*"qfl

ffi

NEGERI SABAH. MALAYSIA

JABATAN KERJA RA.YA

TECHNICIAN'S HANDBOOK
FOR
Roao CONSTNUCTION AND MI.NTNNANCE

No.: 1

DRAINAGE
1981

Overseerrs llaldbook No. 1

Drainage
fntrod.uctio}

fhis

handbook is

the assistance

one of a series

of the

provid.e r ginple
ard

execution

guide

of

civil

conpilecl

with

Kanpsa:c Srrpport Team to

to the d.esign, planning
engineering

ftrnctions

in road naintenance.
fhe llard.books have
the benefit
forsal

of

supe:rrisors

Eratifications
therefore
presented.

is

plicated

te:ms,

technical

excluding:
theory.

pri.narily

for

who d.o not possess

a,cadenic

nateria,l

basie

been written

all

a.rd.

r
in

but the

the

unooo_
most

DRAINAGE

PART I:

GENERAT

1. ScoPe of Drainage
or artiDrainage is defined as "Natural
flow-of
by
means for the removal
ficlal
water from the surface or sub-soil- of an
arear usually bY gravitationtt'
It has been apprecJ'ated' since hlghways
stathat their
constrgcted
were flrst
the
if
can only be matntained
btllty
remains !n a rel'atlvesoil ?oundation
Vlet muddy soils
cpnditlon.
dry
ly
?F
not the st'rength to
have
iraterials'
r6ad
support heavY car and truck wbeels
into moisture conditlons
Investlgations
surface4 hlghways in
bitumlnous
under
that the
areas have lndicated
tiopfcaf
of vtet and weak subgrade conoccurrence
where it did occur cou'ld be
ditlons
of instances
in the majorlty
attrlbuted
arrangedraLnage
the
in
deficienci-es
to
accumulation
the
permLtted
ments which
in the pavement layers'
of surf,ace wlter
provided ltlth adebeen
layers
Had the
to the side
outlets
q"ut"
draiirage
the highvtay would
of
iailure
tttgtt
dralns
avoLded.
have been

A second aspect of drainage is that the

is
runoff bften causes erosion,whLch
road.
the
to
potentlal
damage
AII of whl,ch merely conflrms
a hlghway
obvLous fact that,
as lts dralnage system, and,
drainage system a1l
effLcl,ent
out on the struct'ure
carrled
just
a waste of tlme,
vtay ls
effort.
An efflcient

dralnage

the rather
Ls as good
an
without
or any work
of the highmoney and

system includes:

(a) Drainage of the surface of the

way by camberr superelevatlont
shoulders and griPs.

high-

(b) Collectlon
and removal of the surface
or
to transfer
water bY side drains
pol,nts.
relief
or relief
(a) Dt sch659e, at transfer
and outfall
pglnts'via
culverls
waterwaYs.
channels into gatural
size of culverts
sufficient
Further,
from lts
to the ru4off
as related
gareful
location
r dralnage area, and
servlce.
to ensure continuous
(d) Sub-soll
qulred.
*i.,

drainage,

where and if

re-

(e)- Catchment dralns for deallng wlt,h

surface water flowing onto the highway from outside areas.

(f)

Dj-versions to ensure that the water

and that the
flows to the culverts
do not shift.
watercourses

(g) Control of trr'e erosive

face water, by lining,
sing or otherwlse.
of
(h) Regular inspection
in the system, and
(i)

Maintenance and repair

where needed.

power of survteirs, grasall

elements

when and

system must
Every part of the drainage
of the
dispose
and
carry
to
designed
be
Ilkely
is
that
water
volume
of
maximum
to flow into tt.
A. Drainage

of

the

Surface

of

lhe

Hichwav

The degree of camb,er is expressed as the

(see
to the horizontal
of vertical
ratio
j
u
s
t
s
u
f
f
j
.
c
i
e
nt
b
e
s
h
o
u
l
d
i
t
figure I.),
frlcto
overcome
$tater
surface
to aIlow
and clear quickl'y to
resLstance
tional
the drainage system

Figure
vation

I - t o measure camber and superele- x cm i n 1 0 0 c m = x t

I o m eo s u r e c o m b e r o n d s u p e r e l e v c t i o-n x c m I n l 0 0 c m r=' l r

fig.

absorb some waterr anrl

Most surfaces will
absofbed is partly
the quantity
Proportional
to t,he time t,haL the water lies
on the surf ace. Thus the more porous t'he
the water must be
surface the quicker
by camber. Asachieved
This
is
removed.
phalt paved surfaces of smooth texture
(2t) whereas the
flat
can be relatively
such
surfaces
porous
irregular
and
more
camber
a
gravel
steeper
must have
as

(4-6r).

steep camber may be danger

Unnecessarily
esPeciallY on
f
o
r
ou6
the traffic,
degree
of camber
fhe
smooth surfaces.

