Traffic Eng.

Traffic Signal and Coordination

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Traffic Signal & Coordination

In this lecture;
--------------------1- Principles of Signal Timing
2- Signal Timing at Isolated
Intersection
3- Webster Method
4- Traffic Signal Coordination
The information included in this lecture is largely taken from Traffic and Highway
Engineering (Garber and Hoel, 2009) and A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways
and Streets (AASHTO, 2011) and Roger (2003).

1- Principles of Traffic Signal Timing

It is important before studying the signal timing design to define a number of terms
normally used in the design of signal timing (Garber and Hoel, 2009):
1. Controller: A device in a traffic signal installation that changes the colors
indicated by the signal lamps according to a fixed or variable plan. It assigns the right
of- way to different approaches at appropriate times.
2. Cycle (cycle length): The time in seconds required for one complete color
sequence of signal indication. Figure 1 is a schematic of a cycle. In Figure 1, for
example, the cycle length is the time that elapses from the start of the green
indication to the end of the red indication.
3. Phase (signal phase): That part of a cycle allocated to a stream of traffic or a
combination of two or more streams of traffic having the right-of-way
simultaneously during one or more intervals (see Figure 1).

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4. Interval: Any part of the cycle length during which signal indications do not
change.
5. Offset: The time lapse in seconds or the percentage of the cycle length between
the beginning of a green phase at an intersection and the beginning of a
corresponding green phase at the next intersection. It is the time base of the system
controller.
6. Change and clearance interval. The total length of time in seconds of the yellow
and all-red signal indications (also called intergreen period). This time is provided for
vehicles to clear the intersection after the green interval before conflicting
movements are released.

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Traffic Signal and Coordination

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7. All-red interval. The display time of a red indication for all approaches. It is
sometimes used as a phase exclusively for pedestrian crossing or to allow vehicles
and pedestrians to clear very large intersections before opposing approaches are
given the green indication.
8. Peak-hour factor (PHF). A measure of the variability of demand during the peak
hour. It is the ratio of the volume during the peak hour to the maximum rate of flow
during a given time period within the peak hour. Design hourly volume (DHV) can
then be obtained as

9. Lane group. A lane group consists of one or more lanes on an intersection

approach and having the same green phase. The Figure in the next page shows
typical lane groups used for analysis.

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Traffic Signal and Coordination

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11. Critical lane group. The lane group that requires the longest green time in a
phase. This lane group, therefore, determines the green time that is allocated to
that phase.
12. Saturation flow rate. The flow rate in veh/h that the lane group can carry if it
has the green indication continuously, (i.e., if g/C = 1). The saturation flow rate(s)
depends on an ideal saturation flow (so), which is usually taken as 1900 veh/h of
green time per lane. The ideal saturation flow is then adjusted for the prevailing
conditions to obtain the saturation flow for the lane group being considered. An
equation given in the Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) is shown below:

The HCM also gives a procedure for determining saturation flow rate using field
measurements.
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Traffic Signal and Coordination

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2- Signal Timing at Isolated Intersection

According to MUTCD (2012), when properly designed, located, operated and
maintained, traffic control signals are valuable devices for the control of vehicular
and pedestrian traffic. They assign the right-of-way to the various traffic movements
at different times and hence the possible conflict points become minimal.
Accordingly, the main objectives of traffic signals are to increase the capacity of
intersections and reduce delays and accidents. Generally, it is recommended that
the number of phases is minimal to reduce delays in spite of that more phases may
be required to separate all traffic streams for safety. It is usual to adopt a two-phase
system whenever possible and using the shortest suitable and practical cycle length.
At a complex intersection, multiphase (three or more phases) system may be
required to achieve the design objectives.
An isolated intersection is one in which the signal time is not coordinated with that
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of any other intersection and therefore operates independently. According to

Rogers (2003) there is a minimum cycle time of 25 seconds based on safety
considerations. A maximum cycle time of 120 seconds is considered good practice.
Normally, the cycle time will lie within the range of 30 to 90 seconds.
Yellow Interval
The main purpose of the yellow indication after the green is to alert motorists to the
fact that the green light is about to change to red and to allow vehicles already in
the intersection to cross it. A bad choice of yellow interval may lead to the creation
of a dilemma zone, an area close to an intersection in which a vehicle can neither
U

stop safely before the intersection nor clear the intersection without speeding
before the red signal comes on. The required yellow interval is the time period that
guarantees that an approaching vehicle can either stop safely or proceed through
the intersection without speeding.
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Traffic Signal and Coordination

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For safety considerations, yellow intervals of less than 3 seconds are usually
excluded. To encourage motorists respect for the yellow interval, it is usually not
made longer than 5 seconds. When longer yellow intervals are required, an all-red
phase can be inserted to follow the yellow indication.
Cycle Lengths of Fixed (Pretimed) Signals
The signals at isolated intersections can be pretimed (fixed), semiactuated, or fully
actuated. Pretimed signals assign the right of way to different traffic streams in
accordance with a preset timing program. Each signal has a preset cycle length that
remains fixed for a specific period of the day or for the entire day. Several design
methods have been developed to determine the optimum cycle length, two of
whichthe Webster and the HCM methodsare presented here.

