, thin-lidded eyes sealed. Within
At
hatching,
just a
the
few days, however, they are well covered with
down and
their eyes are opening.
From
the beginning
they are voracious feeders and keep their parents very
The male
busy bringing prey.
debris. At about the age of one month,

young emerge from the nesting hole and venture
out onto a branch usually with some parental coaxing and they are fed there. At this time they are well
fledged and begin flapping and strengthening their
wings with little hopping flights from branch to branch.
Within a few days all the young birds are flying and
learning to hunt for themselves. From this point on
they are not long dependent upon the parent birds.
the
bird in particular
is
ex-
The
first
prey they normally catch by themselves
is
grasshoppers.
tremely busy providing enough food during the early

days after the young hatch and
progress by the female.
He
to a perch near the nest

call
it.
is
still
his
in
catch
issues a trilling, whistled
repeated three times, and the female leaves the
nest hole
it
and
brooding
normally brings
and comes
to him.
She takes the food,
strips
quickly of feathers or fur. and returns to the nest with
where she
gestible
tears
it
meat portions
into
little
bits
to the babies.
and feeds only
little
more
difas-
tidious in nesting habits than the majority of owls, the
Throughout the Rocky Mountains and westward,

from northwestern Montana in the north to extreme
eastern Washington, Oregon, and California in the
west, and southward through New Mexico and into
the Sierra
Madre
of Mexico.
209
MIGRATION
the
tail is shorter, so
more pronounced
Essentially
tain
amount
non-migratory, although there
movement from
of
is
a cer-
the higher elevations
about a
fifth
that in flight the bird has an even
batlike appearance.
The
averages
tail
of an inch shorter than that of Glaucid-
ium gnoma pinacola.
to the lower elevations as winter approaches.
SEXUAL DIFFERENCES
ECONOMIC INFLUENCE
The
Pygmy
Owls
(Glaucidium
gnoma
More
sp.
are
probably the most destructive of small bird life of any

North American owl species, but this is offset to some
degree by the numerous rodents and insects devoured
by the little owls each year.
CALIFORNIA PYGMY
{COLOR PLATE
nearly alike in size and coloration than are the

Glaucidium gnoma pinacola. The breast plumage of Glaucidium gnoma calijornicum males is slightly
sexes of
lighter than that of the females as a general rule.

ADULT
OWL
XLIII)
Upperparts are rusty brown
to grayish
brown, and
The
the lower flanks are heavily streaked with black.
remainder of the underparts are generally a
SCIENTIFIC
slaty buff.
NAME AND ORIGINAL
DESCRIPTION
GENERAL HABITS AND
Glaucidium gnoma calijornicum Sclater. Original description: Glaucidium calijornicum Sclater, Proceedings
of the Zoological Society of
London, Volume
15,
CHARACTERISTICS
Num-
ber 237 (May 26), 1857, page 4; based on a specimen

from Calaveras County, California.
The California Pygmy Owl has the peculiar habit,

when emerging from its nest hole or roosting hole, of
seeking out another bird of its own subspecies, either
male or female, and chasing it; during this time, a series of wild maneuverings are engaged in by both birds.
This seems to be more in the nature of a game than
any kind of territorial dispute.
OTHER NAMES
la chouette naine
French-Canadian name mean"The Dwarf Owl."

la chouette pygmee de californie French-Canadian name meaning "The California Pygmy Owl."
ing
Glaucidium gnoma californicum is found from sea

about 6,000 feet. It is not as fond
level to elevations of
Browner
tain
in general coloration
than the Rocky
Pygmy Owl (Glaucidium gnoma
red and gray
somewhat
Rocky Mountain Pygmy

want some trees around, esmixed, scattered hardwoods and conifers. It
of dense forest
Moun-
pinacola)
but
There are two color phases

but with the gray phase less gray and
about the same
Owl, although
pecially
growth
it
as the
does
does not often perch for
its
daytime naps as
size.
overlapping
the
red-phase
posed
as
does
Glaucidium
gnoma
much
pinacola,
ex-
instead
preferring quiet, shady alder thickets.

coloration
of
Glaucidium gnoma pinacola and the red phase much

redder than that of the latter owl.

SHAPE AT REST AND IN FLIGHT
Similar to those of the
Rocky Mountain Pygmy Owl,
but the California subspecies frequently
Quite
except that
210
the Rocky Mountain Pygmy Owl

perching posture is a bit more erect and
similar to
its
the
dentalis)
Pygmy Owl
Spotted
Owl
falls
prey to
occidentalis
occi-
and the Northern Spotted Owl (Strix
occi-
California
(Strix
dentalis caurina)
Every
now and
again an individual
bird will be killed while struggling with
its
prey, this
occurring most often with snakes and weasels.
HUNTING CHARACTERISTICS
Somewhat more aggressive as a hunter than the
Rocky Mountain Pygmy Owl and a considerably more
voracious feeder on small birds. It is far more adept at
catching flying insects than the Rocky Mountain subspecies.
FOOD, FEEDING HABITS

Glaucidium gnoma californicum feeds on fewer
mammals than does Glaucidium gnoma pinacola, but
much more heavily on insects and birds. It is also more
wasteful in
its
feeding habits, quite often eating only
the brains of the birds
it
kills
and the abdomens of
the insects.
NEST
CALIFORNIA PYGMY
As a
rule, the nest
is
Rocky Mountain Pygmy Owl, averaging about 40

off the
OWL
located higher than that of the
ground, but sometimes as high as 75
Glaucidium gnoma californicum Sclater

feet
feet.
southern border country)

erra del
Carmen)
in
and northern Coahuila
(Si-
Mexico.
EGGS
The
eggs will sometimes have a
more
lowish cast than those of Glaucidium
but are otherwise similar in
size,
distinctly yel-
gnoma
ARIZONA PYGMY OWL
pinacola,
shape, texture, and
[COLOR PLATE XLIV)
number.
SCIENTIFIC

Northern interior of British Columbia (Doch-da-on
Creek, Stikine River, Driftwood River), and western
Alberta southward through central and eastern Washington and Oregon (east of the lower Willamette Valley but
including the upper
Rogue River Valley)
the inner coastal ranges of northern California

Bolly
NAME AND ORIGINAL
DESCRIPTION
Glaucidium gnoma gnoma Wagler. Original description: Glaucidium gnoma Wagler, Isis von Oken, 1832,
Heft 3, Column 275; based on a specimen from an
undesignated locale in Mexico.
to
(Yolly
Mountains), Sierra Nevada, and mountains of
OTHER NAMES
southern California (San Luis Obispo County to San
Diego County)
the Great
Basin Ranges and Rocky
Mountains from northern Idaho and western Montana

through Wyoming, Utah, and western and central
Colorado (Colorado Springs) to Arizona (except the
pioametate
de
wagler
Mexican-Indian
meaning "Wagler's Metate-pecker."
(A
metate
name
is
curved stone for corn grinding.
Calif ornia / Arizona
Pygmy Owl
211

Subspecies average
81.4
mm.
(3.2").
TAIL LENGTH
Subspecies average
58.6
mm.
(2.3").
BEAK LENGTH
Subspecies average
7.6
mm.
(0.3").
VOICE
The Arizona Pygmy Owl has less
Rocky Mountain Pygmy Owl;
of a repertoire than
the
more muted and the
calling
is
its
voice
is
possibly
mainly low, double-
noted cooings interspersed with single notes.
HABITAT
OWL
ARIZONA PYGMY
Glaucidium gnoma gnoma, within
Glaucidium gnoma gnoma Wagler
at elevations of
13,000
feet.
slopes.
as
low
It dislikes desert
intermixed
to
from
oak
and
its
range,
is
found
as 4,000 feet to as high as
terrain
pine
areas
At the higher elevations
it
and keeps mainly

on south-facing
tends
to
frequent
coniferous forests exclusively.
The
similar
Pygmy Owl
coloration of the Arizona

to
that of
the
is
basically
gnoma pinacola)
Glaucidium gnoma "noma is the
{Glaucidium
but
in
all
smaller owl.
EGGS
respects
Subspecies average:
24.0
mm.
25.2
mm.
(1.0")
in
length by
(1.0") in width.
WEIGHT
gr. (1.3 oz.).
Found
from
extreme
southern
Arizona
TOTAL LENGTH
mm.
(5.5").
COAST PYGMY OWL
WINGSPAN
212
mm.
(Atasco,
Huachuca, and Chiricahua Mountains) and the highlands of Mexico from Chihuahua,
Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas (Galindo) southward
through Nayarit and Morelos to Guerrero (Omilteme, Venta de Zopilote), and Chiapas.
Parajito, Santa Rita,
{COLOR PLATE XLV)
(14.5")
Pygmy Owl
NAME AND ORIGINAL
SCIENTIFIC
DESCRIPTION
Glaucidium gnoma grinnelli Ridgway. Original deGlaucidium gnoma grinnelli Ridgway, U. S.
scription:
National
Museum
Number
Bulletin,
Part
50,
1914,
6,
pages 781 (in key), 791; based on a specimen from the

mouth of the Mad River at Humboldt Bay, California.
OTHER NAME
la chouette pygmee cotiere French-Canadian
name meaning "The Coast Pygmy Owl."
Glaucidium gnoma grinnelli
brown
almost
a black brown
considerably darker
is
on
and other
the back
gnoma
upperparts than either Glaucidium
pinacola or
Glaucidium gnoma gnoma, and with the dichromatism

more pronounced than in any other of the Pygmy Owl
subspecies. Unlike the other races,
tail
widespread
in
Its
flight.
it
tends to keep
approximates
size
its
the
Rocky Mountain Pygmy Owl. Perched, it tends to hold

its tail at right angles to the body and to twitch it
COAST PYGMY OWL
frequently, giving the illusion of a kingbird at perch.
In
flight,
except for the widespread
tail,
it
resembles a
Glaucidium gnoma grinnelli Ridgway
woodpecker.
VOICE
The
voice
Coast
the
of
Pygmy Owl
heard for about three hours beginning

again for the
last
few hours preceding
is
at
generally
dawn, and
Calls
nightfall.
are seldom given during the night or midday.
coast,
although
now and
again one will be observed in
and alder
Spends
almost its
swamps in heavily timbered areas.
entire life far above ground in the middle to upper
reaches of the great trees. Most of its prey is caught in
the
cut-over
or
burned-over
timberlands
those trees.
GENERAL HABITS AND

CHARACTERISTICS
FOOD
Somewhat more crepuscular than other Pygmy Owl

subspecies,
On
it
is
the whole,
and thus very

majority of
of
its
its
nevertheless
it
is
still
the wariest of the five subspecies
difficult to observe.
life
considerably diurnal.
in the
It
tends to live the
middle reaches of the
trees
Primarily small birds and some tree frogs and
liz-
ards along with other small, tree-living vertebrates and

invertebrate animals.
range and rarely comes to the ground except to
bathe.
ENEMIES
HABITAT
In
This Pygmy
forests
of
fir,
Owl
is
found only
in
the dense
redwood, and cedar along the
addition
to
Spotted
humid
will also occasionally
Pacific
Steller's jays.
Coast
Pygmy Owl
be
Owls,
killed
Coast
by a
mob
Pygmy Owls
of attacking
213
NEST
Almost invariably
in a
slightly smaller and very much darker than the

Rocky Mountain Pygmy Owl, averaging about a half-
is
woodpecker hole
at least 50
inch shorter in total length.
or 60 feet high, but possibly as high as 100 feet.
WEIGHT
EGGS
The
eggs of the Coast
Pygmy Owl
gr. (1.4 oz.).
are slightly larger
and more oval in shape than those of the California

Pygmy Owl; they average 29.4 mm. (1.2") in length
and 23.0 mm. (0.9") in width.
TOTAL LENGTH
Subspecies average
163.8
mm.
(6.5").
WINGSPAN
from southeastern Alaska (Wrangell),

through western coastal British Columbia (exclusive
of Vancouver Island), western coastal Washington and
Pacific
coast
Oregon,
to the coastal districts of California
western
Trinity
mm.
(14.9").
northward
from Monterey County. Inland it is found to the
lower Willamette River Valley of Oregon, and extreme
Alameda County
County,
Napa County, and
eastern
in California.
Subspecies average
91.4
mm.
(3. 6").
VANCOUVER PYGMY OWL

TAIL LENGTH
{COLOR PLATE XLVI)

SCIENTIFIC
mm.
(2.5").
NAME AND ORIGINAL

BEAK LENGTH
DESCRIPTION
Glaucidium gnoma swarthi Grinnell. Original description:
Glaucidium gnoma swarthi Grinnell, The
Auk, Volume 30, Number 2, April (March 31), 1913,
page 224; based on a specimen from Errington, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada.
Subspecies average:
than
is
11.0
mm.
(0.4"). This
is
larger
Pygmy Owl races in

The Vancouver Pygmy
ordinarily found in other
relation to the size of the bird.
Owl's beak averages 0.057" longer than that of the

Rocky Mountain Pygmy Owl, even though the latter
is
the larger of the two subspecies.
OTHER NAME
LA CHOUETTE PYGMEE DE VANCOUVER
nadian name meaning "Pygmy
Owl
of
French-Ca-
Vancouver."
LVI
Bubo
DUSKY HORNED OWL
virginianus saturatus Ridgway. Male. Victoria, British
Columbia, Canada, January

LVH
The Vancouver Pygmy Owl
is
darker in general col-
oration everywhere than the California
214
Bubo
Pygmy Owl.
It
13, 1967.
A.O.U. Number 375-C
ONTARIO HORNED
virginianus scalariventris Snyder.
OWL
Female and two young.
South Fork Roseau River near Malung, Roseau County, Minnesota, March 1, 1927. Not included in the 1957 A.O.U.
Check-list
Pygmy Owl
VI
r/
SEXUAL DIFFERENCES
The females
than
is
are
apparent
more
distinctly larger
in the other
than the males
Pygmy Owl
races.
VOICE
Unlike the other Glaucidium gnoma subspecies, the
Vancouver Pygmy Owl does more calling in the autumn than during spring or summer.
GENERAL HABITS AND

CHARACTERISTICS
There seems to be a considerably closer year-round
between male and female Vancouver
relationship
Pygmy Owls than among

species,
and
at almost
perch side by
This
is
the other
Pygmy Owl
sub-
any time of year they tend
to
snuggling together often.
side,
probably the shyest, most reclusive of the
Pygmy Owls; much more

Pygmy Owl.
than
so
even
the
Coast
VANCOUVER PYGMY OWL

Glaucidium gnoma swarthi Grinnell

Mostly comparable to that of the Coast Pygmy
(Glaucidium gnoma grinnelli)
erence for more open areas of scattered

roosts in vacated
ities,
Owl
but with a slight preftrees.
It rarely
woodpecker holes or natural
tree cav-
preferring dense foliage for
all
roosting.
FOOD
grasshoppers,
Chiefly
butterflies; and, in late
HUNTING METHODS
This
Owl
is
races,
small
it
will take mice, shrews,
small birds. Oddly, in view of
its
beetles,
moths,
and
small hirds.
Pygmy
the most strictly insectivorous of the
though
mammals and
crickets,
winter and early spring, some
and some
dietary preference,
EGGS
it
has never been observed to capture an insect on the

wing. Invariably
insect,
pinning
and eating
it
lands
it
with
its
upon a
stationary or crawling
talons while tearing
it
apart
Subspecies average:
22.9
mm.
25.4
mm.
1.0")
in length
and
(0.9") in width.
it.

Glaucidium gnoma swarthi
LYin
Bubo
ARCTIC
HORNED OWL
virginianus subarcticus (Hoy). Male. Outskirts of Milrs
City, Custer County,
Montana, April
4,
1963.
Not included
in
the 1957 A.O.U. Check-list
entirely to
Vancouver
ever, there
have been some
thought
Island, British
fairly
to
be confined
Columbia; how-
recent unconfirmed
sightings of the subspecies in coastal areas of the ad-
joining British
I'ancouver
is
Pygmy Owl
Columbia mainland.
2*5
This
a very pert and extremely attractive
is
owl which often seems
SPECIES
to be
deal of success, to look very fierce.
the
to
little
without a great
trying,
related
It is closely
Pygmy Owls (Glaucidium gnoma
sp.),
with
which it and the Cactus Owl (Glaucidium brasilianum

cactorum) were previously classed; its beak is more
ORDER
more rounded,
head proportionately smaller than that of most
other North American owl species. There are two distinct color phases of this owl
red and gray as well
as a ruddy-gray intermediate coloration which occurs
on very rare occasions and appears to be a combination
of the two, but which is not generally accepted as a
bulbous, the wings slightly shorter and
STRIGIFORMES
the
FAMILY:
STRIGIDAE
GENUS:
Glaucidium Boie
SPECIES:
brasilianum
(Gmelin
third color phase in
Rank
in
its
over-all
own right.
among
size
eighteen
the
species:
Sixteenth.
SUBSPECIES
ridgwayi
FERRUGINOUS
Sharp
SHAPE AT REST
OWL
cactorum van Rossem
Although the Ferruginous
CACTUS OWL
Pygmy Owls
Owl
is
very similar to the
and general shape, its head is

proportionately just a bit smaller and it usually perches
with the tail held straight down rather than at an
angle to the body as in the Pygmy Owls.
in
size
FERRUGINOUS OWL
{COLOR PLATE XLVII)
SHAPE IN FLIGHT
SCIENTIFIC
NAME AND ORIGINAL

It
DESCRIPTION
is
extremely
between
this
same general area

Glaucidium brasilianum ridgwayi (Sharp). Original
Glaucidium brasilianum Ridgwayi Dear-
description:
born, Field
Museum
of
difficult
at
twilight
owl and the bats which

of
its
to
differentiate
also
fly
in
the
range; an impression given
because of the general configuration of the silhouette

of the bird.
Natural History, Publication
125, November 1907, page 84; based on a specimen

from El Rancho, Guatemala.
FLIGHT PATTERN
OTHER NAMES
ferruginous pygmy owl
Former common name
The wingbeats are

minimum of gliding.
before reclassification.
from the
streaked pygmy owl Former Pygmy Owl designation, and because of distinctive scattered dark streaking
of the undcrparts, especially the sides and flanks.
tecolotillo rayado de sharp Mexican-Indian
name meaning "Sharp's Streaked Pygmy Owl."
The
216
flight
flight
dulative,
line
quite rapid
and there
is
and there
Gliding, in fact,
is
rarely,
if
Owl
is
a bare
mostly absent
any hovering.
and slightly un-
ever,
usually very direct
although not quite so pronouncedly dipping
and rising as that of a woodpecker.

Ferruginous
is
7 birds
measured:
WEIGHT
BEAK LENGTH
Female
Average
78.5 gr.
Minimum
Maximum
65.5
gr.
(2.3
85.1
gr.
Rank
weight
in
(0.4").
Male
(0.4")
9.1
(0.3")
8.6
(0.4")
9.9
beak length
among
82.2 gr.
(2.9 oz.)
Average
8.9
oz.)
71.4 gr.
(2.5 oz.)
8.2
(3.0 oz.)
88.2 gr.
(3.1
Minimum
Maximum
oz.)
Rank
the eighteen species: Sixteenth.
9.4
in
Female
mm.
mm.
mm.
(2.8 oz.)
among
mm.
Male
mm.
mm.
mm.
(0.4")
(0.3")
(0.4")
the eighteen species: Sev-
enteenth.
TOTAL LENGTH
mm.
Species average: 159. 1
mm.
146.1 mm.
1550 mm.
1502
Minimum
Maximum
Rank
in total
length
The
(6.3").
Male
Average
LEGS, FEET,
Female
(5.9")
167.9
(5.8")
158.9
(6.1")
183.2
among
mm
mm.
mm.
TALONS
Owl
the Ferruginous
legs of
are well covered
with short, close plumage, and on the feet are
(6.6")
(6.3")
(7.2")
The
feathers to the base of the talons.
bristly
feet are
unu-
and
sually large in proportion to the size of the bird,
the
talons
the eighteen species: Seven-
are
light
horn color for most of their
but shading into dusky yellowish gray at the
length
teenth.
tips.
EYES AND VISION
WINGSPAN
mm.
Male
Average
377.5
Minimum
Maximum
361.9
Rank
mm.
mm.
mm.
373-3
Vision
(15.1").
(14.9")
389.2
(14.3")
373-7
(14.7")
405.9
extremely good, best during morning and
is
Female
evening twilight, but better during the day than dur-
mm.
mm.
mm.
(15.3")
ing the night.
(14.7")
ing, clear yellow.
The
very brilliant, penetrat-
irides are a
(16.0")
wingspan among the eighteen species: Sixteenth.
in
EARS AND HEARING

The hearing
though not
of
the
Owl
Ferruginous
is
excellent,
as extremely sensitive as that of the
more
nocturnal owl species. Nevertheless, this bird has been

mm.
(3.9").
Male
Average
91.8
Minimum
Maximum
96.8
Rank
in
89.4
decoyed for unusually great distances by the simulated

Female
mm.
mm.
mm.
(3.6")
104.6
(3.5")
89.5
(3.8")
116.8
mm.
mm.
mm.
(4.1")
squeak of a mouse. There is no marked degree of

asymmetricism in placement or size of the ear cavities.
(3.5"")
(4.6")
wing length among the eighteen species: Six-
teenth.
EAR TUFTS, PLUMAGE, .ANNUAL
MOLT
The plumage
so much
TAIL LENGTH
mm.
62.2
Minimum
Maximum
Rank
in
teenth.
56.7
68.0
tail
mm.
mm.
mm.
length
fairly tight to the
as
brasilianum
Female
(2.2")
(2.7")
83.5
80.5
88.9
mm.
mm.
mm.
gnoma
(3.3")
ridgwayi
of
the
more
than
body, though not
Pygmy Owls. The
fluted
those
of
on Glaucidium
Glaucidium
the
subspecies and, while not completely soundless
in flight, the
(3.2")
that
feathers are slightly
flight
(2.5")
among
is
so
(2.9").
Male
Average
quite
Ferruginous
Owl
flies
much more
quietly
than the Pygmy Owls. The annual molt does not begin
(3.5")
until
Ferruginous
September (sometimes not

and it is usually all finished by
early
tember
Owl
until
mid-Sep-
early
December
217
at the latest. Flight
way impaired by
not in any
is
this
lores are a very light buff
same
progressive molting.
white or gray white, and the
colors run very narrowly across the throat
and on
the chin.
VOICE

The most common
call
of this pretty
curs in the early evening and
owl oc-
little
like
head held upward and the

at
JUVENILE
a twice-repeated-per-
is
CHOOOK-CHOOOK-CHOOKCHOOOK-CHOOOK-CHOOOK, voiced with the

sound
second
each note uttered.
The
jerking spasmodically
tail
voice
carries a bit more

At times the notes are drawn out for two
three seconds each, but usually they are more rapidly
as that of the
uttered than those of the

less
frequently
voiced
Pygmy Owls.
calls
which do not lend themselves
that
crown
the
most
CHARACTERISTICS
to reproduction
of
written word, including a long clear whistling voice by
Glaucidium brasilianum ridgwayi is not so shy

the Pygmy Owls [Glaucidium gnoma sp.), and
the male.
sometimes be rather
in
the
ings
at once.
The Ferruginous Owl
is
very
The owl
cactus and closely watching the ground below.

rarely
of the
between the
can
open.
the
in
fond of perching atop the uppermost knob of a saguaro
male are lower in tone than are

those of the female and somewhat less wheezing in
their quality. Female birds are slightly the larger, but
there is no detectable difference in coloration or markcalls
approached
it is in its hole, it becomes very nervous

approach of a human and will usually emerge
from the hole

COLORATION, VOICE
easily
as are
it
however,
If,
at the
The
not
is
GENERAL HABITS AND
variety of
given,
also
is
except
it
inflection.
to
adults
to
not quite as mellow
is
Pygmy Owl, and
Similar
marked.
flies
at
all
during the night; mostly in early
morning and evening, but with a certain amount of

daylight activity as well. This
owl,
delightful
sents
itself.
to
observe
a very appealing
little
when an opportunity
pre-
is
sexes.