5
reconmended is
at figure 2.

given

j.n the

table

below

CARRIAGEWAYSURFACE DEGREE OF CAIvIBER

Earth

Surface

Gravel

Surface

Water-bound

Macadam

Penetration

Macadam

68

38

68

31

4z

2. 5g

Bitumen Macadam
Surface

4z

2Z

2.52
2. 5r
2*
2.5*

Dressed

Premix Surfaces
fig.2

Crossfall
for superelevation
fulfils
functions
other than drainage,
but the
given below in the table at
figures
figure
3 can be used as a general guide.
RADIUS OF CURVE DEGREE OF SUPERELEVATION

15200m
250
500 m
550
1000 n
fig.

7*
6*
3t

3.58
2.5*

Ehe soft or earth shoulders should be

between 150 cm and 250 cm wide with a
cross faII of 5t, the edge of the

shoulder should be leve1 with the edge of

the carri.ageway, except perhaps on an
embankment, and should be grassed to prevent erosion.
with a low content of
Sandy materlals
(
c
l
a
y
s
)
erode easily and do
will
fines
growth
of grass. Connot encourage the
given
to either
should be
sideration
dressing the shoulders with clays which
or recoTrcan be watered in as a slurryr
as hard, and perhaps sealed''
struction
shoulders.
will
Grips, scupPerdrains t ot turnouts,
an
as
be cut or formed where required
measure across or through
intermedLate
the
to divert
an embankment or shoulder,
surface rrrater from the edge of the
They
into the side drains.
carriageway
w111 have a cross fal1 of 6t.
the
Figure 4 (see next page) Lllust'rat'es
of the hlghway drainage
main features
system.

fig.

B. Side Dralns
Ln cross
These should be trapezoidaL
the mlnimum dimenslons being
section,
130 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm with the side
and on the outslde of the
slope l:1,
a
be cut, or formed from
berm will
drain
75
cm
wi.de wlth a cross fall
50 cm to

into

the drain

of

5t.

to the
The drains are cut parallel
the soft shoulder,
carri-agevray, outside
of the drain should not be
the invert
less than 65 cm below the crown of the
gradient
and the longitudinal
carriagewdy,
is normally that of the carriageway.
gradient of side drains
The longitudinal
for free flowmust however be sufficient
ing and not so great as to cause erosion.
This, depending on the nature of the soil
of 0.67t and
lie between the limits
will
5.08. Where the highway runs through a
greater
on a gradient
double cutting
naturally
than 5t the side drain will
and
of the carriageway
have the gradient
have to be lined to pretherefore
will
This normally done with a
vent erosion.
5.
See figure
cascade drain.

fig.5

Cascade drains can be easily constructed

with half round precast channels or invert sections.
of erosion can be
Temporary control
achLeved cheaply by using cut sheets
drums in the same type of
from asphalt
construction.
maintenance of open eafth
Satisfactory
of the
on control
drains depend entirely
At
veloof the water in them.
velocity
in excess of .50 metets/sec.,
cities
from
to pick up material
start
water will
This
the sides and bottom of the drain.
t
The table shown in figure'6
is eroslon.
of
gives the maximum safe velocities
d
i
f
f
e
rent
in
in drains constructed
iater
soiIs.
PERMITTED VELOCITY
MATERIAI,
M./Sec.
Fine

0.45
0. 50
0.60
0.75

Sand

Sandy Lroam
Silt

Alluvial
Flrm

Loam

Ftne

Gr:avel

Stiff

CIay

0.75
I.IO
1.20
l. 50

Coarse Grave1
Cobbles
flg.

10

C. C u l v e r t s
Culverts are usually sited at, existing
natural r^rater channels, and must be of
sufficient
size to handle the maximum
d i s c h a r g e fro m i ts p a rti cu l ar
catchm ent
a r e a e f f i ci e n tl y.
(i)

Culvert Size

The necessary size of the culverts

d,epends on the drainage area whose runoff
is passed through the culvert,
and on
the terrain.
This may be estimated
on
site, but it is far more reliable
t
o
' Ioeasure on
the map after
sketchinq
in the
water divides.
Table I has -been computed from
Formula which is:

the Talbot

A=c,Wwhere
A = area of waterbray opening in
sguarefeet
D = drainage area in acres
C = a coeffj.cient
dependlng on the
slope, shape, and characteristic of the area drained, e.g. s
0.2 for flat areas, where
length is several tLmes width
0.5 for

gently

rolllng

0.7 for rough hilly

moderate slopes
I.0 for steep barren
mountalnoug areas.

farmland

areas'wlth
areas

and

ll
Table
units

I has been converted

for ease of use.

