Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Functional
Consequences
Psychosocial
Consequences
Values
Means-end chains are highly variable (see examples in Exhibit 4.5). Not every level of meaning is necessarily
present in every means-end chain. Also, consumers may have means-end chains for products (automobiles),
product forms (sports cars, sedans, SUVs), and/or brands (Ford Taurus, Honda Accord). The knowledge
represented in means-end chain structures is formed over time as consumers are exposed to marketing and other
types of information and have direct use experience with products and brands.
Measuring Means-End Chains of Product Knowledge. We briefly describe a method called laddering for
measuring consumers' means-end chains of product knowledge. Basically, laddering is a one-on-one, semi-
structured, depth interview. The researcher asks a series of simple, probing, "why?" questions to which consumers
respond in their own words (Exhibit 4.7 presents an example). Consumers' responses are presumed to reflect their
personal meanings activated from memory. The laddering task is intended to force consumers to reveal the key
meanings associated with the dominant product or brand attributes they consider during decision making. The
laddering procedure orders these meanings in terms of their level of abstraction, from less abstract meanings about
product attributes, to more abstract consequences, to very abstract, self-relevant values. In addition, the laddering
procedure identifies the linkages or connections between these meanings.
Consumers' product knowledge is likely to be quite sensitive to situational context. That is, different meanings are
likely to be activated in different contexts, situations, and environments. Thus, researchers must be sure to
establish the situational context for the laddering task.
Finally, each consumer's responses, of course, are unique. To be useful for marketing strategy development, the
idiosyncratic responses from many different consumers must be combined into an overall knowledge structure that
represents the common meanings held by a group (or segment) of consumers.
Digging for Deeper Consumer Understanding. While laddering allows researchers to probe for deeper consumerproduct relationships, it is of limited value. An alternative tool, the ZMET approach to consumer knowledge, is
presented. ZMET is a qualitative research tool that elicits metaphors from consumers and then probes for their
meanings, allowing researchers to dig very deeply into consumers conscious and unconscious thoughts and
feelings.
Involvement. Consumers have different levels of interest and concern for products and brands. Some products are
important to consumers while others are not. This refers to involvement. The concept of involvement has both
cognitive and affective dimensions and is extremely important in the analysis of consumer behavior. In this
section, we define involvement and present a conceptual model that will be used in later chapters.
Essentially, involvement is self-relevance. Self-relevance is the extent to which consumers perceive objects and
events to be related to their self concept. Involvement or self-relevance can be considered in terms of means-end
chains. Thus, self-relevance is represented by the means-end links between product attributes and self-relevant
consequences (see p. 90). That is, product attributes and the functional consequences of those attributes may be
linked to psychosocial consequences and the value states, which are part of one's self-concept.
Involvement With What? It is critically important that marketers clearly identify the object or focus of consumers'
involvement. In a broad sense, consumers may be involved with many things including physical or social objects
in their environments (products, brands, stores, advertisements, family members, co-workers) or with behaviors or
activities (shopping for, deciding to buy, or using a product or brand). Marketers need to find out exactly what it is
that consumers find to be personally relevant. For instance, a consumer might be involved with playing tennis or
bowling, yet care little about the objects of tennis rackets or bowling balls. Other consumers might be highly
involved with both the activity and related products.
For many products and brands, the links between product meanings and self meanings are weak and rather
indirect. These so-called "low involvement products" are not very important or interesting to most consumers. In
contrast, consumers may have strong and direct ties between product meanings and self meanings for a few, socalled "high involvement products." Thus, a person who is highly involved with such a product or brand usually
perceives clear connections between the product meanings and higher-ordered meanings about self (values and
basic goals). Such products are perceived by most consumers to be important or self-relevant.
Felt Involvement. Some authors (including us in earlier editions; we have dropped this term in the current edition)
use the term felt involvement to refer to the psychological experience of being involved with something. Felt
involvement is the degree of personal relevance that the consumer feels at a moment. The degree of felt
involvement is determined by the means-end chains of knowledge that are activated at that moment. The activated
means-end chains are a function of enduring and situational sources of self-relevance. The degree of felt
involvement motivates the cognitive processes of interpretation and integration.
Sources of Involvement. We distinguish between two sources of involvement--enduring and situational selfrelevance. Both intrinsic and situational self-relevance combine to determine the level of involvement-- (see
Exhibit 4.8, page 92 in the text). Intrinsic self-relevance refers to the stable cognitive associations between the
product and self-stored in memory. These means-end chain connections usually have been acquired through past
product use experiences (behaviors). Situational self-relevance is more transitory and is largely determined by
aspects of the consumers' immediate environment. Often these are temporary factors or events that cause a change
in the connection between the product and the consumer's self-concept. For instance, some consumers become
involved with cologne only when considering the product for a gift (a special situation); otherwise they do not feel
much involvement.
Marketing Implications. The concept of involvement has many implications for understanding the consumers,
some of which are detailed in subsequent chapters. Involvement is especially useful for analyzing the consumerproduct relationship, a key factor for developing effective marketing strategies. Thus, students need to understand
the involvement concept and begin to see its relevance for marketing strategies. Marketers can try to influence felt
involvement by trying to change consumers' intrinsic self-relevance (use advertising strategies to make the product
seem more self-relevant). Alternatively, marketers can try to manipulate situational self-relevance to create
temporary shifts in consumers' felt involvement (McDonald's might sponsor a sweepstakes contest to make going
to a McDonald's store more self-relevant).
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Chapter Four. CONSUMERS' PRODUCT KNOWLEDGE AND INVOLVEMENT
A. How Gillette Knows About Shaving
B. Levels of Product Knowledge
C. Consumers' Product Knowledge
1. Products as bundles of attributes
2. Products as bundles of benefits
3. Products as value satisfiers
D. Means-end Chains of Product Knowledge
1. Examples of means-end chains
2. Identifying consumers means-end chains
3. Marketing implications
E. Digging for Deeper Consumer Understanding
1. The ZMET Approach to Consumer Knowledge
2. The ZMET Interview
3. Marketing Implications
F. Involvement
1. Focus of involvement
2. The means-end basis for involvement
TEACHING OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, students should be able to:
distinguish between attributes, consequences (functional and psychosocial), and values.
identify types of attributes, consequences, and values.
understand that means-end chains are knowledge structures that connect product meanings with self
meanings.
describe how laddering interviews are used to measure consumers' means-end chains of product and
brand knowledge.
define consumers' involvement with products and brands.
distinguish between intrinsic and situational self-relevance and their effects on involvement.
describe the sources of intrinsic and situational self-relevance.
Begin by pointing out the different levels of abstraction in the symbolic meaning concepts that students
have generated in other in-class exercises. You should note that no single meaning at any single level
can fully represent an object such as a product class, brand, or store.
Show how (by drawing associative networks of interrelated meanings) concepts at higher levels of
abstraction subsume or "stand for" several concepts at lower levels.
For instance, consider the meaning of good handling, one characteristic that a car might have.
Handling, of course, is not an actual physical feature of a car. Rather, handling is an abstract
meaning that subsumes or incorporates several less abstract meaning concepts, such as tires,
suspension system, and wheelbase. Yet handling itself is a part of a larger, more abstract
meaning concept--performance--along with acceleration, comfort, and braking ability.
Attributes, Consequences, and Values. Students need to appreciate the very important distinctions between
product attributes, consequences of product use, and personal values. These distinctions will be used many times
throughout the text. Try the following in-class exercise.
Select virtually any product category and ask a simple question about it. For instance, "What is a soft
drink? or "What things come to mind about cell phones? or "What do compact disc players mean to
consumers?"
Write the concepts students mention on the chalkboard. As you write them, roughly separate the
concepts into three groups--attributes, consequences, and values.