No
The Ferruginous Owl
data have been ascertained in these respects in-
sofar as the
Owl
Ferruginous
is
concerned, although
mortality rates and longevity would probably be along

similar lines to those of the
desert terrain, although

valleys at times.
almost entirely a bird of the

will enter
Mesquite
well-wooded creek
and areas abundant

are most favored, ranging
forests
saguaro and cholla cacti
in
from sea
Pygmy Owls.
is
it
level to elevations of 4,000 feet.
Perching
is
almost always done in the open on an outermost or
The common
less
twig,
or
cactus
else
in
spike.
in the
the outer branches of Cottonwood
bottom brush, or
Roosting,
dense foliage
trees
or creek-
woodpecker holes high
in
saguaro cactus.
red phase and gray phase, along with
decidedly
grayish
own
right;
the gray phase
throughout,
with
is
slight
brownish cast on the upperparts and the very
distinctly
slate-gray tail barred in black; the red phase
is
a very
banded with
black; the brownish-red-gray phase is more decidedly
a mixture of the two prime color phases and with the
tail slaty and barred with black.
Superciliaries and
distinct reddish, but reddish gray
218
is
often occurring brownish-red-gray phase, are
each distinctive in their

quite
branch,
more often undertaken
of

ADULT
the
uppermost
however,
on a
tail
Field sketches of (center) the Ferruginous
Owl (Glaucidium
Pygmy
brasilianum ridgwayi) and the closely related Arizona
Owl (Glaucidium gnoma gnoma),

the
Ferruginous
same day
Owl
in
observed and sketched on
extreme southeastern Arizona.
ru
Tqjl
l<p f0h *
G-
0lv
*i
/f
ztfjhwfa*.
C^ftQftiQ^

A
fantastically courageous
tiny creature will
and
fierce little owl,
who comes too near the nest or young. The attack is

accompanied with flailing wings, biting beak, and
graspings of the needle-sharp talons. With the exception of the larger owl species, the bird has few natural
enemies and there are even cases on record where it has
dauntlessly attacked the Western Horned Owl. As with
the Pygmy Owls, there is a plumage pattern resembling
a rather fierce face on the hindneck of the bird, and
this may afford some degree of protection. Equally, in
three color phases the bird can
all
with astounding
camouflage
There seems
this
human
without hesitation attack a
difference
little
in
the
known
Owl
from those of the Pygmy Owl subspecies, but considerstill

is
needed in these areas where both
able study
species are concerned.
ANNUAL BROODS,
NEST, NESTING
HABITS
itself
Glaucidium brasilianum ridgwayi has only one brood
amidst foliage.
facility
be
to
courtship and mating activities of the Ferruginous
per year, with very

eggs being laid
likelihood of a second set of
little
the
if
first
are destroyed.
The
nests are
abandoned woodpecker holes in cottonwoods, mesquite and, most often, saguaro cactus, usually between 10 and 40 feet in height. The bird is
invariably in
HUNTING METHODS AND CARRYLNG

OF PREY
The hunting methods of Glaucidium brasilianum
much along the lines of those practiced
by the Pygmy Owls, and with an equal degree of ferocity. The Ferruginous Owl, too, will attack birds much
regularly
pellets
ridgwayi are
larger than
itself,
Driving
talons
its
including even fryer-sized chickens.
deeply and firmly into the
owl hangs on, keeping
bird's throat, the little
EGGS
larger
its
bal-
Number
ance with flapping wings as the prey struggles, squeezits feet ever more tightly until the larger bird
and sometimes even helping to hurry the demise
by tearing at the head of the prey bird with the sharp
little beak at the same time.
ing with
but far
The Ferruginous Owl has never been observed

carry any kind of prey in
its
beak
not
even
power and can carry in its talons

and mammals weighing more than twice its own
has amazing
birds
lifting
to
just three rather
eggs
five
are
than four or
laid,
five.
Pure white with no trace of discoloration or
even nest staining.
Very roundly ovoid.
Shape
Texture
to
insects.
Three
per nesting
more often
Color
dies,
It
its nesting habits, carrying away debris

and usually not defecating or regurgitating
anywhere in or near the vicinity of the nest hole.
very clean in
The
shells
sp.),
are thicker than are the shells
Pygmy Owls {Glaucidium gnoma
of the eggs laid by
and they are more granulated but less glossy than

Owls {Micrathene whitneyi sp. ).
those laid by the Elf
In addition, the eggshells sometimes are characterized
weight.
knobby protuberances.
measured eggs have yielded an average
length of 29.0 mm. (1.1") and an average width of
by a few
Size

In a feeding habit similar to that of the
the Ferruginous
Owl
will
and
it is
still-living
its
slightly
is
almost always eaten
greater
degree
there
is
the Glaucidium
more
of
gnoma
first,
whole-prey
mice and
insects,
The extremes
How-
included:
length
30.3
length
24.8
width
25.5
width
21.9
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
(1.2")
(1.0")
(1.0")
(0.9")
Pygmy Owls
prey and wolfing them down.
ing, especially with small
among
piecemeal.
begin tearing out chunks of meat from
of the prey animal

is
it
(0.9").
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum
Pygmy Owls,
a more ravenous feeder than the
will often
mm.
often pluck a smaller prey
bird clean of feathers before eating

ever,
23.6
slight
Fifty
The head
Egg-laying
and there
swallow-
Not authenticated, but
dates
Earliest,
30; normally between April
March
and
May
13;
As a result,
and the pelbound in small
subspecies.
pellet regurgitation as well,
ium brasilianum cactorum)
220
May
than occurs
north-central Sonora, Mexico, of the Cactus
is
latest,
14.
and more tightly

elongated-oval bundles. Almost any desert creature
bird, insect, mammal, invertebrate, reptile, amphibian
lets
be-
lieved to be in the vicinity of 30 hours apart.
are better formed
prey for this owl
if it
can be handled.
Field sketches rendered on two successive days in
Ferruginous
Owl
Owl
May
in
(Glaucid-
'
j^/^ 1 '
v**'*-"
#4
<*
urf
v
/\
'
\>\,a^ T
e-"
1,^
^-;;-
WM
n
v
i
y/i\
fig
Reddish
Tn
Xf.
being fed to some extent by the parent birds. In

than a week after leaving the nest they are flying
off on their own.
still
less

The Ferruginous Owl
North America north
has a very restricted range in
of Mexico. It inhabits a
stretch of the southernmost portion of Arizona
similar area in southern
New Mexico and
narrow
and a
southwestern
Texas, especially in the lower Rio Grande Valley area
from the vicinity of Del Rio to the Gulf of Mexico.

South of the United States border it occurs in much
greater abundance through Mexico, most of Central
America, and into Brazil.
MIGRATION
Non-migratory.
ECONOMIC INFLUENCE
Negligible.
FERRUGINOUS OWL
Glaucidium brasilianum ridgwayi (Sharp)
CACTUS OWL
{COLOR PLATE XLVIII)

CHARACTERISTICS
SCIENTIFIC
Incubation
is
NAME AND ORIGINAL
probably entirely by the female, with
the male keeping guard over the area
DESCRIPTION
and providing
food for the female and newly hatched nestlings.
Glaucidium brasilianum cactorum van Rossem. Original description: Glaucidium brasilianum cactorum van
YOUNG AND FAMILY
Rossem, Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, Volume 50, February 23, 1937, page 27; based
LIFE
on a specimen from between Guaymas and Empalme
CHARACTERISTICS
Much
observation
still
in Sonora,
Mexico.
needs to be recorded here,
but insofar as can be determined from what limited

observations have been made, the development of the
young birds and the characteristics of family life are
reasonably parallel to those of the Rocky Mountain
Pygmy Owl (Glaucidium gnoma pinacola) It is known
that the young Ferruginous Owls do not linger long in
family groups once they have acquired the ability to
fly. Within two or three days of leaving the nesting
hole they are capturing their own insect prey, though
.
222
Cactus
OTHER NAMES
cactus pygmy
its
favored nesting
now
owl
site,
For the
size
of the owl
and
although the term "Pygmy"
is
misapplied.
TEGOLOTILLO RAYADO DE LOS ORGANOS Mexican-Inname meaning "Streaked Owl of the Organ Cac-
dian
tus."
Owl
Very
similar in size to the Ferruginous
cidium brasilianum ridgwayi) but a

general
color.
and, on
coloration
somewhat more
The
tail
clearly
the
much
whole,
defined
Owl
(Glau-
paler gray in
the
against
the
markings
ground
always a deep reddish in color with
is
wide but rather faint crossbarrings of a dusky brown

gray.
The crown
Owl;
rather,
ways
it
is
is
not spotted as in the Ferruginous
streaked, but the streakings are al-
faint.
HABITAT
Not very
but with
different
less
from that of the Ferruginous Owl,
inclination to frequent cottonwood creek
valleys.

Southern and south-central Arizona
Tucson west
to
Agua
(Phoenix and
Caliente), western
and north-
western Sonora, and the lowermost portion of the Rio
Grande Valley
and southward
in
to
Texas (Hidalgo County, Brownsville),

Michoacan, Nuevo Leon, and Taraau-
CACTUS OWL
Glaucidium brasilianum cactorum van Rossem
lipas.
Cactus
Owl
223
GREAT HORNED OWL

{COLOR PLATE XLIX)
SPECIES
NAME AND ORIGINAL
SCIENTIFIC
ORDER:
STRIGIFORMES
FAMILY:
STRIGIDAE
GENUS:
DESCRIPTION
Bubo
virginianus virginianus (Gmelin). Original de-
scription: Strix virginianus
Volume
Bubo Dumeril
Part
i,
i,
Gmelin, Systematica Natura,
1788, page 287, based mainly on the
Owl of Latham, Gen. Syn., Volume 1,

page 119, on a specimen from an undesignated
location in Virginia. Former scientific names: Asio
Virginia Eared
SPECIES:
Part
virginianus (Gmelin)
1,
magellanicus virginianus, Strix maximus, Strix virginiana,
Bubo
pinacola.
SUBSPECIES
OTHER NAMES
big-eared
virginianus
(Gmelin)
GREAT
cat
HORNED OWL
algistus
(Oberholser)
heterocnemis (Oberholser)
lagophonus (Oberholser)
occidentalis Stone
ST.
MICHAEL
HORNED OWL
LABRADOR
HORNED OWL
when
owl
owl
After the large, significant ear
the ear tufts are held erect, giving the general as-
when
pect of a sitting cat

called big
cat
Owl, which
Owl.
is
hoot owl
but
this
owl
the owl
to differentiate
it
HORNED OWL
MONTANA
HORNFD OWL
is
perched. Also
from the Screech
sometimes referred to as the
From
same term
the deep,
is
booming
call
Little
Cat
makes,
it
often used for the Barred Owl,
though to differentiate between the
NORTHWESTERN
tufts.
Because of the catlike features of the head
two,
Great
the
Horned Owl is sometimes called big hoot owl.

le grand-duc French-Canadian name meaning
"The Grand Duke," as opposed to the Screech Owl,
which is called "The Little Duke."
le grand-duc d'amerique French-Canadian name
for the Horned Owl species in general, rather than
subspecifically.
pacific us Cassin
pallescens Stone
saturatus
Ridgway
scalariventris
Snyder
PACIFIC
HORNED OWL
WESTERN
HORNED OWL
DUSKY
HORNED OWL
le grand-duc de l'est (sometimes spelled "le grandduc du l'est") French-Canadian name for the Great
Horned Owl specifically, meaning "The Grand Duke of
the East."
tecolote cornudo Indian-Mexican name

meaning "The Horned Owl."
ONTARIO
wapacuthu (Gmelin)
224
ARCTIC
Beyond any doubt whatever, the Great Horned Owl

the fiercest, most aggressive, and most impressive owl
of North America. A book could easily be written on
this bird alone, so varied and interesting are its habits
and natural history. Here we will only discuss the most
distinctive and salient features. The various subspecies
is
HORNED OWL
TUNDRA
HORNED OWL
the
HORNED OWL
subarcticus (Hoy)
for
species in general,
Horned Owl
of
Bubo
distinctive ear tufts. It
common
the
of
largest
owls
resident
on
States
and second
to the
Snowy Owl [Nyctea scandiaca)
in over-all size
is
United
the
of
this
by far the
continent only
of
more north-
from the Great

Grav Owl (Strix nebulosa nebulosa) and the Northern
erly climes.
It
Owl
Barred
easily distinguishable
is
in that neither of those
(Strix varia varia)
and the Great Horned Owl

is generally darker than the Northern Barred Owl and
buffier brown than the Great Gray Owl. The latter owl
is longer in total length and may look as large or even
have ear
large species
but
larger,
plumage
FLIGHT PATTERN
virginianus are the only large owls in North
America with very
this
tufts,
not the case
is
simply that the
is
it
Gray Owl is looser and fluffier

the Great Horned Owl and thus gives the
of the Great
than that of
impression of greater bulk.
Great Gray
Owl
The
general aspect of the
one of placidity,
is
as
compared
to the
Great Horned Owl, which perpetually wears a glaring,
The
angry expression.
Horned Owl
are large
feet
and
talons
of
Great
the
and extremely powerful and its

though often nar-
Even though a somewhat heavy flier, the Great

Horned Owl never fails to exhibit a sense of great power
in flight. The wings are sometimes flapped with methodical deliberation, and yet at other times, especially
when attacking or fleeing, they beat with amazing
For a short span after
rapidity.
from
its
dangle below the bird, but soon they are
now and
again
owl
this
upward
much
higher than treetop height or below.
on prey
it
almost completely close
will
not reopen them until the
last
possible
achieving great speed and accuracy in

gliding
level
is
frequently engaged
Owl
Rank
in
over-all
among
size
the
eighteen
species:
Second.
climb to an extraordinary
will
several
of
rowed
slits.
itself
Horned Owl
drawn up and
thousand feet and soar

on motionless wings much in the manner of one of the
large Buteo hawks. Normally, though, it does not fly
altitude
relatively short distances at a time.
mere
launches
tucked firmly against the lower-belly plumage.
eyes are a highly conspicuous yellow,

to
first
it
perch, the huge feet of the Great
way with
locked branches and
On
its
occasion
it
incredible
moment, thus
attack. Low-
its
in,
but only for
its
and can
size
through the inter-
skill
dense forest growth.
trees of very
deliberately bulls
diving
wings and
The Great Horned
has great maneuverability for
weave
When
its
its
way through brushy
and brittle branches with the wing

edges and snapping them off. Incredibly, for such an
enormous bird, its deeply fluted flight feathers and
generally soft plumage allow it to fly with absolute
cover, striking twigs
SHAPE AT REST
When
silence.
Bubo virginianus virginianus normally sits very erect and almost always with its ear tufts
fully raised and quite prominent. The body, despite a
fairly tight plumage, always appears heavy and powerfully built. The plumage is generally dark on the upperparts and somewhat lighter on the underparts. There is
perched,
Measurements have been based on 84 birds measured

always a characteristic white patch in the gular area of

the throat
and upper
breast.
On
its
WEIGHT
perch, this bird has
a magnificent bearing and seems to exude an aura of

fierce regality, strength,
and condescending
dignity.
gr. (53.3 oz.).
Male
Female
Average
1,448.9 gr.
(50.7 oz.)
1.597-0 gr.
(55.9 oz.;
Minimum
Maximum
1,383.8 gr.
(48.4 oz.)
1,454.2 gr.
(50.9 oz.)
1,691.7 gr.
(59.2 oz.)
1,876.0 gr.
(65.7 oz.)
Rank
in
weight
among
SHAPE IX FLIGHT
Here the impression
tinues.
The wings
pointed toward the
Owl
or Barred Owls.
flattened to the
tucked
in, so
it
than those of
The
in
and
size
con-
more
the Great Gray
long and broad,
tips
head
that
of great strength
are
rather
TOTAL LENGTH
ear tufts are almost invariably

flight
and the head
is
well
appears to have no neck and the
body seems somewhat shortened and compacted. The

tail, too, appears in flight to be rather short and it is,
indeed, much shorter than the tail of the Great Gray
Owl.
mm.
(21.8").
Male
Female
Average
5094 mm.
(20.1")
598.3
Minimum
Maximum
468.1
mm.
(18.4")
548.8
602.4
mm
2 3-7")
651.5
Great Horned
Rank
Owl
in total
length
among
mm.
mm.
mm.
(23.6")
(21.6")
(25.7")
225
EYES AND VISION
WINGSPAN
mm.
Average
1,335-7
Minimum
Maximum
1,242.6
Rank
in
1,409.7
mm.
mm.
mm.
These are the
(545").
Male
(52.6")
1,429.3
(49.0")
1,260.3
(55.5")
i,575-0
mm.
mm.
mm.
North American owls
largest eyes of all
markedly
convex, very piercing in their glare, and
(56.3")
with an
coloration that
(49.7")
other owls, a rather heavy, translucent, nictitating
(62.1")
brane
Female
wingspan among the eighteen species: Second.
iris
is
drawn
brilliant yellow.
is
protectively over the
eye
struggles with prey and, according to
when
the owl
flies
some
As
in the
mem-
the owl
as
authorities,
through very heavy cover. The ex-
pansion or contraction of the pupil changes automatically

mm.
(15.2").
Average
370.8
Minimum
Maximum
355-8
Rank
in
373.6
mm.
mm.
mm.
(14.6")
402.7
(14.0")
362.5
(14.7")
430.5
is
in addition
it
does in the other owls,
good reason
Owl can
Great Horned
the
Male
with light intensity, as
but there
for believing that
consciously
control
ex-
Female
pansion or contraction of one eye at a time or both
mm.
mm.
mm.
(15.9")
eyes simultaneously, especially
(14.3")
eye
(17.0")
The
wing length among the eighteen species: Second.
when
moves from a near object

eye
itself
partially
is
to
the focus of the
one farther
covered at
of the
extremely keen, day or night
quite
edge by the heavy brows as they form the

forehead. Vision
is
distant.
upper inner
its
probably better on a 24-hour rating than any other
North American Owl.
TAIL LENGTH
mm.
(8.4").
Minimum
Maximum
Rank
208.2
224.3
in tail length
runs
Female
mm.
mm.
mm.
21 1.7
(8.3")
215.8
(8.2")
207.9
(8.8")
231.6
among
Great Horned Owl, with ears

stiffens
into alert at-
when a mouse almost a hundred

through short meadow grasses which
tention
Male
Average
plugged with dampened cotton,
mm.
mm.
mm.
it.
(8.5")
Similarly, even in very bright sunlight,
yards
all
it
away
but hide
will
look
upward into the sky and watch intently the flight of

birds passing, which the human eye cannot detect without the aid of binoculars. This owl has also been
known to look directly at the sun, enduring without
seeming discomfort or ocular damage a glare that the
(8.2")
(9.1")
human
eye cannot.
BEAK LENGTH
mm.
Beak
(1.5'
is
slate
gray
black.
Male
Average
36.8
Minimum
Maximum
30.8
Rank
in
mm.
mm.
mm.
42.4
beak length
EARS AND HEARING
Female
(1.5")
41.2
(1.2")
36.1
(1.7")
among
46.6
mm.
mm.
mm:
(1.6")
As superb
(1.4")
better. It
(1.8")
the eighteen species: Sec
is
even
not quite surpass that of the Barn
Owl
as the vision
may
the auditory sense
(Tyto alba pratincola) but certainly

close to equaling
ond.
is,
the location
it.
The
eyes
and
it
must come very
ears together
make
of prey a very simple matter for Bubo
virginianus virginianus, whether under the brightest or
darkest of lighting conditions. It
LEGS, FEET,
The
are
all
legs,
and talons
feet,
TALONS
of the Great
enormously well developed; the
muscled,
the
grasping and
feet
and
lifting.
talons
The
Horned Owl
legs impressively
extremely
powerful
in
legs are well feathered and
the feet are moderately well covered with short, thick

bristly
feathers
is
virtually impossible,
what pains are taken, to creep up behind

a roosting Great Horned Owl without that owl abruptly
waking and turning its head to impale the intruder
with its fierce stare. The ear cavities are enormous and
more asymmetrical than are those of the Barn Owl.
The ear coverts auriculars are extremely mobile and
of tremendous benefit to this owl in pinpointing the
location of any sound, near or far.
irrespective of
which become nearly absent on the

toes. Here the scaling is brown-
outermost balls of the

ish
gray in color.
thick at the base
They
The
great
and taper
to
curved talons are very
heavy but sharp points.
are a brownish-yellow horn color at the base but
gradually darken until they are jet black at the
tips.
These talons are indeed murderous weapons, whether

used in hunting, offense, or defense.
226
Customary threatening posture of the Great Horned Owl

{Bubo virginianus virginianus)
Horned Owl
angry female, sounding
MOLT
The
ear tufts are very large, erect, and distinctive at
most times when the bird
perched, though they are
is
crown in flight.
At times when the perched bird becomes very angry,
they may be tilted backward at a considerable angle.
They are fully two inches in length.
The plumage is heavy and soft, but not as thick and
bulky as that of the Great Gray Owl. Emargination of
the outermost primaries is quite distinct and all flight
flattened or very nearly flattened to the
feathers are deeply fluted to afford entirely soundless
The pure white
flight.
feathers of the gular region are
and fluffy, sometimes giving the distinct impression of an ascot. (See Color Plate LVI.)
There is a complete molt of all plumage once each year,
beginning in late June or early July and usually completed around late October. Flight is in no way affected
especially
by
thick
this progressive molt.
VOICE
The Great Horned Owl comes close to
Owl (Strix varia varia)
equaling the
Northern Barred
ingly wide variety of sounds
deep booming hoots to
The hooting
hisses.
it
in the
...
...
a remarkably catlike cry of
MEEE-O Wwwww.
hound baying deep
a barking call like a
in a
distant woods.
...
a piercing, unwritable, hair-raising shriek.
soft,
a.
cooing notes of almost dovelike quality.
gargled,
gasping sound
someone being
like
choked.
... a tremulous, wavering

tered by the Eastern Screech
but
much
... a
cry not unlike that ut-
Owl (Otus
asio naevius)
louder and somewhat harsher.
variety of hissings of different intensity, usually
accompanied by angry snappings of the beak.