into

metric

It should be noted, however, that the

task
is a specialized
design of culverts
engJ.neer. The Talbot Formufor a skilled
Ia ls a slmple aid to quick design and
up
should be accurate for small culverts
p
i
p
e
s
.
d
i
a
m
e
t
e
r
m
e
t
e
r
3
1
.
0
0
2
o
r
to
)
Tab1e t shows a minimum size of 0.60 m-r
which compares with a plpe with 0.85 m
diameter or a rectangular
interior
opening 0.70 x 0.85 m' whLch is recommended as a minimum working sPace for a
use I m,round or
mrn. Whenever possibler
to
likely
less
iiis
ds
rectangularr
clean.
to
choke and easier
(ti)

Culvert

Location

means alignment and

location
Culvert
t'o both roadway and
grade with respect
ls important
stream. Proper locatlon
of the
adequacy
the
because it affects
and.
culvert,
the
opening, maintenance of
Although
washout of the roadway.
p6ssible
is a separate
installatlon
every culvert
in a maapP1y
problem, a few principles
jority
of cases.
if not already
and outletr
intet
A direct
in
one of three
can be obtalned
existent,
by means of a channel change, a
ways
or both. The cost of
skiwed aiignment,
by
offset
a channel cnange may be partly
'ln
decrease
or
length
a saving in culvert
a
size. A skewed alignment requlres
usuarry
ls
but
greater
length of culvert,
conjustified
the hydraullc
by lmprovlng

I2
dition

and the

safety

of

the

roadbed.

It
An open stream ls not always stable.
straightenmay be cheinging its channel
and becorning
in some, places,
ing itself
It may be
more crooked in others.
deeper in some places,
scouring ltself
in others.
Change of land use upsilting
deforestation
or real
stream by clearing,
estate development may change bolh the
and the flood flow of a stream.
stabillty
is a fixed line in a
Because a culvert
in properstreamr*- judgrment ls necEFry
The first
Iy locating
the structure.
princlple
and alignof culvert, location
enment is to give the stream a direct
Any abrupt
exit.
trance and a direct
at either
end wiII
change in direction
retard
the flow and make a larger
structure necessary.
It ls also necessary to give consideraproperty
both as to pondtlon to abutting
to
lng upstream and to safe velocities
downstream.
avoid undue scour or slltlng
is
of culvert
location
Another prlnciple
to prevent
to use reasonable precautions
the stream from changing its course near
Otherwise the
the ends of the culvert.
may become inadequate,
cause exculvert
wash out
cessive ponding, and possibly
and make expensJ.ve mainterrance of the
Riprap w111 help proroadway necessary.
tect the banks from erodlng and changing
also weirs and other prothe channel,
of sides and bottom should be
tections
considered.

13

(fii)

C u l ve rt

Gra d i e n t

As a general prLnciple the gradient of

the cuLvert should coincl,de with the
average gradient of the stream bed above
However,
and below the culvert location.
gradient at whlch a
there is a crj.tical
nor causes eroculvert nelther silts-up
sion, which will depend upon its diameter,
the volume of water flow (or veloclty)
and the nature of soil ln the stream bed.
In general. thts gradlent wlll lle between
0 . 5 t a n d 2 . 0 t. S e e f J.g u re 7 .

flg.

is constructed wLth too

Where the culvert
to sLltgradient
Lt ls llkely
a
shallow
8.
ftgure
Ln
up, as seen

14

fig.8
Should the lLe of the land be such as to
prevent a steeper gradJ.ent being lmposed
or should thls occur on
on the structure,
cleaning work
exlsting small culverts,
can be made easler for the maintenance
a stlt trap at the
teams by lnstalllng
Lnlet as shown on flgure 9

flg.9

I5
Culverts constructed to too steep a
gradient wiII result in eroslon at the
6ut1et as shown ln figure 10'

fig.

L0

ls easily corrected by
This sltuatlon
culvert at the correct
the
establishing
slope
gradlent an6 passlng the resultant
Aprons-tltl
rlp-rap.
in
arel
lischarge
wel,rs can also be I'nstalled to
"tifffttg
erosive energy of the water'
Lhe
reduce
11.
f
i
g
u
r
e
See

t5

fig.

D . Subsoll

Il

Draiqaqe

thls wilL depend on local

In general,
no hard and
and therefore
condltlons
Whether it
down.
fast rules can be lald
be
reaLly
or not can only
Is required
decid6d by an on the spot survey.
Itt il'
the dept!
fallures,
case of uirexplained
table may be located
og: ttt" grouniwater
small diameter
by dlggtng ..or borlng
w61ts,-ane the values given in figure L2
wilt
serve as a guide.

L7
DEPTH OF
WATER TABLE

SUB-BASE MATERIAL
Non-plasti;c

20t

I.0 meter
3.5 meter

40t

7.0 meter

sands

Sandy claYs P.I.