When the discussion dies down, point out that certain concepts are attributes of the product, while
other concepts concern consequences of using the product. Still other concepts (such as values) are
more distant, more abstract consequences of the product.
Note that these groupings constitute three levels of meanings associated with a product.
Attributes are the most concrete, while values are the most abstract.
Ask students to consider how marketing strategies can influence consumers' construction of these
meanings. Have a concrete example or two of a current advertising campaign on hand to stimulate
discussion.
For instance, the Milk: It Does a Body Good ad campaign attempted to change consumers'
meanings about milk attributes (cold, tasty), the functional consequences of milk (refreshing),
and milk's ability to satisfy higher order values (good health).
Also, point out that while many product attributes and consequences are positive, some are negative.
In general, consumers strive to attain desirable, positive attributes and consequences and avoid
negative, aversive attributes and consequences. Encourage students to identify both pro and con
attributes and consequences and think about their implications for developing marketing strategies.
Consequences. We believe that most consumers tend to think of product attributes in terms of their personal
consequences. A fundamental assumption of means-end thinking is that an attribute is meaningful or important to
a consumer only if it has personally relevant consequences. Consequences are the basis for linking products to
customers, a major goal of most marketing strategies.
Point out the differences between functional consequences and psychosocial consequences.
Functional consequences refer to fairly tangible outcomes associated with product functioning (a
flashlight lights up, a microwave heats food, a chair is comfortable). Psychosocial consequences refer
to the psychological outcomes associated with product use (I feel good when I wear these jeans) and
the social consequences (people admire my stereo system).
Have students identify products that have important functional consequences and other products that
have highly self-relevant psychosocial consequences.
Ask students to discuss the implications of these differences for developing effective marketing
strategies. The marketing strategies should focus on the dominant level of meanings that consumers
use to think about the product.
For instance, some consumers may consider a product at a functional consequence level--ink pens
write, and that's it. Other consumers may think about the product at a much higher level--an ink
pen symbolizes one's status.
Example: What are the Relevant Consequences? Working with consumer benefits is not always easy. Here is an
example of some of the problems that marketers can face. In the mid-1980s, Colgate tried to introduce a new
shampoo product with a unique product benefit. After numerous product tests, consumer research, and a national
introduction, they withdrew from the market. The problem? Partly, the "product concept" (i.e., the benefit) was
too complicated to convey to consumers.
In the 1950s, Colgate had a 50 percent share of the shampoo market, with top-selling brands like Lustre
Creme and Halo. But by the late 1960s, their share had dwindled to almost nothing. To get back into the
haircare market, Colgate formed an alliance with Kao, a large Japanese company. They had a shampoo
that was a technological breakthrough--it defended the hair shaft and cuticle against damage, and made
hair more healthy and shiny.
Now, Colgate had to figure out how to promote the product, called Hair Defense, to its potential
customers. Managers argued about whether the product offered users a cosmetic benefit or a therapeutic
one. In the end, they concluded that the shampoo was a therapeutic product with a cosmetic end benefit.
In retrospect, this may have been a mistake. Consumers seemed to sense the indecisiveness about Hair
Defense. After a period of indecision and turmoil in the marketing department, the technical approach
was softened a bit and the product was introduced in 10 percent of the country under the name, Splendor.
But, due to heavy competition and lack of consumer enthusiasm, the company eventually withdrew
Splendor from the market.
A competitor felt that consumers were confused and unimpressed by positioning Hair Defense/Spendor as
a therapeutic product. Even if consumers had a cuticle problem, most would not be aware of it. One
analyst felt that consumers choose shampoos and like products solely on their end benefits. He believed
that Colgate lost sight of the end benefit of Hair Defense with its emphasis on the cuticle story. In other
words, consumers did not form a clear and compelling means-end chain. (Source: Nancy Giges,
"Splendor: Colgate's Hardy Haircare Washout," Advertising Age, May 30, 1985, p. 32.)
Another Example: Taking A Benefit Orientation. Many marketers understand the usefulness of taking a benefit
orientation--trying to understand the benefits that consumers seek and perceive in products. Here is a brief
example of that perspective.
In 1980, Frazier Purdy, then Chairman of the Board of Young & Rubicam, once the largest advertising
agency in the world, made a speech entitled "Attributes of Benefits." His main point was the same as Ted
Levitt's--consumers don't buy attributes, they buy benefits. According to Purdy, consumers "don't buy
technology or engineering. They buy products to make them healthier, more esteemed, more attractive,
thinner, prettier, wiser, manlier, shrewder, younger, richer, more desirable, happier, etc., etc., etc.
Consumers don't give a damn how a car works. What they want to know is how it will work for them
(emphasis added). Consumers don't care what's in cat food or dog food. They want to be loved by their
pets."
Then, Purdy told a little story about Samuel Johnson, the great British critic and lexicographer of the
1700s, who was put in charge of auctioning off the old Anchor Brewery in London more than 200 years
ago. In introducing the auction, Johnson showed his intuitive understanding of the power of benefits. He
ignored the attributes of the brewery, such as its location, equipment, fixtures, and capacity. Instead he
used this appeal: "We are not here to sell boilers and vats, but the potentiality of growing rich beyond the
dreams of avarice." According to Purdy, "That's what advertising is all about.
Holding out to the consumers the potentiality of gain, of advantage, of benefit." (Source: Frazier Purdy,
"Attributes of Benefits," a speech given to the General Foods Creative Seminar, Harrison Inn, September,
1980.)
Yet Another Example: Consequences of Plastic-bodied Cars. Sometimes, it is difficult for consumers to understand
the benefits provided by new or unfamiliar product attributes. For instance, in 1989, General Motors introduced a
front-wheel drive minivan, the Lumina APV (all purpose vehicle). A unique attribute of this vehicle was its all
plastic body. One of GM's biggest challenges was to communicate the benefits of the plastic car body to
consumers. (For more information, see Joseph B. White, "GM Hopes Plastic Drubs Vans of Steel," The Wall Street
Journal, August 24, 1989, p. B1)
Ask students to think about the advantages and disadvantages (perceived benefits and risks) of using
plastic body parts on cars. Their responses will, of course, be idiosyncratic and personal.
Weight reduction (and lower fuel costs) is one benefit touted by GM. The plastic vans should
weigh about 200 pounds less than Chrysler's steel-bodied counterparts. Also, plastic can be
molded into more complex shapes, which allows space-age styling difficult to achieve with steel
panels. Plastic doesn't get dings nor does it rust like steel. If damaged, plastic parts are heated
(to melt the glue that holds them on), peeled off and replaced.
Among the disadvantages (risks) of plastic is that panels could not be recycled. If damaged, the
entire panel must be replaced, whereas a steel panel can often be fixed. Apparently, plastic does
not have a cost advantage, because plastic that looks as good as steel costs about as much.
Possible Mini-Lecture: Perceived Risk. Perceived risk is an extremely important concept in consumer analysis,
yet it receives little attention in the scholarly literature. You might present a brief elaboration of the perceived risk
concept, beyond the treatment in the text.
Most products have both desirable and undesirable consequences. Positive consequences are benefits that
consumers seek out and strive to achieve. Negative consequences are product outcome that people want to avoid.
They are the perceived risks of product use. Perceived risks may concern physical consequences, financial
consequences, functional consequences, or psychosocial consequences.
Fear can be a powerful selling tool. Marketers who use fear appeals in their marketing strategy attempt to create
perceived risk or activate perceptions of risks the consumer already knows about.
Ask your students to think of products where the primary purchase motivation is avoiding perceived
risk.
Example: Here is some information about such a product category--sun screen products (adapted from Toddi
Gutner, "Protection Racket," Forbes, August 17, 1992, p. 90).