By far the greater majority of utterances made by
the Great Horned Owl have an unearthly quality to
them and are often very much feared by the superstitious. The birds are most vociferous during the mating season, in December, January, and February, and
generally most quiet, at least in the vicinity of the nest,
where there are young birds in the nest, in late February, March, and April. As with other owls, many of the
calls are quite markedly ventriloquial. Calling is most
frequently engaged in during the hours from dusk until
midnight and again during a brief period just before
dawn, although it is not too uncommon to hear this owl
call
during the daytime.
amaz-
can make, ranging from
it
whistles,
makes
WHAAA WHHAAAAA-
like
A-A-A-AARRRRK!
shrieks, screams,
and
quite different in tonal
is

COLORATION, VOICE
Owl, being in a much

lower bass range and more mellow in tone, but yet
quality from that of the Barred
much power. On a still night, the hooting of

Great Horned Owl can be heard for several miles
carrying
the
or more. It
the
first
is
a resonant
two and the
last
generally of five notes,
call,
two rather quickly given and
the middle note prolonged.
It
sounds
like
WHOOO-
WHOOO WHOOOOOOOO WHOO-WHOOO,
with
sometimes the elongated middle note inflected
to
lower pitch
The whole
during delivery.
from a distance, bears resemblance
call,
heard
to a far-off foghorn.
WHOOO
Another
note, but with a sort of angry
growling sound issued at the beginning of it, and much
more abruptly
uttered, has a
RROOOOO!
This
call
rattling quality. If the bird
cede
this
is
There are other variations of

owl makes so many,
listed
more
like
distinct
very excited
here.
But, briefly,
this
it
may
228
identical,
but the female
is
decidedly
the
Compared with a fully developed but small

male, a large female may be almost seven inches longer,
over a pound heavier, and with a wingspan greater by
more than a foot.
pre-
WAAAaaa!
and nearly
all
other
in fact, they could not all
a listing of some of the
basic call structures includes these:

.
... an
are
larger bird.
deep
from the female, a sound like KEEE-uh KEEEuh, most reminiscent of a large soaring hawk.
... a sound made while incubating, rather softly
voiced, which can be written as Urrrrr-Urrrrr.
.
sexes
G-G-G-GGG-
note by an expressively harsh cry of
calls the
be
sound
sometimes has a
There is a considerable sexual difference in the vocal

and delivery of the birds. The calls given by the
male are generally quite a bit lower, more elaborate,
mellower, longer-lasting, and more musical than those
issued by the female. In coloration and markings, the
quality
explosively laughing scream, uttered by an
Some
attitude sketches of a captive Great
cured from E.
of Natural
J.
Horned Owl
Koestner, director of the Dayton
History, Dayton, Ohio. This specimen of
Bubo
from hatchling to adultcaptivity with excessive care and gentleness, re-
virginianui virginianus, though raised
hood in
mained unalterably savage throughout
Horned Owl
pro-
Museum
its life.
Ohio
-^ h
Ui
used a fKreqt otf.f^dz

It
disturbed
lei
<*e

There is a high degree of infant mortality, from numerous causes not the least of which are cannibalism
and severe weather during the first year. Approximately 50 per cent of the Great Horned Owls which
hatch
in late
winter each year do not
of the following winter. It
long a Great Horned
is
not
Owl can
live to see the
known
for certain
live in the wild,
The generally darkest coloration prevails on

crown and hindneck. The greater wing coverts, some of
the middle wing coverts, and the shoulders are speckled
with mottlings and irregular spottings or blotches of
white.
end
how
but the
banded bird (which had been banded

was thirteen years old. It is likely that
considerably longer, since numerous cap-
buffy white to grayish white. Tail, primaries, and sec-
ondaries are very distinctly and regularly barred in dark

gray to brown black. The outer webs of the ear
slate
tufts are black,
but becoming orangish sooty brown on
the inner webs. Superciliaries
and
white
lores are dull
oldest recovered
with fine black central shafting in each feather.
as a nestling)
facial disks
some
will live
tive birds
have lived for well over twenty
reliable report
Owl
fire at
was
One
on record of a captive Great Horned
living for twenty-nine years
verifiable,
is
years.
said to
and another, not
have been accidentally
as
killed in
the age of thirty-eight.
more northerly specimens) to a distinct orange buff

(in the more southerly specimens), becoming whiter
and duller around the eyes. The facial rim is black,
becoming broken by gray-buff fleckings in the lower
arc. Leg and foot plumage is generally unmarked and
from grayish buff to tawny buff.

ADULT
JUVENILE
Bubo uirginianus vir ginianus has a distinctly graybrown appearance when perched, but seems to be very
light in coloration when viewed from beneath while it is
in flight.
There
is
much
variation in color, especially
from a geographical standpoint, with more northerly

birds being more markedly gray, and southern birds
being so reddish they appear almost to be a red-phase
bird.
This
is
particularly true of the Great
The
range from a dull tawny buff (especially in
Horned Owls
with the ruddy coloration

and generally smaller size differential being so distinct
from specimens of the same species from more northern
parts of the range that there is some belief that the
Florida Great Horned Owl should have subspecies clasliving in southern Florida,
In first-winter plumage, the wings and

birds
are
identical
those
to
mainder of the plumage
is
adult
of
tail
birds.
of
young
The
re-
somewhat ruddier brown
orange than in adults, and the barrings are farther
The white
throat patch is duller and much less

and the ear tufts are shorter. Although firstwinter plumage is complete on the young birds by their
twentieth week about September there persists a certain amount of the downy plumage, especially on the
lower underparts and around the neck, which is not
apart.
extensive,
entirely
displaced
until
the
bird
undergoes
the
first
postnuptial molt the following summer.
sification.
Because of the wide color variation, even of birds

the
same geographical
area,
it
is
difficult
in
GENERAL HABITS AND
to verbalize
CHARACTERISTICS
an accurate representation of the Great Horned Owl's

coloration, but in a rather general
way
and markings are as follows:

Almost all feathers are lighter
terminally, which becomes apparent
at
parted or the bird
the coloration
It
if
the
base
than
the feathers are
itself ruffles its feathers.
The under-
pays are generally a slightly sooty gray buff broken by

very bold and somewhat erratic transverse barrings of
brownish black, much more pronounced on the sides,
flanks, and lower belly than on the breast. The median
line is usually unmarked from throat to at least midbreast, this whiteness tending to rise from belly to
throat in an elongated V-shape which broadens
abruptly in the gular area. There are often (but not
always) a series of very dark, irregular vertical blotches
in the
upper gular area. (See Color Plate LVIII.)
nest until
ing,
even
This
is
its
if
if
it
largely true, for the bird has a fierce
LIFE
temperament.
it
is
It
will
and gener-
survive well in
human handling
SKETCHES OF CAPTIVE GREAT HORNED OWL
The Great Horned Owl
pictured here was raised from an
approximate ten-day-old nestling
Museum
to
adulthood
of Natural History, but never
and scarcely was able to be handled

museum staff members.
Horned Owl
that
eyes have opened, several days after hatch-
captivity but rarely, or never, adapt to
of the
Owl
has been allowed to stay in the
taken into captivity only shortly after that.
ally antagonistic
(Ohio)
The upperparts are generally a darkly mottled sooty

brown, broken by transverse mottlings of tawny gray
230
has been said of the Great Horned
wholly untamable
and
Dayton
became tame
at the
then by only one
ff,
or companionship,
irrespective
are cases where captive birds
handled
to
of
how
There
gentle.
became capable
of being
some degree, but always with the sense that
one instant of carelessness or unalertness on the handler's part
once
bird,
could result
in
eyes have
its
The
eye or other injury.
lost
opened
tends to
in the wild,
ginianus virginianus
is apt to be seen on the wing at

almost any time of night or day, and it is quite com-
monly abroad on moderately cloudy to heavily overcast

days. During those times, when it soars high on motionwings during daylight hours (see Flight Pattern),
usually mistaken for an eagle.
less
it is
remain savage and unpredictable. As a pet it invariably

tends to be generally bad-tempered and definitely dan-
The
gerous, pointedly resisting attempts at familiarity.
strength and tenacity of this owl sometimes border on

the incredible. In one well-documented case, a Great
Horned Owl was seen
to
have a
one ankle for a week or
steel trap
locked about
wide variety of terrain
and was evidently little

inconvenienced; but abruptly it was seen in a still more
Horned Owl, but
desperate situation, with a second steel trap gripping
erous or
the foot that
so,
had previously been unfettered, and the
chains and rings of both traps trailing beneath as the

bird
flew.
Despite this tragic state of
which
affairs,
rendered useless the bird's most important hunting
managed
the owl
to
survive
well
for
those
over a month
creek
valleys,
adjacent
after
areas,
and brushy
Owl
Great Horned
the
frequently been referred to as a "winged tiger"
means
one might expect
has
by no
As untamably savage a
a misplaced comparison.
spirit as
is
anywhere,
to see
dauntless as long as the spark of
life
remains
it
remains within
it,
cliff
to
(espe-
areas, grainfield
harvest),
the
areas
isolated
hillsides.
interspersed
smell
is
cially
bothered by the
which
rather poorly developed, since
it
of prey
is
sense of
not espe-
is
skunk scent, with

one of the only birds
vile stench of
often sprayed. This
which
Bubo
it
will regularly kill
is
and
there
is
always a very definite preference for dense everit
tends to camouflage
by perching very close to the trunk (often leaning
against
it),
with ear
tufts
body shape
erect,
rowed
to
mere
slits.
eat skunks.
the hawk's nighttime roost.
foe or defends
virginianus
Not especially wary in temperament, the Great

Horned Owl will nevertheless prefer to move away if
danger threatens, rather than fight. However, if its
young are jeopardized, it is another story altogether
and the appellation of "winged tiger" becomes wellearned indeed. (See Enemies and Defenses.)
Mostly solitary in its habits, the Great Horned Owl
real degree of affection for
even during the height of the mating season;

relatively aloof
and mates
as
if
it
its
it
mate,
remains
were doing so
as
an
unavoidable chore. The birds are almost never seen in

pairs except during the
more
briefly
caged
pair,
slightly
elongated, and the eyes completely closed or else nar-
savagery with which the Great Horned
any
likes
dense clumps of Australian pine. For roosting purposes
rarely shows
it
areas of dense palmetto
and the Red-tailed

Hawk often inhabit and hunt the same territory the
owl by night and the hawk by day. But while the hawk
will not prey upon the owl, the Great Horned Owl will
attack and kill the hawk without hesitation if it locates
virginianus
tamarack
with scattered slash pine and occasional
itself
Horned Owl's
immedi-
(especially
woodlots,
In the deepest south
hammocks and expansive
cypress
also likes
it
rivers,
wild nature.
believed that the Great
conif-
all
woodlands), swamps,
greens of any kind. In such trees
is
be
parks, marshes
and one cannot help admiring and respecting such a

It
may
canyons and ravines, partially wooded
ately
forest
abundant. In addition to heavy woodlands,

cially
in
The
more open woodlands, orchards,
tools,
entangled
primarily a resident of rather
hardwoods or mixed, seemingly making no

difference whatever to the owl, as long as prey is
become
barbed-wire fence. That
inextricably
frequented by the Great
all
slopes,
having
is
densely forested regions.
longer before finally being found dead, with the trap

chains
it
is
mating season, and then much

There
is
no dearth of
itself,
nor
is
tales
about
the
Owl
incredible
attacks a
there need for exaggeration
kind. There are scores of well-authenticated

on record where men have been blinded and
suffered severe injuries to head, throat, chest, back, and
of any
cases
groin by enraged attacking Great

attacks are bold, slashing,
even more so by the

they
strike.
them
to
with the
The
arrow
first
in
total
Horned Owls. The
and very dangerous, made

unexpectedness with which
soundlessness
of
their
flight
allows
unseen and unheard by the intruder,
indication of danger being nearby
when
the great talons are driven deeply into flesh with power
to knock a man out of a tree or drive him to
knees on the ground. Such attacks, which are more
enough
his
than other North American owl species.
even
if
well fed, cannot live in peace for
fall upon her mate,

and devour him.
Although essentially a nocturnal hunter, Bubo vir-
long and eventually the female will

kill,
232
Some
tive
threatening posturings and facial expressions of a cap-
Great Horned
Horned Owl
Owl (Bubo
virginianus virginianus)
,aJ~
|
when
the rule than the exception, generally occur
young
Horned Owls
of a pair of Great
the
are endangered;
at such time both parent birds will attack simultane-
and usually from
ously

OF PREY
different directions with posi-
Just as the Great
tively devastating results.
For
intents
all
Owl becomes an
and purposes, once the Great Horned

it has no natural enemies which
all
the owl,
of
It
it.
of course, soundly hated
is,
other birds and often harassed unmerci-
by them in the daytime, but only to the
fully
not
to
physical
its
enemies such as roving dogs,
even bears are forced to

concerted
attacks
of
flee
cats,
lynxes,
very quickly because of the
aggressive
this
irritation
Would-be
wolves, and
bird.
Only man
enemy who can and frequently does

kill the Great Horned Owl.
The attack of a Great Horned Owl is a fearsome
thing to witness and even worse to experience. The intruder approaching the nest will usually be warned by
a series of harsh cries, hissings, beak snappings, and
wing flappings of the adult birds. If he keeps coming,
the birds may fly toward him in an extremely threatening way, veering off only at the last possible instant
snapping
with
beak;
grasping
the
and
talons
bludgeoning wings only barely miss the intruder. That
is
man
is
the
last
warning.
If the
persists, the
next attack
coming always from an unexpected

quarter and wholly without sound. Suddenly the intruder is struck a heavy, painful blow in some area
in deadly earnest,
of head, neck, or chest. Talons dig in almost their full
length and grip tightly,
while the beak tears at the
and the hard wing edges beat the intruder unThe second owl may attack while the first is
flesh
mercifully.
still
in the
midst of
its
The contact usually

much damage is done in
fight.
only 10 or 15 seconds, but

time. Immediately
and
circle
that
upon breaking away, the owls wheel
and dive
in for
until the intruder flees or
Only
lasts
another attack. This continues
An
killed.
Horned Owl
rarely will the Great
the
utilize
encouragement for an intruder

Attacks against people by
its
much
greater
virginianus
virgin-
outright attack always provides a

to leave.
Bubo
ianus do not always occur merely because of a close
approach to nest or young. In numerous cases, campers

have been struck by these owls while moving about their
campsites in the late evening or after dark. Similarly,
people walking past wooded areas at night have occasionally been struck by this owl,
for such attack
is
though the reason
Probably the greatest cause of death
is
No
how many may be

occurrence
is
among
silence in flight with
amazing
up
to as large as a fox or small dog.
Two
hunting methods are favored and
equally. In the
first,
about
utilized
the owl perches fairly high, watch-
ing and listening intently for anything that might be
considered prey to
ularly
move
in the vicinity.
true along the edges of
forest
This
is
partic-
clearings,
along
and in similar areas

where the owl can observe both woodland and open
stretches. When prey does appear, the owl leaves its
perch, plunging head foremost nearly straight down,
leveling off just above the ground and arrowing directly
to the prey with unerring accuracy and total silence.
Most prey struck by Bubo virginianus virginianus is
wholly unaware of the danger until suddenly a set of
talons is driven deeply into the flesh, and then it is
creek valleys, near lake shores,
much too late.

The second hunting method
so
common
is
ranging.
Flapping and gliding smoothly over cover where prey
watching and
likely to be, constantly
listening, the
plunges to the attack the instant prey
is
is
owl
detected or
flushed, effectively nailing a rabbit, quail, or pheasant

to the
ground, or a squirrel against the trunk of a
tree,
or a sleepy grouse against the branch upon which it

has been roosting.
An unusual hunting method this owl employs occasionally
for prey,
is
to alight
and walk about on foot looking
mode of hunting can be exOne Great Horned Owl which was
and even
tremely effective.
this
observed by the authors was hunting on the

wing over a tree-dotted pasture area late in the afternoon on a cloudy day not far from Sycamore, Illinois.
In an area where there were some scattered pieces of
bark and tufts of cut dried grasses on the ground, the
owl alighted and began marching along in a purposeful,
brisk, almost military manner. At each piece of bark it
would stop and, sometimes with beak but more often
with one foot, jerk the wood aside, exposing whatever
was underneath. An amazing number of larvae, earthworms, mice, and shrews were discovered and gobbled
up in a very short time. At the small clumps of grasses
adult
by
on highways by
killed
figures are available in regard

killed
this
way
annually, but
to
the
frequent enough that this form of death
must be considered
234
and absolute
ingness to attack nearly any kind of animal as prey
MAINSTAY
to being deliberately killed
by being accidentally
passing vehicles.
a fantastic fighting
unclear.
Great Horned Owls, next
man,
is
a deadly hunter, combining keenly
closely
is
broken-wing act to draw an intruder away from

nest.
Horned Owl
it is
strength and audacity, a ravenous appetite, and a will-
detriment.
proves to be an
and
alert senses
adult,
are any real threat to
by almost
machine, so too
as being significant.
IN
THE
DIET OF
THE GREAT HORNED OWL
Although the Great Horned Owl
phenomenal variety
ans,
its
reptiles,
fish,
of
animals
insects,
Horned Owl
and eat a
mammals, amphibi-
and other invertebrates
probably
common
cottontail
most favored form of prey
rabbit.
will catch, kill,
birds,
is
the
the owl would take a
hop and land
little
middle
in the
and then suddenly duck its head and snatch up a mouse or some
other creature that had been frightened into movement.
The audacity of the Great Horned Owl is often
extreme. It is not uncommon to hear of Great Horned
Owls landing in chicken yards, walking up the little
of the pile, freeze as
ramp
listened closely,
it
the chickens use
the henhouse,
enter
to
going
inside the building, stalking to the nearest roosting or
brooding chicken,
killing
walking back outside with
it,
and then
the fowl clutched in one talon,
flying off with
other such relatively large animals. This sort of prey,

if
can be carried
it
Along
with
Horned Owl
frequently
is
will
it
or lake until
its
and then snatch
hunting
great
its
Great
the
ability,
all,
carried
is
the
the
in
of
size
talons.
large
rat,
cottontail rabbit, or pheasant, will normally be carried
The
the beak.
in
while preparing this very
authors,
watched with interest as a Great

Horned Owl arose from an area heavily overgrown
with palmetto scrub, near the town of Placida, Florida,
and flew to the top of a telephone pole with a large
section of the book,
indigo snake dangling from the talons of one foot.
snake was fully
low the
The
length and was gripped just
six feet in
behind the head,
it.
at
Smaller prey, up to about
rather heavy body trailing out be-
its
flying owl. It
appeared that the snake was dead,
an adept fisherman as well. Quite

wade into the water of a marsh, creek,
began writhing
own stomach
Methodically, standing on one foot and continuing to
touching the surface,
is
and other
turtles, crayfish, frogs,
fish,
creatures. It has even been
known
wade out
to
into six
hut as the owl alighted with

as
if
in
an
atop the pole, the snake
it
effort to coil
around the
bird.
grip the reptile with the other, the owl half-spread
wings to maintain balance and
expertly,
swiftly,
head and swallowed
The
its
tore
inches of water in order to rip a dead muskrat out of
off the snake's
was caught and drowned.

When attacking larger prey, the owl is occasionally
hurt or inconvenienced. Often it becomes well sprayed
tinued to perch there for several minutes until most of
a steel trap in which
it
with skunk scent during a struggle to
The
smell
of skunk very strong
takes care to close
its
to protect the eyes
blind
porcupine;
on
if it is
plumage), but the bird
their
nictitating
membrane
as
is
when
true
it
be in danger.
One owl was found
from a
84
and
total of
attacks,
attacks
quills
legs,
itself
suffering
Once
cat, the
is
embedded
forced to relinquish
however, the owl has driven
and
the animal with
in
its
mostly
flesh,
organ
is
hold because of
an hour
Bubo
beak, beating
it
with
At times
may
this
take
its
feet, is
last
is
able to
upward
of half
its
great strength
able to
lift
Very large prey is often brought to the

the young birds; prey may include large
so.
nest as food for
barnyard
hens,
opossums,
cats,
full-grown
small
dogs,
mallard
snowshoe
ducks,
rabbits,
skunks,
wood-
chucks, young foxes, half-grown turkeys, muskrats, and
236

When
will
it
is
swallow
possible to
its
do
prey whole.
so,
the Great
The
is
prey that
are
it
short of
little
swallowed
young rabbits. One of

was recorded when
whole
swallowed
of prey
without undue
the largest
Horned Owl
size of the
can ingest without first tearing it apart

astounding. Full-grown Norway rats
difficulty, as are
PREY BIRDS
wings and
and carry prey a great

deal heavier than itself. A Great Horned Owl weighing
about three pounds can lift and fly with prey weighing
as much as eight or nine pounds, though it rarely
chooses to do
it.
but with speed and height gradually increasing.
Practically any bird below the size of a
duck
will
young turkey or large
be caught and eaten by some North American owl
from the
normally confine
species, but the smaller owls
Hawk Owl downward
virginianus virginianus, with
and
first,
talons deep into the neck
to accomplish.
of wings
flying off in earnest with

at
two or three times until

on the prey before
The flight is low and heavy
foot grip perhaps
often than not,
punctured or the slashing beak
sever the spine.
its
finds just the right balance point
merely hangs on grimly, tearing at
it
its
its
its
More
gradually forcing the talons ever deeper until at

vital
changing
it
may
with a very large feral
the savagery of the cat's defense.
or shoulders
when lifting prey its own weight or heavier,

make several preliminary attempts at rising,
Usually
the owl will
but several in the side of the
in a while, especially
owl
below.
severely
head and even in the facial disk.

Sometimes it takes a considerable while for the owl to
kill its prey. Domestic cats, which are sometimes taken
by the Great Horned Owl, put up strong fights for their
lives.
off
of the snake's
not able to get an immediate paralyz-
ing and fatal grip on the porcupine, the owl
in side, flanks,
it
from the spray which might other-
The same
it.
the stench
bird con-
body had ceased, then flew

with the long dark body of the snake still trailing
the
does not seem to bother the owl (Great
itself
Horned Owls have often been captured with
wise
mammal.
that
kill
movement
it.
size of the
American
themselves to spar-
row-sized birds or smaller, with most prey birds being taken
during the nesting period
when
the parent birds are
pressed to provide food enough for their
REPRESENTATIVE PREY
hard
demanding young.
MAMMALS
(Overleaf)
These are some of the mammals which North American owls

customarily take as prey
the
larger species, such as mink,
marmot, muskrat, and jack rabbit, normally being

taken only by Horned Owl species and occasionally by Snowy
Owls, Great Gray Owls, and both Barred and Spotted Owls.
skunk,
Horned Owl
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Horned Owl was killed and found to contain

an entire muskrat weighing just over a pound, although
the owl itself had a body weight of a fraction under
three pounds. Another was seen to swallow, with some
a Great
a half-grown cottontail rabbit.
difficulty,
Larger prey
up
Birds
many
the size of quail are swallowed whole in
to
the owl snapping the bones, separating large sections of
meat and
whole.
from the prey and swallowing
viscera
plenty of prey
If
portion of a large animal
may
it
eat only a
is
available,
it
has killed and then abandon
it
Invertebrates
worth the
large
prey to a
nearby spot having more protective cover and there

the entire bird with
virtually pluck
then
beak.
its
may
It
with the denuded bird to a favored feeding
fly
platform or branch some distance away, bite off and
and the bony
discard the ends of the wings
and
feet,
then devour the bird in great ripped-off chunks.
Where manner
prey
of
other bird of prey in North America has a diet so varied.
when providing
Especially
kill
practically
for
young
any animal that
it
in the nest,
feels
can
it
it
kill,
will
from
a cricket to a turkey or porcupine. Almost any living
(but rarely carrion of any sort)
creature
swims, crawls, or
flies
that walks,
Bubo
within the range of
worms, and
spiders.
of
normally
are
frequently regurgitates quite
an inch and a half
thick.
These
very
with
bones,
dense,
filled
bound
tightly
and other undigestibles, all

and compactly by the hair of the prey.
resultant pellet
is
a dark grayish-brown-black mass
well coated with a slimy
The
day or two after
mucus which helps regurgitadamp and very dark for a

and even when dry they retain
remain
pellets
falling,
their shape for long periods unless discovered by carrion

beetles,
which will mine through them and hasten disinAs they dry they become an almost uniform
tegration.
slate
how
gray in color. Oddly, considering
the owl's digestive juices will dissolve
all
completely
food matter of
shown
the ingested prey, microscopic examination has
concerned, probably no
is
virgin-
to be
feathers, teeth, fur, claws,
tion.
its
any kind large enough
Insects of
upward
length and
as large as geese, chickens, large pheasants, or turkeys,
the owl will often walk along dragging
including even garfish, up
averaging from three to four inches in
pellets,
pellets
The
less
is
thing, but return later
fish,
effort of snatching up, centipedes, scorpions,
crabs, crayfish,
abundant it may do the same

on to eat more of it. With fowl
Where prey
it.
any
Practically
about three or four pounds in weight.
cases.
torn apart, with the powerful beak of
is
Fish
to
that
feathers
digestive
come
and hair are
splintered
unaffected by the
totally
except that the feather quills be-
processes,
and the hair and feathers well com-
pacted. Pellets are usually regurgitated between six and

ten hours after prey has been swallowed.

amounts of
feces
in
also expels unusually large
rather
heavily
viscous
state
considered prey, although certain
usually whitish with specklings or marblings of black.
preferences are obvious. Rats, mice, cottontail rabbits,
deep gray, and brown. The defecation usually occurs

while the bird is perching, but more often immediately
ianus virginianus
is
skunks, crows, and other owls rank very high on the

of preferred foods, as
list
grouse,
and pheasants.
which
could
be
do pigeons, chickens, ducks,
The
following
expanded
greatly
list
includes
sampling of what the Great Horned
after
it
Owl
is
just
known
to
eat.
Mammals
species,
hares,
woodchucks,
ground squirrels of many

chipmunks, gray squirrels, fox
mice,
Rats,
rabbits,
squirrels, red squirrels,
small
mink, weasels, skunks, opossums,
dogs,
domestic
porcupines,
cats,
shrews, moles, armadillos, bats, young raccoons, musk-
and some others.