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3- Webster Method
Webster has shown that for a wide range of practical conditions minimum
intersection delay is obtained when the cycle length is obtained by the equation

Total Lost Time. Figure in the next page shows a graph of rate of discharge of
vehicles at various times during a green phase of a signal cycle at an intersection.
Initially, some time is lost before the vehicles start moving, and then the rate of
discharge increases to a maximum. This maximum rate of discharge is the saturation
flow. If there are sufficient vehicles in the queue to use the available green time, the
maximum rate of discharge will be sustained until the yellow phase occurs. The rate
of discharge will then fall to zero when the yellow signal changes to red. The number
of vehicles that go through the intersection is represented by the area under the
curve. Dividing the number of vehicles that go through the intersection by the
saturation flow will give the effective green time, which is less than the sum of the
green and yellow times. This difference is considered lost time, since it is not used
by any other phase for the discharge of vehicles; it can be expressed as:

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Allocation of Green Times. In general, the total effective green time available per
cycle is given by:

where
C= actual cycle length used (obtained by rounding off Co to the nearest 5 seconds)
Gte = total effective green time per cycle

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To obtain minimum overall delay, the total effective green time should be
distributed among the different phases in proportion to their Y values to obtain the
effective green time for each phase.

Minimum Green Time. At an intersection where a significant number of pedestrians

cross, it is necessary to provide a minimum green time that will allow the
pedestrians to safely cross the intersection.

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Prob. (1): For a major intersection on an expressway. Determine suitable signal

timing for the intersection using a four phase system. The design data as follows:
Lost time ts = 3.5 /phase

Amber = 3 sec

All-red = 0 sec

Qs (Sat. flow rate) and actual flow rate Qa as shown in the table.
Sol.)
Lanes
Qa
Qs
Qa/Qs
Ymax.

Phase EB
1
2
335
499
2000
2000
.17
.25
0.25

Phase WB
1
2
189
338
2000
2000
.09
.17
0.17

Phase SB
1
2
115
79
2000
2000
.06
.04
0.06

Phase NB
1
2
519
105
2000
2000
.26
.05
0.26

Y max. = 0.25 + 0.17 + 0.06 + 0.26 = 0.74

L (total lost time /cycle) = lost time (ts) + Total all red (R) = 4 (3.5) + o = 14 sec.
Co =

1.5 + 5
1

1.5 (14) + 5
1 0.74

= 100 sec.

Gte = Co L = 100 14 = 86 sec.

Gai = Gei + lost time - Amber
Ge1 = (0.25 / 0.74) * 86 = 29.05 sec

Ga1 = 29.05 + 3.5 3 30 sec

Ge2 = (0.17 / 0.74) * 86 = 19.75 sec

Ga2 = 19.75 + 3.5 3 20 sec

Ge3 = (0.06 / 0.74) * 86 = 6.97sec

Ga3 = 6.97 + 3.5 3 7 sec

Ge4 = (0.26 / 0.74) * 86 = 30.22 sec

Ga4 = 30.22 + 3.5 3 31 sec

Since total cycle length C = Actual Green + Actual Red + Amber

Act. Red1 = 100 30 3 = 67 sec
Act. Red2 = 100 20 3 = 77 sec
Act. Red3 = 100 7 3 = 90 sec
Act. Red4 = 100 31 3 = 66 sec
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4- Traffic Signal Coordination )(

Garber and Hoel (2009) reported that in urban areas where two or more
intersections are adjacent to each other, the signals should be timed so that when a
queue of vehicles is released by receiving the right of way at an intersection, these
vehicles also will have the right of way at the adjacent intersections. This
coordination (linkage) will reduce the delay experienced by vehicles on the arterial.
The methods used to achieve the required coordination are the simultaneous
system, the alternate system, and the progressive system. The speed of progression
is important in determining the cycle length for each of these methods.
Simultaneous System
In a simultaneous system, all signals along a given arterial have the same cycle
length and have the green phase showing at the same time. When given the right of
way, all vehicles move at the same time along the arterial and stop at the nearest
signalized intersection when the right of way is given to the side streets.
A simple approximate mathematical relationship for this system is
u = X / 1.47 C
X = average spacing for signals (ft)
u = progression speed (mph)
C = cycle length (sec)
Alternate System
With the alternate system, intersections on the arterial are formed into groups of
one or more adjacent intersections. The signals are then set such that successive
groups of signals are given the right of way alternately.

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Progressive System
The progressive system provides for a continuous flow of traffic through all
intersections under the system when traffic moves at the speed of progression. The
same cycle length is used for all intersections, but the green indication for each
succeeding intersection is offset by a given time from that of the preceding
intersection, depending on the distance from the preceding intersection and the
speed of progression for that section of the street.

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