The last few years saw many horror tales of holes in the ozone layer and increases in skin cancer. Sales of sun care
products rose from $280 million in 1985 to $530 million in 1991. But then sales growth slowed as sunbathers
reached the saturation point. People need only so much protection from the sun, right? Actually, marketers
continued to use fear appeals about the risks of sun exposure and offer their products as a way to reduce perceived
risks.
One strategy was to emphasize the SPF, or skin protection factor of sunscreen products. A product with a SPF of
15 should allow a person who normally burns in 20 minutes to stay out in the sun 15 times longer than that--or 300
minutes--before burning occurs. Americans tend to go overboard on things, so many of them think that the bigger
the SPF number the better. Ten years ago most sunscreens had SPF numbers of 2 to 8. Now 60% have numbers of
15 or higher.
This extra protection from perceived risks costs extra. Schering-Plough has about 40% of the market with three
brands--Copper-tone, Water Babies, and Shade. Four ounces of these sunscreens with SPF of 4 can sell for $4.99,
an SPF of 8 might sell for $6.79, while an SPF of 15 could cost $7.99. How much extra protection (reduction in
actual risk) do consumers get for their money? Not very much. An SPF of 15 blocks out 93% of the sun's ultra
violet rays, while a 34 SPF eliminates just 4 percent more. An SPF of 50 provides only 6% more protection than
does 15. Most dermatologists admit that most people don't need a sunscreen with more than 15 SPF. But
apparently consumers perceive (believe) that these products with high SPF factors do reduce the risks of sun
exposure, and they are willing to pay to reduce these risk perceptions.
Other products have been introduced to address the perceived risks associated with sun exposure. For example,
marketers of a chemically-treated fabric, Solarweave, claim it can stop 99% of the sun's harmful rays. Another
company markets a tightly woven fabric called Frogskin that it claims gives protection equal to 34 SPF. Both types
of fabrics are used in hats and shirts. Another company makes Sun Alert badges that stick on your skin and turn
bright orange when you have had enough sun.
Probably the safest thing is to stay out of the sun completely. Apparently many people are doing just that, and some
of these people are getting their tan from chemicals. Sales of self-tanning products rose 60% in 1991.
Values. Values constitute the most abstract level of product meaning. Values are highly personal, intangible
consequences of product use (being happy). Values include modes of conduct (instrumental values) and states of
being (terminal values). The concept of values becomes clearer to students if they are forced to think about values
for themselves.
One approach is to ask students to discuss the broad differences in values between different market
segments--such as geographical or income segments.
Comparing age generations is an easy one. For instance, students could discuss the differences in
broad values between their generation and their parents, or even their grandparents.
Move to a more concrete level by asking students to consider the dominant types of values that these
age groups (or other segmentation schemes) find relevant for buying and using particular types of
products.
Automobiles are an easy category to consider; clothing is another good example; restaurants also
will work. Identify different segments within age groups that have different types of values to
satisfy.
Be sure to make students identify some of the marketing implications of understanding consumers'
values systems.
Values and Self. From a means-end perspective, values can be thought of as desired ends--basic life goals--which
consumers are trying to achieve. Also, values are a basic part of consumers' self-concepts. The cognitive
representations of values are elements in a knowledge structure about self. These self meanings constitute a selfschema. These very abstract meanings about self are quite important for understanding consumers.
Encourage students to think about their own self-concepts. For instance, ask them to jot down the two
or three most dominant values they are striving to achieve in general.
Ask students to describe how their personal values influence their consumption behavior.
These abstract values can be seen as goals to be achieved, partially through the purchase and
consumption of products and brands. This is an essential feature of a consumption society like
the U.S. where many people seek to achieve their basic values partially through buying products
and services. Of course, marketing strategies often try to make this connection between self
values and the products they sell, which further contributes to the overall consumption mentality
of the society.
Have students identify products that are currently being marketed with strong appeals to consumers'
values.
Breakfast cereals, such as Cheerios, and many other food products certainly qualify with their
strong appeals to health values. But lots of other food products have also tried to tie their brands
to important health-related values that were important to increasing numbers of Americans (as
people age, health usually becomes more important), such as low carbohydrate products.
Another example is the many products that are being marketed as appealing to American's
growing environmental values. For instance, Ben & Jerry's, a Vermont-based, marketer of high
quality ice cream, sells Rain Forest Crunch, using nuts presumably grown in the jungle rain
forest regions of Brazil (the goal is to encourage economically viable and environmentally sound
uses of the rain forest). The giant discount retailer, Wal-Mart, highlights environmentally
responsible products with special shelf tags and thus encourages its suppliers to become more
environmentally conscious.
Ask students to identify marketing strategies that are directed at such values.
In the health arena, for instance, there are hundreds of new products that attempt to link to
consumers' health values. Service companies are attempting to satisfy these values too--health
and fitness clubs, yoga clinics, spas and health-oriented resorts are examples. Restaurants and
airlines are trying to offer more healthy meals, containing less fat, salt, and cholesterol.
Possible Mini-Lecture: Important Aspects of Consumers' Values. Following are several important aspects of
values that you can briefly discuss in class.
Values are subjective, not objective "truth." They are idiosyncratic to each consumer.
Values are person centered, not object centered. Values have intrinsic worth or "value." Terminal
values, at least, lead nowhere else. They are basic life goals with no further consequences. They are
ends.
The worth or importance of a value may be personal (salvation or happiness for the person holding the
value), or the person may see the importance of a value as broader, perhaps even for society as a whole
(peace and harmony).
Values are formed from personal experiences, many of them occurring very early in life during infancy
and early childhood. Family and reference groups have a major socializing role in creating values in
consumers.
Values tend to be enduring and stable. However, values can change, sometimes gradually over time,
and sometimes more dramatically, as a function of a major life event.
Some values may be widely held by persons in a group or a subculture. Most people in a society may
even share certain values. For instance, most human beings in the world share values such as family
security.
Values have a critically important function in many cognitive tasks, such as attitude formation or
decision making about a brand purchase.
Values serve to organize the meaning representations about products and brands in consumers'
knowledge structures.
Means-End Chains. Means-end chains are a major concept in Section 2 and are referred to many times
throughout the text. We recommend that you spend time in class elaborating means-end chains and giving
additional examples. You could start by reviewing the simple three-element means-end chain and then show how
it can be elaborated to the six-element chain.
Select any product category (cars, ice cream bars, or textbooks) and ask students to provide examples
of each of the three means-end chain levels. Point out misconceptions and errors in identifying
attributes, consequences and values.
This exercise will also reveal that some categorizations are fuzzy. For instance, the differences
between functional consequences and abstract attributes are not always unambiguous and clear
cut. Seldom does this cause a problem in developing marketing strategies since the simple threelevel means-end chain is usually sufficient for most applications.
Point out that means-end chains are a particular way of conceptualizing consumers' product or brand
knowledge.
A means-end chain is a simple, associative network of knowledge, a hierarchical knowledge
structure that links meanings at different levels of abstraction--attributes to consequences to
values.
Point out that means-end chains are better at reflecting more utilitarian, functional meanings, rather
than highly affective, emotional, image types of meanings.
Means-end knowledge concerns the functional or instrumental aspects of products--the ability of
the product to achieve important, self-relevant objectives, goals, and values.
Exercise: Measuring Means-End Chains. Students form a deeper understanding of the concept of means-end
chains if they are given the opportunity to actually measure means-end chains for themselves (on a small scale, of
course). Therefore, we usually assign a simple project to be conducted outside of class and handed in (see example
below).
Ask one or two students to present their projects on the day they are to be handed in.
Discuss the content of consumers' product knowledge as revealed in their means-end chain data.
Then, discuss the measurement problems students had in identifying consumers' product meanings.
They definitely will have had some difficulties and will be interested in describing and discussing
these problems. Point out that conducting effective laddering interviews is an acquired ability. This
skill takes time and effort to develop.