Birds Owls of any other species, including even
Northern Barred Owls and Barn Owls, but rarely if
ever Snowy Owls or Great Gray Owls, woodpeckers,
rats, nutrias,
crows, pheasants, quail, grouse, turkeys, geese,

chickens, pigeons, guinea fowl,
hawks up
ducks,
to the size of
Red-tailed Hawks, grebes, bitterns, great blue herons,

snipe, swans, kingfishers, blue jays, ravens, rails, gallinules, phalaropes, gulls,
within
Almost
any
venomous
grown indigo snakes,
species
smaller
lizards of
and
any other birds
virtually
range.
its
Reptiles
any kind
snake,
including
and snakes
turtles
some
even
as large as well-
(especially
including, at times,
soft-shelled )
young
alligators
in Florida).
Amphibians
species.
2
]<)
takes wing.
of animals
Frogs,
toads,
and salamanders
of
any
The
mating
first
winter has even
November
December
calls
set
or early
in
earnest
as
early
December, but more often
Mate
Once the
or early January.
done primarily by
long before
begin
generally
in
voice.
female has attracted him, the male
location
is
as
late
in
late
evidently
vocal response of a
sails in
and
alights
(more often on the ground than in a tree) relatively

close to her. At once he begins bowing his head in a
curious manner, ruffling and fluffing his feathers and
half-spreading his wings, often dragging the wing tips
on the ground. Other than occasionally giving him a

rather disdainful glance, the female outwardly pays
attention to him. This makes the male that much
more determined to make her aware of his presence,
and he struts and hops all around her, edging continually closer, sometimes throwing his head back and
little
snapping
pain.
his
When
beak, wheezing, groaning as
he evidently
feels
if
in
great
she has been well primed
and is taking an interest in him, he comes even closer

and makes an effort to caress her with his beak. Sometimes she will let him do so. More often she ruffles her
Homed Owl
own
and savagely
feathers
scene
may
female
drives
him
off.
This whole
be repeated three or four times before the
and
finally gives in
him come very
lets
after
having been driven
he returns
off briefly,
may
with some small manner of prey for her, which he
attempt
often,
picks
he
it
her with his beak or which, more
to give to
the ground
to
flips
up and swallows
in
front of her.
she
If
he seems to realize she
it,
is
accepting him and he becomes greatly emboldened. At
away
longer exhibiting antagonism, tends to half-turn
manner
in a
He
human
that in
terms would be called coy.
almost pressed against her, and strokes her
stops,
nape, shoulder, and breast feathers with his beak, from
new position. Sometimes

but more often merely accepts
time to time moving to a
she
responds in kind,
the
all this
in
his
occurring, the male
is
humming sound
ing a deep bass
deep
throat
teeth
like
casionally the pair will
usually
mak-
a sound
Oc-
grinding together.
to a
fly
is
or, less often,
perch in a tree or to
another ground perch a short distance away and
re-
The female
full
peat the caressings.
her
finally indicates
acceptance of him as her mate by joining him in an
wing openings, hoppings, and
odd
series
The
actual copulation, almost always occurring on the
of
ground, takes place soon
after,
but
now
female
the
Mating may be accomplished

or 20 seconds, but more likely
patience.
in as little
as
it
15
will
of a minute, sometimes even longer. It
is
last
time
up-
generally
repeated a half dozen times or more in the ensuing
The
days.
but with
tion
female
surface
birds thereafter stay relatively close together,

little
merely lay her eggs on
will
bark
the
of
broad crotch of a huge
in
particularly
low,
but such nestings have
tree,
very limited chances of success. Other unusual
on bare
ings occur
in cliff crannies,
silo ledges,
nest-
and
in
hollow logs lying on the ground. Very rarely, the nest

will
be on open ground surrounded by deep grasses, or
an
in
nesting box.
artificial
While nest selection
is
most often made immediately
following courtship, sometimes
it
much
occurs
female bird (rarely a male and female)
nest as early as
area guarding
earlier.
will select
September or October and remain

it
in the
against intrusion until ready to put
it
to use after courtship.
Nesting
undertaken so early
is
of
in the
range,
its
year that in the

it
not at
is
all
unusual for the brooding female to be incubating her

eggs while at the same time the ground and branches
may
surrounding her
be covered with a foot or more
snow and the temperature may
of
well be subzero. This
seems to inconvenience the female very
little
and does
not have any appreciable deleterious effect upon the

eggs.
Both male and female owl
shufflings.
seems to accept his attentions with ill-concealed im-
ward
through holes and perish. Once
fall
more northerly portions
caresses.
While
bare
the
he approaches her with care and she, no
stage
this
in so disreputable a condition that
is
eggs or young will
in a great while the
close.
Occasionally the turning point in her affections comes
when,
times such a nest
chosen
their
vigorously protect
will
usurpation
against
nest
by other large
birds of prey such as hawks, eagles, or other owls.
the bird that built the nest in the
if
come back and
to
or sometimes
Owl
kill
it.
likes seclusion
may
owls which
repossess
In
first
they will drive
it,
Even
place
tries
off
it
Great Horned
away other hawks or
nest anywhere within a
fact, the nesting
and
will drive
attempt to
rather wide radius around her nest.
further exhibition of any kind of affec-
on the part of
either.
EGGS
ANNUAL BROODS.
Number
NEST, NESTING
HABITS
many
as
Almost always there are two
per nesting
eggs, but there
may
be only one or, on rare occasions,
as four or five.
On
at least three occasions,
authenticated reports have been written of nestings in
is
single-brooded and will
rarely lay a second clutch of eggs, even
destroyed.
The
nest
nest of a Red-tailed
if
practically always an
is
Hawk,
at a height of
the
first
abandoned
40 to 70
which
feet,
upper crotch of the tree.

lower. At times, too, the
owl will nest in a large natural hollow without sticks
or nesting material of any kind, these hollows being as
low as 10 or 12 feet, or as high as 50 feet. If food is
it
will
be
plentiful in the area,
it
much
may
three years in succession, but rarely
cause by then
it
same nest two or

more than that be-
use the
has severely depleted the prey of the
to
slightly
dusky white,

it
does virtually nothing to
has taken as
its
own, and some-
less
occasionally
often with
faint bluish cast.
Shape
Quite roundly oval; at times nearly spher-
ical.
Texture
The
shell
is
and coarse to the

and little or no
which there is no adequate
be imbued with a rather
quite thick
touch, with very distinct granulation

gloss.
On
rare occasions, for
explanation,
the
eggs
will
distinctive glossiness.
Size
Based on the measurements of 69 eggs, the
average length of the egg was 56.8
area.
improve the old nest
White
with a vague yellowish tinge; even
firmly placed in a principal
Occasionally
eggs were laid.
six
Color
is
average width was 48.0
mm.
mm.
(1.9").
(2.2") and its

Extreme meas-
urements included:
Great Horned
Owl
241
Maximum
Minimum
Maximum
Minimum
length:
60.2
length:
50-3
width:
50.8
width:
43-1
mm.
mm.
mm.
mm.
Eggs are
old, there
the head gone; they included one muskrat, one mouse,
(2.0")
one cottontail rabbit, one woodcock,
(i-7")
laid at
an average
semblage of food weighing
The
Egg-laying dates Southern (Florida)

earliest, December 7 latest, April 3 normally between December
28 and January 31.
Middle (Carolinas, Virginia, Tennessee, etc.) earliest, January 12; latest, May 1; normally between January 24 and March 6.
Midwest (Ohio through Iowa) earliest, February 1;
latest, May 28; normally between February 8
and
:
March
New
latest, May
January
7
February 20 and March 25.
est,
England)
earli-
between
normally
entirely
end of the ninth or tenth day. During

the
down
eleventh to fourteenth
down
which
pays.
Owl, and her incubation of the eggs
very close be-
is
with severe weather changes. Even then there are times

the
and
eggs freeze
but,
the
if
mild weather
second or third.
is
fail
first
and grayer on the under-
a dingy buff in color
The
now open wide and
eyes are
the irides are a
By this time, too,

smeared with excre-
rather unappealing brownish yellow.
become quite
ment, cluttered with

smelling strongly
a mess
very often
pellets, bones, feathers,
skunk,
of
putrid
and rotted
meat,
by the parents.
by the female Great Horned
probably begins with the
day after hatching, the natal
replaced by the secondary down,
begins being
is
time, too,
this
has become a more buffy gray. At about the
By the end of the fourteenth day after hatching, the

young have attained about one-third their ultimate
size. Within another day or two the irides have become
a bright lemon yellow and the young birds begin taking
an interest in more than just the food being brought
cause of extreme low temperatures at that time, along
when
hatch.
to
egg
laid
prevailing,
The term
of
in
Incubation
most cases
not until
possibly
incubation
is
not
and has been recorded as being

from as short a time as 21 days to as long as 34 days.
Most authorities agree on the figures of 28 to 30 days.
definitely established
about
attained
is
the
and the young
birds
even belligerent
cessantly
become decidedly
in their
among
aggressive
manner, quarreling almost
Some young
themselves.
time.
They mav
them
there, but
it
well.
The
more often
they succumb to exposure. By this time, too, the sec-
ondarv body growth of down is quite long, soft and

fluffy, creamy buff in color.
In the fourth week the baby owls are approaching
growth but they are
The
still
feathers of wings
down
very definitely fledgling
and back are
appearing the
is
age which will be worn, at
soft
fairly
well. Under
downy plum-
replaced
least in part, until
autumn by the first-winter plumage. This present

new plumage is a more grayish buff and distinctly barred
protective
with sooty gray, heavily on the back and slightly

begin showing at
on the underparts. Ear
These are about the

chickens and well covered with
and the facial disks are irregularly mottled with

black, and dark brown. There is quite a good bit
vidual color variation in this soft plumage and
down
thick, gray-white
soft,
tinged with buff or grayish buff on mid-back
wings. At
first
the hatchling
head and peep

hatchling
Some
newly hatched
tends
faintly.
to
The
shiver
is
barely able to raise his
eyes are sealed
violently
against
and the
the
cold.
amount
of protection
of indifor the
possible, without seeing the parent birds, to
first time it is
determine that these are fledgling Great Horned Owls
and not some other Horned Owl
subspecies.
from the surrounding
cold from the fur of the animals that have

in
the
nest.
The
parent
birds
supply
accumua
great
abundance of food for their young. In one nest in

which there were two babies no more than four days
242
grayish.
observers believe that at this stage the young gain
a certain
lated
and
tufts
less so
this stage
nature of the parents increases as soon as the young

size of
well
in early
Until the time of hatching, both parent birds stay

very close to the nest and guard
in-
survive on the ground, as the parent
birds will continue feeding
the secondary
CHARACTERISTICS
and
birds fall or
developed and the rectrices are sprouting
LIFE
at
their sheaths
are pushed out of the nest by fellow nestlings at this
birds.
YOUNG AND FAMILY
week,
third
which time the primaries begin bursting
full
birds hatch.
as-
pounds!
baby birds begin opening on the
eyes of the
Half-growth
is
the whole
fish.

CHARACTERISTICS
Incubation
with
seventh day but do not become wide open until the
the nest has
9.
Northern (New York through
just over 18
all
two American
four ruffed grouse, and eleven rats
eels,
interval of 72 hours.
were also 25 different items of prey,
(2.4")
(2.0")
pair of young Great
Horned Owls {Bubo
weeks
sketched
virginiantu vira
stand of
ginianus
about
pines near
Englewood Dam, Montgomery County, Ohio.
Horned Owl
six
of
age,
in
Y%
hunt vigorously for themselves. All summer long the

remain loosely together, the young following
to
families
their
parents and
often
food, which are even
In
the
coming
half-size. It
screaming demands for
still
often
filled.
week the
twentieth
plumage
first-winter
but the talons at
in well,
age are
this
still
is
only
not until the twenty-sixth week that the
is
young have
less
acquired their first-winter plumage

and Markings: Juvenile) and are good
and hunters. Autumn is in the air and the young
fully
(see Coloration
fliers
birds either scatter voluntarily or, as sometimes occurs,
away by
are driven
or-
The young
bird will
territory within
about 20
the adults.
ordinarily establish his
own
30 miles of where he was hatched. It is believed

Horned Owl does not breed until it is
that the Great
two years
old.

From Minnesota,
bec,
New
western
southern Ontario, southern Que-
Brunswick,
Edward
Nova Scotia
Prince
northern Cape Breton Island, and
Island,
south-
ward through southeastern South Dakota, eastern Kansas, eastern Oklahoma, and eastern Texas to the Gulf
Coast, and Florida (to
Cape Sable).
GREAT HORNED OWL
Bubo
virginianus virginianus (Gmelin)
In another few days
hatching
the
MIGRATION
usually
about 32 days after

the young birds begin venturing out onto
surrounding limbs.
Some
fall
and nutter
to
the
ground, but are cared for there by the parent birds
becomes extremely
Ocsome recent observations have proved, the

young owl that has fallen will walk back to the nest
tree and slowly climb back up to the perch from which
it fell, gripping with its talons and sometimes with its
beak as it goes up the trunk of the tree in a somewhat
woodpeckerlike manner.
By the sixth week the young are well feathered and
ready to begin testing their wings. They usually wind
up on the ground but continue to hop and flap there
and make little further effort to climb back up into the
movement
and
still
have an excellent chance of survival.
is
essentially non-migratory,
although during especially severe winters when prey

of the
difficult to find, there
more northerly
is
some
slight
birds.
casionally, as
ECONOMIC INFLUENCE
In some places Bubo virginianus virginianus
tively beneficial
which make up much of

quite destructive of
mals, poultry,
game
Horned Owl
will
house of
its
At the close of the ninth week the tail is

d<-\ doped, along with the wings, to permit
breeders of goldfish,
They
are
still
incapable
of
actual
flight
and,
body plumage at this time is still soft

young birds have now reached their
sufficiently
The
and downy. The
full
flight.
all
its
diet,
but everywhere
birds, songbirds,
and sometimes domestic
though the parents are still bringing them food, the

young begin catching some small creatures on the
ground themselves mostly insects.
tree.
quite
systematically
occupants,
it
is
game mam-
pets.
single
empty a hen-
one after another,
night
after night, unless forcefully driven off or killed. Great
Horned Owls have caused

of
all
severe
bullfrogs,
economic
muskrats,
losses
kinds.
growth, but
During the twelfth week the young birds are flying

and the supply of food being brought by the
parent birds tapers off sharply, forcing the young birds
ST.
MICHAEL HORNED OWL
quite well
Horned Owl
(COLOR PLATE
L)
to
and poultry
their flights are very short at best.
244
rela-
is
because of the large numbers of rodents
NAME AND ORIGINAL
SCIENTIFIC
DESCRIPTION
Bubo
virginianus algistus (Oberholser)
Original de-
Asio magellanicus algistus Oberholser, Pro-
scription:
Museum, Volume
ceedings of the U. S. National
(January 22), 1904, pages 178 (in key),

on a specimen from St. Michael, Alaska.
27
190; based
This
vaguer
considerably darker bird than the Great
is
Owl
Horned
(Bubo
in coloration,
virginianus)
virginianus
but
with fewer barrings on the under-
pays than is seen on the Northwestern Horned Owl

(Bubo virginianus lagophonus) its closest relative geographically, and with legs and feet not so conspicuously mottled. In general coloration it is more similar
to the Montana Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus lagophonus) and the Pacific Horned Owl (Bubo virgin,
than
ianus pacificus)
Montana
to either the
especially
parts,
it
is
to
Northwestern sub-
the
though not actually identical
species,
the wings,
barred on
heavily
Montana
race;
race,
facial
its
yellow and
its
and
breast,
it is
disks
in these respects
or Pacific subspecies. Its upper-
darker and
are
and
sides,
belly
is
less
than
the
it
not only larger than the Pacific
have considerably
ST.
brownish
less
Bubo
upperparts are paler.
MICHAEL HORNED OWL
virginianus algistus (Oberholser)
VOICE
WASTES
Two
distinctive cries of this race are a close
mimicry
of the yapping bark of the arctic fox,
commonly
similar to that voiced by
and a squeal unwhich

an
arctic hare
has been caught by a predator.
The
St.
dinarily
six
Michael Horned Owl regurgitates extraorpellets

some of them measuring fully
large
inches in length and two inches thick.
GENERAL HABITS AND
NEST
CHARACTERISTICS
While
it
prefers dense
coniferous forests,
especially
somewhat inland from coastal areas, it often

frequents the bleak, open coastline of the Bering Strait,
perching on the roosting in piles of tree branches which
spruce,
collect
on the
Bubo virginianus algistus almost always adopts the

abandoned nest of a hawk or eagle, but on extremely
rare occasions
own
it
has been
known
to build a nest of
its
of sticks loosely interwoven high in a tall spruce
standing in the midst of a dense forest of similar
trees.
shoreline.
EGGS
FOOD
Generally two, averaging slightly larger than those
Primarily hares, ground squirrels, red squirrels, and
a smaller
number
reported to feed,
and
on occasion, on
of birds
fish.
This subspecies
is
of the Great
(2.3")
Horned Owl. Average
average width, 48.4
mm.
length,
(1.9").
57.2
The
mm.
eggs are
normally laid about mid-April.
fish carrion.
St.
Michael Horned Owl
H5
YOUNG
Well-fledged
toward the
young
are
WINGSPAN
ready
to
the
leave
Subspecies average
nest
1,409.8
mm.
(55.6").
latter portion of June.
BEAK LENGTH
The
Sound
coastal region of western Alaska
mm.
(1.8").
from Kotzebue
to Bristol Bay.
Casual
Barrow.
at Point
GENERAL HABITS AND

CHARACTERISTICS
LABRADOR HORNED OWL
The Labrador Horned Owl

of smell than
{COLOR PLATE
LI)
olfactory
known
sense
to detect
is
DESCRIPTION
keener sense
sharp
fly
that
this
bird
has
been
to well-hidden carrion deposits
distances.
HABITAT
(Oberholser)
Origi-
Asio magellanicus heterocnemis Ober-
Heavily timbered areas are favored, especially
Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum,

27 (January 22), 1904, pages 178 (in key), 187;
have an abundance of broken and tangled pines.
nal description:
Volume
much
NAME AND ORIGINAL
SCIENTIFIC
holser,
so
and
from considerable
Bubo
has a
most other Horned Owl subspecies. The
if
they
based on a specimen from Lance au Loup, Labrador.
FOOD
OTHER NAME
le grand-duc du Labrador French-Canadian name
meaning "The Grand Duke of Labrador."
Mostly ptarmigan, hares, as well as some other birds

and fish; equally, a certain amount of carrion is eaten,
and the bird has occasionally been caught in steel traps
as it has tried to take the dead-animal bait from them.
ANNUAL BROODS,
NEST, NESTING
HABITS
The Labrador Horned Owl is larger than the Great
Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus virginianus) with sim-
Only one annual brood, but the Labrador Horned
ilar
markings but darker
all
over to quite a degree; the
darker underparts and the barring of these underparts

often
rather
obliterating
the
dark-breasted
white
and giving the bird
appearance.
It
considerably
is
Owl
the
Horned Owl (Bubo
nests
but with a
sometimes
in
in
fact,
been known to
if
uncommonly
nests
a hollow log, but
more
among deep
make use of
goose
destroyed. This bird not
on the ground
has,
is
often in a shallow depression
paler in over-all coloration, however, than the Duskyvirginianus saturatus)
almost always lay a second clutch of eggs
will
first
grasses.
old
It
on the ground. Sometimes the nest will be in a

more often it is a coarse twig
cavity of a stump, but
larger beak.
nest in a dense spruce at a height of about 40 feet.
TOTAL LENGTH
246
mm.
(22.1")
variety of sketches of a nesting Labrador Horned Owl

(Bubo virginianus heterocnemis) rendered near Goose Bav.
Labrador.
Horned Owl (Labrador)
sjs* 5 ****
3.
Goo** ^*^>
fc(<L\a
'
s c s
bYâ^
ftc^fUh
,1'"'
f ^^%f?
feet
tot;
ff
,'fli
Jlu.vk t>*w;s
NORTHWESTERN HORNED OWL

{COLOR PLATE
LI I)
NAME AND ORIGINAL
SCIENTIFIC
DESCRIPTION
Bubo
virginianus lagophonus (Oberholser)
description:
Original
Asio magellanicus lagophonus Oberholser,
Proceedings of the U. S. National Museum, Volume 27

(January 22), 1904, pages 178 (in key), 185; based on
a specimen from Fort Walla Walla, Washington.
OTHER NAMES
British Columbia
horned owl
After
geograph-
its
ical location.
le
grand-duc
du
nord-ouest
name meaning "The Grand Duke
French-Canadian
of the Northwest."
LABRADOR HORNED OWL
Bubo
The Northwestern Horned Owl
Oberholser'
bird
which
bit
grayer
Horned Owl
much
but
(Bubo
Bubo
first
are
just
virginianus virginianus.
week
of
Arctic
the
coloration to the
It
is
Montana
or three eggs are laid which
larger than those of
its
than
subarcticus)
Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus occidentalis) but larger

and with more contrast between the black-and-white
EGGS
are laid about the
darker
virginianus
probably the closest in
Two
a medium-colored
less tawny and buffy than the Great

(Bubo virginianus virginianus) and a
is
Horned Owl
good
is
barely
They
May.
and buffy markings of the underparts. It is lighter

and with more yellowish brown and reddish
brown in the facial disks than the Dusky Horned Owl
(Bubo virginianus saturatus) It is both larger and
darker than the Pacific Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus pacificus) with feet and legs more heavily mottled
generally,
and the
facial disks
more reddish dark.
Wooded portions of northern Quebec (Fort Chimo),

Labrador (Okak), and Newfoundland.
Casual in some winters to the south and west as far
as Ontario,
New
Brunswick, and Connecticut
VOICE
(Black
Often heard
at
dawn with
Hall).
ing which sounds like
a quite distinctive hoot-
WHOO-TO-WHOOO WHOOO
WHOOO.
MIGRATION
A
More
of a migratory
other Horned
Owl
movement than
subspecies, but
general or regular movement.
248
still
is
seen in most
by no means a
Labrador Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus heterocnemis)

abroad and hunting during the daylight hours was sketched as
was attacked and severely harassed by crows near Gooseit
Bay, Labrador,
Horned Owl (Northwestern)
in 1952.
if-

This owl nests rather earlier than others of the more
Horned Owl
northerly
more
subspecies.
inclined to nest in
It
on
cuts,
cliff
considerably
is
ledges,
and
in
Bubo virginianus races, but its

with abandoned hawk or magpie
small caves than other
preference
still
lies
nests fairly high in poplar trees.
EGGS
Seemingly irrespective of whatever bad weather conditions
may
prevail, the usual
two eggs are
laid
by
late
February. They are a little smaller than those of

Great Horned Owl, averaging 53.4 mm. (2.1")
length by 44.5
mm.
the
in
(1.8") in width.

Cook Inlet, interior of Alaska (Yukon drainage),
and Yukon southward through northern British Columbia (except for the Peace River parklands)
ern
the
to east-
Blue and
Wallowa mountains), northern Idaho (to the Salmon

River drainage), and extreme northwestern Montana
NORTHWESTERN HORNED OWL

Bubo
Washington, northeastern Oregon
virginianus lagophonus (Oberholser)
(Kalispell).
Casual in winter to Utah
(St.
George), Colorado,
and Nebraska.
GENERAL HABITS AND

CHARACTERISTICS
Bubo
tiring
virginianus lagophonus
for a
is
Horned Owl. though
approached by a
man
afoot with
has the facility for building
rather shy and

at
times
it
can be
surprising ease.
up extensive
MIGRATION
re-
It
fatty deposits
under the skin as winter approaches; thus, a late autumn specimen is apt to weigh easily a third more than
the same bird in spring.
The Northwestern Horned Owl wanders

along
with
harsher winters.

