EMBANKMENT DAMS

An embankment dam is a massive artificial dam. It is typically created by

the placement and compaction of a complex semi-plastic mound of various
compositions of soil, sand, clay and/or rock. It has a semi-pervious waterproof
natural covering for its surface and a dense, impervious core. This makes such a
dam impervious to surface or seepage erosion. Such a dam is composed of
fragmented independent material particles. The friction and interaction of
particles binds the particles together into a stable mass rather than by the use of
a cementing substance.
Embankment dams come in two types: the earth-filled dam (also called
an earthen dam or terrain dam) made of compacted earth, and the rock-filled
dam depending on the predominant fill material used. A cross-section of an
embankment dam shows a shape like a bank, or hill. Most have a central section
or core composed of an impermeable material to stop water from seeping
through the dam. The core can be of clay, concrete, or asphalt concrete. This
dam type is a good choice for sites with wide valleys. They can be built on hard
rock or softer soils. For a rock-fill dam, rock-fill is blasted using explosives to
break the rock. Additionally, the rock pieces may need to be crushed into smaller
grades to get the right range of size for use in an embankment dam.

Earth Filled Dams: An earth dam is composed of suitable soils obtained

from borrow areas or required excavation and compacted in layers by
mechanical means. Following preparation of a foundation, earth from borrow
areas and from required excavations is transported to the site, dumped, and
spread in layers of required depth. The soil layers are then compacted by
tamping rollers, sheepsfoot rollers, heavy pneumatictired rollers, vibratory rollers,
tractors, or earth-hauling equipment. One advantage of an earth dam is that it
can be adapted to a weak foundation, provided proper consideration is given to
thorough foundation exploration, testing, and design
Classification of earthfill dams: Earth fill dams are classified by many
factors.
1. Based on the method of construction

Rolled fill earth dams

Hydraulic fill dam

2. Based on mechanical characteristics of earth materials making the

section of the Dam

Homogeneous earth dams

Non-Homogeneous (zoned) earth dams
o with inclined impervious zone of artificial material
o with impervious zone of soil with low permeability
o with central core soil material of low permeability
o with a central thin diaphragm of impervious material
Diaphragm Dams

Rolled Fill Earth dams

In this type of dams, successive layers of moistened or damp soils
are laid one over the other. Each layer not exceeding 20 cm in thickness is
properly consolidated at optimum moisture content, only then is the next
layer laid.

Hydraulic Fill dams

In this type of dams, the construction, excavation, transportation of
the earth is done by hydraulic methods. Outer edges of the embankments
are kept slightly higher than the middle portion of each layer. During
construction, a mixture of excavated materials in slurry condition is
pumped and discharged at the edges. This slurry of excavated materials
and water consists of coarse and fine materials. When it is discharged
near the outer edges, the coarser materials settle first at the edges, while
the finer materials move to the middle and settle there. Fine particles are
deposited in the central portion to form a water tight central core. In this
method, compaction is not required.

Homogeneous Earthen Dam

These dams are constructed with uniform and homogeneous materials. It
is suitable for low height dams (up to 10m). These dams are usually constructed
with soil and grit mixed in proper ratios. The seepage action of such dams are
not favourable, therefore, for safety in case of rapid drawdown, the upstream
slope is kept relatively flat (3:1)
Homogeneous section is modified by constructing rock toe at the
downstream lower end and providing horizontal filter drain.
Zoned Earth Dams
These are dams with the central portions called core or hearting made
from materials which are relatively impervious. The thickness of the core wall is
made sufficiently thick to prevent leakage of water through the body of the dam.
Some generalized sections of earth dams showing typical zoning for different
types and quantities of fill materials and various methods for controlling seepage
are presented in Figure 3. When practically only one impervious material is

available and the height of the dam is relatively low, a homogeneous dam with
internal drain may be used as shown in below figure 3-a. The inclined drain
serves to prevent the downstream slope from becoming saturated and
susceptible to piping and/or slope failure and to intercept and prevent piping
through any horizontal cracks traversing the width of the embankment. Earth
dams with impervious cores, as shown in Figures 3-b and 3-c, are constructed
when local borrow materials do not provide adequate quantities of impervious
material. A vertical core located near the center of the dam is preferred over an
inclined upstream core because the former provides higher contact pressure
between the core and foundation to prevent leakage, greater stability under
earthquake loading, and better access for remedial seepage control. An inclined
upstream core allows the downstream portion of the embankment to be placed
first and the core later and reduces the possibility of hydraulic fracturing.
However, for high dams in steep-walled canyons the overriding consideration is
the abutment topography. The objective is to fit the core to the topography in
such a way to avoid divergence, abrupt topographic discontinuities, and serious
geologic defects. For dams on pervious foundations, as shown in Figure 3-d to 3f, seepage control is necessary to prevent excessive uplift pressures and piping
through the foundation.

Fig 3: Types of Earthen Dam sections

Dam with a Diaphragm
This type of dam is constructed with pervious materials, with a thin
impervious diaphragm in the central part to prevent seepage of water. The thin
impervious diaphragm may be made of impervious clayey soil, cement concrete
or masonry or any impervious material The diaphragm can be constructed in the
central portion or on the upstream face of the dam. The main difference in zoned
and diaphragm type of dams depend on the thickness of the impervious core or
diaphragm. The thickness of the diaphragm is not more than 10 m.

Rock-fill dams. A rock-fill dam is one composed largely of fragmented

rock with an impervious core. The core is separated from the rock shells by a

series of transition zones built of properly graded material. A membrane of

concrete, asphalt, or steel plate on the upstream face should be considered in
lieu of an impervious earth core only when sufficient impervious material is not
available. However, such membranes are susceptible to breaching as a result of
settlement. The rock-fill zones are compacted in layers 300 to 600 mm. thick by
heavy rubber-tired or steel-wheel vibratory rollers. It is often desirable to
determine the best methods of construction and compaction on the basis of test
quarry and test fill results. Dumping rock fill and sluicing with water, or dumping in
water, is generally acceptable only in constructing cofferdams that are not to be
incorporated in the dam embankment. Free-draining, well-compacted rock fill can
be placed with steep slopes if the dam is on a rock foundation. If it is necessary
to place rock-fill on an earth or weathered rock foundation, the slopes must, of
course, be much flatter, and transition zones are required between the foundation
and the rock fill. Materials for rock-fill dams range from sound free-draining rock
to the more friable materials such as sandstones and silt-shales that break down
under handling and compacting to form an impervious to semipervious mass.
The latter materials, because they are not completely free-draining and lack the
shear strength of sound rock fill, are often termed random rock and can be used
successfully for dam construction, but, because of stability and seepage
considerations, the embankment design using such materials is similar to that for
earth dams.

CRITERIA FOR DESIGN OF EARTH DAMS

The criteria for the design of earth dams are:

1. Sufficient spillway capacity and freeboard are provided so that there is

no danger of overtopping of the dam
2. Seepage flow through the embankment is controlled so that the amount
lost does not interfere with the objective of the dam and there is no erosion or
sloughing of soil. In this respect, seepage line should remain well within the

downstream face of the dam and the portion of the dam on downstream side of
the impervious core should be well drained.
3. Uplift pressure due to the seepage underneath is not enough to cause
piping
4. The slopes of the embankment are stable under all conditions of
reservoir operation, including rapid drawdown and during steady seepage under
full reservoir.
5. The stresses imposed by the embankment upon the foundation are less
than the strength of material in the foundation with a suitable factor of safety.
6. The upstream face is properly protected ((stone pitching, riprap,
revetment) against erosion caused by wave action, and the downstream face is
protected (counter-booms, turfs) against the action of rain.