An excellent paper full of hints on conducting better laddering interviews is by Tom Reynolds
and Jon Gutman (1988), "Laddering Theory, Method, Analysis, and Interpretation," Journal of
Advertising Research, February/March, pp. 11-31.
Understanding the Meaning of a Product Attribute. A key idea to emphasize is that the meaning of a product
attribute depends on the other concepts to which it is linked. That is, the meaning for a product or brand attribute
is a function of the consequences that consumers associate with the attribute.
The following in-class exercise using just about any attribute of any product can be used to illustrate this point.
Perhaps some new product has just been introduced on the market that has a new or improved product attribute.
For example, Anheuser-Bush introduced the low carbohydrate Michelob Ultra, responding to the popularity of low
carbohydrate diets, such as Atkins.
A trendy attribute for some products in 1992 was a "clear" color (actually no color). Several manufacturers came
out with clear versions of their products. Green Palmolive dishwashing liquid as reformulated to be clear and was
sold in a transparent bottle under the name, "Palmolive Sensitive Skin." Proctor & Gamble was at work replacing
white Liquid Ivory as a clear liquid. Pepsi-Cola created a colorless cola called Crystal Pepsi, touted as low sodium,
all-natural flavorings and no preservatives. What are the meanings of such attributes?
Briefly describe the product attribute, and ask students what this (or some other trendy) attribute
means to them. Write these answers on the board.
"What does this tell you about the product?"
"What impressions do you get about this product?"
Clear formulation might have some good and negative connotations. A clear bottle means that
consumers can see for themselves how much product it contains. But consumers also want to
think they are buying more than water, and color sometimes conveys that meaning.
Ask students to discuss the marketing implications of these "linked meanings" in a means-end chain.
The relevance for market segmentation and developing marketing strategies (advertising appeals)
is obvious. Different segments of consumers may perceive a new attribute quite differently (it
leads to different consequences and ends). Thus, the product can be said to mean different things
to different people.
This exercise also should reveal the deeper meanings of benefits or functional consequences. For instance, the
meaning of a functional consequence (durability) is given by the higher-ordered (more abstract) consequences to
which it is linked in peoples' minds (saving money, last a long time, impress friends).
Possible Mini-Lecture: The Three- versus the Six-Level Means-End Chain Model. We present two means-end
chains models in the text. One is the simple, "generic" means-end chain containing three levels--attributes,
consequences, and values. This three level model is sufficiently detailed for most marketing purposes.
We also discuss a finer-grained means-end chain model, with six levels. These are produced by further dividing
each of the original three levels into two levels--concrete and abstract attributes, functional and psychosocial
consequences, instrumental and terminal values.
Some students may feel frustrated and confused about (unambiguously) assigning a particular concept to
one of the levels in the six-level means-end chain model. Fortunately, such precise categorization is not
necessary or even very useful for most marketing purposes. Determining whether a concept is a
psychosocial consequence or an instrumental value is seldom critical for developing a marketing strategy.
The important point is that a means-end chain is a schema in which relatively less abstract meanings are
linked to higher-ordered meanings. As students will see in subsequent chapters, these means-end chain
structures of product knowledge have important impacts on consumers' cognitive processes, affective
responses, and overt behavior.
Therefore, we recommend a fairly "loose" approach to the "fuzzy" distinctions between adjacent levels in the
complete means-end chain model. Some distinctions are reasonably clear-cut, such as between functional and
psychosocial consequences and between concrete and abstract attributes. Other distinctions, however, are more
vague. Consider the subtle differences between instrumental and terminal values or the differences between
abstract attributes and functional consequences (is "comfortable seats" an abstract attribute of a car or a functional
consequence?).
Example; Some Unusual Means-End Chains. Following is an example of a somewhat "unusual" means-end
chain that one of the authors identified in a laddering study. A female college student, who was a heavy candy
user, mentioned that the small, bite-sized candies (like M&Ms and Reeses' Pieces) she liked were "good for the
growlies." But what does that abstract attribute mean? The laddering interview identified the following means-end
chain, which clarifies how she thought about these forms of candies.
(They are) stretchable and sneakable in class (small size makes it possible to eat during class)
This same subject produced another means-end chain that began with the functional consequence, "gives me a
burst." When we laddered from this concept, the following means-end chain emerged.
In presenting and reviewing these data, point out that both means-end chains lead to the same end
values--essentially self-esteem and achievement.
Self-esteem and achievement are common, dominant values (desired ends) for young people in
the U.S. and elsewhere. Such values are especially strong for many American college students.
Also, point out that laddering procedures usually reveal increasingly abstract meanings in the meansend chains. This is consistent with the assumption that means-end chains connect less abstract to
more abstract meanings.
Finally, point out that consumers can have means-end chains for a product class (candy in general), a
product form (small candy pieces), or a brand (M&Ms). Exhibit 4.5 in the text illustrates this point.
Even within a single general product domain (such as candy, cars, stereo equipment, or shoes), the
relevant attributes, consequences, and values can be quite different for the product class, product
forms, and brands. Consumers may have quite different means-end chains at these levels.
Challenge students to think of possible marketing strategies that are suggested by such data (assuming
it reflects the important meanings of a large market segment).
An obvious implication of such data is for advertising strategies. Students should be able to
imagine creating a TV commercial based on one of these means-end chains.
Functional
benefit
Practical
benefit
Emotional
payoff
James Myers and Alan Shocker (two well-known marketing professors) described a similar sequence of linked
concepts, which connect products to the consumer/user:
Physical
attributes
Pseudo-physical
characteristics
Task or outcome
referent (benefit)
User
referent (imagery)
Following the lead of Professor John Howard, Tom Reynolds and Jon Gutman (two marketing professors most
responsible for the means-end chain approach) proposed a cognitive structure called a means-end chain, which
they discussed in a series of articles and talks:
Product
attributes
Choice
criteria
Instrumental
values
Terminal
values
Joel Cohen (a marketing professor) proposed a similar, hierarchical model containing three levels of "product
attributes:"
Defining or
Descriptive
Attributes
Instrumental
Attributes
(Benefits)
Valued
Outcome
States
The published sources for these means-end chain models are: Young, Shirley and Barbara Feigen (1975), "Using
the Benefit Chain for Improved Strategy Formulation," Journal of Marketing, 39(July), 72-74; Myers, James H.
and Alan D. Shocker (1981), "The Nature of Product-Related Attributes, in Research in Marketing, J.N. Sheth, ed.,
JAI Press, 211-236; Gutman, Jon and Thomas J. Reynolds, "An Investigation of the Levels of Cognitive
Abstraction Utilized by Consumers in Product Differentiation, in Attitude Research Under the Sun, J. Eighmey, ed.,
Chicago: American Marketing Association, 128-150; Cohen, Joel B. (1979), "The Structure of Product Attributes:
Defining Attribute Dimensions for Planning and Evaluation, in Analytic Approaches to Product and Marketing
Planning, A.D. Shocker, ed., Cambridge, MA: Marketing Science Institute, 54-86.
Involvement. Typically, we devote an entire class period to the very important topic of consumer involvement.
This seems necessary to cover all the material about this very important construct for understanding consumer
behavior. Because involvement is used throughout the text as a key aspect of consumer analysis, students need to
acquire a good understanding of the basic concept.
Students need to understand the distinction between the experience of being involved, sometimes called felt
involvement, and two antecedents of that psychological state--intrinsic self-relevance (termed enduring
involvement by some researchers) and situational self-relevance (situational involvement to some researchers).
Classroom exercises can help students understand the key aspect of involvement--namely, perceived importance or
perceived self-relevance. This first exercise concerns the general concept of involvement with a product or service.