The Northwestern Horned Owl
consider-
from higher elevations to lower country,

some southward movement, during the
ably, especially
MONTANA HORNED OWL

(COLOR PLATE LIU)
prefers heavily tim-
bered interior areas, especially going well up into the
mountains where there are numerous craggy cliff areas.

The most preferred types of timber are yellow pine,
alpine fir, and black hemlock. In any one of these
trees
it
will roost well
SCIENTIFIC
NAME AND ORIGINAL
concealed very near the top.
DESCRIPTION
FOOD
Bubo
Original
de-
Stone,
The
Auk, Volume 13, Number 2, April 1896, page

based on a specimen from Mitchell County, Iowa.
155;
scription:
Mainly
rabbits, mice,
poultry, squirrels,
250
and
and
rarely
rats,
but also some grouse,
some snakes.
Horned Owl
virginianus
Bubo
occidentalis
virginianus
Stone.
occidentalis
Larger and darker than the Western Horned Owl
(Bubo virginianus pallescens) and, though roughly
similar to the Pacific Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus
pacificus) in size, it has darker feet and legs. It is also
somewhat more heavily barred with black, and it lacks
(or has considerably less of)
tion
the buffy tinge of colora-
on both upperparts and underparts.
GENERAL HABITS AND

CHARACTERISTICS
The Montana Horned Owl has a peculiar habit of
making the motions of hooting but without issuing any
sound. Not particularly wary, it is sometimes extraordinarily curious and will visit campsites and stare
with great interest at the campers.
It also
seems to be
more affectionate in courtship and mating than the

other Horned Owl subspecies. It is almost always on
far
the hunt during cloudy days.

This owl especially favors well-wooded creek bottoms
grown up
it
will
in
MONTANA HORNED OWL
cottonwood and willow cover. Although
hunt quite extensively over
plains, this
is
Bubo
almost
virginianus occidentalis Stone
always done within sight of the favored creek bottoms.

It
can be found
the only
to elevations of 10,000 feet,
Horned Owl
and
it
is
subspecies that will roost in plain
view atop a telephone pole or even on the ground
at
virginianus)
Northwestern
times.
and just a bit larger than those of the

Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus lago-
phonus)

OF PREY
Bubo
virginianus occidentalis has a habit of swoop-
down on a running rabbit, snatching the animal

up without pause, and killing it with its talons while
in flight. It is also an especial hazard to the Longeared Owls (Asio otus sp.).
ing
INCUBATION
Unlike other Horned
Horned Owl
of the eggs
rather
and
Owl
races, the
commonly
also in the
male Montana
shares in the incubation
brooding of hatchlings.
FOOD
Montana (extreme northwestern

southern
Primarily ground squirrels,
rats,
mice, rabbits.
EGGS
Normally two
eggs,
southern
section
Saskatchewan,
excepted),
southern
Manitoba, northern and western Minnesota, and Isle

Royale, Lake Superior; southward through eastern and
southern Idaho to southeastern Oregon, northeastern
(Modoc area), central Nevada, central

Utah, Colorado, and western and central Kansas.
Casual in winter to Iowa and southern British Co-
California
which are
than those of the Great Horned
Alberta,
just
a shade smaller
Owl (Bubo
virginianus
lumbia.
Montana Horned Owl
2'5'
MIGRATION
There
ters,
species
some movement during
is
but
it
and
movement
especially
bad win-
never a general movement of the sub-
is
it is
highly irregular at best.
The most
usual
simply from higher to lower elevations
is
during the winter months, and even
does not
this
al-
ways occur.
ECONOMIC INFLUENCE
Considered
beneficial
because
of
rodent-eating
its
habits in grain-belt areas.
HORNED OWL
PACIFIC
[COLOR PLATE
LIV)
NAME AND ORIGINAL
SCIENTIFIC
DESCRIPTION
Bubo virginianus pacificus Cassin. Original descripBubo virginianus var. pacificus Cassin, Illustrated
PACIFIC
tion:
Birds of California, Texas
Part 6
etc.,
Bubo
virginianus pacificus Cassin
(Septem-
178; based on a specimen from
1854, page
ber 12),
HORNED OWL
Sacramento, California.
Even though this is one of the smallest

Horned Owls, its ear tufts are among
averaging more than two inches in height.
occidentalis)
races
among
the largest,
the
OTHER NAMES
California horned
owl
After part of
its
geograph-
WEIGHT
ical distribution.
tecolote cornudo californiano Mexican-Indian

name meaning: "California Horned Owl."
Subspecies average
1,383.8 gr. (48.4 oz.)
TOTAL LENGTH
This
is
in California. It
species,
commonly
the most
lighter
is
in
Horned Owl subgeneral coloration than the Dusky

virginianus saturatus)
Horned Owl (Bubo virginHorned Owl tends to

have a general buffy-colored wash to the plumage
tone, especially
ency
in
this
The
252
the
Subspecies average
1,274.4
mm.
(50. ")
1
Pacific
on the upperparts, and there
race toward albinism.
It
the very dark black-and-white barring

terizes
WINGSPAN
but darker
generally than the Western

.
(19.9").
a relatively small
Horned Owl (Bubo

ianus pallescens)
mm.
seen and recorded owl
is
a tend-
does not have
which charac-
Montana Horned Owl (Bubo
virginianus
Homed Owl
mm.
13-9")-
WESTERN HORNED OWL
TAIL LENGTH
mm.
{COLOR PLATE LV)
(8.3").
BEAK LENGTH
mm.
SCIENTIFIC
NAME AND ORIGINAL
DESCRIPTION
(1.1")
Bubo virginianus pallescens Stone. Original descripBubo virginianus pallescens Stone, American Naturalist, Volume 31, Number 363. March 1, 1897, page
237; based on a specimen from the Watson Ranch, 18
miles southwest of San Antonio, Texas.
tion:
HABITAT
Dry
forests,
wooded
well-wooded river bot-
foothills,
toms, and forested canyons from sea level to elevations

of
7,000 feet.
avoids the
The
humid
Pacific
Horned Owl
dislikes
and
coastal-belt forests.
OTHER NAMES
desert horned
FOOD
pallid
Mainly rodents, but
also
number
fair
of
brush
and pigeons.
rabbits, jack rabbits, waterfowl,
owl
Because of
habitat
its
near
(but not too often directly within) desert areas.
horned owl
After
its
generally
light
col-
oration.
tecolote cornudo palido Mexican name meaning

"Pallid (or Pale) Horned Owl."
NEST
Occasionally in natural hollows in
Bubo
virginianus
pacificus
crow, or magpie nests.
Now
trees.
More
often,
prefers abandoned hawk,

and again it will nest in an
About the same

virginianus
exposed eagle nest or on a protected
cliff
size as
virginianus)
the Great
but
ledge.
as
it is
also lighter than the Pacific
virginianus pacificus). This
Horned Owl (Bubo
much
generally
lighter,
Horned Owl (Bubo
a very clearly marked,
is
bleached subspecies of Horned Owl.
EGGS
The
nest of the Pacific
Horned Owl, along with
usually
the
HABITAT
two is invariably very

badly stained with blood and excrement. The eggs
eggs
that
are
in
it
themselves average 53.3

mm. (1.7") in width.
mm.
(2.1")
in length
by 43.9
Relatively
arid
well-wooded
dry
slopes,
and
likes areas
cliffs.
but
grassy
interwoven
areas,
creekbeds,
ravines,
bluffs,
The Western Horned Owl
having large cottonwood
with
brushy
especially
trees in the creek
bottoms.

California west of the Great Basin and desert areas
(but
exclusive
of
the
FOOD
northern humid coastal forest
and southward to Latitude 30 North in northwestern Baja California, and east to extreme west-central Nevada (the Lake Tahoe area)
belt),
Mainly rabbits and ground
squirrels.
NEST
MIGRATION
Sometimes located on the ground
None.
area of rocks or brush, but

Pacific J Western
Horned Owl
in
protected
more often
in
an aban253
DUSKY HORNED OWL

[COLOR PLATE LVI)
SCIENTIFIC
NAME AND ORIGINAL
DESCRIPTION
Bubo virginianus saturatus Ridgway. Original descripBubo virginianus saturatus Ridgway, U. S. Geological Exploration of the 40th Parallel, Volume 4,
tion:
Part
3,
Ornithology, 1877, page 572 (note)
based on a
specimen from Sitka, Alaska.
OTHER NAME
le grand-duc noiratre French-Canadian
meaning "The Dusky Grand Duke."
name
Living up to
Owl
WESTERN HORNED OWL

Bubo
virginianus pallescens Stone
is
its
common name,
by far the darkest Horned
the
Dusky Horned
Owl
subspecies in
North America. It is also one of the largest. This owl is

similar in its markings to the Western Horned Owl
(Bubo virginianus pallescens) and the Montana Horned
Owl (Bubo virginianus occidentalis) but very much
darker than either, with the facial disks a deep sooty
orange brown, the barring of the upperparts and under,
doned crow or hawk nest high in a cottonwood, oak,

or mesquite. There is some nesting in hollow trees and
caves, as well as on cliff ledges and crannies.
pays very
close,
very dark, and almost excluding light
From even
undertones of yellowish brown.
a short dis-
tance awav, this bird tends to look black.
EGGS
Almost identical
in
size
to
WEIGHT
those
of
Montana
the
Subspecies average: 1,691.6
gr.
(59.2 oz.)
Horned Owl.
TOTAL LENGTH
Arid
Inyo
regions of
District),
southeastern
southern
California
Nevada
New
(24.3")
County),
Mexico,
and north-central Texas, southward to extreme northeastern Baja California, northern Sonora (Hermosillo)
Chihuahua, Durango, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and
Some
northern Tamaulipas, Mexico.
less flight,
254
mm.
(from the
(Clark
southern Utah (Virgin River), northern
posture
sketches
virginianus saturatus)
mary
Horned Owl
of
the
Dusky Horned Owl
alonu with
detail of
(Bubo
one of the
pri-
showing fluting on the leading edge for soundand distinct emargination of the tip.
feathers,
and sounds
distances
HOO WHOOOOO.
WHOOO-WHOOO HOO-
like
owl and
This
quite possibly the
male only utters a peculiar and distinctive laughing

bark, sometimes at a medium tonal level and at other
times lower in pitch toward the end until it seems to
HOO-HOO-HOO-
fade into inaudibility. It sounds like
HOO-HOO
HOO-HOO-hoo-hoo-hoo.
GENERAL HABITS AND

CHARACTERISTICS
Bubo
is very fond of a daytime

perch at a high elevation and with a commanding view
of the surrounding country, but will flee at the first
virginianus saturatus
suggestion of approach by man. This bird
having an especially powerful grip with

great lifting
power
is
noted as
talons
its
and
for carrying prey.
HABITAT
Strictly
the
more humid northerly
Pacific
coastal
forest districts.
DUSKY HORNED OWL

Bubo
virginianus saturatus
Ridgway
FOOD
WINGSPAN
Subspecies average
1,460.6
mm.
The Dusky Horned Owl

and
(57.6").
so
as the other
and
Horned Owl
waterfowl
killer of
ular. If
rarely
prey
is
races. It
ducks,
abundant,
it
geese,
mm.
mm.
much
however, a decided
and swans
in partic-
a great
is more
Horned Owl
eat only the heads of each. It
many
regularly a
races.
(15. 9" )
TAIL LENGTH
is,
will often kill
feeder on birds than most other
ever smells of skunk,
if
probably does not prey upon Mephitis as
it
NEST
(9.2").
Usually an old
or spruce
hawk
nest about 45 feet high in a
fir
tree.
BEAK LENGTH
mm.
(1.7").
EGGS
Despite the fact that
VOICE
Owls,
call
of
the
Dusky Horned Owl
is
deeply hollow booming sound which carries for great
256
this
is
the largest of the
Horned
eggs are about the same size or perhaps even a
smaller than those of the Great Horned Owl

(Bubo virginianus virginianus). They are usually laid
in the latter half of February to the middle of March.
trifle
The mating
its
Horned Owl

Humid
region of the Pacific coast from southeastern
Alaska (Glacier Bay) through coastal British Columbia,

Washington, and Oregon, from the Cascade Range
westward, and a narrow coastal belt in California south

to
Monterey Bay (Santa Cruz).

Occasional winter visitor to interior British Columbia
(Okanagan).
MIGRATION
The Dusky Horned Owl makes
erly migrational
very
of a south-
little
movement, but great numbers do move
from the higher elevations to the lowlands in late

autumn and early winter. Oddly, female birds seem to
predominate in these migrations, and the movement
seems to have little to do with weather or food availability, since it is as pronounced during mild winters as
during the more severe winters.
ONTARIO HORNED OWL

[COLOR PLATE
LVII)
ONTARIO HORNED
Bubo
NAME AND ORIGINAL
SCIENTIFIC
virginianus scalariventris Snyder
DESCRIPTION
Bubo
Ontario
Cont.
Bubo
virginianus scalariventris Snyder, Royal
Museum
Publication,
Volume
thu)
Tundra Horned Owl [Bubo

,
54,
Number
based on a specimen taken in 1961
eastern Manitoba. Until 1961 this owl
the
HABITAT
virginianus scalariventris Snyder. Original de-
scription:
which
is
listed in the
was
in
Muskeg and tamarack swamps and
5,
classed with
Check-list.
Breeding data on
as
colored
race,
areas of partial
tundra relatively adjacent to treed areas.
north-
virginianus wapacu-
1957 A.O.U.
The Ontario Horned Owl
OWL
nearly
as
can
this race are
be
still
sketchy at best, but
breeding
ascertained,
is
rather
closely limited to northern and western Ontario, with

some possible extension westward into north-central
Manitoba, from the Hudson Bay region near the mouth
of Kettle River to the Churchill River basin.
subspecies
is
a very light-
much
lighter generally than even the

Great Horned Owls (Bubo virginianus
or the Western Horned Owl (Bubo vir-
lightest of the
virginianus)
ginianus pallescens)
yet substantially darker buff gray
than the Tundra Horned

sidered separable in 1961
Owl from which it was conThe validity of this reclassi-
under discussion, but the differences are

believed to be racially strong enough to support inclusion of the form in this volume as a separate subfication
species.
is
MIGRATION
None.
still
ARCTIC HORNED OWL
{COLOR PLATE
Dusky l Ontario JArctic Horned Owl
LVIII)
257
wapacuthu)
but with rather narrower barring on both
upperparts and underparts, and more extensively barred
on
sides
and
There
flanks.
is
a definite lack of brownish
or orangish coloration in the general plumage ground
There
color.
is
a broad median line connected to the
gular region, the whole of immaculate white plumage.
Scattered irregular blotches of jet black are on the sides
and there
of the gular region,
a narrow broken line
is
of black across the throat.
The
pure white, with a
slight
orangish cast close
rim
jet black.
eyes,
and the
facial
is
facial disks are almost
to
Quite similar
the
in
Montana Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus

but much lighter. Closer in general colorOntario Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus
pattern to the
occidentalis),
ation to the
scalariventris) but
pure white and
markedly lighter generally, with more
less
black,
and
possibly a
little
larger.
FOOD
Almost exclusively ptarmigan,
arctic hares,
and water-
fowl.
NEST
ARCTIC
Mostly in abandoned hawk nests in dense tamarack,
HORNED OWL
but sometimes in deep ground grass, well hidden, in
Bubo
virginianus subarcticus
SCIENTIFIC
(Hoy)
muskeg
NAME AND ORIGINAL

DESCRIPTION
Bubo
virginianus
scription:
Bubo
Academy
subarcticus
(Hoy).
Original
de-
virginianus arcticus Hoy, Proceedings
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,

Volume 6, 1852, page 211; based on a specimen taken
near Racine, Wisconsin.
of the
areas.
of
Mackenzie, central-eastern British Columbia, Alberta

Manitoba,
(except in the mountains), Saskatchewan,
northern and western Ontario, Hudson Bay, and the

northern tree limits to the valley of the Mackenzie.
Winters to southern British Columbia and the northern United States from Idaho to Nebraska and
Wyo-
ming.
Casual in
New
York, Massachusetts, and Oregon.
OTHER NAMES
white horned owl
After generally light colora-
MIGRATION
tion.
grand-duc arctique French-Canadian

meaning "The Grand Duke of the Arctic."
le
name
The
Horned Owl undertakes some

movement and considerably more
Arctic
southerly
movement during
irregular
easterly
particularly harsh winters.
Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus
wooded area of northscalariventris)
western Roseau County, Minnesota, with some details of
Some
The
pale
Arctic
is
a very stately, extremely
and extensively white Horned Owl subspecies,

Tundra Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus
similar to the
2 58
Horned Owl
sketches of the Ontario
observed in a heavily
facial feathers
Horned Owl
and
foot.
f\osei>>
j/)A
Co.,
Ikf
&X
-^^fr
(1957 Edition) American Ornithological Union Checkincludes only the latter, with the Ontario Horned
list
Owl and
the
Bubo
the Arctic
virginianus
Horned Owl included as a part of

wapacuthu classification. The dif-
ference in the three, however, seems to the authors to
be significant enough to include each as a separate subspecies for the
purpose of
reader should bear in
mind
volume, although the
this
the nebulosity of the classi-
fication.
Generally speaking, the Tundra Horned

grayish
Owl
The
darker than the Arctic Horned Owl.
marcation become
difficult in the
specimens of each race.
extreme
lighter
is
than the Ontario Horned Owl, but
slightly
lines of de-
light or
dark
Some Tundra Horned Owl
specimens, for example, are very nearly as white as the
Snowy Owls
-a
whiteness which the Arctic
Horned Owl
does not approach, even though the Arctic Horned

generally
is
lighter
in
coloration
than
the
Owl
Tundra
Horned Owl.
HABITAT
Bubo virginianus wapacuthu generally prefers somewhat less forested areas than the Ontario Horned Owl
or the Arctic Horned Owl, although some scattered
trees are essential.
TUNDRA HORNED OWL

Bubo
virginianus
wapacuthu (Gmelin)
FOOD
TUNDRA HORNED OWL
Arctic hares, lemmings, ptarmigans, waterfowl.
{COLOR PLATE LIX SEE

FRONTISPIECE)

Breeds from the tree limit in the Mackenzie Valley to
NAME AND ORIGINAL
SCIENTIFIC
Hudson Bay, and
DESCRIPTION
Bubo
wapacuthu (Gmelin). Original deStrix wapacuthu Gmelin, Systematica Natura,

i,
Part i, 1788, page 290; based on the
virginianus
scription:
Volume
Wapacuthu Owl
1,
in
northeastern
British
Columbia
(Peace River), southward to central Alberta, Saskatchewan, central Manitoba, and northern Ontario.
Winters south to western Washington, southern BritColumbia, northern Idaho, Wisconsin, and southern
ish
Ontario.
Volume
of Pennant, Arctic Zoology,
1785, page 231, from a specimen taken in the
woods
about Hudson Bay.
MIGRATION
There
is
migrational
Considerable confusion and
discussion
scientific
still
Horned Owl
Horned
and this Tundra
when
a slight tendency to southerly and easterly
movements on
highly
irregular
basis,
winters are the most vicious.
reign over whether or not the Ontario
Bubo
virginianus
Owl (Bubo
Horned Owl
260
scalariventris)
the
virginianus subarcticus)
are
all
valid subspecies.
Arctic
The most
recent
Ilnttiid
Some
attitude and posture sketches

{Bubo virginianus subarcticus).
Owl (Tundra
of the Arctic
Horned Owl
IfffrC**
ft
fs
U^
If'
COMPARISON TABLE
Relative Size of North American
Smallest
Owl
Rank
Species
There is no accurate way to rank birds of the same

Family according to size except by combining the
figures of total length, wingspan, and weight. For
example, the Great Gray Owl (Strix nebulosa nebu-
Owl
both the Snowy
losa) surpasses
{Nyctea scandiaca)
and the Great Horned Owl
{Bubo
ginianus)
both Snowy
in
total
length,
Owl
Great Horned
yet
surpass the
virginianus
vir-
Owl and
Great Gray Owl not
only in weight, but in wingspan as well. Therefore, to

say that one owl
is
bigger than another on the basis of
one factor alone can be very misleading. The authors,

however, have discovered that by adding together the
measurement figures for weight, total length, and wing-
Species
Points
19.842
Owl
1st
Whitney's Elf
2nd
3rd
4th
5 th
6th
Owl
Flammulated Owl
Whiskered Owl
Saw-whet Owl
Eastern Screech Owl
Richardson's Owl
American Hawk Owl
Long-eared Owl
Short-eared Owl
California Spotted Owl
Northern Barred Owl
Barn Owl
Great Gray Owl
Great Horned Owl
Snowy Owl
Ferruginous
7th
8th'
9th
10th
11th
12th
13th
14th
15th
16th
17th
18th
22.030
22.308
24.862
26.439
28.073
31.656
34.668
36.727
51.750
56.780
60.631
63.377
65.599
65.672
112.680
115.834
123.483
span, carried to three decimal places, a quite accurate
number
will
result
for comparison
For ex-
purposes.
ample, the measurements of the Snowy
Owl
totaled
171.877 points (derived by adding the ounces of maxi-
mum
weight
the
Lengths of beak and
inches
the
(70.091).
and
(30.216),
inches
of
tail are,
of
total
wingspan
COMPARISON TABLE
length
(71.570).
Average Egg Size
of course, included in the
and not added separately.

The system has worked quite well and the authors
Species
Millimeters
Inches
Snowy Owl
Great Horned Owl
recommend
Great Gray Owl

Northern Barred Owl
59.5x45.5
56.8x48.0
55.3x43.9
50.0x41.9
50.0x41.3
42.4x32.4
40.1x33.3
39.6x31.9
39.3x31.5
35.8x30.0
32.9x27.3
32.9x27.3
32.2x26.9
30.5x25.1
29.0x23.6
27.7x23.6
27.5x23.5
26.7x23.8
2.3X1.8
2.2X1.9
2.2x1.7
2.0x1.7
2.0x1.6
1.7x1.3
1.6x1.3
total length figure for the bird
it
highly for establishing relative-size
list-
any particular Family of birds.