Heavy claYs P.I.

12

flg.

of depth less than those

Water tables
dominate moi'sture
12 will
=ttottt in figure
under the pavement' All instalconditions

iilion"
under
after
out.

or subsoil drainage must be done

the supervJ-slon of an enginEQrr.

.
a thorough survey has been carrLeo

normally
Subsoil drains will
catagories:
main
flve
(1)

Aqricultural

faIl

into

Drains'

These are drains composed of unsocketed

unglazed earthenware pipesl which are
in the soLl'
laid direct
usially

( f l)

Fr'ench Dral'ns

These are dralns comPo""a of earthenware

Jointed pipes surrounded by filter
"p"t
through whlch water, m1y PercoGterlal
late1 or3 - a drain composedof earthenor clay pipesr or metal P1-ne3, iD
rit.
which, lD tiie- lower quarters of the
pipes, a specified number of holes or perto alLow
?o-ratfons have been drllled

I8
J.ngress of water, the plPes being sur:
materLal through whlch
rounded by fllter
water may Percolate.
(fil)

Rubble Dralns

These are dralns constructed by excavating

tt wlth selected
a trench and fllllng
whlch water can
through
rubble or stone
percolate.
1fv)

Dralnaqe Blenkets

These are layers of PorouE materialr

into the pavement
usual.Iy lncorporated
extend from
whtch
layers as sub-basesr
13.
f
igure
drltn to dral.n. See

f19. 13

19
technlques requlre the
Where construction
be bullt within the
to
courses
pavement
hard
preconstructed
by
Lrench left
constructed
are
Drains
shoulders, fr-enlfr
of
through the shoulders at intervals
Ln
Be
shown
sider
5-20 meters either
figure 14.

flg.
(v)

14

HorLzontal Relief

Dralns

trhese are usually ln the form of Eurall

dLameter ptpes dlrllled or thrust lnto
the face of-a cuttLng to relieve hydrostatLc pressure whl'ch would othervrl'se
cause a collapse of earth face.

20

E. Catchment Drains

'

in cross secThese should be trapezoidal

to cut off the
and are required
tion,
catchsurface water from the high level
of the
ment area, and so prevent flooding
posslbility
of
blockage
and
the
highway,
or, the
of the carriageway by earth slip'
the
sid,e
drains.
up
of
blockage or sllting
They'are
ments to

on embanksometimes required
erosion.
assist
in preventing

They should be sited a minimum of

20 meters friom the
but preferably
edge of any bank or cutting.

5 meters'
top

gradient
should lie beThe longitudinal
tween l.Ot and 2.08, any slope greater
than thts must not be used unless check
dams or cascade drainage is employed, and
Lnto nathe drain must be sited to splll
or led into a culvert.
watercourses
tural
15
See flgure

r
I

2L

flg.

15

in cross secThey should be trapezoidal

the minimum dimensions being
tion,
130 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm the side sloPe
and the excavated material
being l:I',
sj-de of the
being placed on the downhill
aid to contain the
slope as an additional
water.
of
In some types oJ soil the disturbance
and
lead to instabilityvegetation-rnay
in such
aamft water to the subsoil;
cases banks should be formed to divert
a draln'
the water instead of cutting

22

fig.15
draln system
catchwater
An alternative
16.
is shown in figure
for deep cuttlngs
Ls made in a number of,
Here tha cutting
steep sided benches to minimise overspill'
of each bench is sloped back at
The floor
to concrete channel or asa 5t gradient
to
phalt llned dralns which are carried
the end of each bench and dlscharged
into adjacent waterways by cascade outlets.
' i

F. Diversions
are dug at a greater
DLversLon ditches
seve-'
d,lstance from the r o a d , t o c o l l e c t
into oner or to ensure
raL watercourses
of water from one course to
that shifting

23

another

does not

haPPen'

can condltches
The digging of diversion
on the.
p
l
a
c
e
to that'
duct a-watercourse
roadwhereanexistingbridgecanprovaoe
its outlet
of the road through the
The construction
like making- a d3m' Th:
land is virtually
crossed by the-roacl
in the ditches
*il.r
to
p
a
t
i
e
n
t -and forceful
i= sufficiently
we do not provide,'
the roid-if
J""Ltoy
for it to Pass ofr
ditches
and
;;l;;i"
road.
G. Erosion

Control

the water
The drainage system collects
dry most
be
may
which
of
sotnl
in streams
The water in streams has
& itr. ti*..
notably when the dj'tch or
power,
erosive
slope of more
stream hls a iongitudinaL
Lni" 5t dePending on the soil'
are
sandy and uncornpacted soils
Sitt,y,
to erosion than the
;;;;'sospeclibre
and welL
gravels'
solls,
l
y
p
.
heavier clay
compacted materials.
of the stream
Erosion may cause shiftlng
deposits -of .the eroded ma;;a;-";tanted
or eroand new unwant'ed dltches
t"riaf
embankand
cuts
of
on the
;i;;"
"toP"s
ments.