Ask students to identify two or three products that are important to them, personally. (If that is too
personal, ask what products are important to college students, in general.)
Marketers often use the term "high involvement products" to refer to products that many people
find to be quite important. Common examples of "high involvement products" for students might
be stereo systems, cars, personal CD players, sporting equipment (tennis racquets, skis), and
clothing.
Unfortunately, this terminology leads some to think that involvement is "in" the product, like a
characteristic of the product. Of course, involvement is the result of an "interaction" between a
consumer and a product.
You may have to probe ("What does that mean to you?") to get students to discuss these "deeper," more
symbolic consequences.
Items of clothing, for instance, often satisfy abstract needs in addition to just providing the basic
functional consequences of covering the body or staying warm. The psychological and social
consequences of clothing are usually important to many consumers. Some types of clothing
satisfy higher-order consequences such as values (self-esteem) that are self-relevant to consumers.
Another reason why a product may be seen as self-relevant is that it has some potentially severe
negative consequences (high perceived risk). Be sure to ask students if there are any negative, or
unfavorable consequences associated with using the product.
Expensive products have the negative consequence of having to give up a lot of money
in order to buy them. Other products may have adverse physical consequences
(cigarettes; over-the-counter drugs; motorcycles) or social risks (clothing; automobiles;
living room furniture) associated with them.
As a contrast, ask students to identify some low involvement products and explain why they are
unimportant.
Consider the consequences associated with some of our favorite "low involvement" products-clothes pins, paper clips, writing tablets, ink pens, facial tissues, potato chips, soap, chewing
gum, sodas. Most consumers perceive these so-called "low involvement products" to provide
little more than functional consequences, which are not highly self-relevant. Relatively few
customers link such products to central values.
Point out, however, that despite the relative lack of importance for "low involvement" products,
marketers can usually find some consumers who associate such products with more abstract and selfrelevant ends.
For instance, we have known some consumers who actually pay attention to the paper clips they
use and feel they have some degree of personal relevance. They might like the coated paper clips
in bright colors, because it makes their work stand out or seems more appropriate for important
papers. Ink pens and writing paper are not low involvement products for everyone (e.g., a
professional writer or a calligrapher).
You could initiate an interesting discussion concerning whether or not there really are universally high
and low involvement products.
Strictly speaking, it is not accurate to identify high or low involvement products. After all,
involvement does not reside in the product. Involvement is the outcome of a consumer's
interaction with a product. However, for practical purposes, marketers might treat some products
as high or low involvement, because most consumers have a similarly high or low involvement
reaction to them.
Focus of Involvement. At some point in these discussions, you should stress the importance of marketers knowing
the focus and level of consumers' involvement. What is it, exactly, that consumers are involved with? Just what do
they find to be self-relevant? For instance, consumers may be involved in the product class (cookies), or a
particular product form (sandwich-type cookies), or a specific brand (Oreo's), or any combination of these.
Ask students for examples of products with which they are involved. Probe to identify the source or
focus of their involvement. Are they involved with the product class, the product form, or the brand?
Discuss the implications for marketing strategies of differences in the focus of involvement.
What does it mean that consumers are involved with the product class or product form, but not
the brand, or vice versa? What are the marketing implications of reduced brand involvement?
For instance, such consumers may be vulnerable to strategies intended to induce brand switching.
Some consumers are involved mostly with the product use activity.
Ask students to come up with examples of consumers who are involved with activities regarding the
product, which involve using the product or brand, but are not concerned with the product or brand
itself.
In such cases, aspects of the usage activities have consequences that are related to self meanings,
but the attributes of the product or brand used in the activity are not directly self-relevant.
An example might be the person who enjoys skiing, tennis, or working out at a health club
largely because of the social interactions involved in the activity. Such a person is not
particularly interested or involved in the products or brands used to perform the activity. The
focus of involvement depends on exactly what the consumer finds to be personally relevant.
It is possible that some consumers are mostly involved with owning a product, not using it.
Collectors, for example, often have high levels of felt involvement, but derive most of their satisfaction
from owning the product. They don't actually use the product in a consumption sense. An example would
be a person who collects thimbles, beer cans, or matchbooks. Even collectors of art (paintings, prints,
sculpture) or classic automobiles may derive most of their satisfaction from ownership, not product use.
Example: A Study in High Involvement--Triatheletes. Here is a brief example of very high involvement with a
specific activity--namely, participating in triathlons. Among the many Americans who have come to value physical
fitness over the past 15 years or so, triatheletes are among the most extreme. In 1985, some 1.1 million Americans
are expected to sweat their way through about 2,100 grueling three-way competitions, usually involving swimming,
bicycling, and running. According to Triathlon Magazine, the average triathelete is a 34-year-old college graduate
earning about $45,000 a year. Many of these participants train up to 30 hours per week, in addition to their
regular, often time-consuming jobs. Moreover, they spend millions to acquire specialized equipment for the sport-fancy swimming goggles, high-priced bicycles, and state-of-the-art running gear. (see Teresa Carson, "The Spartan
Sport That Draws Big Spenders," Business Week, February 18, 1985, p. 148).
Ask students to discuss the values that seem to influence these driven consumers.
Most triatheletes seem to value fitness (in the extreme), and perhaps good health. At the
instrumental value level, they probably seek exciting activities, courage, and adventure. At the
terminal value level, triatheletes may be seeking achievement and self-esteem. Of course, a key
instrumental value seems to be competition itself, whether against other people or with oneself.
Pushing oneself to the limits seems to be a desirable value for many triatheletes.
Intrinsic and Situational Self-Relevance. The distinction between intrinsic self-relevance (enduring
involvement) and situational self-relevance (situational involvement) is important for both theoretical and for
practical purposes.
In the text, we use the terms intrinsic and situational self-relevance to refer to these two concepts. As described
above, we reserve the term involvement to refer only to the psychological state of being involved (at a moment).
Our model of involvement (Exhibit 4.8, page 92) identifies intrinsic and situational self-relevance as two
antecedent factors that lead to or cause a state of involvement. As illustrated in Exhibit 4.8, the level of
involvement experienced by a consumer is determined by the combination of intrinsic and situational selfrelevance.
After briefly reviewing the differences between intrinsic and situational self-relevance, ask students to
provide examples of each. This will reveal if students understand the concepts.
Intrinsic self-relevance refers to the means-end representations of the product/self relationship.
Consumers derive this knowledge from their past experience and store it in memory. When this
intrinsic, self-relevant knowledge is activated in a situation, it contributes to the person's state of
felt involvement. Because intrinsic self-relevance refers to relatively permanent knowledge
structures in memory, some researchers have called it enduring involvement.
People who are into sports activities or hobbies often have high levels of intrinsic selfrelevance for the equipment and products used in those activities. Avid bowlers, for
example, may have high levels of intrinsic self-relevance for their bowling ball, shoes,
and special clothing.
Situational self-relevance refers to specific social and physical stimuli in the environment that
may create temporary feelings of self-relevance. These situational factors activate self-relevant
goals and values that become temporarily associated with objects and/or activities in that
situation. Thus, these situational sources of self-relevance create temporary feelings of
involvement.
Virtually any aspect of a situation could be a source of situational self-relevance, in that
it creates a temporary association between some product and self-relevant values and
goals. Consider that a very hot summer day can increase consumers' felt involvement
with ice cream cones, swimming pools, and air-conditioned movie theaters.
Of course, the purchase situation is a common source of situational self-relevance.
Many, perhaps most purchase occasions create some temporary perceptions of selfrelevance. One main reason is that consumers are spending their hard-earned money
(which has clear self-relevant consequences). However, the level of self-relevance can
be quite low for inexpensive, mundane purchases (butter, eggs, dishwashing detergent).
You should emphasize that situational sources of self-relevance are temporary and
transient. When the situation changes, the self-relevance changes too.