In the following Comparison Table, rank in size as
largest has been determined by adding together the
ings within
maximum weight, maximum

and maximum wingspan, thereby arriving
figures
for
count as described above.
Rank
total
length,
at the point
in size as smallest has
been determined by adding together the figures for
minimum
weight,
minimum
total length,
and minimum
wingspan.
California Spotted
Owl
Barn Owl
Long-eared Owl
Short-eared
Owl
American Hawk Owl
Owl
Eastern Screech
Whiskered Owl
Owl
Richardson's
Saw-whet Owl
Ferruginous
Owl
Flammulated Owl
Whitney's Elf
Owl
RANK
IN SIZE OF
COMPARISON TABLE
THE OWLS
Maximum
Largest
Rank
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th
10th
1
1th
12th
13th
14th
15th
16th
17th
18th
262
Species
Snowy Owl
Great Horned Owl
Great Gray Owl
Northern Barred Owl
California Spotted
Owl
Barn Owl
Owl
Long-eared Owl
American Hawk Owl
Richardson's Owl
Eastern Screech Owl
Saw-whet Owl
Whiskered Owl
Flammulated Owl
Ferruginous Owl
Short-eared

Whitney's Elf
Owl
Points
171.877
153.384
146.719
91.856
89.119
86.163
76.296
71.021
62.310
46.162
43.326
42.519
35.068
34.099
32.404
26.298
25.080
22.717
Weight
Grams
Snowy Owl
Great Horned Owl
Great Gray Owl
2,002.6
1,876.0
1.523.9
651.2
591.1
573.2
Northern Barred Owl
Owl
Barn Owl
Owl
Long-eared Owl
American Hawk Owl
Richardson's Owl
Eastern Screech Owl
Whiskered Owl
Flammulated Owl
Saw-whet Owl
Ferruginous Owl
Short-eared

Whitney's Elf
Comparison Tables
Owl
1.6x1.2
1.4x1.2
1.3x1.1
1.3x1.1
1.3x1.1
1.2x1.0
1.1X0.9
1.1X0.9
1.1X0.9
1.1X0.9
Species
California Spotted
1.6x13
Ounces
70.1
65.7
53.3
22.8
20.7
20.1
429.4
333.4
273.5
235.2
222.7
222.4
15.0
186.7
6.5
149.3
124.1
4.3
88.2
50.7
30.6
11.7
9.6
8.2
7.8
7.8
5.2
3.1
1.8
1.1
COMPARISON TABLE
COMPARISON TABLE
Minimum
Average Weight
Species
Grams
Ounces
Snowy Owl
Great Horned Owl
1,659.8
58.1
1,522.9
53.3
Great Gray Owl

Northern Barred Owl
Barn Owl
1,339.9
46.9
450.9
446.9
442.2
311.8
275.2
238.7
217.5
208.3
204.0
163.0
131.8
15.8
104.3
3.7
80.4
42.8
25.6
2.8
Owl
Short-eared
Long-eared Owl
American
Hawk Owl
Richardson's
Owl

Eastern Screech
Owl
Whiskered Owl
Flammulated Owl
Saw-whet Owl
Ferruginous
Owl

Whitney's Elf
Owl
[Outstretched, tip of beak to tip of
Flammulated Owl
Whiskered Owl
15.5
10.9
Minimum
Saw-whet Owl
8.4
Richardson's
7.6
Owl
7.1
Short-eared
5.7
Barn Owl
American
4.6
Owl
Hawk Owl
Owl
California Spotted
Northern Barred Owl

Great Horned Owl
1.5
0.9
Snowy Owl
Owl
Whitney's Elf
Ounces
17.0
0.6
Species
34.6
65.5
84.3
113.6
145.6
166.0
180.5
1.2
Snowy Owl
Great Horned Owl
192.7
194.1
215.4
261.3
311.9
312.1
330.0
1,056.8
1,383.8
1,448.0
COMPARISON TABLE
2.3
5.8
Great Gray Owl

Barn Owl
Northern Barred Owl
6.3
Short-eared
3.0
4.0
5.1
6.7
Owl
Long-eared Owl
6.8
American
7.5
Richardson's Owl
Eastern Screech Owl
(Outstretched, tip of beak to tip of
Snowy Owl
American Hawk Owl

Short-eared
Owl
Long-eared Owl
Richardson's
Owl

Eastern Screech
Owl
Saw-whet Owl
Whiskered Owl
Flammulated Owl
Ferruginous Owl
Whitney's Elf Owl
6.3
6.6
7.0
7.1
8.3
8.4
13.0
13.3
14.2
14.3
15.3
16.1
18.4
20.9
24.3
9.2
Millimeters
Inches
1,816.5
1,575.0
62.1
1,098.7
891.8
654.1
25.8
1,139.2
1,130.5
617.2
616.3
562.6
509.0
501.1
405.9
400.9
382.3

Saw-whet Owl
Whiskered Owl
Flammulated Owl
10.9
10.9
11.6
37.0
48.4
50.7
Ferruginous
Owl
Owl
COMPARISON TABLE
71.6
60.1
45.0
44.9
44.5
44.1
43.3
1,524.8
1,143.0
1,120.3
35.1
24.3
24.3
22.2
20.1
19.7
16.0
15.8
15.1
Minimum Wingspan
(Outstretched, tip of wing to tip of wing)
tail
feathers)
Species
Great Horned Owl

Northern Barred Owl
Barn Owl
6.0
Hawk Owl
Total Length
Great Gray Owl
5.8
151.0
160.0
166.4
176.3
179.1
(Outstretched, tip of wing to tip of wing)
Whitney's Elf
Species
5.3
Maximum Wingspan
Grams
Owl
Ferruginous Owl
Saw-whet Owl
Flammulated Owl
Whiskered Owl
Eastern Screech Owl
Richardson's Owl
American Hawk Owl
Long-eared Owl
Short-eared Owl
Barn Owl
Northern Barred Owl
Great Gray Owl
Great Horned Owl
Snowy Owl
Inches
146.1
COMPARISON TABLE
feathers)
209.6
212.9
328.9
336.3
360.7
363.5
389.3
407.9
468.1
531.1
617.3

Long-eared Owl
7.3
W eight
Species
Maximum
Owl
Eastern Screech
9.6
tail
Millimeters
135.5
Whitney's Elf Owl

Ferruginous Owl
Great Gray
COMPARISON TABLE
Total Length
Species
15.6
Millimeters
845.3
766.9
641.5
613.7
606.3
534.7
446.7
434.7
407.7
308.6
284.5
264.4
217.2
190.6
190.6
188.7
183.2
167.1
Inches
33.3
30.2
25.3
24.2
23.9
21.1
17.6
17.1
16.1
12.2
11.2
10.4
8.6
7.5
7.5
7.4
7.2
6.6
Whitney's Elf Owl

Ferruginous Owl

Whiskered Owl
Flammulated Owl
Saw-whet Owl
Eastern Screech Owl
Richardson's Owl

American Hawk Owl
Long-eared Owl
California Spotted
Owl
Northern Barred Owl

Short-eared
Owl
Barn Owl
Great Horned Owl
Great Gray Owl
Snowy Owl
Comparison Tables
Millimeters
353.1
361.9
368.4
375.3
379.1
458.5
479.7
499.1
558.9
777.5
920.9
942.0
963.9
970.9
1,029.0
1,242.6
Inches
13.9
14.3
14.5
14.8
14.9
18.1
18.9
19.7
1.303.8
22.0
30.6
36.3
37.1
38.0
38.3
40.5
49.0
51.4
1,316.7
51.9
263
COMPARISON TABLE
Maximum
Individual
Snowy Owl
Great Horned Owl
Great Gray Owl
Barn Owl
Northern Barred Owl
Short-eared Owl
Long-eared Owl
Hawk Owl
Owl

Eastern Screech
Owl
Whiskered Owl
Flammulated Owl
Saw-whet Owl
Ferruginous
Owl

Whitney's Elf

Whiskered Owl
Saw-whet Owl
Flammulated Owl
Eastern Screech Owl
Richardson's Owl
Hawk Owl
Long-eared Owl
Owl
Barn Owl
California Spotted
Owl
Great Horned Owl

Great Gray Owl
Snowy Owl
Maximum
Species
Great Gray Owl

Snowy- Owl
Northern Barred Owl
Great Horned Owl
Barn Owl
Hawk Owl
Owl
Short-eared Owl
Richardson's Owl
Eastern Screech Owl
Ferruginous Owl
Whiskered Owl
Saw-whet Owl
Long-eared

Flammulated Owl
264
Owl
14.0
14.0
13.3

Saw-whet Owl
9.1
Eastern Screech Owl

Richardson's Owl
7.5
Barn Owl
7.3
Short-eared
7.0
Long-eared
11.9
5.9
American
flesh to
Millimeters
50.8
56.7
57.2
57.8
58.8
66.9
73.4
75.1
Owl
Owl
Hawk Owl
4.6
4.2
Snowy Owl
102.0
4.0
Great Gray
Owl
Maximum Beak
(From
tip!
Inches
2.2
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.6
2.9
3.0
3.5
124.8
135.9
143.1
173.0
208.2
210.1
212.3
230.4
287.0
4.9
5.4
5.6
6.8
8.2
8.3
8.4
9.1
11.3
14
Length
Millimeters
Species
3.9
4.9
Snowy Owl
5.0
Northern Barred Owl
5.1
California Spotted
5.8
Long-eared
6.2
American
3.9
2.0
cere on straight line to tip)
Great Gray Owl

Great Horned Owl
Barn Owl
3.5
Inches
88.1
COMPARISON TABLE
11
Owl
Owl
Inches
47.1
1.9
46.6
30.5
28.2
24.6
23.5
20.6
1.8
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
Hawk Owl
20.1
0.8
0.8
Short-eared Owl
Eastern Screech Owl
19.9
0.8
18.7
0.7
18.1
0.7
16.6
0.7
15.3
0.6
13.0
0.5
12.7

Saw-whet Owl
Flammulated Owl
11.1
0.4
14.0
10.3
0.4
9.9
0.4
9.4
0.4
6.3
8.4
10.6
11.2
12.1
12.3
14.1
15.6
Whiskered Owl
Richardson's
Owl
Ferruginous Owl
Whitney's Elf Owl
COMPARISON TABLE
12
15
Minimum Beak Length
Tail Length
(Longest rectrix from
Whitnev's Elf
14.1
Whiskered Owl
Flammulated Owl
5.7
COMPARISON TABLE
American
16.8
144.9
116.8
106.8
Millimeters
89.4
98.8
99.8
124.3
127.0
128.3
147.5
156.2
158.9
212.7
269.2
284.9
307.3
311.2
322.8
355.8
358.2
395.3
Ferruginous Owl
Whitney's Elf Owl
Short-eared Owl
Northern Barred
17.0
Whitney's Elf Owl

Ferruginous Owl
Individual Wing Length
Species
Tail Length
Species
Great Horned Owl

Northern Barred Owl
(Carpal joint to outstretched wing
American
18.8
5.7
COMPARISON TABLE
Minimum
Inches
145.1
Owl
13
(Longest rectrix from flesh to outermost tip)
tip)
Millimeters
447.3
430.5
426.2
356.6
355.6
355.5
336.7
301.0
229.7
190.9
184.3
177.8
148.8
Species
Richardson's
Minimum
Wing Length
(Carpal joint to outstretched wing
American
COMPARISON TABLE
10
(From
outermost tip)
Millimeters
344.8
261.7
260.4
254.5
231.6
192.6
184.8
168.9
158.8
119.9
95.5
Inches
13.6
10.3
10.3
10.0
9.1
7.6
7.3
6.7
6.3
4.7
3.8
89.1
3.5
88.9
76.3
74.0
71.3
64.9
60.3
3.5
3.0
2.9
2.8
2.6
2.4
cere on straight line to tip)
Species
Whitney's Elf Owl

Ferruginous Owl

Flammulated Owl
Saw-whet Owl
Owl
Whiskered Owl
Eastern Screech Owl
Long-eared Owl
Short-eared Owl
American Hawk Owl
Northern Barred Owl
Barn Owl
Snowy Owl
Great Gray Owl
Great Horned Owl
Richardson's
Comparison Tables
Millimeters
Inches
8.1
0.3
8.2
0.3
8.6
0.3
8.7
0.3
11.5
0.5
12.5
0.5
13.3
0.5
13.5
0.5
14.1
0.6
15.2
0.6
15.8
0.6
18.2
0.7
20.3
0.8
21.1
0.8
21.1
0.8
24.6
28.0
1.0
30.8
1.1
1.2
cosmopolitan
Having a world-wide range rather than
being restricted to a smaller geographical location.
coverts
patch or area
overlying
of
which
feathers
cover the base of other feathers.
crepuscular
GLOSSARY
Distinctly active at the twilight periods of
the day, both morning and evening, but especially evening. (See also Diurnal
An
adult
owl of breeding age; fully mature
spects, including
plumage,
plumage.
and
skin,
eyes.
and pinkish
Melanism.)
feathers
alula
re-
all
small
thumb)
anal area
and
beak,
(See
feet.
also
deciduous
(or
with
dichromatic
or
residing
upon
any
of
trees
in
kind.
size
Not symmetrical;
that
same
not the
is,
in
meaning ears with openings, cavities,

or placement not the same on opposing sides of the head.
auditory
Pertaining to the sense of hearing.
auriculars
The feathers covering the ear openings; usually movable to some degree through muscular control.
ears,
The
axillaries
The
barrings
rather longer feathers of the owl's axilla
(side-to-side)
(or jaws),
and
of
often of short duration;
feathers,
the
auditory openings and inner structure on each

the owl's
The
skull,
ordinarily not visible
without
earlike, erectile feathers
on each side of
on the in-
dividual owl; often called ears, but having nothing what-
such as
corners of
have a
stiff,
mouth
act of the parent bird sitting over

at a
Feathers (especially outer primaries)
indented or notched
distinctly
which
margin on the
young
The
facial disks
rounded areas of
plumage on the owl's face
distinctly saucerlike
short (usually lighter-colored)
proper temperature. (See also Incu-
surrounding the eyes.
The
Occurring
The
the upper bend of the owl's
wrist;
in a geographical area
more
as the ex-
and
family
The
cavity
inside
the
or
firs,
Circular
differ in
in
one or more
in
feces
to
trees
circular)
bearing
within
rings
common
center.
cones,
such
solid or semisolid digestive wastes expelled
ferruginous
Reddish brown in color,
flanks
The longish plumes overlying
by
flush
general body feathering of the
like rusty iron.
the legs and lower
sides of the owl.
as
cedars, cypress, spruce.
The
The
the owl through the vent.
largely
(or
Pertaining
contour feathers
which
Strigiformes (Owls).
group of eggs deposited by one owl
one another, not joined but having a
coniferous
(usually darker
same Order. In North America there are two owl

the Tytonidae (Barn Owls) and Strigidae
(typical owls), both of which belong to the Order
nest in one laying period.
concentric
group of
of feathers
Families:
anus,
laid.
total
line
which encircles the facial disks.

Genera (see Genus) which agree
the
vent
through which wastes are expelled, copulation occurs,
and eggs are
slightly larger)
other characteristics from other Families belonging to
upper beak,
nostrils are located.
The common
The narrow
facial rim
certain characteristics but
fleshy area at the base of the owl's
which the
pines,
fluffy
outer rim of the facial disks.
ception than as the rule.
its
The
emarginate
wing; often mistakenly referred to as the elbow.
clutch
Soft,
ear tufts
bation.)
cloaca
way.
terminal portion of the inner webbing.
The
carpal joint
in
migrate
ever to do with the sense of hearing.
hairlike feather, usually short
keep them
cere
within
may
parting the plumage or lifting the auriculars toward the
owls.
casual
range
(and sometimes successive) feathering of the baby
side
Ne-
a northern geographical area, chiefly the
those located on the feet and near the
to
it
owl.
arctic subregion.
some
which
to
the crown; always paired and symmetrical
Of
brooding
and
part or the whole.
calipers.
bristle
resident,
geographical location.
geographical
Distinctly active during the daylight hours, espe-
down
com-
prised of the upper mandible and lower mandible.

beak length
The straight-line length of the upper beak
(or upper mandible) from cere to tip, as measured with
is
normal
between sunrise and sunset. (See also Crepuscular

and Nocturnal.)
dorsal
Pertaining to the back or the upper portion of a
ear
The horny mouthparts
bill)
one
cially
markings on the
owl's plumage. (See also Streaks.)
boreal
The
in a regular
first
transverse
through
distinct color phases within
sex, age, season, climate, or
diurnal
or armpit area.
beak (or
Having two
which the owl
or placement on opposite sides of the owl, as in
asymmetrical
act of expelling bodily wastes
race of owls; these color phases not normally predicated
distribution
asymmetrical
oaks, elms, maples,
trees:
the vent or anus.
area immediately surrounding the anus or
Associated
The
defecation
vent; also called the crissum.
arboreal
hardwood
cottonwoods, willows.
of the owl's wing.
The
some-
Trees (or shrubs) which lose their leaves seaespecially
sonally;
growing on the pollex
(or upper
to cere;
including the cere.
true albino will have white
eyes,
feathers
stiff
the owl's head.
the upper beak
times incorrectly used to signify the entire upper beak
of color pigmentation in
Also called "the bastard wing"; a group of three

six
to
and Nocturnal.)
The uppermost area of

The upper curve of
mandible) of the owl, from point of beak
The complete absence
albinism
in
crown
culmen
flutings
To
disturb any bird into a run or flight.
The
toothlike formations
on the leading edges

comb-
owl which forms the outline shape, as distinguished from
of the feathers, especially the flight feathers; these
wing and
like feather
tail feathers.
Glossary
edges muffle the sound of wind passage over
265
the soundless flight
the feather's edge, thus permitting
mature
adult
full
species sufficiently unlike other species in certain physical
from
black or near black, usually most apparent on breast
which owls are noted.
The opening
gape
of the
mouth, usually
to
its
widest ex-
species
or
group of
tent.
genus
Genera).
(plural
characteristics
separate
justify
to
single
classification
other genera of the family to which they belong.
and
In
North American Owls, the Long-eared Owl and the

Western Long-eared Owl both belong to the genus Asio
and the species otus. and the Short-eared Owl also be-
granulated
lumpiness on the shells of some owl eggs.

greater wing coverts
The largest wing coverts on the
owl; those which overlie the base of the secondaries.
gregarious
Tending to gather together in groups or flocks,
especially during migratory periods.
ground color
general
The
the
of
immediately
most
basic,
coloration
visible
surface
apparent
owl's
the
of
The
region of the throat, extending toward
the sides, but especially the upper and central portions

of the throat.
The backward-bending
immaculate
above the
joint of the leg
is
loca-
(usually annual
process
old
with
feathers
among
new;
owls)
generally
of
re-
occurring
among owls in late summer and autumn.

The back of the neck, below the occiput.
nocturnal
Distinctly active at night. (See also Crepus-
is
not
(See also Brooding.)
The
duration of time from the be-
ginning of incubation until the egg hatches;
among owls
often delayed in
is
or second eggs laid.
The
{plural Irides).
characteristics, but
from other
or-
The
ornithology
study of birds as a separate branch
of zoology.
pellet
usually
compact and
mucus-coated,
initially
oval-shaped bundle of hair, feathers, skulls and other

teeth, claws, and other undigestible materials
which are regurgitated by the owl.
penciling
A set of fine, relatively straight, pencil-like
lines (usually transverse) on the owl's plumage, often
divergent or convergent at the sides. (See also Vermicu-
bones,
lation.)
The complete
plumage
colored portion of the eye sur-
feather covering of any bird.
Following the breeding season; for example,
postnuptial
applied to the molt and the plumage acquired
when
the breeding season ends.
juvenal plumage
An
like
same Class. Owls and Hawks both

belong to the Class Aves (Birds), but Owls belong to
the Order Strigiformes and Hawks to the Order Falconi-
rounding the pupil.

an immature bird
of smell.
ders belonging to the
not necessarily from the time of laying to the
time of hatching, since incubation
part of the owl's head, below
crown and above the nape.

olfactory
Pertaining to the sense
order
A group of families with
the
formes.
that
eggs to maintain an even temperature which allows

development of the embryo and subsequent hatching.
incubation period
The upper-back
occiput
some
and that usually has some degree of

plumage difference from adult owls of the same species.
incubation
The act of the parent bird in setting over the
at
specific
one stage
feather covering
in
its
worn by
period as a juvenile.
Behind or
postorbital
primaries
owl which has not yet acquired adult plum-
in
back of the eye.
(singular Primary).
The
feathers of each wing; the quills.
age.
principal outer flight
(See also Secondaries
and Rectrices.)
The
length
fullest limit,
most
tail
geographical
conditions of food supply
to
nape
of solid color or whiteness,
Pertaining to an adult-sized owl
juvenile
The
placing
yet of breeding age
iris
at
or climate.
molt
unspotted or otherwise unmarked.
immature
first
due
tion to another, often
differing in certain other characteristics
Pertaining to plumage (or sometimes
other physical aspect) that
the
and overlaid
base by the lesser wing coverts.
The movement from one
migration
tarsus; often erroneously referred to as the knee.
is
own
cular and Diurnal.)
gular area
this
Median Wing Coverts). The
the base of the greater wing coverts,
plumage.
heel
(or
middle coverts of the upperpart of the wing, overlying

their
grainy or granular texture, as of a minute
plumage. (See also Albinism.)
belly
middle wing coverts
longs to the genus Asio, but to the species flammeus.
total
length of an owl outstretched to
measured
tip of the
beak
in a straight line
to the
outermost
its
pupil
from the outer-
tip of the longest
quill
The
bend of the
the middle (or median)
coverts nearest the
rectrices
which
is
surrounded
feather; the central horny shaft of any feather.
See Subspecies.
(singular
Rectrix).
The
tail
feathers
of
any
bird.
Narrow and long, like a line.

The space between eyes and beak,
regurgitation
feathered or un-
The
act of oral
ejection
previously swallowed compact bundles
feathered.
by the owl of
(called
pellets)
of undigestible materials.
maculate
Marked, spotted, or blotched. (See
also
Im-
resident
maculate.)
facial disk,
An
owl native
to a particular
geographical loca-
tion.
The
malar region
mandible
tail
race (or form)
coverts.
lores
central black of the eye,
iris.
Usually a primary wing feather, but sometimes a
larger
wing and overlying the base of

linear
The
by the
feather.
lesser wing coverts
266
Pertaining to an owl that has acquired
plumage and the ability to reproduce.

median
(also Medial). The center line of the owl from
head to tail; also the center line of any particular part;
most often associated with breast, belly, and back.
melanism
An abnormal darkness of the plumage to
for
running
general lower cheek area of the owl's

to the base of the
lower mandible.
rufescent
Reddish in color.
The dorsal portion of
rump
Either of the horny jaws of an owl's beak.
tail.
Glossary
the owl between back and
scapulars
Longish feathers, usually broader than others
around them, which overlie the shoulder blade.
secondaries
The inner, principal flight feathers of the
wing, which are shorter than the primaries. (See also
Primaries and Rectrices.)
shaft
The central, horny stem of each feather; also called
wing
That portion where the leading edge
of
with
like
group of subspecies (or a

characteristics
the
distinct single race)
among one
but
another,
Owl, and the Great Gray Owl
varia, occidentalis,
same
the species
to
suborbital
Below the
subspecies
underwing coverts
its
own;
species.
superciliaries
of the owl,
is
not
characteristics
The
shared
Eastern Screech
line of feathers
which are usually
webs
length
The
feather from where
facial disk
viscera,
longest
rectrix
enters the flesh to
its
or
outermost
of a feather
lines
which grow
shaft; those closest to the
weight of the whole
total
dead bird, including the

and all other parts.
The
tip of the longest
tail
wingspan
wing
The
The
freshly
point.
talons
filaments (or barbs)
body
The
tip
live
feathers,
bird
feet,
or a
beak,
length of the outstretched individual
wing from the carpal

the
and wavy
of the shaft being called the outer web.
weight
above each
thin
transverse.
being called the inner web, and those on the other side
the eye.
it
The
wing length
length of
which overlie the base
of the entire owl; or the under-
outward from the central
converging in a V-shape above the beak.
Above
feathers
Marked with very
vermiculation
Owl
Roughly, the eyebrows.
supraorbital
and other coverts on the
side of any individual portion of the owl.
subspecies floridanus.
The
The
vent
See Anus.
ventral
The underside
and the Florida Screech Owl both belong to genus Otus

and species asio, but the former is subspecies naevius
latter
which overlie the base
feathers
underside of the wing.
upper-tail coverts
eye.
its
The
of the upperside of the rectrices (tail feathers).
geographical subdivision of a species; also
all
feathers which overlie the base
of the primaries, secondaries,
called a race. Generally speaking, an owl with certain

characteristics
new
Type Form.
of the underside of the tail feathers (rectrices).
and nebulosa.
Longitudinal markings, running generally in a
with other owls of
individual owl which was used as the
The
undertail coverts
dis-
head-to-tail direction. (See also Barrings.)
tail
The
original description basis for the establishment of a
belong to the
all
genus Strix, but respectively they belong
and the
inner secondaries; those secondary feath-
subspecies, or species; often called the
similar in certain characteristics to others of the
streaks
The
which are closest to the owl's body.

transverse
From side to side; crosswise.
ers
Genus. The Northern Barred Owl, the California Spotted
of an owl's leg, above
times bare; often erroneously referred to as the shin.
tertiaries
joins the body.
species
The shank
{plural Tarsi).
the foot and below the heel, sometimes feathered, some-
type specimen
the quill.
shoulder
tarsus
joint
or wrist to
the outermost
primary feather.
distance from the outermost outstretched
on one wing
to the
outermost outstretched wing
tip of the other wing.
strong, curved toenails; the claws.
Glossary
26J
Bailey,
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H. H.
T.
food,
The
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a history of north American birds
Baird, S. F.
M. Brewer and Robert Ridgway),
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variations in bird weights (with
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BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PRINCIPAL SOURCES
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It
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The Owls
authors in the preparation of
porated into
this
works
to
would be
usual of cases,
lied
volume;
listed, therefore,
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these, except in the
virtually
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Willard, F. C.
flammulated
NOTES ON food and feeding behavior of
June 1971, pp. m-14.