24

To p.revent erosion
consldered:
construction
slopes less

t,he following

rnay be

clf ditches with

than the critical

Iining

of ditches .
- wej-rs, which provide firm point"s
in t,he ditch
- cascades which concentrate
the
fall
of water in points which
are then protected
and destroy
its energy
- grassing shoulders,
slopes and
drains.
Grassing is the cheapest
.tageous of these.

and most advan-

H. fnspection
Each rainfall
is a test of the drainage
system, and surprises
often occur. If
Ieft
alone, minor surprises
may pile up
to become major catastrophies,
ancl therefore the following
inspection
schedule
must be adhered to by the foreman.
Rout,ine
inspect,ion.
Aftbr
small
rains or
once a
month

Check
Check
Check
Check

road surface for ponding"

shoulders and grips.
all side drains.
bri.Jges for obstacles
ln
riverbed.
Check all culverts
in- and outlets.

"

25
Major inspection.
In addltion
to
the above,
during or after
storms or twice
a year.

Check all sl"opes.

Check all diversions.
Look fsr soft spots in
carrJ,agelray.
Check all catchment
drains.
Inspect r.ivers for shifting course and
obstacles.
Check aII culverts
through.

All damage that cannot be repaired

by the
foreman's own powers withLn the month
to the engLneer at
should be reported
then take action
once; the engineer shall
as he deems necessary.
All bridges
should be checked annual.ly at
and damages together
Iow water for erosion
with the engineerr

26

2.

fn his monthly reportn

the foreman shall
state the result
of his inspections,
the
larger
works undertaken,
and that work repor:
ted earlLer as being beyond his means.to repair within
the month.
He shall plan his work schedule and include
major items for the coming 3 months in his
report,- and progress on the works presently
in hand.
After
inspection
he wi1l divert
available
means to the immediat,e repairs
deemed neces_
sary.
When consldering
the works to be carrled
out
the foreman is responsible
for the i"iiii.
and must take necessary steps to ensure
that,
the road renders adeguite
servlce at
all
times. He shall infoim
the public and tfre
pollce

of obstacles ro the irnrri;;*;;

of trafflc.

ii"*

TIr"_foreman, af ter the above preparations,

shall tlen proceed to determLne lhe reso,rr_
ces'needed to carry thru hls plani
sfep-s to get those men, nachlires ana-maieri*
"na-tafe
a 1 s h e ne e d s, w h e re h e 'n e eds them , on- ir r ."

27
DRAINAGE

panr Ir:

qqNSTRUCTION

1 . C o n s t r u cti o n

fo r S ma l 1 C ulver ts

On most old highways there

are insuffi_
cient culverts
to eater for the needs
of the highway.
The iUsence o.f frequent
run off polnts forces the
side arains-to
carry surface_ water for longer
- v 5 l u m elengths,
sr";;e'
resulting
in larger flow
consequently an increased risk
of'eiosio*
and subsequent ponding.
The more i;;:-quently water can be lappea
of into-ii_
vers and streams the beiler.
et each
sggh point a culvert
must exist
to
able both sicle_ drains to eiscfrarge entheir
flow.
land an ave_
-In gently undulating
rage of five culverts
per kilo*"t.i
i"normal.
In mountanino-us country the
ave:,
rage can easily
be double.
rneirttably
therefore
the lore*"r,
*fii
be faced
- with--'
the negessity
of constr.r-iirrg
,r"*
.
verts to correet
faults
""i_
found in his
drainage, system.
Obvi.ously any major culverts
and severe
problems must be-referred-to
engineering
specialists
for detailed
survey and de_
sign.
However in the interest
of economy
it

is normat ro devetop siina"ril=;;-;;J

signs for small structirres-ana

to en_
trust
the routine
maintenance staff
with
the collection
of data
supervision
oi
of construction
"rrA- proposals
after
ttreir
have_been checked at ofsirict
Engineer
Ieve1.

28

2. Stan*lrd,

DesiEns

A wide range of standard designs has been

basically
fal.ling
d.eveloped. for culverts,
into three groupss

A. F r e c a s t C o n cre te P i p e s

fig.

17

These can be eit'her spun reinforced

manufactured
precast pipes, usually
commerciali-y
, ot reinlnd marketed
cast
locally
forced and unreinforced
plpe
must
unreinforced
The
slte.
on
be of small diameter
by necessity
It require's'
thickness.
w
a
t
f
h
e
a
v
y
and
r':areful handlLnc and conslderable
care in laying and backfil-llng'

29
B. Corrugated S t e e l

fig.