Point out that changes in the environment (refer back to the Wheel of Consumer Analysis) can change
the factors that influence involvement. Ask students to give examples.
Various aspects of the immediate environment, including marketing strategies, can activate the
means-end knowledge structures that represent intrinsic self-relevance. Also, various aspects of
the immediate environment, including marketing strategies, can be sources of situational selfrelevance. These factors can increase (or sometimes decrease) the level of perceived selfrelevance or involvement the consumer experiences.
Ask students to think about products for which they have high intrinsic self-relevance. Why are these
products perceived as self-relevant?
Most students will have no trouble identifying products and actions that are intrinsically selfrelevant to them. These products will have close ties to important, self-relevant consequences,
perhaps even values.
Encourage students to explore the implications of the involvement model for developing marketing
strategies.
For instance, how should marketers deal with differences in consumers' intrinsic self-relevance?
Segmentation is an obvious implication.
What marketing strategies might affect consumers' situational involvement? Many marketing
strategies attempt to influence consumers situational involvement--rebates, premiums,
sweepstakes.
Although difficult to influence in the short-run, some advertising campaigns seem intended to
increase consumers' intrinsic self-relevance with the product class (Campbell's slogan, "Soup is
Good Food, and seems partially intended to increase people's involvement with soup). Other ad
campaigns focus on creating more intrinsic self-relevance with the product form (early ads for
no-alcohol beer had to first increase consumers' interest in that product form and then promote
the brand name) or the brand (many relevant examples including Coca-Cola, Levi's ads, and
virtually any car ads).
Levels of Involvement. Students should appreciate that involvement can exist at several levels ranging from very
low (virtually no) involvement to very high involvement. We can think about intrinsic self-relevance as varying
over this wide range.
This view of involvement as a continuum is a bit different from the typical marketing approach, which often has
treated involvement as dichotomous--either low or high. The text points out that many consumers have low to
moderate levels of intrinsic involvement with most products, brands and services. Most consumers probably do not
have high intrinsic self-relevance for more than a handful of products and brands.
The text emphasizes that involvement is a function of both intrinsic self-relevance and situational self-relevance.
Therefore, we should expect that consumers' involvement, say during a purchase occasion, can be, and often is,
higher than their level of intrinsic self-relevance. If most levels of intrinsic self-relevance are low to moderate, we
could expect that most consumers product involvement is also low to moderate, after "adding in" the modest
increment due to situational self-relevance.
Involvement and Brand Loyalty. The analysis of consumer-product relationships is relevant to the issue of brand
loyalty. Marketers have become increasingly concerned that, over the past 30 years or so, brand loyalty seems to be
decreasing among American consumers.
A study by the Wall Street Journal found that the percent of users who were loyal to one brand varied considerably
across product categories. Brand loyalty remains relatively high for certain products--cigarettes (71 percent of
users were loyal to one brand), mayonnaise and toothpaste (65 and 61 percent). For other products, however,
consumers obviously didn't care much about the brand--garbage bags brought up the rear (23 percent), along with
canned vegetables (25%), athletic shoes (27%), batteries (29%), and blue jeans (33%). (Source: Ronald Alsop,
"Brand Loyalty is Rarely Blind Loyalty," The Wall Street Journal, October 19, 1989, pp. B1-B8).
Ask students to discuss some of the underlying reasons for brand loyal (repeat purchase) behavior.
Partly, increased brand switching is due to the dramatic proliferation of alternative brands in
most product categories, as well as promotions (rebates, coupons, and sales) that encourage and
reward buying a different brand.
Loyalty is relatively high for products with distinctive flavors such as cigarettes and ketchup.
Consumers seem to have two types of reactions to soft drinks, shampoo and tuna fish (all with a
44 percent rating). About half of the consumers perceive significant differences between brands
(and thus stick with a brand they like) while the other half do not (and switch around between
brands).
Loyalty is also to be expected for products and brands that have a distinctive symbolic image.
For instance, loyalty toward underwear (with a 36% loyalty score) may seem low, but analysts say
this is pretty high for such a mundane product. Perhaps this relatively high score reflects the
industry's attempts to make underwear more of a fashion item and, therefore, more self-relevant.
Good examples of brand loyalty based on the symbolic meanings of a product can be
found in the beer and soft drink markets. Consider what happened when Coca-Cola
changed their formula and introduced "new Coke" in 1985 (see Highlight 4.3).
Apparently, the symbolic meanings and related emotional feelings that loyal customers
associated with Coke were much more powerful than management imagined. When the
company took away "their product/brand,' many customers rebelled.
We hope that an astute student will note that these relationships are relative and must be
understood in context. It is unreasonable to expect brand loyalty scores to be extremely high
(90% or more) for any product. Not all consumers will form the same type and level of customerbrand relationship. Some consumers will not find the product category important, and/or will not
perceive significant differences between brands, while other consumers will. Marketers need to
gauge the sizes of these segments and tailor their marketing strategies accordingly.
Then ask...
"What two factors are most important to you in making your decision?"
Continue this process for each factor until the consumer cannot go on.
Then, draw out the two means-end chains you measured for each person.
Discuss what you have learned about these consumers' product knowledge and what implications your
analysis could have for developing marketing strategies.
Finally, identify any problems that you had with the measurement procedures. Was this process easy
or hard for the consumers? Why do you think so?
Begin the discussion by pointing out that the methods used to measure means-end chains have two
basic purposes.
First, the elicitation (or triad or free sort) tasks are to gain "entry" into the means-end chain
structure. Then the laddering task is supposed to reveal the linkages between meanings at
different levels of abstraction.
Select one of the products students studied and ask several students to describe the responses they
received. Jot these down on the chalkboard--placing attributes along the bottom, consequences in the
middle, and values at the top.
Then, start to build an aggregate cognitive structure map by having the students who researched the
same products describe the dominant links in their means-end chains. Draw in the connections
between attributes, consequences and values. Ask the class to discuss the implications of this (very
rough) map for marketing strategy.
2.
3.
Uncertainty as to how many consumers must mention a concept or link before it should be
included in an aggregate means-end map (sometimes researchers use a criterion of 10%,
sometimes as few as three persons in a sample of 40 or 50 have to mention a link).
4.
Constructing the aggregate map "by hand" in class is a long and tedious process. Commercial
applications, however, have begun to use sophisticated computer programs to identify common
meanings and draw the aggregate maps easily and quickly.
Encourage students to discuss the problems they had in measuring consumers' means-end chains,
especially the laddering interviews. Students are likely to bring up issues like:
1.
2.
Lack of linkages for some respondents (difficulty in getting them through the laddering
task). This may indicate that their knowledge was minimal.
3.
Getting "off track" and "going in circles" (sometimes a problem of the interviewer asking the
wrong question, sometimes a function of the consumer not having higher level knowledge,
sometimes an indication of a "sensitive" area).
4.
Vague answers (perhaps due to respondents' inability to clearly verbalize certain meanings;
sometimes due to respondent not having a higher-order meaning, but feeling compelled to
give some answer).
5.
The reactive nature and demands of the laddering procedure (may cause respondents to give
answers that do not reflect their actual stored meanings).
2.
The underlying cognitive processing assumptions that make the measurement procedures
"work." These include automatic activation of meanings from memory, spreading activation
from one meaning node to others, and associative networks of organized meanings.
PROJECT -- INVOLVEMENT
We usually assign this "involvement project" for the next class period after the means-end chains measurement
project. Students' experiences and results usually generate a stimulating discussion about the basis for high and
low involvement. Perhaps some of the data will indicate that even so-called low involvement products may have
some degree of personal relevance (felt involvement) for some people or on some occasions, such as during a
decision process.