Tompkins, I. notes on the winter food of the shorteared owl, Wilson Bull., Vol. 48, 1936, pp. 77-79.
C.
153-56.
P.
Wilkinson, G. N.
Salt),
raptorial birds in Hawaii, Elapaio, Vol. 31, No.
Toitnsend,
J.
I.
L.
foraging activities of the snowy owl
during a period of low lemming population, The
Auk, Vol. 70, 1953, pp. 366-67.
73> i97i, PP- 177-92.
Tomich,
13, 1911, pp.
ferruginous hawk attacks great horned

owl, The Auk, Vol. 84, 1967, p. 433.
Weigand,
behavior and ecology of burrowing owls
L.
a popu-
Bull., Vol.
some Colorado horned owl notes, The
Condor, Vol.
texas, Texas
district,
in
81, 1969, pp. 332-33.
Warren, E. R.
food habits of short-eared and barred owls in
Montreal
great horned owl nesting
E.
Wiggins,
M.
J.
lated area (with Edwin C. Franks), Wilson
72,
L.
ecology of the great horned owl and the
Tyler, H.
Warnock,
16365.
Auk, Vol. 59, 1942, pp. 234-45.

Taylor, W. T.
birds of Washington state (with J. Aldrich, S. Jewett, and W. Shaw), Univ. of Washington
Terrill,
22,
1920, pp. 265-69.
birds of Canada, Nat. Mus. of Can. Bull.
Taierner, P. A.
screech owl (the), Bird Lore, Vol.
H. E.
Tuttlc,
saguaro screech owl as a recognizable
race (the), The Condor, Vol.
130-
1943, pp.
rkd-tailed
p. 171.
winter notes on the short-eared owl 'with
Swarth, H. S.
Bull., Vol. 55,
3'-
son Bull., Vol. 39, 1927,
Swan, C.
gophers (the), Wilson
R.
273
Index
Acadian Owl. See Saw-whet Owl
Acadian Saw-whet Owl. See Saw-whet
Owl
Adult, defined, 265
Aegolius acadicus, 5665; A. a. acadicus,
xx, 38, 56-64; A. a. brooksi, 38, 56,
60,
64-65
Aegolius funereus richardsoni, 39, 66-71

19-20
Aiken's Screech Owl, 55, 96,
Albinism, defined, 265
Allen's Barred Owl. See Florida Barred
1
Owl
Alula, xxiv, xxv
defined, 265
American Barn Owl. See Barn Owl

American Hawk Owl, 166, 195-203; annual broods, nest, nesting habits, 200;
beak length, 196; coloration, markings,
198-99; courtship, mating, 200; distin195; distribution,
guishing features.
202-3; ears, hearing, 198; ear tufts,
plumage, annual molt, 198; economic
influence, 203; eggs, 202; enemies, defenses, 199-200; eyes, vision, 196; flight
pattern, 195-96; food, feeding habits,
wastes, 200; general habits and characteristics, 199; habitat, roosting, 199;
hunting, carrying of prey, 200; incubaindividual wing
tion, brooding, 202
length, 196; legs, feet, talons, 196;
migration, 203; mortality, longevity,
scientific
names,
other
195;
198;
name, description, 195; sexual differences, 198; shape at rest, in flight
195; tail length, 196; total length, 196
voice, 198; weight, 196; wingspan, 196
young, family life, 202
American Long-eared Owl. See Longeared Owl
American Snowy Owl. See Snowy Owl
American Sparrow Owl. See Richardson's
;
Owl
Anal area, defined, 265
Annual broods, xxii. See also specific owls
Annual molt, xx. See also specific owls
Arboreal, defined, 265
Arctic Horned Owl, 215, 224, 257-58,
260
Arctic Owl. See Snowy Owl
Arctic Saw-whet Owl. See Richardson's
Owl
Arizona Pygmy Owl, 167, 204, 211-12,
218
Owl. See Mexican
Arizona
Screech
Screech Owl Saguaro Screech Owl
Arizona Spotted Owl. See Mexican Spot;
ted
Owl
55
xxiii,
xxv
Back of head. See Occiput

Barn Owl, xiv, xvi, 3-19; annual broods,
nest,
nesting
habits,
16;
beak length,
Pygmy Owl, 167, 204, 210 1

California Screech Owl, 70, 96, 121-23
California Spotted Owl, 22, 37-43; an-
markings, 8-10; court-
California
mating,
15; distinguishing features, 3; distribution, 18; ears, hearing,

6; ear tufts, plumage, annual molt, 6-7;
economic influence, 19; eggs, 16-17;
nual broods, nest, nesting habits, 42

beak length, 38 coloration, markings,
39-40; courtship, mating, 42; distin;
12-14; eyes, vision,

6; flight pattern, 4; food, feeding habits, wastes.
14-15; general habits and
enemies, defenses,
habitat,
10;
characteristics,
guishing features, 37; distribution, 43;

hearing, 38; ear tufts, plumage,
annual molt, 39; economic influence,
43 eggs, 42-43 enemies, defenses, 40
ears,
roosting,
10-12; hunting, carrying of prey,
14;
incubation, brooding,
17; individual
wing length, 4; legs, feet, talons, 46;
8 other names, 3 scientific name, description, 3
sexual differences, 7-8
42: eyes, vision, 38; flight pattern, 37;

food, feeding habits, wastes, 42 general
shape at
ual wing length, 38; legs, feet, talons,

38; migration, 43; mortality, longevity,
habits
4;
species
Barred Owl, Western. See California

Spotted Owl
Barrings, defined, 265
Bastard wing. See Alula
Bayou Owl. See Southern Screech Owl
Beach Owl. See Florida Screech Owl
Beak, xxiv, xxv; defined, 265
length,
comparison
species);
fined,
(see
xviii
also
ted
specific
265
Belly, xxiii, xxiv
Bendire's
Screech
Owl.
Screech
See
Owl
Long-eared
Canadian Owl. See American Hawk Owl

Canyon Spotted Owl. See Mexican Spot-
264; de-
tables,
39; other names, 37; scientific name,

description, 37; sexual differences, 39;
shape at rest, in flight, 37; tail length,
38; total length, 38; voice, 39; weight,
38; wingspan, 38; young, family life, 43
Canadian Long-eared Owl. See Western
wingspan, 4; young, family life, 17-18

Barred Owl, xiv, 2036. See also specific
Beak
characteristics, 40; habitat,
4; tail length, 4
voice, 7; weight, 4
rest, in flight,
length,
total
and
roosting, 40; hunting, carrying of prey,

42 incubation, brooding, 43 individ-
California
Owl
Carpal joint, xxiv, xxv; defined, 265

Carrying of prey, xxii. See also specific
owls
Casual, defined, 265
Cat Owl. See Florida Screech
Owl; Great
Horned Owl
Owl
Bibliography, 268-73
Big-eared Owl. See Great Horned Owl
Bill. See Beak
Billy Owl. See Western Burrowing Owl
Birds as prey, 236. See also specific owls
Cattle Owl. See Florida Burrowing Owl

Cere, xxv; defined, 265
Chat-Huant du Nord, Le. See Northern
Boreal, defined, 265
Northern Spotted Owl

Cheek. See Malar region
Chin, xxiv, xxv
Chouette a Terrier de l'Ouest, La. See
Chouette Cendree d'Amerique, La. See
Great Gray Owl
Chouette de Reine-Charlotte, La. See
Barred
Bristle, defined,
265
Columbia Horned
Northwestern Horned Owl
Owl.
British
Brooding, xxii
(see
also
specific
See
owls)
Queen Charlotte Owl
defined, 265
Broods, annual, xxii. See also specific

owls
Brooks's Owl. See Queen Charlotte Owl
Brush Owl. See Long-eared Owl
Bubo
virginianus, 22460; B.
v.
algistus,
24446; B. v. heterocnemis,
224, 24648; B. v. lagophonus,
224, 248-50; B. v. occidentalis,
198, 224, 250-52; B. v. pacificus,
199, 224, 252-53; B. v. pallescens,
224, 25354; & v saturatus, 214,
254-57; B. v. scalariventris, 214,
183, 224,
183,
198,
xiv,
224,
Owl
Chat-Huant Tachete du Nord, Le. See
Boreal Owl. See Richardson's Owl

Breast, xxiii, xxiv
Brewster's Screech Owl, 71, 96, 12324
199,
Asio flammeus flammeus, 54, 83-95

Asio otus, 72-82; A. o. tuflsi, 7-2, 80-82;
A. o. wilsonianus, xx, 39, 72-80
Asymmetrical, defined, 265
Auditory, defined, 265
Auriculars, xxiii, xxv; defined, 265
Axillaries, xxiv; defined, 265
274
coloration,
xiv,
Arizona Whiskered Owl, 134, 149, 154-
Back,
4;
ship,
Chouette de Richardson, La. See Richardson's
Owl
Chouette des Granges de l'Est, La. See

Saw-whet Owl
Chouette fiperviere d'Amerique, La. See
American Hawk Owl
Chouette Naine, La. See California
Pygmy Owl
Chouette Pygmee, Cotiere, La. See Coast
Pygmy Owl
Chouette Pygmee de Californie, La. See
California
Pygmy Owl
224, 257, 258; B. v. subarcticus, 215,

224, 257-58, 260; B. v. virginianus,
Chouette Pygmee de Vancouver, La. See
wapacuthu,
Chouette Rayee, La. See Northern Barred
xvi, xx,
183,
224-44;
224, 260
Burrowing Owl,
& v
Vancouver Pygmy Owl
Owl
xiv,
16376.
See
also
specific species
Cactus Owl, 182, 216, 220, 222-23

Cactus Pygmy Owl. See Cactus Owl
California
Horned Owl. See Pacific
Horned Owl
Index
Cinereous Owl. See Great Gray Owl

Citrus Owl. See Barn Owl
Cloaca, xxiv; defined, 265
Clutch, defined, 265
Coastal Screech Owl. See Kennicott's
Screech Owl
Coast Pygmy Owl, 182, 204, 212-14
Collar, xxiv
Elf
Color (coloration)
(See also specific
owls): adult and juvenile, xx: sexual
differences, xx
Comman name. xiv. See also specific owls
Comparison
tables,
26264
Concentric, defined, 265

Coniferous, defined. 265
Contour
feathers, defined, 265

Cosmopolitan, defined, 265
Courtship, xxii. See also specific owls
Coverts (see also specific kinds)
:
fined,
177-84. See also specific
de-
265
American Hawk Owl
Death Owl. See Florida Screech Owl

Deciduous, defined. 265
Defecation, defined, 265
Defenses, xxii. See also specific owls
Demon Owl. See Eastern Screech Owl
Desert Horned Owl. See Western Horned
Owl
Dichromatic, defined, 265
Distinguishing features, xvi. See also specific owls
Distribution, xxii (see also specific owls)
;
defined, 265
Diurnal, defined. 265
Dorsal, defined, 265
Down, defined, 265

Dusk Owl. See Eastern Screech Owl
Dusky Horned Owl, 214, 254-57
Dwarf Owl, Flammulated. See Flammu-
Owl
Dwarf Screech Owl. See Flammulated
Owl
Emarginate, defined, 265

Enemies, xxii. See also specific owls
Ermine Owl. See Snowy Owl
Eyebrows. See Superciliaries
Eyes, xviii, xxiii. See also specific owls
influence, 176; eggs, 176; enemies, defenses, 175-76; flight pattern, 174; general
xxv (see also spedefined. 265

cific owls)
Ear tufts, xx, xxiv, xxv (see also spedefined, 265
cific owls)
Eastern Screech Owl (Otus asio naevius)
xiv, xx, 54, 96. 981 18; annual broods,
112 13; beak
nesting
habits,
nest,
length, 100: coloration, markings, 1045: courtship, mating, 111-12; distin-
Ears,
xxiv,
xviii xx,
;

102; ear tufts, plumage,
118; eggs, 113; enemies, defenses, 108ears, hearing,
9; eyes, vision, 100; flight pattern, 99100; food, feeding habits, wastes, 109
1 1
general habits and characteristics,
1056; habitat, roosting, 1068; hunting, carrying of prey,
brooding,
13-14;
109: incubation,
individual
wing
length,
100; legs, feet, talons, 100;

migration,
118; mortality, longevity,
103; other names, 98-99; scientific
name,
description,
sexual
98;
differ-
ences, 103; shape at rest, in flight, 99;

length.
tail
100; total length, 100;
1023; weight, 100; wingspan,

100; young, family life, 1416
Economic influence, xxii. See also specific owls
Effraie, L'. See Barn Owl
voice,
Eggs, xxii (see also specific owls)

parison size table, 262
"Elbow." See Carpal joint
com-
and
habits
characteristics,
175;
habitat, 175; hunting, carrying of prey,

176; individual wing length, 174; legs,
174;
migration.
176; mortality, 175;

176; other names,
nest, nesting habits,
Falcon Owl. See American Hawk Owl

Family, defined, 265
Family life, xxii. See also specific owls
Feces, defined, 265
Feeding habits, xxii. See also Pellets;
specific owls
Feet, xiv, xviii, xxiii, xxv. See also specific owls
Ferruginous, defined, 265
Ferruginous Owl, 182. 21622; annual
broods, nest, nesting habits, 220: beak
length, 217; coloration, markings, 218;
courtship, mating, 220; distinguishing
features, 216; distribution, 222; ears,
hearing, 217; ear tufts, plumage, annual molt, 217-18; economic influence,
222: eggs. 220; enemies, defenses, 220;
eyes, vision, 217; flight pattern, 216;
food, feeding habits, wastes, 220 general
habits and characteristics, 218; habitat,
roosting, 218; hunting, carrying of prey,
220; incubation, brooding, 222; individual wing length. 217; legs, feet, talons, 217; migration, 222: mortality,
longevity,
218; other names, 216;
scientific name, description, 216; sexual
differences,
218; shape at rest, in
flight,
216; tail length, 217; total
length, 217; voice, 218; weight, 217;
wingspan, 217; young, family life, 222
Ferruginous Pygmy Owl. See Ferruginous
;
Flammulated Owl,
coverts. See Auriculars
174; distribution, 176; economic
tures,
Owl
Ear
'73, '74-76; beak length, 174; coloramarkings, 175; distinguishing fea-
tion,
Crown, xxiiiff. defined, 265

Cuckoo Owl. See Western Burrowing Owl
Culmen, xxiv, xxv defined, 265
lated
xiv,
Facial disks, xxiiiff.; defined, 265

Facial rim, xxiiiff. defined, 265
Crepuscular, defined, 265

Crissum (anal area), 265
Day Owl. See
Owl,
species
97, 135, 156-62; annual broods, nest, nesting habits, 161;

15960; courtship, mating, 160; distinguishing features,
156; distribution,
161-62; ears, hearing, 158; ear tufts,

influence,
174: scientific name, description. 174;

sexual differences, 175; tail length, 174;
total length, 174; voice, 175; weight,
174: wingspan, 174
Florida Screech Owl, 86, 96, 126-28
Flush, defined, 265
Flutings, xxiv, xxv; defined, 265-66
Food, xxii. See also specific owls
Forehead, xxiiiff.
Form. See Subspecies
Gape, defined, 266

General habits and characteristics, xx.
See also specific owls
Genus, defined, 266
Geographic variation, xiii
Ghost Owl. See Barn Owl; Eastern
Screech Owl; Snowy Owl
Gila Screech Owl. See Yuma Screech
Owl
265-67
Glaucidium brasilianum, 216-23; G. b.
cactorum, 182, 216, 220, 222-23; G.
b. ridgwayi, 182. 216-22
Glaucidium gnoma, 204-15; G. g. californicum, 167, 204, 210-11; G. g.
gnoma, '67, 204, 211 IS, 218, G. g.
grinelli, 182, 204, 212-14; G. g. pinacola, 166, 204-10; G. g. swarthi, 182,
204. 214-15
Golden Owl. See Barn Owl
Gopher Owl. See Western Burrowing Owl
Grand-Due, Le. See Great Horned Owl
Glossary,
Grand-Due Arctique, Le. See Arctic

Horned Owl
Grand-Due d'Amerique, Le. See Great
Horned Owl
Grand-Due de l'Est, Le. See Great
Horned Owl
Grand-Due du Labrador. Le. See Labrador Horned Owl
Grand-Due du Nord-Ouest, Le. See
Northwestern Horned Owl
Grand-Due Noiratre, Le. See Dusky
Horned Owl
162; eggs, 161; enemies, de160; eyes, vision, 158; flight

pattern, 156-68; food, feeding habits,
wastes, 160; general habits and characteristics, 160; habitat, roosting, 160;
hunting, carrying of prey, 160; incubation, brooding,
161
individual wing
length, 158; legs, feet, talons, 158;
description,
156; sexual differences,
Granulated, defined, 266

Grass Owl. See Short-eared Owl
Gray Owl. See Eastern Screech Owl
Gray Owl, Great. See Great Gray Owl
Great Cinereous Owl. See Great Gray
159; shape at rest, in flight, 156; tail

158; total length, 158; voice,
weight,
wingspan,
159;
158;
158;
Greater wing coverts, xxiiiff.; defined, 266

Great Gray Ghost. See Great Gray Owl
Great Gray Owl, 23, 48-55; annual
fenses,
length,
Flammulated Dwarf Owl. See Flammulated Owl

Flammulated Scops Owl. See Flammulated
Owl
Flammulated Screech
mulated Owl
Owl.
See
Flam-
Flank feathers, xxiv

Flanks, xxiii; defined, 265
Flight pattern, xvi. See also specific owls
Florida
Barred
Owl
(Strix
varia
geor-
gica), 7, 20. 32-35

Florida Burrowing Owl (Speotyto cunicularia
floridana)
xiv,
Index
150,
163,
172,
Owl
broods, nest, nesting habits, 53-54;

52; courtship, mating, 53: distinguishing features, 48; distribution, 54-55;
ears, hearing, 50; ear tufts, plumage,
55; eggs, 54; enemies, defenses, 52-53;
eyes, vision, 49-50; flight pattern, 49;
;
food, feeding habits, wastes, 53

habits and characteristics, 52
general
habitat,
roosting. 52 hunting, carrying of prey,

53; incubation, brooding, 54; individual
wing length, 49: legs, feet, talons, 49;
;
275
migration, 55; mortality, longevity, 50;

other names, 48; scientific name, description, 48; sexual differences, 50;
shape
at
rest,
in
4849;
flight,
ily life,
coverts
tail
length, 49; total length, 49; voice, 50;

weight, 49 wingspan, 49 young, fam;
Median line, xxiv

Median wing coverts. See Middle wing
Incubation period, defined, 266

Inner toe, xxv
Iris, xxiii; defined, 266
54
Great Horned Owl, xvi, xx, 183, 22444;

annual broods, nest, nesting habits, 241
230; courtship, mating. 24041 distinguishing features, 224-25; distribution, 244; ears, hearing, 226; ear tufts,
influence, 244; eggs, 24142; enemies,
defenses, 232-34; eyes, vision, 226;
flight pattern, 225; food, feeding habits,
wastes,
23640; general habits and
characteristics, 23032; habitat, roosthunting, carrying of prey,
ing, 232
2 34 _ 36; incubation, brooding, 242; individual wing length, 226; legs, feet,
talons, 226; migration, 244; mortality,
longevity, 230; other names, 224; scientific name, description, 224; sexual
differences, 228; shape at rest, in flight,
225; tail length, 226; total length, 225;
voice,
228; weight, 225; wingspan,
226; young, family life, 242-44
Great Plains Screech Owl. See Aiken's
Screech Owl
Great White Owl. See Snowy Owl
Gregarious, defined, 266
Ground color, defined, 266
Ground Owl. See Western Burrowing
Juvenal plumage, defined, 266

Juveniles (see also specific owls)
coloration and markings, xx; defined, 266;
portrait studies, xx
:
Owl
Guadalupe Screech Owl,
96, 14445
Gular area, xxiv; defined, 266
xxii.
Hammock Owl.
Head
{see also
Topography
of
an Owl)
Hearing, xviiixx. See also specific owls

Heel, xxv defined, 266
Hibou a Longues Aigrettes, Le. See Longeared Owl
Hibou a Longues Oreilles, Le. See Longeared Owl
Hibou a Oreilles Courtes, Le. See Shorteared Owl
Hibou Blanc, Le. See Snowy Owl
Hibou des Marais, Le. See Short-eared
;
Owl
Hill Owl. See Western Burrowing Owl
Hindneck, xxiii
Hind toe, xxv
Hoot Owl. See California Spotted Owl
Great Horned Owl; Northern Barred
Owl
xiv,
xvi,
224-60. See also
specific species
Horned Owl, Lesser. See Long-eared Owl

Horned Owl, Little. See Kennicott's
Screech
Hudsonian
Owl
Owl.
See
American
Hawk
Owl
Hunting methods,
xxii.
See
also
specific
owls
Incubation, xxii {see also specific owls)
2j6
Saw-whet Owl
"Knee." See Heel
Labrador Horned Owl, 183, 224, 24648

Least Screech Owl. See Flammulated Owl
Lcchucilla Llanera. See Western Burrowing
Owl
Lechuza Barranquera de Wilson.