Pipes

18

manufactThese pipes are commerclally

ured in a wide range of sizes, wall
They
(gauges) and types.
thlcknesses
p
ipe.
oE in
may be.round, ellipticalr
in
up'
They may be fu1ly made
arlhes.
panel
lengths.
or
haLf round sections
toThe sectional
PiPes are fitted
bolts or
gether on site with either
great
advantage is
Their
metal clips.
of weight and freedom from
lightness
support'
of heavy structural
ne-essity
in
inst'allation
greal care
They require

'

30
C. Box Culverts

flg.

19

The most simpJ.e form of box culvert

is that, lllustrated
in flgure 19,
whlch conslsts of a mass concrete
g.ast Ln-sltu base wlth brick or masonry waIls, and a pre-cast relnforced
concrete deck stAb.
Table 3 in
Part III of thls hand book shows the
general layout of one euch box culvert.
Tables 4-T inqluslve
glve ttre
detall
drawlngs for a range of four
standard deslin deck slabi whlch can

31
be pre-cast in a central yard from
one conmon set of shutters
The
weJ.ghts are more than man-handling
sLze but well withln the range of the
3 ton crane fitted
to standaia ftat
trucks, for both loadlng and placlng.
The followlng
pages cover the operations requl-red to locate, selecl,
and
lnstall
one such standard box culvert.
3. Measurement
Durlng the course of hls day to day dutLes, and durlng hJ.s rnonthly tnspeltions,
the foreman will have identlfled
local
tlons subject to spot
floodlng and oversptll where new culverts are requlred.
For each such l_ocatlon the followlng
steps w111 be taken ln conJuctlon wlttr
completLon of a measurement form, a
sarnple of whlch is lncluded at table g.
A. Record the locatlon - road and kllometer and meters on the measurement
form.
B. Measure the full
pavement type

formatlon

width

and

C. I'leasure the angle of skew. Rlvers do

not_ always cross the road at right
angLes. The greater ttre angle of
skew, the greater the length of cul.-vef,t, and hence lts cost.
It may however be necessary to cross on a skew
to avold excesslve risk of erosLon on
a sharp corner on inletr
of, to obtaln

32
the necessary
cleansing.

gradient

for

self

D.

Measure overall
the skew ang1e.

E.

Measure the level of stream, drain

bed at inlet
and outlet.
Attempt to
get I8-2E gradient.

F.

Measure the area of catchment.

Preferably
request your engineer to dq
this from plans.

\Jr

H.

culvert

length

Record from visual

lnspect,ion
nature of the catchment.
Record all this
information
Measurement Form.

along

the
on the

4. Planning
The task of pl,anning should be carrled
out by the engineer with the assistance
of the bridge foreman.
The sequence
of operations
is as follows:
A.

From the area and, nature of catchment recorded on the Measurement

Form, determine
from tabLe 1 the
required
waterway opening ln square
meters.

B.

From the recorded angle of skew on

the Measurement Form, end with Fhe
calculated
waterway openi-ng above,
select
on table 2 the type of culvert
and (if necessary)
the number of
unlts required.

33
definitelY
The job wlll
D . Equipment:
most of the equipment listed
requlre
If the road
on the Measurement Form.
paved, macad'am
is bituminous
surface
or waterbound macadam then a portable
compressor and pavement breaker wil}
before the back-hoe can
be required
water is
If no suitable
operate.
during the construction
available
for
season a water tanker is required
and
manufacture,
and
mortar
concrete
for back-fiIling.
has
Once the eguipment list
E . Labour:
can
the labour llst
been determined
w111 be
Four labourers
be completed.
the Concrete Mixer,
required. to assist
to
be required
and two masons will
buildtng
construction.
handle
F.

With the known tyPe, length'

Materials:
reand skew of design the material
Do
quirements
can now be detailed.
the sand and cement renot forget
quired
ior rnortar ln brLckwork and
masonry.

E n su re th at sufficient
G . T o o l s r e tc.3
are available not onIY to
barriers
protect the work site, but also to
denrarkate the half road wldth availthrough the glte.
abl.e to trafflc
5. Pfeparatlon
Preparation ls subdtrvlded into two secThe flrst
Preliminary Works covers
tors.
of Equipnent, materials'
avallabiltty

34

labour,
and funds.
fhe second Organisation
covers the work plan and deplanning of operations.
tailed
A. Preliminarv

Works

(i)

Check from the completed Measurement

Form the list
of equlpment requj-red.
and make a provisonal
booking well
in advance.

(ii)

Check materials
can be made available
on the date selected.

(iii)

Check that
all costs

funds

(iv)

Check that
available.

labour

(v)

Check that
. available,
design.