The simple project below can be modified by assigning half the class to study an apparently high involvement
product (stereo products, clothing, sports equipment) and the other half a low involvement product (paper clips,
milk, or gasoline).
Product Involvement
Find someone (a friend is OK) who you can talk to for about 10 minutes in a quiet place where you won't be
interrupted. Identify a product that you think is relatively highly involving for that person.
Elicit the decision criteria that person would use if they were considering buying a brand in that
product category. You might say...
"Imagine you were going to buy ___________. What characteristics would you consider in
selecting a brand of ____________ to buy for yourself?
Keep asking these "why" questions until the consumer "stops." Be sure to ask for an explanation if
you do not understand what the person means by an answer.
Draw out the means-end chains that you have identified for the "high" involvement product.
Now do the same thing for a "low" involvement product, like paper clips, milk, or gasoline.
Discuss the differences you see in this consumer's meanings for the high and low involvement
products. Did you notice any differences in the measurement process?
Assume that a substantial number of consumers shared these meanings. What implications would
your data have for developing marketing strategies?
What types and levels of distinctions did consumers use for the higher and lower involvement
products?
What was the main difference between the lower and higher involvement products? Did you expect to
find this? Why or why not?
What were the typical end levels for the higher and lower involvement products? Did the "high
involvement products" seem more closely related to consumers' self-concepts?
Was the beginning level meaning strongly connected to values for both the lower and higher
involvement products?
How many levels were produced in the laddering responses for the higher and lower involvement
products?
Did subjects respond differently to the laddering procedure for the higher and lower involvement
products?
What implications do you see for developing marketing strategies for the higher and lower
involvement products?
Proctor & Gamble Company (P&G) is one of the most admired marketing companies in the United States.
P&G is known as an innovator of high quality products with superior product attributes. Go to the P&G
Website at www.pg.com/about_pg/science_tech/research_development/innovations.jhtml and check out the
new product ideas P&G is researching. Choose a new product and identify the key elements in the means-end
chain that P&G seems to have designed into the product. For instance, P&G recently introduced a new
model of Crest toothpaste called MultiCare. A P&G spokesperson says, In our research, consumers rated
this the best Crest ever. Crest MultiCare delivers great protection, and the feeling it creates in your mouth,
both during and after brushing, is really terrific. Crest Multicare has a special foaming formula that
delivers proven Crest protection against tartar and cavities and the acids that cause them, even in places that
are hard to reach. Consumers also said that Crest MultiCare tastes great, freshens their breath, and leaves
their mouth feeling clean long after brushing. (The main P&G website is www.pg.com. Explore the About
P&G button for an overview of this interesting and innovative company.)
In this example, a means-end chain could be described as follows:
Attribute
Foaming
formula
Functional Consequence
Cavity protection
Psychosocial Consequence
I make healthy choices
Value
Taking care of
my family
4. Define the concept of involvement and illustrate it by discussing products, which, for you, would fall at each
extreme of an involvement continuum.
This is a review question with some application content. Involvement refers to a consumer's subjective
perception of the personal relevance of some object, activity, or situation. Thus, involvement is perceived
self-relevance. The text emphasizes the experiential aspects of involvement, the feeling of being involved.
Sometimes, this is called felt involvement.
The text also identifies a type of stable or enduring involvement called intrinsic self-relevance. Intrinsic
self-relevance is the knowledge in memory about how a product or activity is related to self-relevant goals
and values, in general, across situations. For instance, some people are highly involved with cars; others
are highly involved with a sports activity (playing tennis, swimming, or football). Some consumers feel
involved with shopping.
Obviously, students' personal examples of products with low, moderate, and high levels of perceived selfrelevance will differ. Each student may find different products to be personally relevant.
In a class discussion, this question can highlight the important fact that no product is either high or low
involvement for all consumers. Discussing such examples can help students understand the idea of a
continuum of involvement. You can point out that the involvement concept can be a useful segmentation
variable. We will use it for this purpose throughout the text.
5. Consider the difference between consequences of possession and the consequences of consumption as the basis
for intrinsic self-relevance. What products are relevant to you for each of these reasons? How does that
change your purchasing behavior?
This rather deep review question should generate some insights and lively discussion about different types
of consequences and how they relate to both intrinsic and situational involvement.
Many of the consequences of interest to marketers stem from product use or consumption. The taste of ice
cream, the acceleration of a car, and the feeling of achievement in using a computer are all consumption
consequences.
However, some of the most important consequences of some products may be a function of merely
possessing them. For some products, ownership is extremely important. That is the consequences of
ownership have high levels of intrinsic self-relevance. Clearly obvious examples are collectibles.
Collectors of stamps, antique furniture, or political buttons find ownership of such objects to be
intrinsically satisfying. However, even products that serve a useful function may be partly valued because
of possession. Merely owning a luxury car may provide its owner with important consequences.
Perhaps some students will suggest that consequences of possessing collectable specialty items are selfrelevant and therefore involving. Such products might entail longer commitments (I will keep this
forever), stronger linkages to higher level values (feelings of accomplishment, uniqueness, sophistication)
compared to items purchased largely for the functional consequences of consumption.
6. Do you agree that most products have low to moderate levels of intrinsic self-relevance for most consumers?
Why or why not?
In the text we argue for this position. It is important for marketing students to recognize two ideas about
involvement. First, involvement (and intrinsic self-relevance) can vary from very low to very high levels.
Second, most consumers probably do not perceive high levels of self-relevance for many products. You
could ask students to develop a list of all the products and services they use in a single day as a way of
making the point that few of them are highly involving.
These moderate levels of involvement have important implications for marketing strategy development. If
most consumers do not find much intrinsic self-relevance in a product, they will probably expend
relatively little time and effort in selecting the product. It may be difficult for marketers to attract
consumers' attention to their product. The marketer will have to develop strategies to generate situational
sources of personal relevance (sweepstakes, contests, free offers, etc.) and thereby increase consumers'
involvement with buying the product.
7. Prepare one or two means-end chains for your choice of a major or an emphasis in marketing as part of your
degree program. Do laddering of yourself to identify the means-end chains (see Exhibit 4.7). Label the
attributes, consequences, and values that you identify.
The choice of a major is a highly involving one for most students. Nearly everyone will have considered
the consequences of their choice alternative options. Of course, these means-end chains will reflect
individual differences.
The six-level chain, for instance, should contain concrete attributes (course requirements, graduate
placement record, specific instructors, courses offered, and classroom or laboratory facilities), abstract
attributes (quality image of the school, college or department, prestige image of the jobs, reputations of
courses or instructors), functional consequences (job placement, pay levels, ability to travel, other job
benefits), psychosocial consequences (feelings of prestige or admiration of one's peers), instrumental
values (being in control, being around other people, working on "important" projects), and terminal values
(feelings of achievement, self-esteem, power, self-actualization, or security).
8. Using the concept of means-end chains, discuss why different people might shop for athletic shoes at
department stores, specialty athletic footwear shops, and discount stores. Why might the same consumer shop
these stores on different occasions?
This is a challenging application question. Students might begin by generally characterizing different
customer segments in terms of their levels of intrinsic self-relevance with athletic shoes. They might then
try to imagine the means-end chains of those consumers. Some consumers might link athletic shoes to
important self-relevant consequences (I can run faster and win some races). Others may consider athletic
shoes largely in terms of their functional consequences (i.e. these shoes have a durable sole that will last a
long time).
After some experience in comparing different means-end chains, perhaps earlier in the class, it should be
fairly obvious to students that different consumers might select different outlets to meet different
objectives. Of course, these different retail outlets carry different lines and models of shoes at different
price ranges. Usually, the more involved athlete will shop at a specialty footwear shop, which carry a wide
range of technologically advanced shoes at higher prices and may have knowledgeable salespeople. Less
involved consumers might shop in a discount store with narrow product range, but low prices, and
salespeople who lack detailed product knowledge.