Long-eared Owl
Lechuza Mono. See Barn Owl
Legs,
See
Length, xvi, xviii {see also specific owls)

comparison tables, 263; defined, 266
Lesser Horned Owl. See Long-eared Owl
Lesser wing coverts, xxiiiff. defined, 266
Linear, defined, 266
Linear measurement, xvi, xviii. See also
specific owls
Little Dukelet. See Eastern Screech Owl
Little Owl. See Eastern Screech Owl
Little-eared Owl. See Eastern Screech
Owl
Horned Owl. See Kennicott's
Screech Owl
Long-eared Owl, xx, 39, 7280 {see also
annual
Western Long-eared Owl)
broods, nest, nesting habits, 78; beak
Little
distinguishing features, 72; distribution,

80; ears, hearing, 74; ear tufts, plum-
74; economic influ-
age, annual molt,
80; eggs, 78-79; enemies, defenses, 77; eyes, vision, 73; flight patfood, feeding habits, wastes,
tern, 73
ence,
78; general habits and characteristics,

76; habitat, roosting, 7677; hunting,
carrying of prey, 7778; incubation,
brooding, 79; individual wing length,
73; legs, feet, talons, 73; migration, 80;
mortality, longevity, 76; other names,
72; scientific name, description, 72;
sexual differences, 74; shape at rest, in
flight,
72-73;
length,
tail
73;
total
74; weight, 73;

Longevity, xx. See also specific owls
Lores, xxiii defined, 266
Lower back, xxv
length,
73;
voice,
McCally s Owl. See Texas Screech Owl

MacFarlane's Screech Owl, 96, 102, 1 37
39
Maculate, defined, 266
Malar
region, xxiiiff.
defined, 266
Mammals
as prey, 236. See also specific

owls
Mandibles, xxv; defined, 266
Markings, xx. See also specific owls
Marsh Owl. See Short-eared Owl
Mating, xxii. See also specific owls
owls
Median (medial),
defined, 266
Index
Mice
as prey {see also specific owls)

Harvest Mouse, 90
Micrathene whitneyi, xiv, 17784; M. w.
idonea, xiv, 151, 177, 183-84; M. w.
whitneyi, 150, 177-83
Middle toe, xxv
Middle wing coverts, xxiii, xxv; defined,
266
Migration, xxii {see also specific owls)
defined, 266
Molt, xx {see also specific owls) defined,
:
266
Monkey-faced Owl. See Barn Owl
Montana Horned Owl {Bubo virginianus
occidentalis) xiv, 198, 224, 250-52
,
xviii.
Mature, defined, 266

Meadow Owl. See Short-eared Owl
Measurement, xvixviii. See also specific
Immaculate, defined, 266

Immature, defined, 266
defined, 266
102,
studies of varied owls, xvi
Horned Owl,
106, 135-37
Kirtland's Owl. See

See Florida Screech Owl
Hasbrouck's Screech Owl, 87, 96, 131
32
Hawk Owl. See American Hawk Owl
Habitat,
Owl, 96, 97,
Screech
Kennicott's
Melanism, defined, 266

Mexican Screech Owl, 71, 96, 124-26.
See also Saguaro Screech Owl
Mexican Spotted Owl, 33, 37, 45-47
Mortality, xx. See also specific owls

Mottled Owl. See Eastern Screech Owl
Mottled Owl, Western. See Texas Screech
Owl
Mountain Pygmy Owl. See Rocky Mountain Pygmy Owl
Mouse Owl. See Eastern Screech Owl
Names,
Nape
xiv.
Hindneck) defined, 266

Nebraska Screech Owl, 96, 19, 145-46
Neck, xxv
{see also
Nesting habits, xxii. See also specific owls

Nests, xxii. See also specific owls
Nocturnal, defined, 266
Northern Barred Owl, 6, 20-32; annual
length, 21; coloration, markings, 23
25; courtship, mating, 2829; distinguishing features, 20; distribution, 31;
32; eggs, 29-30; enemies, defenses, 2526; eyes, vision, 2122; flight pattern,
21 J food, feeding habits, wastes, 28;
general habits and characteristics, 25;
habitat, roosting, 25; hunting, carrying
of prey, 26-28; incubation, brooding,
feet,
talons,
21; migration, 3132;
mortality, longevity, 23
other names,
;

sexual differences, 23; shape at rest, in
20; tail length, 21 total length,

21; voice, 22-23; weight, 21; wingspan, 21 young, family life, 30-31
Northern Short-eared Owl. See Shortflight,
eared
Owl
Northern Spotted Owl, xx, 22, 37, 43-45

Northwestern Horned Owl, 198, 224,
248-50
Northwest Saw-whet Owl. See Queen
Charlotte Owl
See Cere
Nuhl-Tuhl. See Great Gray
Nyctale Boreale, La. See
Nostrils.
Owl
Richardson's
Owl
Nyctea scandiaca,
Oak Owl. See
xiv, 151,
18594
Florida Screech
Owl;
Pasa-
dena Screech Owl

Occiput, xxv; defined, 266
Okpik. See Snowy Owl
Olfactory, defined, 266
Ontario Horned Owl, 214, 224, 257, 258
Pygmv Owl,
Owl
Ookikjuak. See Snowy Owl

Orange Owl. See Barn Owl
Order, defined, 266
Original description, xiv. See also specific owls
Ornithology, defined, 266
Otus asio, xiv, xvi, 96-148; 0. a. aikeni,
55, 96. 119-20; O. a. asio, xvi, 70,
96, 120-21; O. a. bendirei, 70, 96,
121-23; O. a. brewsteri, 71, 96, 12324; O. a. cineraceus, 71, 96, 124-26;
O. a. floridanus, 86, 96, 126-28; O. a.
gilmani, 86, 96, 128-31; O. a. hasbroueki, 87, 96, 13132; O. a. inyoensis
87. 96, 132-35; O. a. kennicottii, 96,
97, 102, 106, 135-37; O. a. macfarlanei, 96, 102, 137-39; O. a. maxwelViae, 96, 103, 139-40; O. a. mccallii,
96, 97, 103, 140-42; O. a. naevius,
xiv. xx, 54, 96, 98-118; O. a. quercinus, 96, 118, 14243; O. a. suttoni,
96, 118, 144-45; O. a. swenki, 96, 119,
145-46; O. a. yumanensis, 96, 119,
14648
Otus flammeolus flammeolus, 97, 135,
156-62
Otus trichopsis, 149-55; O. t. asperus,
97, '34, '49, 154-55; O. t. trichopsis,
134, 149-54
Outer eye corner, xxiii
Outer toe, xxv
Horned Owl
(Bubo
virginianus
pacificus), xiv, 199, 224, 252-53

Pacific Saw-whet Owl. See Queen
Owl
lotte
Pallid
Char-
Horned Owl. See Western Horned
Owl
Palmetto Owl. See Florida Burrowing
Owl Short-eared Owl
Palm Owl. See Florida Screech Owl
Pasadena Screech Owl, 96, 118, 142-43
;
{see also specific owls)
Pellets, xviii
de-
Streaked.
See Ferruginous
266
Penciling, defined, 266
Petit-Due
Screech
d'Aiken,
Le.
See
Aiken's
Owl
Petit-Due de Kennicottii, Le. See Kennicott's Screech Owl

Petit-Due l'Est, Le. See Eastern Screech
Owl
Petit-Due de MacFarlane, Le. See MacFarlane's Screech Owl
Petit-Due Nain, Le. See Flammulated
Owl
Quavering Owl. See Eastern Screech Owl

38, 56, 60, 64-65
Queen-of-thc-Night. See Barn Owl
Queen Charlotte Owl,

Quill, defined, 266
Petite Nyctale, La. See
de
Saw-whet Owl
Wagler.
See
Arizona
Pygmy Owl
Pillip-Pile-Tschish. See Richardson's
Plumage, xx {see
fined, 266
also specific owls)
Owl
;
de-
Postnuptial, defined, 266

Postorbital, defined, 266
Prairie
Dog Owl.
See Western Burrowing
Owl
Prairie
Owl. See Short-eared Owl
Prey, xxii, 236. See also specific owls
Primaries,
xxiiiff.
cott's
Screech
Rabbit
as prey, 234. See also specific

owls
Race, xiii. See also Subspecies
Rain Owl. See Northern Barred Owl
Rattlesnake Owl. See Western Burrowing
Owl
Rectrices, xxiiiff.; defined,
266
also
specific
species
Pygmy Owl,
Pygmy Owl,
Owl
Cactus. See Cactus Owl

Ferruginous. See Ferruginous
63-64;
ears,
characteristics,
5960;
habitat, roosting, 60; hunting, carrying
60-61; incubation, brooding,

wing length, 57; legs,
feet, talons, 57-58; migration, 64; mortality, longevity, 59; other names, 56;
scientific name, description, 56; sexual
of
prey,
63;
individual
differences, 59; shape at rest, in flight,

56-57; tail length, 57; total length, 57;
Red Owl. See Eastern Screech Owl

Regurgitation, defined, 266
Resident, defined, 266
Richardson's Owl, 39, 6671; annual
length, 67; coloration, markings, 6869; courtship, mating, 70; distinguishing features, 66: distribution, 71; ears,
hearing, 67-68; ear tufts, plumage, annual molt, 68; economic influence, 71;
enemies, defenses, 69
eyes,
eggs, 70
58-59; weight, 57; wingspan, 57;

Saw-whet Owl, Arctic. See Richardson's
67; food,
feeding habits, wastes, 70; general hab-
Scops Owl, Flammulated. See Flammu-
vision,
67;
and
its
pattern,
characteristics,
69
habitat,
hunting, carrying of prey,

incubation, brooding, 70 individ-
roosting, 69
69
flight
wing length, 67
legs,
feet, talons,
67; migration, 71; mortality, longevity,

description, 66; sexual differences, 68;
shape
at
in
rest,
flight,
66-67;
tail
length, 67; total length, 67; voice, 68;

weight, 67; wingspan, 67; young, family life, 7
voice,
Owl
Northwest. See Queen
Charlotte Owl
Scapulars, xxiii, xxv; defined, 267
Scientific name, xiv. See also specific owls
Scops Owl. See Eastern Screech Owl;
Saw-whet Owl,
Flammulated Owl
lated
Owl
Screech Owl, xiv,
Rocky Mountain Pygmy Owl,
166,
204-
annual broods, nest, nesting habits, 208; beak length, 205; coloration,
markings, 2067
courtship, mating,
208; distinguishing features, 204; distribution, 209; ears, hearing, 205; ear
tufts, plumage, annual molt, 206; economic influence, 210; eggs, 209; enemies, defenses, 2078; eyes, vision, 205;
food, feeding habits, wastes, 208; general habits and characteristics,
207
habitat, roosting, 207; hunting, carrying of prey, 208; incubation, brooding,
feet, talons, 205; migration, 210; morother names,
tality,
longevity,
206
sexual differences, 206; shape at rest,
in flight, 204-5; tail length, 205; total
length, 205; voice, 206; weight, 205;
Rocky Mountain Screech Owl, 96, 103,
I39-40
Roosting, xxii. See also specific owls
Round-headed
Owl.
Northern
See
Barred Owl
Rufescent, defined, 266
Rump, xxiii, xxv; defined, 266
10;
Saguaro Screech Owl, 86, 96, 128-31

Michael Horned Owl, 183, 224, 24446
Sandhill Owl. See Florida Burrowing Owl
Sand Owl. See Florida Screech Owl
Saw-whet Owl, xx, 38, 5664; annual
broods, nest, nesting habits, 62
beak
;
length,
57;
96-147. See also
xvi,
specific species
Owl, Dwarf. See Flammulated
Screech
Owl
Screech Owl, Flammulated. See Flammulated
Owl
Screech
Owl,
Least.
Owl,
Spotted.
See
Flammulated
Owl
Screech
Whiskered
See
Owl
Owl, Whiskered. See Arizona
Whiskered Owl; Whiskered Owl
Scritch Owl. See Eastern Screech Owl
Secondaries, xxiiiff.; defined, 267
Screech
Rictal bristles, xxv
St.
Pupil, xxiii; defined. 266
Pygmy Owl, 204-15. See
and
habits
Sexual differences, xx. See also specific

owls
Shaft, defined, 267
Shape at rest, in flight, xvi. See also
specific owls
"Shin." See Tarsus
Shivering Owl. See Eastern Screech Owl
Shoe Owl. See Southern Screech Owl
Short-eared Owl, 54, 83-95; annual
broods, nest, nesting habits, 9293
87-88; courtship, mating, 92; distin;

hearing, 86; ear tufts, plumage,
95; eggs, 93; enemies, defenses, 89;
food, feeding habits, wastes, 90; general habits and characteristics, 88 habhunting, carrying of
itat, roosting, 89
prey, 90; incubation, brooding, 93; individual wing length, 84; legs, feet,
mortality,
talons, 86
migration, 95
longevity, 87; other names, 83; scientific name, description, 83; sexual difears,
ferences,
83-84;
Owl
distinguishing
defined, 266
Puget Sound Screech Owl. See Kenni-
61
58; ear tufts, plumage, annual molt, 58; economic influence, 64;
eggs, 6163; enemies, defenses, 60;
food, feeding habits, wastes, 61
general
Picametate
mating,
courtship,
features, 56; distribution,
>
fined,
hearing,
ual
Pacific
coloration,
Index
markings,
59;
87
tail
shape at
rest,
in
flight,
length, 84; total length, 84;
86-87; weight, 84; wingspan,

84; young, family life, 93-94
Shoulder, xxiv defined, 267
voice,
Side, xxiii, xxiv
Side of head, xxiiiff.

xvi xviii (se* also
Size,
comparison
ferences, xx
tables,
specific
262-64
owls)
sexual dif-
277
Skull studies of varied owls, xvi
Tecolote Enano de Cooper. See Whitney's
165;
Snake Owl. See Western Burrowing Owl

Snowy Owl, xiv, 151, 185-94; annual
Owl
Tecolote Manchado de
ican Spotted Owl
gevity,
Elf
Mex-
tific
185; distribution, 194;

eyes, vision, 188: flight pattern, 186;
food, feeding habits, wastes, 192; genfeatures,
165: shape at
ferences,
Tecolote Orejas Cortas de Pontoppidan.

See Short-eared Owl
Tecolotillo Rayado de los Organos. See
Cactus Owl
Tecolotillo Rayado de Sharp. See Ferruginous Owl
Tecolotito Cabezon de Gmelin. See Saw-

courtship, mating. 192-93; distinguish-
ing
Nelson. See
migration, 172; mortality, lon166: other names, 163; scienname, description, 163; sexual dif-
164;
rest,
in
flight,
length, 164: total length, 164;
tail
voice, 165; weight, 164; wingspan, 164;

Western Horned Owl, 199, 224, 253-54
Western Long-eared Owl, 72, 80-82
Western Mottled Owl. See Texas Screech
Owl
Whiskered Owl, 97, 134, 149-54; annual
length, 150; coloration, markings, 151
whet Owl
189-90;
Tecolotito Chillon de Tejas. See Texas
190; hunting, carrying of prey. 190-92; incubation, brooding, 193; individual wing length, 186;
legs, feet, talons, 188; migration, 192;
mortality, longevity, 189; other names,
Tecolotito Chillon de los Saguaros. See

Saguaro Screech Owl
Tecolotito Chillon Encinero. See Pasadena
52 courtship, mating, 153; distinguishing features, 149; distribution, 154;

ears, hearing, 150-51; ear tufts, plum-
185; scientific name, description,

sexual differences, 189; shape at
in flight, 185-86; tail length, 186;
length, 186; voice, 188; weight,
wingspan, 186; young, family life,
Screech Owl
Tecolotito de Flamulas. See Flammulated
age, annual molt, 151 economic influence, 154; eggs, 153; enemies, defenses,
Tecolotito
and
eral habits
habitat,
characteristics,
Screech
roosting,
185;
Manchado de
Arizona Whiskered Owl
Tecolotito
Manchado
Whiskered Owl
186;
193
Toes,
Spectral Owl. See Great Gray Owl

Speotyto cunicularia, xiv, 16376; 5.
Topography
172,
173-76;
hypgaea, 135, 163-72

Owl. See Barn Owl; Eastern
Screech Owl
Spotted Owl, 37-47. See also specific speS. c.
Spotted Screech Owl. See Whiskered Owl

Squinch Owl. See Eastern Screech Owl
Stone Owl. See Barn Owl
Streaked Pygmy Owl. See Ferruginous
xxiii; defined,
xviii,
habitat,
roosting,
152;
152;
hunting, carrying of prey, 152; incubation, brooding,
153; individual wing
length, 150; legs, feet, talons, 150; migration, 154; mortality, longevity, 151;
other names, 149; scientific name, description, 149; sexual differences, 151;
shape at rest, in flight, 149; tail length,
267
150; total length, 150; voice, 151;

weight, 150; wingspan, 150; young,
family life, 154
Whiskered Screech Owl. See Arizona
an owl, xxiii xxv
of
Tyto alba pratincola,
Whiskered Owl; Whiskered Owl

Whistling Owl. See Eastern Screech Owl
White-fronted Owl. See Saw-whet Owl
White Horned Owl. See Arctic Horned
xiv, xvi,
Owl
White Owl. See Barn Owl Snowy Owl
White Owl, Great. See Snowy Owl
White Terror of the North. See Snowy;
3-19
Owl
Undertail
267
Owl
coverts,
Underwing
Streaks, defined, 267

Strix nebulosa nebulosa, 23, 4855
Strix occidentalis, 3747; S. o. caurina,
xx> 22, 37, 43-45; S. o. lucida, 23, 37,
45-47; 5. o. occidentalis, 22, 37-43
2036; S. v. georgica,
xiv, 7, 20, 32-35; S. v. helveola, 7, 20,
3536; S. v. varia, 6, 2032
Stub Owl. See American Hawk Owl
Suborbital area, xxiv; defined, 267
Subspecies, xiv; defined, xiii, 267
Superciliaries, xxiiiff. defined, 267
Supraorbital area, xxiv; defined, 267
Surnia ulula caparoch, 166, 195203
Sutton's Screech Owl. See Guadalupe
Screech Owl
Swamp Owl. See Northern Barred Owl
xiv,
Short-eared Owl
Sweetheart Owl. See Barn
istics,
Tundra Ghost. See Snowy Owl

Tundra Horned Owl, 224, 260
Tunnel Owl. See Western Burrowing Owl
Type specimen (type form), defined, 267
cies
varia,
See
Transverse, defined, 267

Trilling Owl. See Eastern Screech Owl
Tuckwelinguk. See Richardson's Owl
c.
Spirit
Strix
152; eyes, vision, 150; flight pattern,

149-50; food, feeding habits, wastes,
'52-53; general habits and character-
xxv. See also specific owls
Species, xiv; defined, 267
163,
Llanero.
See
Owl
150,
Brewster.
Texas Barred Owl, 7, 20, 35-36

Texas Elf Owl (Micrathene whitneyi
idonea) xiv, 151, 177, 183-84
Texas Screech Owl, 96, 97, 103, 140-42
Thigh, xxiii
Throat, xxv. See also Gular area
12021
floridana, xiv,
Tengmalm's Owl. See Richardson's Owl

Tertials (tertiaries)
Sparrow Owl. See Richardson's Owl; Sawwhet Owl

Sparrow Owl, American. See Richardson's
Owl
rest,
total
94
Southern California Screech Owl, 87, 96,
132-35
Southern Screech Owl (Otus asio asio),
xvi, 70, 96,
Owl
Tail feathers. See Rectrices

Tail length, xviii {see also specific owls)
comparison tables, 264; defined, 267
Talons, xviii, xxiiiff. (see also specific
owls) defined, 267
Tarsus, xxiii defined, 267
Tawny Owl. See Barn Owl
xxiv;
coverts, defined,
Upper-tail coverts,
xxiii,
Whitney's Elf Owl, 150, 177-83; annual

courtship, mating, 182; distinguishing
defined,
267
xxv
177; distribution, 183; ears,

178; ear tufts, plumage, annual molt, 178; economic influence,
features,
Vancouver Pygmy Owl, 182, 204, 214-15

Vent, xxiv. See also Anal area
hearing,
Ventral, defined, 267

Vermiculation, defined, 267
Vision, xviii. See also specific owls
food, feeding habits, wastes,
Voice, xx. See also specific owls
eral
Screech Owl. See Kennicott's Screech Owl

Wastes, xxii. See also specific owls
Webs, defined, 267

Weight, xvixviii (see also specific owls)
defined,
comparison tables, 262-63
267
Western Barred Owl. See California
;
Owl
Western Burrowing Owl, 135, 163-72;

annual broods, nest, nesting habits,
170-71; beak length, 164; coloration,
Taxonomy,
Tecolote
xiii
Cornudo.
See
Great
Horned
Owl
Tecolote Cornudo Californiano. See Pa-
Horned Owl
Cornudo
Horned Owl
cific
Tecolote
278
Palido.
See
Western
habits
and
182; gen180;
characteristics,
180; hunting, carrying of prey, 182; incubation, brooding,

182; individual wing length, 178; mi-
habitat, roosting,
Washington
Spotted
Owl
xxiii,
markings, 166; courtship, mating, 170;

distinguishing features, 163; distribution, 172; ears, hearing, 165; ear tufts,
influence, 172; eggs, 171; enemies, defenses, 167-68; eyes, vision, 165; flight
pattern,
164; food, feeding habits,
wastes, 170; general habits and characteristics,
166-67;
habitat,
roosting,
167; hunting, carrying of prey, 168;

incubation, brooding, 171; individual
wing length, 164; legs, feet, talons,
Indei
gration, 183; mortality, longevity, 178;
other names, 177; scientific name, description, 177; shape at rest, in flight,
177; tail length, 178; total length, 178;
weight, 177; wingspan, 178; young,
family life, 183
Wilson's Owl. See Long-eared
Wing
length,
owls)
xviii
comparison
(see
tables,
Owl
also
specific
263; defined,
267
Wingspan, xvi, xviii (see also specific
owls) comparison tables, 264; defined,
267
Wood Owl. See California Spotted Owl;
Northern Barred Owl
Wrist. See Carpal joint
;
Xantu's Owl. See California Spotted
the, xxii. See also specific owls

Screech Owl, 96, 19, 146-48
Young,
Yuma
Owl
(Overleaf)
Asio olus
tuftsi
xm western
long-eared
owl
Godfrey. Male. Vicinity of Miles City, Custer
County, Montana, March
30. i(K>-\
A.O.U. Number 366-A
%J*U'
m**
(continued from front flap)
range
color, there are
full
maps, schematic drawings of owl

anatomy, and
and
is
field
The
their prey.
supported
sketches of owls
fascinating text
tables, glossary,
1>\
and
bibliography.
The Owls of North America
in-
common Barn
Owl, which frequents much of the
cludes not only the
continent, but also the owls found
only in small, remote corners of
North America.
While
book, unmatched in
this
completeness by any other work,
is
an invaluable reference guide to the

bird-lover
of owls,
makes a beautiful and en-
also
it
and the student
grossing addition to any library.
who provided
Karl E. Karalus,
illustrations,
one of America's
is
foremost wildlife
artists.
Primarily
a self-taught naturalist and
he has experience
imen
in
Allan
artist,
in biological spec-
and
collection, in taxidermy,
book
the
illustration.
W.
Eckert has written about
natural history in several bestselling books, including
Wilderness
Empire, The Frontiersmen, and The

Crossbreed.
He has also written two
popular books for children: Bayou
Backwaters and In Search of
Whale.
FRONT JACKET PAINTING: Florida Burrowing
Owl
way
Ridg(Speotyto cunicularia floridana

INC: Great
). female. BA( k JACKET PAIN
I
Horned Owl (Bubo oirginianus virginianus

i
iinelin
)
|
male.
JACKET PAINTINGS BY KARL

J
E.
\l
DESIGN BY PETER SCHAE1

isbn:
0-385-08758-6
Printed
in
the U.S.A.
\îy^ju^

The Owls of North America

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The Owls of North America

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HARIN COUNTY FREE LIBRARY

and Drawings by Karl E.Karalns

"Owls are marvelous

"They are incredible

ness of their senses of sight

hearing and remarkable

with utter soundless-

are admirable in their

and courage, and always

fascinating in their habits."

birds of the night and, thus, far less

often seen than birds of the day,

they are also decidedly creatures

With these words from the

The Owls of North

the enduring fascination of these

introduce you to the owls of our

never attained before. In text and

owl family and describe

possible, they provide close-

the daily routine

cycle of each owl, includ-

ing hunting methods, nesting habits

and courtship mating and incubation rituals.

The Owls of Norn

iCCUracy and high artistic

Godfrey. Male. Vicinity of Miles Citv. Custer

A.O.U. Number 366

Books Illustrated by Karl E. Karalus

THE OWLS OF NORTH AMERICA

Books Written by Allan W. Eckert

THE GREAT AUK

THE SILENT SKY

THE DREAMING TREE

THE KING SNAKE

THE COURT-MARTIAL OF DANIEL BOONE

PAINTINGS AND DRAWINGS BY

IHK\RY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER: 73-83629

THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

FIRST EDITION AFTER

[KITED EDITION OF 25O COPIES

\M) COLLECTOR'S EDITIONS

dedicate this book

with heartfelt appreciation

SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA SCREECH OWL (OtUS

barn owl (Tyto alba pratincola)

northern barred owl

(Strix varia varia)

owl (Strix varia georgica)

ROCKY MOUNTAIN SCREECH OWL (OtUS

PASADENA SCREECH OWL (OtUS

guadalupe screech owl (Otus

texas screech owl (Otus

Mexican spotted owl

northern spotted owl

macfarlane's screech owl (Otus

Nebraska screech owl (Otus

yuma screech owl

whiskered owl (Otus trichopsis trichopsis)

great gray owl

(Strix nebulosa nebulosa)

(Aegolius acadicus acadicus)

queen charlotte owl