(vi)

are

available

requirements

to meet
are

an experienced
foreman is
and introduce
him to the

Ensure that aII maj-ntenance work,

reinstatement
to portholes,
repairs
to shoulder etc. has been completed
for 200 m on either
side of the slte.

35

6. O r g a n i s a ti o n

\ffi
llz
L./

flg.

20

35
(1)

Plan the layout of the work site,

see figure 20. Locate on slte every
p l e ce o f e o u l g rn e n t, a ll mater lals,
tools, and aLds. Ensure that there
is room to work, room for stordger
room for stockpiling
spoil,
and room
f o r tra ffi c.
Id e a l l y excavation,
stoclnile
of spoil and backfiUlnq
should be handled from one side oi
the culvert.
AI1 constructlon
se:
quences should be handled from thd
o t h er si d e .

(1i)

When you are satisfied

that the entire plan is workable order all materlals
at least 14 days ahead of the
workLng date.

(lfi)

Order aII_ equipment for delivery

to
slte on the evening prlor to coirmencement.

(fv)

Order the requlsite

nurnber of deck
sLab unLts frcm the costlng yard,
for dellvery
on the second dly and
fourth day of the operation.

- 3 davs
(1)

Final check on slte

repalrs.

(ff1

Final check on contXnued availabiLity

of, equJ.pment, materLals, laboil:--

for

routlne

root

-ldav
(f)

Check materlals
delLvered
guantlty and guallty.

to slte

for

37
(ii)

Check equipment delivered

servlcing and fuel.

(f 1 1 ) C h e c k to o l s,

to site

for

w a rn i -n g b oar dsr etc.

7 . Executi.on
Dav I
(i)

Lay out

signs,

(if)

Set up

concrete

(ifi)

Set up sight

(tv)

Rip pavement and stockplle

(v)

Excavate half
formation
width trench
to foundatlon
wldth + 50 cm either
side and to invert
level
20 crrr.

(vi)

Trim and level

soffit
level

(vil)

Set up base formwork.

(vili)

Mtx and pour most concrete to base

with poker vibrator.
Cover
vlbrate
It ls advlsable
under
for curlng.
a fast sequence of events to use rapid
cement for this type of
hardening
work.

(ix)

Set up red warning

watchman.

119hts

(x)

C1ean all
operatlon.

ready

barrlers

etc.

mixer.

boards

and

wlth

machin6s

material.

sand to

base

and brief
for

next

dayrs

38
Dav 2
(i)

C1ean base and roughen surface

to take brlckwork or masonry.

(ii)

Construct
waLls.

(iil)

Deck in with slabs loaded direct

off flatbed truck.

(rv)

gackfill
outside of excavation
in 15 cm layers, water, and complate compact with vibratlng
pactor. Siml,Iarly construct side
sl o p e co n e s.

(v)

Transfer
barriers

(vt)

Spread surpJ.us spoil

sL d e d ra L n .

(vl1)

Set up red lamps.

(vttl)

CLean all machLnes ready for

days vtork.

Davl

Repeat Day I work on second sLde.

Dav 4

Repeat Day 2 work on second slde.

side walks and end

equlpment, stockpiles,
to second half roadway.
outside

of

next

I . Cornpletion
On completlon of Day 4 work carry
f o l l o w l ng ta sks:
A. Clean slte
terial.

of ell

out the

excess stockplled

ma-

39
B. Assemble and clean aII equlpment for
transport to next worklng sLte.
C . C o l l e c t a n d cl e a n a l l to ols,
barrLers ready for next job,
turn to store.

signs,
or re-

D. Ensure that dralns, both inlet and outlet are clear of all materlal and fre5
f o r d r a tn a g e .
E. Reopen the road to normal traffLc.
9. Reportlnq
Complete the Report Form, a sample of
w h L c h i s en cl o se d a t T a b l e 9.

TABLE }
VIATERI{AY OPENINGS
CATCHMENT TYPE OF CATCHMENTAREA
AREA
FLAT
ROLLING HILLY
MOUNTAINOUS
(HECTARES)

upto 5

0.6

0.5

0.6

0.6

,10

0.6

0.6

0.7

1.0

20

0.6

0.9

L.2

L.7

50

0.7

L.7

2,4

3.4

100

L.2

2.9

4.1

5.8

The above table gives culvert openlng tn U2

(computed from the Talbot Formula).
100 Hectares = I square kllometer.
For longer areas of catchment the Englneer
should rnake a separate study.