Perhaps some students will recognize that even a single consumer might own several types of athletic
shoes that are used in different ways, in a variety of situations (running shoes, walking shoes, soccer
shoes, and basketball shoes). Thus, even a single consumer may have multiple means-end chains
(appropriate for different consumption situations). These consumers might even buy these shoes at
different types of stores.
9. Discuss how a marketer of casual clothing for men and women can use consumers' product knowledge (meansend chains) and involvement to understand the consumer-product relationship.
The casual clothing category is highly familiar to students and the discussion should reveal some
differences among students. A very general answer is that marketers can identify and understand deeper
meanings and values using means-end chains than they often would without this technique.
Students should be able to identify key attributes, consequences, and values for casual clothing (e.g.,
jeans). This should help them identify consumers who feel such products are personally relevant and
involving and those consumers who do not feel this way. Students should have a better appreciation that
people who differ in involvement also vary in their product knowledge (they have amounts of product
knowledge).
10. Identify three ways that marketers can influence consumers' situational self-relevance and discuss how this
will affect consumers' overall level of involvement. For what types of products are these strategies most
suitable?
This application question forces students to consider ways of influencing consumers' self-relevance in the
short run, in particular situations. Students will probably review points made in the text, but should be
encouraged to come up with examples of their own.
The marketing objective of temporarily increasing the self-relevance of a product or activity is to increase
consumers' feelings of involvement in that situation. Marketers can influence situational self-relevance in
a number of ways. Basically, all of these strategies involve creating temporary self-relevant consequences
and linking them to the product. For instance, a contest or sweepstakes that one enters by mailing in a
proof-of-purchase adds self-relevant consequences to buying the product. Sales, coupons, two-for-one
offers, etc. increase the personal relevance of the situation. Marketers may try to create new involving
situations, increase the relevance of current situations, or work to maintain the self-relevance of a
situation.
Suggested applications include products with low levels of intrinsic self-relevance where marketers want
to create some moderate level of involvement in order to get consumers to switch brands, for instance.
Most recommendations will focus on promotion and distribution strategies, but product and price
strategies are relevant too.
c. What types of special difficulties does a marketer face in promoting its products to two segments of
consumers who use the product in very different ways?
Developing marketing strategies to appeal to two different consumer segments can be difficult (e.g., avid
wilderness hikers and mall crawlers who wear hiking boots). Marketers should carefully analyze the
customer-product relationship in each target segment and develop promotion strategies that are
appropriate for each one.
In addition, students should mention problems of reaching each group efficiently so there is minimal
spillover of each promotion strategy to the other group. Advertising in enthusiast magazines (Runners'
World; Self; Woman's Sports & Fitness) may be effective ways to reach the sports participant. The casual
user would be more difficult to target efficiently.
2.
Discuss your reaction to Nikes handling of the criticism of its overseas plants. In your opinion, what are
Nikes ethical responsibilities in this situation?
This is essentially an ethics related question designed to get students to think about ethical issues in
marketing. Marketing has been frequently criticized as being entirely unnecessary to the process of
providing goods to consumers. Critics have argued that marketing and advertising add costs that
ultimately the consumer has to bear. Ask students what they think about this point of view. It should be a
lively discussion depending on the distribution of marketing and non-marketing majors in the class.
3.
Nike has expanded its product line well beyond the original running shoes. It now includes models for
virtually every type of sport or physical activity. Visit the Nike web site (http://www.nike.com) for a complete
listing of the models it sells. Moreover, Nike continually introduces new modelson average Nike introduces
a new shoe style every single day of the year. Discuss the pros and cons of this continual churn of new
attributes and new products. How do think consumers react to this?
From the late 80s on through the early 21st century, much of the competition in the athletic shoe market
focused on technological innovations of various types. These high-tech attributes included the Nike Air
system (small chambers of air in the sole to cushion impact). Students should recognize that none of these
product attributes have much meaning for the consumer until they understand the personal, self-relevant
meaningful linkages that consumers construct between product attributes and functional and psychosocial
benefits, and perhaps even values. The constant flow of new models and attributes only increases the
amount of information being thrown at the consumer that he or she then needs to make sense of. While
the new introductions certainly add to the image of a company that is constantly innovating and keeping
at the crest of technology, it also means that consumers may have an information overload when they go to
purchase a pair of shoes and may be forced to rely on previous experiences or word-of-mouth to decide.
4.
Discuss Nikes typical advertising strategy in terms of the types of means-end connections it creates in
consumers. Bring in an example of a current Nike ad to analyze and draw out the meaning connections you
believe this ad is likely to create in a consumer.
Creating a connection with the consumer, as a source of customer loyalty and for developing favorable
brand attitudes, has long been considered by marketing and advertising practitioners, albeit sometimes in
an unstructured form. Recent research on involvement, brand equity, and especially on measurement of
the meanings created for consumers through means-end chains, has given an analytic framework for
furthering this understanding.
The objective of many brands is to establish a relationship with consumers and to link the brand with
consumers end goals, transcending just functional benefits. This becomes important in categories when
functional or physical benefits cannot sufficiently distinguish one brand from another.
5.
In some recent advertising, Nike abandoned the swoosh logo and replaced it with the word nike in lower
case lettering. Why do you think they made this decision?
Nike decided that its logo had become too prominent, to the point of becoming pass. Moreover, younger
consumers viewed the swoosh as something of a relic, an uncool, outdated symbol of the past. The
company believed that by using the swoosh more selectively, the company could help the logo regain some
of the power it might have lost in the minds of consumers.
6.
What do you think of Nikes attempt to reach the alternative market through its ACG unit? What barriers
and opportunities exist? Should ACG deviate from Nikes traditional advertising strategy to reach these
consumers?
Many consumers in the alternative market have somewhat different means-end chains for shoes than
consumers who buy Nikes basketball shoes. While a basketball player might want to buy Nike shoes
because of the brands reputation, a mountain biker might avoid Nikes because they are too mainstream.
Because of this, Nikes brand equity could be a positive or a negative as it expands its product line.
Alternative consumers might respect Nikes reputation for quality, but might also be wary of its corporate
image or widespread popularity. The Nike swoosh and name likely carry different meanings for a white,
suburban skateboarder than they do for a young, African-American basketball player living in an inner
city.
Nikes tradition of emphasizing performance might or might not work with its ACG branded shoes.
Alternative consumers may be looking less at performance and more at how their shoes project a certain
lifestyle image. These people might cast a cynical eye toward the big-budget, hype-filled ads that helped
Nike attain success with its basketball and running shoes.
7.
Not everyone finds athletic shoes highly involving, but some people do. For example, kids who are into
shoes can talk in staggering detail about the characteristics and benefits of the 1999 and 2000 Air Jordans.
Identify some intrinsic and situational sources of involvement for athletic shoes, and describe some of the
means-end chains for the most involved people. Discuss how Nikes advertising strategies might differ in
marketing a shoe to highly involved and moderately involved consumers.
This question takes students back to the key concept of involvement, discussed in this chapter. Note that
involvement is having personal relevance. This can happen because of reasons intrinsic to the
consumer. For example, consumers may be interested in running or basketball as a sport. It can also be
created through situational factors like a sales promotion, celebrity endorsement, or current fad where
the consumer is motivated by factors other than the activity or the brand.
Students are asked to distinguish between these two types of involvement and to reflect on which is more
beneficial for the brand. Further, note that most brands have a mix of consumers ranging from the
intrinsically involved to the situationally involved. Clearly, brands need to cater to both these groups and
need to address them differently. Ask students to take examples of products that they are involved with
and those that they are not involved with to highlight differences between them. Ask them to speculate
what sorts of appeals would work for them as consumers in each of these different situations.