TABLE 2
CULVERT AREAS
TYPE IV

CUI,VERT

TYPE I TYPE II

SLAB
I,ENGTH (M)

1r 10

1. 30

1. 60

1.80

BEARINGS
(M)

2 x0 .2

2 x0 .2

2xQ.2

2xQ.2

CLEAR SPAN
(M)

0. 70

0.90

1. 20

l. 40

00 0.70

0. 90

L.20

I .40

r00 0. 69

0.89

1.19

r.38

200 0. 66

0.85

1.13

I.32

300 0. 61

0.78

1.04

L.2L

400 0. 54

0.69

0.92

r.07

TYPE III

SKEW
A
R
E
A

(u2)

TABLE3
G E N E R A LL A Y O U T

SLAB CULVERI,LOTIG]TUDINAL
SECTTON

PtAN

EltD WALL,sECrloN 3-3

TABLE1
OECKSLAB

P'

l-t

50

#-,-q

t--s,
IYPE I
0.t0? mt
260 k9

ifll

iil

TABLE5

rfli

DECKSLAB

riflr
Itir

{ii
rl.

{;ii
liii
iil
ii

sEcrfoil2-2

TYPET
0 1 2 5m r
JiD*s
9oo

TAELE 6
sgeK $1,{ffi

i-*3
I

.;;;:;E"=<l$J
:===:-:::=T;;
I

==#

ffi

-:4'gL

LJiJ
\__
\@3rl!tul?(9
-i-i{+

4l3)

160

l*

IL - i ) 1

I
-r

\tl3_

l!4!-

l---*---

i.l

"
U-T.

.l

t-Krl
i \,.",@

50

l-

-_--

*r

sECTrO{ 3 - 3

sb

t{t

wr.

ox I

L
m.

of
n

5 0 1 2 t.t5

0.25

a7 l 2 t.t0

ilo

DossrlPlion

kg

0.?
llS

3.8

7.60

F;1
5t l2

0.{5 5

2t

2.25

t--tL*Yotct

t
t

TYP IItr
0.150rns
So fig

T A B L E7
DECKSLAB

P'
Lt,

scflolt t-{

tlc
af
n

,.

tzin

,l

IYPE If,
0.16?mt
O0 Kg

TABLE8
FORM
MEASUREMENT
0r Yroix
IIYPE

DtvrsroN
OISTRrcT
ROAONO.A.-MME
ROAOFROX

IO
EXT TYPE
PAYEM

KII.
FORIIAIIONWIDTH

tl.

A NGLE OF SI(E

. M.

cuLvERT tElcrlt
IIIYER' TEVEL: INLET

OU?LEI

AiEA OF CATCHHE}IT

NCTARE

IIAIURE OF CATCHHEXT
HOIJI{TA|iOU3
/ HtLtY' RO[LtilO' F t AT
WA?ERWAY
OPEXIild AiEA

12

OSlGll: TYPE
RECOIIIIEXOED
xuHlEi of oEcr 3LAl3 REOUIiEO

NO. OF Uilll3

NO. IAAOUR

EOUIPTE}I'
COI{CRETEHIXER

FOREIIAX

IRACTOR,IACX HOE

OFERATOR/ORIVER

F[AIEEO, CRA]C

MASOX

YIIRATIf,O PIATE

CONCREIE
LABOURER,
LABq'RER. GE}IERAI

YIIRAIIilO FOTER
coa?RE530R

wAlcHt|At{

WAISR TAI|XER

llAT.EETAtjT
AOGREGA'E

IOOXLEIL
II,'-

sAr{D

rd

CEHEXT
BRTCKnaASOT{RY
FoitawoRt(

oArE.

UO
gt
pr

SqrAruRE

IEYET
wARNtilo Stcfas
lAeRreRi
RED tAt{'S
WHEET BARROUS
A?PiOVED

]to.

T A B L E9
RSPORTFORM
I

I
l
I

TYFE.OF WORK

0lvtsroN
orstRrcl
ROADNO.&
ROAD FiOH
KM.

FIOH
?lUMf:ign OF S A U A R M E T R E S

.TO
..TO

DAY**---l

REHARKS

gourFHEHr
ROLLgRS
ASPH. DtstRt6uttsqg
AWFI. HEAIERS
WHEET IOADERS
EHIP IPREAOEfiIS
AI?H. I(E'TLSE
G{U{OFRts

coHPr?gs90n$
TRUCHS

Plcx - uPt

MAIERIA!3
A6CREOATEB
AsPHAII
OTHERs

tAtoui
FOEE}{lX
e{itRATo*lsr'sntv{il$
tABOUf,ERS
WEAIHER

gUN / CLOUOY/ RAI'| ' HOT / COTO

TABLE10
MONTHLYREPORT

lrour

REPORI
MONTHLY

sEcTloll

DtsIRtcT
.TO.

ilot{tHtY

fu

KTI. I

TI.

RETARXS

og.EEgts.:
PAVEIlENT
SHOULOERS
SIDE DRAINS
CIT.VERIS

II enrooes

II FLOOD PONT3
OUAR'ERI-Y

sroPEs
CATCruIETT
DIYERSION
RIYERS

fi

NATE.

sFNAruR

OAIE